CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL Battery life is an important issue in all portable electronic devices. The matter becomes even more crucial when the necessary portable devices are medical implants.An implant is a medical device manufactured to replace a missing biological structure, support a damaged biological structure, or enhance an existing biological structure such as artificial pacemaker and cochlear implants. In these devices, life itself might become dependent on the battery life. Naturally, as with all battery-powered devices, the battery of an implant must be replaced after a certain period of time. Afrequent change of an implants battery is not desired because it requires surgical procedure. This has driven researchers to develop powering solutions for implants. Whether the implant is powered by a battery, inductive link, piezoelectric source, or a combination of these sources, it is important to have circuits with ultra-low-power consumption that wouldefficiently use these energy resources. Reducing the power dissipation in these circuits also helps to reduce the risk of damaging surrounding tissues due to dissipated heat. One method of reducing power consumption in complementary metaloxide semiconductor (CMOS) circuits is the dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) technique.
1

Theself-timed systems referred to as asynchronous systems can lead to further reduction in power consumption .The DVS technique explored in this paper uses Switched Capacitors(SC) to obtain a dc-dc converter. This type of converter is suitable for implants because it is efficient and can be integrated. In addition, since this type of dcdc converter does not have any inductor, it is less affected by electromagnetic interference, and can be used in implants that utilize inductive links.To reduce switching losses at light loads, the proposed asynchronous dcdc converter is able to select the number of switches to operate while it keeps additional switches OFF. 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW This converter is a SC DC-DC converter with variable conversion ratio. It is designed to provide three different conversion ratios 1, 1/2, and 2/3. The input battery voltage can be varied from 2.8V to 5V for an output of 1.8V, while the maximum load current for this converter is 100mA and the conversion efficiency is in the range from 85% to 65%. Finally, the output ripple was measured to be less than 10mV. [1] It uses three integrated 400pF capacitors; this design was able to step-down the input voltage from 5V to 1V. A pulse width modulation (PWM) control scheme with 25MHz switching frequency was adopted to regulate the output voltage. It achieves 62% efficiency when the switching losses are included, while the theoretical maximum efficiency was 80%. Neither the maximum load power nor maximum load current was provided. [2] This design is a fully integrated SC DC-DC converter targeting systems that can apply the DVS technique to reduce power consumption. This work describes a SC network, consisting of four capacitors, that can achieve five different
2

conversion ratios (1, 3/4, 1/2, 2/3 and 1/3). With the use of PFM control and an automatic frequency scaling (AFS) block, this converter achieved conversion efficiency in the range of 80-50% for load powers in the range of 5W to 1W. the converter can regulate output voltages between 1.1 V to 0.3 V. [3] This design is built on two time-interleaved SC DC-DC converters to produce lower output voltage ripple and faster load transient. The configuration of this converter allows it to choose between conversion ratio of 1, 1/2, 2/3 and 1/3. The converter takes input voltages in the range of 2.1 V to 3.3 V and output voltages in the range of 0.9 V to 1.8 V, with a maximum efficiency of 76%. [4] The authors here design another SC DC-DC converter with adjustable conversion ratios to work with (1, 1/2ad 2/3). With a PFM controller operating with a base frequency of 1MHz, the converter steps down input voltages in the range of 5-15V to an output voltage of 2V. The whole design is reported to have efficiency in the range of 28% to 42%. [5] 1.3ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS The thesis consists of six chapters including introduction as the first chapter, which gives introduction to implantable devices and about the existing system. Chapter 1 describes the papers referred and technical information inferred from the literature surveys. Chapter 2 deals with the block diagram of our project and general description of switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network. Chapter 3 deals with the simulation of switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network. Chapter 4 describes about the overall hardware description of our project. Chapter 5 deals with conclusion and future scope.
3

CHAPTER 2

SWITCHED CAPACITOR DC-DC CONVERTER

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A switched capacitor is an electronic circuit element used for discrete time signal processing. It works by moving charges into and out of capacitors when switches are opened and closed. Usually, non-overlapping signals are used to control the switches, so that not all switches are closed

simultaneously. Filters implemented with these elements are termed 'switchedcapacitor filters'. Switched capacitor filters depend only on the ratios between capacitances. This makes them much more suitable for use within integrated circuits, where accurately specified resistors and capacitors are not economical to construct.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ASYNCHRONOUS STEP DOWN DCDC CONVERTER

A12 V DC supply is given to the switched capacitor dc-dc converter which steps down the voltage in the range between 0.9 V to 1.5 V. A 5V dc supply is given to the controller, which produces pulse signals which are given to the driver
4

unit. The driver unit is provided with a 12 V dc supply which amplifies the pulse signals inorder to drive the mosfet switches.

Fig.2.1Block diagram of asynchronous step down dc-dc converter for implantable devices

The block diagram shown has controller unit driver unit and a switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network.

2.2.1 SWITCHED CAPACITOR DC-DC CONVERTER

The simplest switched capacitor (SC) circuit is the switched capacitor resistor, made of one capacitor C and two switches S1 and S2 which connect thecapacitor with a given frequency alternately to the input and output of the SC.
5

Each switching cycle transfers a charge

from the input to the output at the

switching frequency. Recall that the charge q on a capacitor C with a voltage V between the plates is given by: q=CV (2.1)

where V is the voltage across the capacitor. Therefore, when S1 is closed while S2 is open, the charge stored in the capacitor CS is: qIN=CsVIN (2.2)

When S2 is closed, some of that charge is transferred out of the capacitor, after which the charge that remains in capacitor CS is: qOUT=CsVout Thus, the charge moved out of the capacitor to the output is: q=qIN-qOUT=Cs (VIN-VOUT) (2.4) (2.3)

Because this charge q is transferred at a rate f, the rate of transfer of charge per unit time is: I=qf (2.5)

Note that we use I, the symbol for electric current, for this quantity. This is to demonstrate that a continuous transfer of charge from one node to another is equivalent to a current. Substituting for q in the above, we have: I=Cs(VIN-VOUT)f Let V be the voltage across the SC from input to output. So: V=VOUT-VIN So the equivalent resistance R (i.e., the voltagecurrent relationship) is: R=V/I =1/Csf
6

(2.6)

(2.7)

(2.8)

Thus, the SC behaves like a lossless resistor whose value depends on capacitance CS and switching frequency f.The SC resistor is used as a replacement for simple resistors in integrated circuits because it is easier to fabricate reliably with a wide range of values. It also has the benefit that its value can be adjusted by changing the switching frequency.

2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SWITCHED CAPACITOR DCDCCONVERTER

Fig.2.2 General Circuit Diagram of SC DC-DC converter

The Fig 2.2 illustrates the circuit diagram of switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network. In this network we are using five mosfet switches .Switch
7

Soacts as direct switch. It consists of two converter sections with two switches each. Switches S1 and S1 are complementary switches, similarly switches S2 and S2 of converter 2 are complementary. There are three modes of operation.

2.4 MODES OF OPERATION 2.4.1 MODE 1

In this mode switches So , S1 , S2 will be in ON state and switches S1,S2 will be kept OFF. The output is charged directly from the input via the direct switch, this makes the charge up time very short. The two converters will be simultaneously charged via switches S1 and S2

Fig.2.3Circuit Diagram of MODE1 operation

8

2.4.2 MODE 2
In this mode switches S1 and S2 are kept ON and the switches S0, S1 ,S2 are switched OFF. The output is charged from the converter 1.The converter 2 will keep on charging through switch S2 .

Fig.2.4Circuit Diagram of MODE 2 operation

2.4.3 MODE 3
In this mode, only switch S2 will be in ON state and all other switches are kept OFF. The output will be charged by converter 2.

Fig.2.5Circuit Diagram of MODE 3 operation

2.5 CONTROLLER UNIT

The controller unit is used to provide pulse signals to the switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network. A 5 V dc supply is provided to the controller unit by means of a power supply unit. The controller used is PIC 16F877A. It is a forty pin IC.

2.6 DRIVER UNIT

The driver unit is used to amplify the signals from the microcontroller to drive the mosfet switches. It is provided with a 12 V dc supply. It uses TTL logic in amplification of the signals. The driver unit consists of optocoupler which is used in isolating the controller and the driver unit.

10

2.7 CONCLUSION
The following details can be inferred from this chapter:As only five switches are used which is much lesser when compared with the existing system, the power losses are reduced. Also the electromagnetic interference can be reduced as no inductors are used. Thus switched capacitor dc-dc conversion structure is explained in detail in this chapter.

11

CHAPTER 3

SIMULATION USING MATLAB

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Simulations are abstractions of reality. Often they deliberately emphasize one part of reality at the expense of other parts. Sometimes this is necessary due to computer power limitations. Sometimes it's done to focus your attention on an important aspect of the simulation. Simulation has become a very powerful tool on the industry application as well as in academics, nowadays. It is now essential for an electrical engineer to understand the concept of simulation and learn its use in various applications. Simulation is one of the best ways to study the system or circuit behavior without damaging it .The tools for doing the simulation in various fields are available in the market for engineering professionals. Many industries are spending a considerable amount of time and money in doing simulation before manufacturing their product. In most of the research and development (R&D) work, the simulation plays a very important role. Without simulation it is quiet impossible to proceed further. It should be noted that in power electronics, computer simulation and a proof of concept hardware prototype in the laboratory are complimentary to each other. However computer simulation must not be considered as a substitute for hardware
12

prototype. The objective of this chapter is to describe simulation of switched capacitor dc-dc converter using MATLAB tool with R load.

3.2 ABOUT MATLAB

MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment that enables you to perform computationally intensive tasks faster than with traditional programming languages such as C, C++, and Fortran . MATLAB is a highperformance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses includes-Math and computation, Data acquisition, Algorithm development and Modeling, simulation, and prototyping. Simulations were performed by using MATLAB-Simulink to verify the proposed BDC full bridge converter can practically be implemented to improve the efficiency of converter. Simulink is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customizable set of block libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing.

3.3 SIMULATION OF SWITCHED CAPACITOR DC-DC CONVERTER NETWORK

In simulation of switched capacitor dc-dc conversion network, we go for five mosfet switches. Switch So which is made to act as direct switch is operated at a frequency of 50 Hz, and zero delay is provided. Switch S1 and S1 are operated at
13

a high frequency of 1.9MHz and a small phase delay is provided. As the switches S1 and S1 are complementary, NOT gate is used to provide pulses to switch S1 .Switches S2 and S2 are operated at the same frequency as that of S1 and S1 , but the delay provided to the switches is much greater than that provided to S1 and S1 .

Fig.3.1Simulation of SC dc-dc conversion network

14

Switch S0 is a direct switch and its switching pattern is shown below.The pulse pattern shows that there is zero delay provided for this switch. The pulses are given at an interval of about 0.02 seconds and its frequency is about 50 Hz.
Pulse to switch So 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Amplitude

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02 0.025 TIME(SEC)

0.03

0.035

0.04

Fig.3.2 Pulse to switch S0

Switches S1 and S1 are high frequency switches and their switching pattern is given below.
15

The pulse pattern shows that there is a small delay provided to this switch and it is about 0.175 s.

PULSE TO SWITCH S1

0.5472

0.5472
AMPLITUDE

0.5472

0.5472

0.5472

0.5472 3.054 3.055 3.056 3.057 3.058 TIME(SEC) 3.059 3.06 x 10

-3

Fig.3.3 Pulse to switch S1

Switches S2 and S2 are high frequency switches and their switching pattern is given below.

16

The pulse pattern shows that there is a small delay provided to this switch and it is about 0.263 s.

Pulse to switch S2 0.5162 0.5162 0.5162

AMPLITUDE

0.5162 0.5162 0.5162 0.5162 0.5162 0.5162 3.896 3.8965 3.897 3.8975 3.898 3.8985 3.899 3.8995 3.9 3.9005 3.901 -3 TIME(sec) x 10

Fig.3.4 Pulse to switch S2

The output voltage of the converter is shown below and it is about 1.28 V for an input voltage of 12 V.A small amount of ripple can be seen in the result.

17

14

12

10
VOLTAGE(V)

0 0

0.005

0.01

0.015 0.02 0.025 TIME PERIOD(SEC)

0.03

0.035

0.04

Fig.3.5 Output voltage of converter network

3.4 CONCLUSION The Simulink models for switched capacitor dc-dc converter network has been simulated to produce the desired output voltage for given input voltage using MATLAB. The simulation result shows an efficiency of 84%.

18

CHAPTER 4 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter talks in detail about the overall circuit diagram and various other hardware components used in low power asynchronous step down dc-dc converter.

4.2 OVERALL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 4.1 illustrates the overall circuit diagram of asynchronous step down dcdc converter which shows the power supply unit, controller unit, driver unit and the switched capacitor dc-dc conversion unit. Initially 12 V ac supply is provided to the controller unit and driver unit via 230/12 V step down transformer. The microcontroller produces pulse signals which are given to the driver circuit. The driver circuit uses TTL logic to amplify the drive signals and is used to drive the mosfet switches. An optocoupler is used to isolate the driver and controller unit. The microcontroller used here is PIC 16F877A.

19

U1 L7805/TO3 1
1

VDD
VOUT 2

D5

VIN
GND

12V AC

J1

4 -

+2 C1 470uF C2 100uF C3 0.1uF D7

220ohm 3

R2

LED VPP SW1 R3 R1 C4

11 32

SW PUSHBUTTON RESISTOR

12 31

RESISTOR

U6
VDD VDD

CAP

D1 DATA CLK

VSS VSS

R5
1 RESISTOR VAR 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

MCLR/VPP RA0/AN0 RA1/AN1 RA2/AN2/VREFRA3/AN3/VREF+ RA4/TOCKI RA5/AN4/SS RB0/AN5/RD RB1/AN6/WR RB2/AN7/CS

RB7/PGD RB6/PGC RB5 RB4 RB3/PGM RB2 RB1 RB0/INT

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 R2 100 Q1 BDX37

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 1K Q3 100 R7 MCT2E R6 1K 1K

C1

230/12V 500mA

RB3 RB0

OP-07C/301/T1

1n

Y1 CRYSTAL C5 CAP C6 CAP

PIC 16F877a 13 14 OSC1/CLKI OSC2/CLKO RD7/PSP7 RD6/PSP6 RD5/PSP5 15 16 RCO/T10S0/T1CKI RD4/PSP4 17 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 RD3/PSP3 RD2/PSP2 18 RC2/CCP1 RD1/PSP1 23 RC3/SCK/SCL RD0/PSP0 24 RC4/SDI/SDA 25 RC5/SDO RC6/TX/CK 26 RC7/RX/DT

30 29 28 27 22 21 20 19

D1

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 Q1 R2 BDX37 1K OP-07C/301/T1 100

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 Q3 100 R7 R6 1K 1K

12V DC

S0

C1

230/12V 500mA

Vin -S1
+

1n

S1 Vout

S
MCT2E

CL
-

RL

-S2 D1

S2

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 R2 100 Q1 BDX37

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 1K Q3 100 R7 MCT2E R6 1K 1K

C1

230/12V 500mA

OP-07C/301/T1

1n

D1

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 R2 100 Q1 BDX37

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 1K Q3 100 R7 MCT2E R6 1K 1K

C1

230/12V 500mA

OP-07C/301/T1

1n

D1

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 R2 100 Q1 BDX37

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 1K Q3 100 R7 MCT2E R6 1K 1K

C1

230/12V 500mA

OP-07C/301/T1

1n

Fig 4.1 overall circuit diagram of asynchronous step down dc-dc converter

20

4.3 CONTROLLER UNIT

230/12 V P 1 230 V 4 8 5 4 1

U1 L7805/TO3 1 D5 VIN
GND

VDD VOUT 2

+ 2 C1 470uF C2 100uF C3 0.1uF D7

220ohm 3

R2

N TRANSFORMER VPP SW1 R3 R1 C4 LED

11 32

SW PUSHBUTTON RESISTOR

RESISTOR

U6
VDD VDD

CAP

VSS VSS

12 31

R5
RESISTOR VAR 3 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 14

MCLR/VPP RA0/AN0 RA1/AN1 RA2/AN2/VREFRA3/AN3/VREF+ RA4/TOCKI RA5/AN4/SS RB0/AN5/RD RB1/AN6/WR RB2/AN7/CS OSC1/CLKI OSC2/CLKO

RB7/PGD RB6/PGC RB5 RB4 RB3/PGM RB2 RB1 RB0/INT

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33

DATA CLK

RB3 RB0

PIC 16F877a RD7/PSP7 RD6/PSP6 RD5/PSP5 RCO/T10S0/T1CKI RD4/PSP4 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 RD3/PSP3 RC2/CCP1 RD2/PSP2 RC3/SCK/SCL RD1/PSP1 RC4/SDI/SDA RD0/PSP0 RC5/SDO RC6/TX/CK RC7/RX/DT 30 29 28 27 22 21 20 19

Y1 CRY STAL C5 CAP C6 CAP 15 16 17 18 23 24 25 26

Fig.4.2 PIC microcontroller 16F877A

21

4.3.1 POWER CIRCUIT FOR MICROCONTROLLER

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others The operation of power supply circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with an AC voltage, a steady DC voltage is obtained by rectifying the AC voltage, then filtering to a DC level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed DC voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator Unit, which takes a DC voltage and provides a somewhat lower DC voltage, which remains the same even if the input DC voltage varies, or the output Load connected to the DC voltage changes.

4.3.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feedforward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating
22

the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts).

4.3.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.

4.3.4 FEATURES OF PIC CONTROLLER

HIGH-PERFORMANCE RISC CPU Only 35 single-word instructions to learn All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which are twocycle Operating speed: DC 20 MHz clock input DC 200 ns instruction cycle Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory Pin out compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers PERIPHERAL FEATURES Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep via external crystal/clock
23

 Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler o Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules o Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns o Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns PWM max. resolution is 10-bit Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master mode) and I2C (Master/Slave) Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address detection Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only) Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

ANALOG FEATURES 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D) Brown-out Reset (BOR) Analog Comparator module with: o Two analog comparators o Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module o Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage reference o Comparator outputs are externally accessible

24

SPECIAL MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years Self-reprogrammable under software control In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation Programmable code protection Power saving Sleep mode Selectable oscillator options In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

4.3.5 PORTC AND THE TRISC REGISTER

PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISC bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). PORTC ismultiplexed with several peripheral functions (Table 4-5). PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC<4:3> pins can be configured with normal I2C levels, or with SMBus levels, by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>).

25

4.4 DRIVER UNIT

D1

230/12 V

FROM MICRO CONTROLLER

U1 R1 U2 1K R3 R2 100 Q1 BDX37

D1N190 R4 Q2 100 R5 1K Q3 100 R7 MCT2E R6 1K 1K

1 C1

230 V
4 8

OP-07C/301/T1

1n

50 Hz

S
TRANSFORMER

Fig..4.3 Driver Circuit

4.4.1 BUFFER
A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to another. Two main types of buffer exist: the voltage buffer and the current buffer. A current buffer amplifier is used to transfer a current from a first circuit, having a low output impedance level, to a second circuit with a high input impedance level.

4.4.2 OPTOCOUPLER
There are many situations where signals and data need to be transferred from one subsystem to another within a piece of electronics equipment, or from one piece of equipment to another, without making a direct ohmic electrical
26

connection. Often this is because the source and destination are (or may be at times) at very different voltage levels, like a microprocessor, which is operating from 5V DC but being used to control a triac that is switching 240V AC. In such situations the link between the two must be an isolated one, to protect the microprocessor from over voltage damage. Relays can of course provide this kind of isolation, but even small relays tend to be fairly bulky compared with ICs and many of todays other miniature circuit components. Because theyre electro-mechanical, relays are also not as reliable and only capable of relatively low speed operation. Where small size, higher speed and greater reliability are important, a much better alternative is to use an optocoupler. These use a beam of light to transmit the signals or data across an electrical barrier, and achieve excellent isolation. Optocoupler typically come in a small 6-pin or 8-pin IC package, but are essentially a combination of two distinct devices: an optical transmitter, typically a gallium arsenide LED (light-emitting diode) and an optical receiver such as a phototransistor or light-triggered diac. The two are separated by a transparent barrier which blocks any electrical current flow between the two, but does allow the passage of light. The basic idea is shown, along with the usual circuit symbol for an optocoupler. Usually the electrical connections to the LED section are brought out to the pins on one side of the package and those for the phototransistor or diac to the other side, to physically separate them as much as possible. This usually allows optocouplers to withstand voltages of anywhere between 500V and 7500V between input and output. Optocouplers are essentially, digital or switching devices, so theyre best for transferring either on-off control signals or digital data. Analog signals can be transferred by means of frequency or pulse-width modulation.

27

4.4.2.1 OPTOCOUPLER OPERATION

Basically the simplest way to visualize an optocoupler is in terms of its two main components: the input LED and the output transistor or diac. As the two are electrically isolated, this gives a fair amount of flexibility when it comes to connecting them into circuit. All we really have to do is work out a convenient way of turning the input LED on and off, and using the resulting switching of the phototransistor/ diac to generate an output waveform or logic signal that is compatible with our output circuitry. This means you can arrange for the LED, and hence the optocoupler, to be either on or off, for a logic high (or low) in the driving circuitry. In some circuits, there may be a chance that at times the driving voltage fed to the input LED could have reversed polarity (due to a swapped cable connection, for example). This can cause damage to the device, because optocoupler LEDs tend to have quite a low reverse voltage rating: typically only 3 - 5V. So if this is a possibility, a reversed polarity diode should be connected directly across the LED as shown in Fig.3. On the output side, there are again a number of possible connections even with a typical optocoupler of the type having a single phototransistor receiver (such as the 4N25 or 4N28). In most cases the transistor is simply connected as a light-operated switch, in series with a load resistor RL (see Fig.4). The base of the transistor is left unconnected, and the choice is between having the transistor at the top of the load resistor or at the bottom. i.e., in either pull-up or pull-down mode. This again gives plenty of flexibility for driving either logic gates or transistors, as shown in Fig.5. If higher bandwidth is needed, it can be achieved by using only the collector and base connections, and by using the transistor as a photodiode. This lowers the optocouplers CTR and transfer gain considerably, but can increase the bandwidth to 30MHz or so.
28

An alternative approach is still to use the output device as a phototransistor, but tie the base down to ground (or the emitter) via a resistor R b, to assist in removal of stored charge (Fig.6B). This can extend the optos bandwidth usefully (although not dramatically), without lowering the CTR and transfer gain any more than is necessary. Typically youd start with a resistor value of 1MW, and reduce it gradually down to about 47kW to see if the desired bandwidth can be reached. A variation on the standard optocoupler with a single output phototransistor is the type having a photo- Darlington transistor pair in the output, such as the 6N138. As mentioned earlier this type of device gives a much higher CTR and transfer gain, but with a significant penalty in terms of bandwidth. Connecting a base tieback resistor can again allow a useful extension of bandwidth without sacrificing too much in terms of transfer gain.

4.4.3 TRANSISTOR-TRANSISTOR LOGIC

Transistortransistor logic (TTL) is a class of digital circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and resistors. It is called transistortransistor logic because both the logic gating function (e.g., AND) and the amplifying function are performed by transistors (contrast this with RTL and DTL). TTL is notable for being a widespread integrated circuit (IC) family used in many applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, synthesizers, etc. The designation TTL is sometimes used to mean TTL-compatible logic levels, even when not associated directly with TTL integrated circuits, for example as a label on the inputs and outputs of electronic instruments.

29

The input to a TTL circuit is always through the emitter(s) of the input transistor, which exhibits a low input resistance. The base of the input transistor, on the other hand, is connected to the Vcc line, which causes the input transistor to pass a current of about 1.6 mA when the input voltage to the emitter(s) is logic '0', i.e., near ground. Letting a TTL input 'float' (left unconnected) will usually make it go to logic '1', but such a state is vulnerable to stray signals, which is why it is good practice to connect TTL inputs to Vcc using 1 kohm pull-up resistors. The most basic TTL circuit has a single output transistor configured as an inverter with its emitter grounded and its collector tied to Vcc with a pull-up resistor, and with the output taken from its collector. Most TTL circuits, However, use a totem pole output circuit, which replaces the pull-up resistor with a Vcc-side transistor sitting on top of the GND-side output transistor. The emitter of the Vcc-side transistor (whose collector is tied to Vcc) is connected to the collector of the GND-side transistor (whose emitter is grounded) by a diode. The output is taken from the collector of the GND-side transistor. Figure 1 shows a basic 2-input TTL NAND gate with a totem-pole output.

30

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 GENERAL
The importance of low-power circuit techniques in portable devices and biomedical implants drove researchers to develop new design methods of reducing the power consumption of these devices. One of the challenges that SC DC-DC convertersfacesis the low conversion efficiency atlight loads. In this work, we have demonstrated an approach for efficient power deliveryin ultra-low-power devices using SC DC-DC converters. By switching only when required, SC DC-DC converter reduces the switching power losses. In contrast to the methods that weredeveloped previously in this field, we proposed an asynchronous control strategy that would minimize the switching power losses. After reviewing the basics of the SC DC-DC converters, we have shown that a SC DC-DC converter should use different conversion ratios under different output voltagesto maximize the conversion efficiency. The proposed design used three different topologies to realize three different conversion ratios. This converter can be helpful in supplying power to ultra-low power circuits that are found in bio-medical implants.

31

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The proposed converter still has room for improvements. A closed loop structure can be designed which would help in the scaling of output voltage and thus can change according to the output changes. This can improve the efficiency of the whole structure. Thus according to the load changes the input would change. The output voltage ripple which would lead to unnecessary switching and irregularities in operating frequencies can be avoided by adopting a hysteresis comparator approach.

32

REFERENCE
[1] Shao Bin , A high efficiency inductor less step-down DC/DC converter, IEEE Transactions on power electronics,2005(1), pp. 395 398 [2] A. Viraj and G. Amaratunga, A monolithic CMOS 5 v/1 v switched capacitor dc-dc step-down converter, in Proc.IEEE Transactions on power electronics.. Specialists Conf., Jun. 2007, pp. 25102514. [3] Y. Ramadass and A.Chandrakasan, Voltage scalable switched capacitor dc-dc converter for ultra-low-power on-chip applications, in Proc. IEEE Transactions on power electronics. Specialists Conf., Jun. 2007, pp. 23532359. [4] Chowdhury, I.; DongshengMaAn, integrated reconfigurable switchedcapacitor DC-DC converter with a dual-loop adaptive gain-pulse control, IEEE Transactions on power electronics, in 2008pp 2610 2613. [5] HaoWenhan et al 2009 J. Semicond,A variable step-down conversion ratio switched capacitor DC-DC converter for energy harvesting systems working in intermittent mode,IEEE Transactions on power electronics, vol. 30, no. 12, Dec. 2009. [6] Omar Al-TerkawiHasib,MohamadSawan, and YvonSavaria,A Lowpower Asynchronous Step-Down DCDC Converter for Implantable Devices,IEEE Transactions on Bio medical circuits and systems, VOL. 5, no. 3, June. 2011. 1) www.fairchildsemi.com 2) www.datasheetreference.com 3) www.seminartopics.com 4) www.en.wikipedia.org 5) www.cindybob.com
33