Jamie S. Baruzo Mathematics What is Algebra?

June 11, 2012 II - Molave

Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe relationships between things that vary over time. These variables include things like the relationship between supply of an object and its price. When we use a mathematical statement to describe a relationship, we often use letters to represent the quantity that varies, since it is not a fixed amount. These letters and symbols are referred to as variables. The mathematical statements that describe relationships are expressed using algebraic terms, expressions, or equations (mathematical statements containing letters or symbols to represent numbers). Before we use algebra to find information about these kinds of relationships, it is important to first cover some basic terminology. In this unit we will first define terms, expressions, and equations. In the remaining units in this book we will review how to work with algebraic expressions, solve equations, and how to construct algebraic equations that describe a relationship. We will also introduce the notation used in algebra as we move through this unit.

Who is the Father of Algebra? Diophantus of Alexandria is sometimes called "the father of algebra". The word "algebra" comes from the Arabic word "al-jabr", meaning reunion and is part of the title of from a book on mathematics written by Muhammed ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi. He was an Arab mathematician who worked on algebra, arithmetic, and astronomical tables. The word "algorithm" is also derived from his name. Al-Khwarizmi did not invent algebra but his book was very influential in bringing algebra to the western world so he is generally considered the father of algebra. A Greek mathematicians Diophantus is sometimes called the father of algebra as he developed one of the earliest forms of solving equations. However he used mostly special ad hoc methods to solve equations, whilst Al- Khwarizmi was the first to solve equations using general methods.

Who is Jafar Muammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm

A stamp issued September 6, 1983 in the Soviet Union, commemorating al-Khwrizm's (approximate) 1200th birthday. Born Died Ethnicity Known for Influenced c. 780 c. 850 Persian[1][2][3] Treatises on algebra and Indian numerals Abu Kamil

Ab Abdallh Muammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm (Arabic: ,)earlier transliterated as Algoritmi or Algaurizin, (c. 780, Khwrizm[2][4][5] c. 850) was a Persian[1][2][3] mathematician, astronomer and geographer, a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. The word al-Khwarizmi is pronounced in classical Arabic as AlKhwarithmi hence the Latin transliteration. In the twelfth century, Latin translations of his work on the Indian numerals introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world.[5] His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic. In Renaissance Europe, he was considered the original inventor of algebra, although we now know that his work is based on older Indian or Greek sources.[6] He revised Ptolemy's Geography and wrote on astronomy and astrology. Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwarizmi's contributions to mathematics. "Algebra" is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name.[7] His name is also the origin of (Spanish) guarismo[8] and of (Portuguese) algarismo, both meaning digit.

Life He was born in a Persian[1][2][3] family, and his birthplace is given as Chorasmia by Ibn alNadim. Few details of al-Khwrizm's life are known with certainty. His name may indicate that he came from Khwarezm (Khiva), then in Greater Khorasan, which occupied the eastern part of the Greater Iran, now Xorazm Province in Uzbekistan. Abu Rayhan Biruni calls the people of Khwarizm "a branch of the Persian tree".[9] Al-Tabari gave his name as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwrizm al-Majousi al-Katarbali ( .) The epithet al-Qutrubbulli could indicate he might instead have come from Qutrubbul (Qatrabbul),[10] a viticulture district near Baghdad. However, Rashed[11] suggests: There is no need to be an expert on the period or a philologist to see that al-Tabari's second citation should read Muhammad ibn Msa al-Khwrizm and al-Majsi al-Qutrubbulli, and that there are two people (al-Khwrizm and al-Majsi al-Qutrubbulli) between whom the letter wa [Arabic for the article and] has been omitted in an early copy. This would not be worth mentioning if a series of errors concerning the personality of al-Khwrizm, occasionally even the origins of his knowledge, had not been made. Recently, G. J. Toomer ... with naive confidence constructed an entire fantasy on the error which cannot be denied the merit of amusing the reader. Regarding al-Khwrizm's religion, Toomer writes: Another epithet given to him by al-abar, "al-Majs," would seem to indicate that he was an adherent of the old Zoroastrian religion. This would still have been possible at that time for a man of Iranian origin, but the pious preface to al-Khwrizm's Algebra shows that he was an orthodox Muslim, so al-abar's epithet could mean no more than that his forebears, and perhaps he in his youth, had been Zoroastrians.[1] Ibn al-Nadm's Kitb al-Fihrist includes a short biography on al-Khwrizm, together with a list of the books he wrote. Al-Khwrizm accomplished most of his work in the period between 813 and 833. After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Baghdad became the centre of scientific studies and trade, and many merchants and scientists from as far as China and India traveled to this city, as did Al-Khwrizm. He worked in Baghdad as a scholar at the House of Wisdom established by Caliph al-Mamn, where he studied the sciences and mathematics, which included the translation of Greek and Sanskrit scientific manuscripts. D. M. Dunlop suggests that it may have been possible that Muammad ibn Ms alKhwrizm was in fact the same person as Muammad ibn Ms ibn Shkir, the eldest of the three Ban Ms.[12][year missing]

Contributions: Al-Khwrizm's contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to algebra, a word derived from the title of his 830 book on the subject, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" (al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala .) On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals written about 825, was principally responsible for spreading the Indian system of numeration throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum. Al-Khwrizm, rendered as (Latin) Algoritmi, led to the term "algorithm". Some of his work was based on Persian and Babylonian astronomy, Indian numbers, and Greek mathematics. Al-Khwrizm systematized and corrected Ptolemy's data for Africa and the Middle east. Another major book was Kitab surat al-ard ("The Image of the Earth"; translated as Geography), presenting the coordinates of places based on those in the Geography of Ptolemy but with improved values for the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, and Africa. He also wrote on mechanical devices like the astrolabe and sundial. He assisted a project to determine the circumference of the Earth and in making a world map for al-Ma'mun, the caliph, overseeing 70 geographers.[13] When, in the 12th century, his works spread to Europe through Latin translations, it had a profound impact on the advance of mathematics in Europe. He introduced Arabic numerals into the Latin West, based on a place-value decimal system developed from Indian sources.
[14]

Algebra Al-Kitb al-mukhtaar f isb al-jabr wa-l-muqbala (Arabic: ' ,The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing') is a mathematical book written approximately 830 CE. The book was written with the encouragement of the Caliph al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is replete with examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and legal

inheritance.[15] The term algebra is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations (al-jabr, meaning completion, or, subtracting a number from both sides of the equation) described in this book. The book was translated in Latin as Liber algebrae et almucabala by Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) hence "algebra", and also by Gerard of Cremona. A unique Arabic copy is kept at Oxford and was translated in 1831 by F. Rosen. A Latin translation is kept in Cambridge.[16] It provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, [17] and discussed the fundamental methods of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.[18] Al-Khwrizm's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six standard forms (where b and c are positive integers)

squares equal roots (ax2 = bx) squares equal number (ax2 = c) roots equal number (bx = c) squares and roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c) squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx) roots and number equal squares (bx + c = ax2)

by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations al-jabr (Arabic: restoring or completion) and al-muqbala ("balancing"). Al-jabr is the process of removing negative units, roots and squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to each side. For example, x2 = 40x 4x2 is reduced to 5x2 = 40x. Al-muqbala is the process of bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the equation. For example, x2 + 14 = x + 5 is reduced to x2 + 9 = x. The above discussion uses modern mathematical notation for the types of problems which the book discusses. However, in al-Khwrizm's day, most of this notation had not yet been invented, so he had to use ordinary text to present problems and their solutions. For example, for one problem he writes, (from an 1831 translation) "If some one say: "You divide ten into two parts: multiply the one by itself; it will be equal to the other taken eighty-one times." Computation: You say, ten less thing, multiplied by itself, is a hundred plus a square less twenty things, and this is equal to eighty-one things. Separate the twenty things from a hundred and a square, and add them to eighty-one. It will then be a hundred plus a square, which is equal to a hundred and one roots. Halve the roots; the moiety is fifty and a half. Multiply this by itself, it is two thousand five hundred and fifty and a quarter. Subtract from this one hundred; the remainder is two thousand four hundred and fifty and a quarter. Extract the root from this; it is forty-nine and a half. Subtract this from the moiety of the roots, which is fifty and a half. There remains one, and this is one of the two parts."[15]

In modern notation this process, with 'x' the "thing" (shay') or "root", is given by the steps,

Let the roots of the equation be 'p' and 'q'. Then

and

So a root is given by

Several authors have also published texts under the name of Kitb al-jabr wa-l-muqbala, including |Ab anfa al-Dnawar, Ab Kmil Shuj ibn Aslam, Ab Muammad alAdl, Ab Ysuf al-Mi, 'Abd al-Hamd ibn Turk, Sind ibn Al, Sahl ibn Bir, and arafaddn al-s. J. J. O'Conner and E. F. Robertson wrote in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive: "Perhaps one of the most significant advances made by Arabic mathematics began at this time with the work of al-Khwarizmi, namely the beginnings of algebra. It is important to understand just how significant this new idea was. It was a revolutionary move away from the Greek concept of mathematics which was essentially geometry. Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before."[19] R. Rashed and Angela Armstrong write: "Al-Khwarizmi's text can be seen to be distinct not only from the Babylonian tablets, but also from Diophantus' Arithmetica. It no longer concerns a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study. On the other hand, the idea of an equation for its own sake appears from the

beginning and, one could say, in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of problems."[20]

Arithmetic Al-Khwrizm's second major work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in a Latin translation but was lost in the original Arabic. The translation was most likely done in the twelfth century by Adelard of Bath, who had also translated the astronomical tables in 1126. The Latin manuscripts are untitled, but are commonly referred to by the first two words with which they start: Dixit algorizmi ("So said al-Khwrizm"), or Algoritmi de numero Indorum ("al-Khwrizm on the Hindu Art of Reckoning"), a name given to the work by Baldassarre Boncompagni in 1857. The original Arabic title was possibly Kitb al-Jam wa-l-tafrq biisb al-Hind[21] ("The Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation")[22] Al-Khwarizmi's work on arithmetic was responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals, based on the Hindu-Arabic numeral system developed in Indian mathematics, to the Western world. The term "algorithm" is derived from the algorism, the technique of performing arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals developed by al-Khwarizmi. Both "algorithm" and "algorism" are derived from the Latinized forms of al-Khwarizmi's name, Algoritmi and Algorismi, respectively.

Astronomy Al-Khwrizm's Zj al-Sindhind[1] (Arabic: " astronomical tables of Sind and Hind") is a work consisting of approximately 37 chapters on calendrical and astronomical calculations and 116 tables with calendrical, astronomical and astrological data, as well as a table of sine values. This is the first of many Arabic Zijes based on the Indian astronomical methods known as the sindhind.[23] The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. This work marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. The original Arabic version (written c. 820) is lost, but a version by the Spanish astronomer Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (c. 1000) has survived in a Latin translation, presumably by Adelard of Bath (January 26, 1126).[24] The four surviving manuscripts of the Latin translation are kept at the Bibliothque publique (Chartres), the Bibliothque Mazarine (Paris), the Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid) and the Bodleian Library (Oxford).

Trigonometry Al-Khwrizm's Zj al-Sindhind also contained tables for the trigonometric functions of sines and cosine.[23] A related treatise on spherical trigonometry is also attributed to him.[19]

Geography Hubert Daunicht's reconstruction of al-Khwrizm's planisphere. Al-Khwrizm's third major work is his Kitb rat al-Ar (Arabic: " Book on the appearance of the Earth" or "The image of the Earth" translated as Geography), which was finished in 833. It is a revised and completed version of Ptolemy's Geography, consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction.[25] There is only one surviving copy of Kitb rat al-Ar, which is kept at the Strasbourg University Library. A Latin translation is kept at the Biblioteca Nacional de Espaa in Madrid. The complete title translates as Book of the appearance of the Earth, with its cities, mountains, seas, all the islands and rivers, written by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa alKhwrizm, according to the geographical treatise written by Ptolemy the Claudian. The book opens with the list of latitudes and longitudes, in order of "weather zones", that is to say in blocks of latitudes and, in each weather zone, by order of longitude. As Paul Gallez[dubious discuss] points out, this excellent system allows the deduction of many latitudes and longitudes where the only extant document is in such a bad condition as to make it practically illegible. Neither the Arabic copy nor the Latin translation include the map of the world itself; however, Hubert Daunicht was able to reconstruct the missing map from the list of coordinates. Daunicht read the latitudes and longitudes of the coastal points in the manuscript, or deduces them from the context where they were not legible. He transferred the points onto graph paper and connected them with straight lines, obtaining an approximation of the coastline as it was on the original map. He then does the same for the rivers and towns.[26] Al-Khwrizm corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the length of the Mediterranean Sea[27] from the Canary Islands to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean; Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees of longitude, while al-Khwarizmi almost correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. He "also depicted the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as open bodies of water, not land-locked seas as Ptolemy had done."[28] Al-Khwarizmi thus set the Prime Meridian of the Old World at the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, 1013 degrees to the east of Alexandria (the prime meridian previously set by Ptolemy) and 70 degrees to

the west of Baghdad. Most medieval Muslim geographers continued to use al-Khwarizmi's prime meridian.[27] Jewish calendar Al-Khwrizm wrote several other works including a treatise on the Hebrew calendar (Risla fi istikhrj tarkh al-yahd "Extraction of the Jewish Era"). It describes the 19year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishr shall fall; calculates the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era; and gives rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar. Similar material is found in the works of al-Brn and Maimonides.[1] Other works Several Arabic manuscripts in Berlin, Istanbul, Tashkent, Cairo and Paris contain further material that surely or with some probability comes from al-Khwrizm. The Istanbul manuscript contains a paper on sundials, which is mentioned in the Fihrist. Other papers, such as one on the determination of the direction of Mecca, are on the spherical astronomy. Two texts deserve special interest on the morning width (Marifat saat al-mashriq f kull balad) and the determination of the azimuth from a height (Marifat al-samt min qibal al-irtif). He also wrote two books on using and constructing astrolabes. Ibn al-Nadim in his Kitab alFihrist (an index of Arabic books) also mentions Kitb ar-Rukhma(t) (the book on sundials) and Kitab al-Tarikh (the book of history) but the two have been lost.

Who is Al-Khwarizmi

Al-Khwarizmi from Apollo 16. NASA photo. Coordinates Diameter Depth Colongitude Eponym 7.1N 106.4ECoordinates: 7.1N 106.4E 65 km Unknown 254 at sunrise Al-Khwarizmi

Al-Khwarizmi is a lunar impact crater located on the far side of the Moon. It lies to the southeast of the crater Moiseev, and northeast of Saenger. The western inner wall of Al-Khwarizmi is much wider than along the eastern side. The eastern rim overlays a pair of craters, including Al-Khwarizmi J. The outer wall is somewhat distorted from a circular shape, including a double-rim in the south. There is a small central peak at the mid-point, which forms part of a low ridge that bends to the northeast. Several tiny craterlets lie in the northern part of the interior floor. The floor to the southeast is somewhat smoother and free of significant impacts. The crater was named for the Persian mathematician and astronomer Al-Khwarizmi.

Satellite craters

By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater mid-point that is closest to Al-Khwarizmi.
AlKhwarizm Latitude Longitude Diameter i B G H J K L M T 9.0 N 6.9 N 6.0 N 6.2 N 4.6 N 3.9 N 3.1 N 7.0 N 107.4 E 107.1 E 109.2 E 107.6 E 107.6 E 107.4 E 107.0 E 104.5 E 62 km 95 km 50 km 47 km 26 km 35 km 18 km 15 km