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Mathematics
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Multiplication............................................................................................................. 7 Division ...................................................................................................................... 7 Negative Powers ........................................................................................................ 7 Base Raised To Two Powers ..................................................................................... 8 Multiple Bases To The Same Power .......................................................................... 8 Fractional Powers....................................................................................................... 8 The 0 And 1 Power .................................................................................................... 8 The Laws Of Indices .................................................................................................. 9
Surds: .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Simplification Of Surds ........................................................................................... 10 Basic Rule Of Surds ................................................................................................. 10 Surds As Indices ...................................................................................................... 10 Rationalizing The Denominator ............................................................................... 10 Splitting Up Roots.................................................................................................... 11
Equations: ................................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Manipulating Expressions.............................................................................................. 12 3.1.1 Collecting Like Terms ..................................................................................... 12 3.1.2 Multiplication................................................................................................... 12 3.1.3 Fractions ........................................................................................................... 12 3.2 Solving Equations ......................................................................................................... 13 3.2.1 Changing The Subject Of An Equation ................................................................. 13 3.2.2 Solving Quadratic Equations ................................................................................ 14 3.3 Simultaneous Equations ................................................................................................. 14 3.3.1 Elimination Method .............................................................................................. 15 3.3.2 Substitution Method ......................................................................................... 15 3.3.3 Graphical Method ................................................................................................. 17 3.3.4 Solving Problems With Simultaneous Equations ................................................. 17
4. Polynomials:................................................................................................................................ 19
4.1 Basics Of Polynomials ................................................................................................... 19 4.1.1 Degrees Of Polynomials ....................................................................................... 19 4.1.2 Notation................................................................................................................. 19 4.2 Operations With Polynomials ........................................................................................ 20 4.2.1 Addition ................................................................................................................ 20 4.2.2 Subtraction ............................................................................................................ 20 4.2.3 Multiplication........................................................................................................ 21 4.2.4 Multiplication Table.............................................................................................. 21 4.2.5 Long Multiplicatio ................................................................................................ 22 4.2.6 Division Of Polynomials: ...................................................................................... 22
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4.2.6.1 Long Division ............................................................................................... 22 4.2.6.2 Synthetic Division .......................................................................................... 23 4.2.6.3 Remainder Theorem...................................................................................... 24 4.3 Factorizing .................................................................................................................... 25 4.3.1 The Factor Theorem ......................................................................................... 25 4.4 The Rational Root Theorem..................................................................................... 25 4.5 Curves Of Polynomials .................................................................................................. 26 4.5.1 Turning Points ....................................................................................................... 26 4.5.2 Behavior With Extreme Values Of X ................................................................... 27 4.5.3 Intersections With Axes ........................................................................................ 27 4.6 Quadratic Expressions ................................................................................................... 28 4.6.1 Graph..................................................................................................................... 28 4.6.2 Completing The Square ........................................................................................ 28 4.6.3 The Quadratic Formula ......................................................................................... 31 4.6.4 The Discriminant .................................................................................................. 32
5. Error Bounds And Inequalities: ............................................................................................... 33
5.1 Errors.............................................................................................................................. 33 5.1.1 Absolute Error ....................................................................................................... 33 5.1.2 Relative Error ................................................................................................... 33 5.1.3 Percentage Error.................................................................................................... 34 5.2 Inequalities ..................................................................................................................... 34 5.2.1 The Four Signs Of Inequalities ............................................................................. 34 5.2.2 Combining Inequalities ......................................................................................... 34 5.2.3 Solving Linear Inequalities ................................................................................... 35 5.2.4 Multiplying Or Dividing By A Negative Number ........................................... 35 5.2.5 Solving Quadratic Inequalities .............................................................................. 35
6. Coordinate Geometry And Graphs: ......................................................................................... 37
6.1 Straight Lines ............................................................................................................... 37 6.1.1 Equations Of A Straight Line ............................................................................... 37 6.1.2 Finding The Equation Of A Straight Line ............................................................. 37 6.1.3 Gradient Of A Line ............................................................................................... 37 6.1.4 Point-Gradient Form ............................................................................................. 38 6.1.5 Parallel And Perpendicular Lines ......................................................................... 38 6.1.6 Distance Between Two Points .............................................................................. 38 6.1.7 Mid-Point Of A Line ............................................................................................. 38 6.1.8 Intersection Of Lines............................................................................................. 38 6.2 Curves ............................................................................................................................ 40 6.2.1 Curves In The Form Y = Xn.................................................................................. 40 6.2.2 Curves In The Form .............................................................................................. 41 6.2.3 Curves In The Form .............................................................................................. 42 6.2.4 Intersection Of Lines And Curves ........................................................................ 42 6.2.5 Intersection Of Curves .......................................................................................... 43 6.2.6 Graphical Rules ..................................................................................................... 43 6.3 The Circle....................................................................................................................... 43 6.3.1 Properties Of A Circle .......................................................................................... 44 6.3.2 Equation Of A Circle ............................................................................................ 45
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Angular Measurement And Circular Sectors ................................................... 45 Angular Degree ................................................................................................ 46 Angular Radian ................................................................................................ 46 Conversion Between Degrees And Radians .................................................... 46 Arc Length ....................................................................................................... 47 Area Of A Sector ............................................................................................. 48
Differentiation : .......................................................................................................................... 49
7.1 The Limit Of A Function ............................................................................................... 49 7.2 The Derivative ............................................................................................................... 49 7.3 Differentiation Rules ...................................................................................................... 50 7.4 Gradient Of A Line ........................................................................................................ 50 7.4.1 Tangent Lines........................................................................................................ 51 7.4.2 Normal Lines ........................................................................................................ 51 7.5 Higher Derivatives ........................................................................................................ 52 7.6 Application Of Derivatives To Graphs .......................................................................... 52 7.6.1 Rules Of Stationary Points .................................................................................... 53 7.6.2 Locating And Evaluating Stationary Points .......................................................... 53
8. Sequences And Series: ............................................................................................................... 57
8.1 Definitions................................................................................................................ 57 8.2 Sigma () Notation .................................................................................................. 57 8.3 Recognizing Simple Progressions............................................................................ 57 8.4 Arithmetic Progression (Ap) .................................................................................... 58 8.4.1 Rules ....................................................................................................................... 58 8.4.2 Example ................................................................................................................. 58 8.5 Geometric Progression (Gp) .................................................................................... 59 8.5.1 Rules ............................................................................................................... 59 8.5.2 Sum Of An Infinite Geometric Series ............................................................. 59 8.6 Binomial Expressions .............................................................................................. 60 8.6.1 Expansions Of (X + 1) .................................................................................... 60 8.6.2 Pascal's Triangle ............................................................................................. 60 8.6.3 Binomial Coefficient Formula ........................................................................ 61 8.6.4 Expanding Binomials ............................................................................................. 61
9. Logarithms And Exponentials: ................................................................................................. 63
9.1 Operations With Exponential Function ................................................................... 63 9.1.1 Multiplication.................................................................................................. 63 9.1.2 Division ........................................................................................................... 63 9.1.3 Base Raised To Two Powers .......................................................................... 63 9.1.4 Multiple Bases ................................................................................................ 63 9.1.5 Fractional Exponents ...................................................................................... 64 9.1.6 The Laws Of Exponents.................................................................................. 64 9.1.7 Solving Exponential Equations ....................................................................... 64 9.2 Logarithmic Functions ............................................................................................. 65 9.2.1 Laws Of Logarithmic Functions ..................................................................... 65 9.2.2 Change Of Base .............................................................................................. 66
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The Trigonometric Ratios Of An Angle .................................................................. 67 Graphs Of Trigonometric Functions ........................................................................ 69 The Cast Model ........................................................................................................ 69 Important Trigonometric Values.............................................................................. 69 The Law Of Cosines ................................................................................................ 70 The Law Of Sines .................................................................................................... 70 Area Of A Triangle .................................................................................................. 71 Pythagorean Identity ................................................................................................ 72 Tangent Identity ....................................................................................................... 72
11.1 Basic Integration ...................................................................................................... 74 11.1.1 Notation........................................................................................................... 74 11.1.2 Integration Rules ............................................................................................. 74 11.1.3 Examples ......................................................................................................... 74 11.1.4 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus ................................................................ 75 11.2 Indefinite Integrals ................................................................................................. 75 11.2.1 Example ............................................................................................................... 75 11.3 Definite Integrals ..................................................................................................... 76 1.3.1 Rules Of Definite Integrals ............................................................................. 76 11.3.2 Area Of A Region Bounded By A Curve ....................................................... 76 11.3.3 Example .......................................................................................................... 77 11.4 Areas Involving Two Curves ................................................................................... 77 11.4.1 Area Bounded By Two Curves ....................................................................... 77 11.4.2 Example .......................................................................................................... 78 11.4.3 Area Between Two Curves ............................................................................. 79 11.4.4 Example .......................................................................................................... 79 11.5 Estimating Area Underneath A Curve ..................................................................... 81 11.5.1 Trapezium Rule ............................................................................................... 81 11.5.2 Example .......................................................................................................... 81 11.5.3 Midpoint Rule ................................................................................................. 82 11.6 Integrals To Infinity ................................................................................................ 83
12 Permutations And Probability .................................................................................................. 85
Permutations ............................................................................................................ 85 Combinations ........................................................................................................... 85 Probability ................................................................................................................ 86 Some Rules Of Probability ...................................................................................... 87 Probabilities And Odds ............................................................................................ 88 Additional Addition Rules ....................................................................................... 88 Conditional Probability ............................................................................................ 89
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1.
You are probably already familiar with indices, for example x2 is just a shorter way of writing and x4 is similarly . With x5, x is called the base and 5 is called the power or exponent. x4 is pronounced "x to the four", or "x raised to the 4th power" in full. Some powers are so useful that they have special names: x2 is referred to as "x squared", x3 is "x cubed" and x - 1 (which you will soon learn about if you haven't already encountered it) is called "the reciprocal of x". Note: The "law of indices" is sometimes also called the "exponent laws" or "power rules". More generally, an index in mathematics is a superscript or subscript to a symbol.
1.1
MULTIPLICATION
When you multiply indices you add the powers together. Here is an example: is the same as is . . which
1.2
DIVISION
When you divide two indices you subtract the denominators exponent from the numerators exponent.
For example:
is
(when
).
1.3
NEGATIVE POWERS
- 1
).
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For example
1.4
When you have a base raised to two powers you multiply the powers.
Here is an example:
is which is x6.
1.5
When you have two bases to the same power, you can raise both bases to the same power and multiply them. For example:
with division:
1.6
FRACTIONAL POWERS
, you could . is defined
What if the power isn't an integer? Suppose you wanted to find say that as (as in 1.1 above) which means that However it is customary to only use the positive root and so
must be
. You can use a similar argument for other such fractions, for example
so . In cases when the numerator is not 1 we need to use other laws of indices to prove the square definition, for example , and remember the general rule that (using the definition above). It's useful to .
1.7
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You may well have realised that . You can prove this by clearly x which is xn-(n-1) = xn-n+1 = x1 = x. Also with we can prove that it is equivalent to 1, equivalent to xn n = x0
which is
, and it is also
1.8
The rules that have been suggested above are known as the laws of indices and can be written as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
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2.
SURDS:
In mathematics, a Surd is an expression containing a root with an irrational solution that can not be expressed exactly for example, 3 = 1.732050808... . Sometimes it is useful to work in square roots, rather than using an approximate decimal value. Square roots can be manipulated just like algebraic expressions and sometimes it may be possible to eliminate the square root (called rationalising the expression), which may have not been possible if you tried to work with the approximate value. When asked to give the exact value, approximate decimal answers will not do and you will have to manipulate surds in order to give a final answer in simplified surd form.
2.1
SIMPLIFICATION OF SURDS
Because surds can be manipulated like algebraic expressions, you can easily multiply out the terms and add the like terms. However, there are also a few rules that will be useful when simplifying surds.
2.2
Because
and
2.3
SURDS AS INDICES
Because the laws of indices also apply to any n-th root. The most frequently used instances with square roots are: becomes
becomes The first of these points is often used to simplify a square root, for example . In an exam, you will be expected to write all square roots with the smallest possible number inside the square root (i.e. the number inside the root shouldn't have any square factors).
2.4
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Another technique to simplify expressions involving square roots is to rationalize the denominator. This means getting rid of square roots from the bottom of a fraction. In the case of a fraction such as can be multiplied by to give . , both numerator and denominator
If the fraction is of the form the strategy used in the previous paragraph will only work if it is modified slightly. This time you should multiply the numerator and denominators by . If you are familiar with the standard difference of two squares expansion you should already know what happens next:
. As you can see the denominator now does not contain any square roots. For example:
2.5
SPLITTING UP ROOTS
A common mistake is to split into or into x2 + y2, usually whilst moving it to the other side of the equals. Trying a few examples will quickly convince you that this is not possible: And so on
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3.
EQUATIONS:
An equation consists of two expressions joined by the equals sign ( = ). Everything on the left-hand side is equal to everything on the right-hand side, for example 2 + 3 = 4 + 1. Some equations contain a variable, usually denoted by x, y or z.
3.1
MANIPULATING EXPRESSIONS
Sometimes, expressions will be messier than they need to be, and they can be represented in an easier-to-understand form.
3.1.2 MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication of different variables such as become indices, so is x .
2
Like addition and subtraction, you keep like terms together. So, for example: becomes: 24x3y4z3
3.1.3 FRACTIONS
It is quite often that fractions are encountered. Therefore we need to learn how to handle them properly. When working with fractions, the rule is to make all of the denominators equal, and then write the expression as one fraction. You need
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to multiply both the top and bottom by the same amount to keep the meaning of the fraction the same.
, which becomes
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Simplify
Simplify further
So (2x + 3)(x + 1) = 0 is 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 in factorised form. You can now use the fact that any number multiplied by 0 is 0 to find the roots of the equation. The numbers that make one bracket equal to 0 are the roots of the equation. In the example, the roots are 1.5 and - 1. It is also possible to solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula or by completing the square.
Mathematics
From this, we can see that by multiplying equation (1) by a factor of 2 and then subtracting this new equation from (2), the y-variable will be eliminated. (1) equation) (1a) (Assigning the number (1a) to this
Now subtracting (2) from (1a): 4x + 6y = 20 - 2x + 6y = 6 = 2x + 0y = 14 Now that we have 2x = 14, we can solve for x, which in this case is 7. (1a) (2)
x = 7.
Substitute the newly found x into (1):
14 + 3y = 10 And we find that y = 4 / 3 So, the solution to the two equations (1) and (2) are:
x=7 y=4/3
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The substitution method relies on being able to rearrange the expressions to isolate a single variable, in the form variable = expression. From this result this new expression can then be substituted for the variable itself, and the solutions evaluated. An example of this: 2x + 3y = 12 (1) (2) (Assigning the number (1) to this equation) (Assigning the number (2) to this equation)
x+y=6
From this expression, it is possible to see that (2) is the most simplistic expression, and thus will be the better choice to rearrange. Taking (2), and rearranging this into x = 6 y Subbing (2a) into (1) we get 2(6 y) + 3y = 12 Solving this, we get that y = 0 Again we can sub this result into one of the original equations to solve for x. In this case x = 6. Note that for situations in which one of the equations is non-linear, you must isolate one variable in the linear equation and substitute it into the non-linear one. Then you can solve the quadratic equation with one of the methods above. Another form of substitution is if you've got a similar expression in both equations, like in this case: 2x + 3y = 10 2x + 6y = 6 (1) (2) (Assigning the number (1) to this equation) (Assigning the number (2) to this equation) (2a)
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3y = 4
y=4/3
Now you've got y, and finding x will be the same as above.
We can see that they intersect at x = 7. However as you can see with the y coordinate there is a degree of error when using the graphical method.
At a record store, 2 albums and 1 single costs 10. 1 album and 2 singles cost 8. Find the cost of an album and the cost of a single.
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a + 2s = 8
Now the above two equalitons are simple linear equations in two variabes and can be solved as described above to find the costs of an album and a single. An equation with a variable will only hold true for certain values of that variable. For example 2 + x = 5 is only true for x = 3. The values that the variables have when the equation is true are called the solutions of the equation. Therfore x = 3 is the solution of the equation 2 + x = 5.
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4.
POLYNOMIALS:
You are already familiar with expressions such as 3x+5 or 2x2+8x+2 and perhaps x3+2x-2. The general word for an expression that can be written in this form is a polynomial. Excluding the constant term, every power of x in a polynomial is a positive integer. Expressions that have x to a non-integer or negative power are not polynomials.
4.1.2 NOTATION
Most of the polynomials on this page are written in terms of x, for example, 4x2 + 2x - 9, although polynomials can be written with other letters. 3z2 + z - 2, for example, is called a polynomial in z. It is conventional to write polynomials in descending powers for clarity, although a polynomial may have the powers in any order. By writing polynomials in descending powers it is possible to see what the degree of the polynomial is simply by looking at the first term. Performing operations with two or more polynomials are also much simpler when the powers are in order, since like powers are usually grouped during calculations. Indeed, you may lose marks in your exam if you don't simplify things like x2 + 5x - 3x to x2 + 2x.
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Notice that 4 + 6 = 10 and 9 - 2 = 7. Some find it helpful to write this out like numerical addition: 4x2 + 6x
2 2
+ 2x + 2x
+9 -2 +7
10x
When using this method it is essential that terms with x to the same power are lined up, leaving spaces if necessary like in the example above.
4.2.2 SUBTRACTION
For subtraction of polynomials, it is possible to use the same method as above, except subtracting instead of adding. It may get confusing when there are negative terms involved, so it is preferred to reverse the signs in the second row and then add the two polynomials together. This: 10x2 + 2x 6x
2 2
+7 -2 +9
4x
+ 2x
+7 +2 +9
+ 2x
This method is desirable in the exam because subtracting negative numbers may cause confusion, and mistakes may be overlooked in the pressure of the exam.
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4.2.3 MULTIPLICATION
To multiply polynomials you simply multiply all the terms in one by all the terms in the other and then sum the results. This method is known as the FOIL Method. It stands for First Outer Inner Last. For example:
Then we add the results together to give us 6x4 + 4x3 - 15x2 - 10x, written in descending powers. As you become confident with the process, you'll be able to do the entire multiplication in one go without splitting it up, like this:
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2x2 -5
6x4
4x3
- 15x2 - 10x
The answer is the sum of all the cells: 6x4 + 4x3 - 15x2 - 10x, as before. This method is particularly useful for multiplying longer polynomials where the answer might not fit on a single line and cause mistakes.
Then we divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor.
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Then we multiply the resultant by the divisor and subtract it from the dividend. x (x2 + 3x -1) = x3 + 3x2 - x
What is left becomes the new dividend and we repeat the process again. We continue to do this until the first term has a degree less than the first term of the divisor. What is left is the remainder.
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Then to set up the equation for synthetic division we need to remove all the variables. 2 + 0 - 10 + 5 - 30 - 171 Now we set up our division equation.
Then we multiply the resultant by the divisor and add it to the next term.
Now we need to readd the variables. When we readd the variables we go from one less from the highest degree to lowest degree. The last number is the remainder. 2x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 + 29x + 57 remainder 0. This is the answer to the problem.
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4.3 FACTORIZING
When you factor an equation you try to "unmultiply" the equation. The N-Roots Theorem states that if f(x) is a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1, then f(x) has exactly n roots, providing that a root of multiplicity k is counted k times. The last part means that if an equation has 2 roots that are both 6, then we count 6 as 2 roots.
Now we can use the factor theorem. . Since the resultant is 0, -2 is a factor of 2x2 + 3x 2.
4.4
and is in the lowest term, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an. If a possible root of the equation is disqualified it will never be a root of the equation. Let's use an example to see how this helps us to find factors. Find a factor of .
First we need to identify p and q. Since a0 is 24 then p is 24. Since an is 2 then q is 2. Now that we know p and q we need to find all the factors of p and q.
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Factors of p = 24 are Factors of q = 2 are Now we find all possible rational roots: Then we use synthetic division to find a rational root.
is a factor of
. We can now use the quadratic formula to find the remaining roots. The fully factored equation is:
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turning point in y = x2 is a minimum (plural minima), and a maximum (plural maxima) is the same bucket shape, but upside down. For a polynomial of degree n, it's curve will have at most n - 1 turning points.
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curve crossing the x axis is a root of the equation. A polynomial of degree n will have at most n roots. To solve an equation means to find every root. Polynomials of degree 2 can be solved using the quadratic formula. For higher degree polynomials you may need to factorise the equation like above, plot the graph point by point and look at where the curve crosses the x axis, or use a numerical method. You can check your answers by substituting them into the original equation and seeing if the result is 0.
4.6.1 GRAPH
A quadratic graph is one that can be written in the form y = ax2 + bx + c. The graph of y = 2x2 + 8x + 2 is shown on the right, and as you can see it has the same characteristic "bucket" shape that all quadratics have, called a parabola. The vertex is the maximum or minimum point. The line of symmetry is the line that divides the graph into two mirror half's. It can be found by the formula .
However, these properties can be more easily deduced from its completed square form ( a(x + d)2 + e ). In this form we know that, - d is the axis of symmetry, and that e is maximum or minimum point. If a is greater than the vertex (-d,e) will be a minimum point. If a is less than the vertex (-d,e) will be a maximum point.
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Completing the square is the process of changing a quadratic from the form ax2 + bx + c to the equivalent form a(x + d)2 + e, where a, d and e are constants. For example, the quadratic 2x2 + 8x + 2 would become 2(x + 2)2 - 6. Changing a quadratic to completed square form makes it easy to find several things, such as the roots of the quadratic and the vertex of the quadratic, without even requiring a sketch. Here are the steps for completing the square. Don't worry, it's easier than it looks. Ste p 1.
Action
Example
General case
Ensure the quadratic is in the conventional form: 2x2 + 8x + 2 ax2 + bx + c. Unless a = 1, "pull/factor out a", that is, divide the entire quadratic by a and put it outside a bracket.
ax2 + bx + c
2.
Note: If the quadratic is part of an equation you can divide each side by a, for example 2x2 + 8x + 2 = 0 simply becomes x2 + 4x + 1 = 0.
Replace the x2 + kx part
with
It is important to realize that 3. which is close to what it was there before but not equal. This will be corrected in the next step. To prevent writing something that isn't actually equal it is a
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good idea to do both these steps at once in your working once you have got used to the method. Correct the error introduced in the previous step by inserting the subtraction of a suitable number. This suitable number can be found in two ways: 1. By expanding the term inserted in the previous step and comparing it to the original; or 2. By remembering that the error is always .
4.
or
2. 4: so the error is
This step is known as "completing the square" and gives the method its name.
If step 2 was necessary then simplify the result a bit by expanding the outer bracket. Then you are finished. Check that what you have obtained expands back to what you started with.
5.
2(x + 2)2 - 6
6.
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So the completed square form of y = 2x2 + 8x + 2 is 2(x + 2)2 - 6. The 6 tells us that the lowest point of the curve is at y = 6 and the x + 2 tells us that the line of symmetry is at x + 2 = 0 or x = 2. Therefore the vertex is at ( - 2, 6), and if you look at the graph, you can see that is the case.
It can be used to find the roots of a quadratic by putting numbers directly into it. For example, for y = 2x2 + 8x + 2:
so and
and .
Here is the way how the quadratic formula is derived from the completing the square method. Step Action Example General case
1.
To solve an equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 first 2(x + 2)2 - 6 = 0 complete the square using the method above.
2.
3.
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4.
Isolate x.
or or 3.73
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5.
Sometimes you won't be able to find an exact answer, but only an estimate of where the answer lies. This answer, along with suitable error bounds, are perfectly acceptable and are often used for experimental data when a high degree of accuracy isn't always justifiable.
5.1 ERRORS
If you were told that a certain door was 2 meters tall, you could assume that the door could be anywhere between 1.5 and 2.5 meters, represented by the inequality , and was actually rounded to 2 meters. If you were told that the same door is 2.0 meters, then you could assume more accuracy, and say the door was anywhere between 1.95 and 2.05 meters, represented by the inequality . Here you would say that the height of the door is 2 meters with error bounds of . This means that the actual value is within the range of 0.05m greater or less than the stated value. If you are not given error bounds of a measurement, you should assume that the last digit was rounded, and take all of the other digits as accurate. The minimum and maximum value for the actual height of the door are called the lower and upper bounds, and are used to determine the accuracy of measurements.
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For example, if the true value of the 2 metre door was 1.95 metres, the absolute error is 2 1.95 = 0.05, the relative error is percentage error is . , and the
5.2 INEQUALITIES
An inequality is an expression which compares the relative sizes of points, lines, or curves. Unlike an equation, where both sides of the equals sign are always equal, inequalities can have one side greater than or equal to the other side.
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signs are in the same direction. is perfectly acceptable, but it is incorrect to combine opposite facing inequalities and they must be left as two separate inequalities.
An inequality can be manipulated and therefore solved just like an equation, although there is an extra step you must take when you multiply or divide by a negative number.
Alternatively you could draw its graph as if it was a quadratic equation, and then shade the side that's covered by the inequality. This will clear up any confusion about location of the 'correct' set: (x-a)(x-b) > 0 gives the set of values on either side of the curve's critical points (outside of the interval (a,b)). (x-a)(x-b)
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< 0 gives the set of values between the critical points of the curve (between x=a and x=b).
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6.
Co-ordinates are a way of describing position. In two dimensions, positions are given in two perpendicular directions, x and y.
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Other forms of the equation are x = a, used for vertical lines of infinte gradient, y = b, used for horizontal lines with 0 gradient, and px + qy + r = 0, which is often used for some lines as a neater way of writing the equation. You may need to find the equation of a straight line, and only given the coordinates of one point on the line and the gradient of the line. The single point can be taken as (x1,y1), and the co-ordinates and the gradient can be substituted in the formula y y1 = m(x x1). Then it is simply a case of rearranging the formula into the form y = mx + c. You may only be given two points, (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). In this case, use the formula to find the gradient and then use the method above.
The steepness of a line can be measured by its gradient, which is the increase in the y direction divided by the increase in the x direction. The letter m is used to denote the gradient.
With the gradients of two lines, you can tell if they are parallel, perpendicular, or neither. A pair of lines are parallel if their gradients are equal, m1 = m2. A pair of lines is perpendicular if the product of their gradients is -1, Using the co-ordinates of two points, it is possible to calculate the distance between them using Pythagoras' theorem. The distance between any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by
When the co-ordinate of two points are known, the mid-point is the point halfway between those lines. For any two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2), the coordinates of the mid-point of AB can be found by Any two lines will meet at a point, as long as they are not parallel. You can find the point of intersection simply by solving the two equations simultaneously. This is also true for curves.
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6.2 CURVES
To sketch a graph of a curve, all you need to know is the general shape of the curve and other important pieces of information such as the x and y intercepts and the points of any maxima and minima. ny two lines will meet at a point, as long as they are not parallel. You can find the point of intersection simply by solving the two equations simultaneously. This is also true for curves.
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Note: That all the odd powers of x share the same general shape, moving from bottom-left to top-right, and that all the even powers of x share the same "bucket" shaped curve.
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All curves in this form do not have a value for x = 0, because is undefined. There are asymptotes on both the x and y axis, where the curve moves towards increasingly slowly but will never actually touch.
All curves in this form will not have values for x < 0. They will all have the same general shape.
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curve. If the line is in the form y = mx + c, then you can replace any instances of y with mx + c, and then expand the equation out and then factorise the resulting quadratic.
. In both cases the change is by b units. . In both cases the change is by a units.
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If any point on the circumference of the circle is connected to the diameter, it forms a right triangle.
If a radius is drawn and then a tangent is drawn from that point. Then the radius and tangent line will be perpendicular to each other.
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This will always give us a circle centered around the origin (0,0). If we want a circle with a center at (h,k) we use the following formula.
However you can not graph either of these equations with a calculator. You will need to split it into two equations, but the graph will not be perfect, because x is undefined when x = 0 and when (x h)2 = r2: . Here is how would look graphed: and
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into radians
Convert
into degrees.
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Note: need to be in radians. Calculate the area of a sector with a 3cm radius and an angle of 2.
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7.
DIFFERENTIATION :
7.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Finding the gradient (or slope) of a straight line is simple. For a line y = mx + c, the gradient is m. But how do you find the gradient of a curve at a particular point, and what is meant by the gradient of a curve? Suppose we want to find the tangent line to y = x2 at the point (2,4). The tangent line has the same gradient as one particular point on a curve does and travels in the same direction as that point. Immediately this question poses a problem. How are we supposed to find the gradient of a line when only one point can be known? One way is to can calculate the gradient of a secant line, using points closer and closer together to approximate the gradient of the curve. We get: x 3 2.75 2.5 2.25 y 5 4.75 4.5 4.25
2.005 4.01 As you can see the gradient is approaching 4. This process is known as finding the limit of an equation. The definition of a limit is:
We can say that the limit of f(x) as it approaches the point a is L. a can be any point on a graph. We take points closer and closer to a so we can approximate the value of L, but we can never determine the actual value of L. Luckily for us we have the derivative, which can accurately and quickly determine any rate of change.
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There is a corner or kink in the graph. There is a discontinuity in the graph. There is a vertical tangent.
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Then we substitute 6
So the bathtub would be filling at the rate of 35 liter per second after 6 seconds.
Then we use the point-gradient equation to find the equation. so the equation of the tangent line is y = -5x - 32
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Then we need to solve for the given x value. 2(-4) +3 = -5 Then we use the perpendicular line form to find the equation of the gradient.
so
so the gradient is
which is
Then we find the y value corresponding to x value y = (-4)2 + 3 (-4) -16 = -12 Then we use the point-gradient equation to find the equation.
And subsequent derivatives simply have larger numbers in the superscript. The reason behind this notation is that it supposedly prevents some confusion when describing a differentiation expression involving indices.
Mathematics
Concave Up - The graph is above the tangent lines. Example x2. Inflection Point - The point when a function changes from concave up to concave down or vice versa. Example x3 at x = 0. Maximum Point - The highest point on an interval. Before the point the gradient will be increasing and after the point the gradient will be decreasing. This function will be concave down on the interval. Minimum Point - The lowest point on an interval. Before the point the gradient will be decreasing, after that point the gradient will be increasing. The function will be concave up on the interval. Stationary Point - A point where f'(c) = 0
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point) lowest point lowest point < x < next point next point next point < x < n point n point n point < x < Example Find the interval on which x3 + 6x2 + 9x is increasing and decreasing. First we find the first derivative. f /(x) = 3x2 + 12x +9 Now we find all the stationary points. Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (lowest stationary point, next point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing / decreasing on (next point, n point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (n point, )
Now we draw a number line, with the stationary points. ______-3______-1______ Now we evaluate points. I chose -4, -2, and 0. ___f'(-4)=9___-3___f'(-2)=-3___-1___f'(0)=9___ Before -3 the gradient is positive and after -3 the gradient is negative, so -3 is a maximum point. Before -1 the gradient is negative and after -3 the gradient is positive, so -1 is a minimum point. Now we can write out the intervals. Interval x < -3 x = -3 -3 < x < -1 f(x) increasing on (Maximum Point decreasing on (-3, -1) , -3)
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x = -1 -1 < x <
The Second Derivative Test This method is used to make a complete evaluation of the function. 1. 2. 3. 4. Find the first derivative. Find all stationary points. Find the second derivative. Evaluate the stationary points. If necessary find and evaluate the third derivative. 5. Write out the interval's. Interval x < lowest point lowest point lowest point < x < next point next point next point < x < n point n point n point < x < Example Find the interval on which x3 + 6x2 + 9x is increasing and decreasing. Also find the local extrema. First we find the first derivative. f increasing or decreasing on ( point) , lowest stationary
Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (lowest stationary point, next point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing / decreasing on (next point, n point) Minimum or Maximum or Inflection Point increasing or decreasing on (n point, )
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Now we can write out the intervals. Interval x < -3 x = -3 -3 < x < -1 x = -1 -1 < x < f(x) increasing on ( Maximum Point decreasing on (-3, -1) Minimum Point increasing (-1, ) , -3)
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8.
A sequence is simply a list of numbers in a particular order. We call these numbers the terms of the sequence. For instance, 2,4,6,8 are the first four terms in the sequence of even positive integers. When we take the sum of the terms in a sequence, we get a series. For example, 2+4+6+8+... is a series. We denote the terms in a sequence by Tn where n is the number of the term in question. For example, we have T1 = 2, T2 = 4, T3 = 6, and so on, in the sequence described above. A definition is a rule that tells us how to compute each term in a sequence. For example, a rule for the sequence above is Tn = 2n. A relation describes how each term is related to other terms. For instance, a relation for the above sequence is Tn + 1 = Tn + 2.
8.2
SIGMA () NOTATION
As you might have suspected, describing a series with the help of some of its terms isn't always a good idea --- if too few terms are used, the series can be ambiguous to your reader; on the other hand, you risk insulting your reader by writing out too many terms! To express a series succinctly, we use the sigma () notation instead.
In general, a series may be written as , which means "sum of all terms beginning with f(k0) up to and including f(N)". Hence,
8.3
A progression is just another word for a sequence. In this module, you are expected to be well-acquainted with two very common types of progressions --the arithmetic progression and the geometric progression.
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Briefly, an arithmetic progression or AP is a sequence in which each successive term is the sum of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of an AP is 1,4,7,10,..., where the difference between successive terms is 3. A geometric progression or GP is a sequence in which each successive term is the product of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of a GP is 2,4,8,16,32,..., where each term is twice the value of the previous term.
8.4
An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: , where a,d are constants. The first term T1 in the AP is denoted by a, and the common difference between subsequent terms is denoted by d. Thus, the series 1,4,7,10,..., is an arithmetic progression with a = 1 and d = 3.
8.4.1 RULES
The common difference d can be calculated by d = Tn Tn 2,3,4,.... The nth term is given by Tn = a + (n 1)d. The sum of the first n terms of an AP (with T1 as its first term and Tn as its last term) is given by .
1,
where n =
8.4.2 EXAMPLE
What is the sum of the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ..., 100? The given sequence can be expressed as an AP with T1 = a = 2, and d = 2. We want the sum of the first 50 terms of the AP:
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8.5
A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: , where a, r are constants. The first term T1 in the GP is denoted by a, and the common ratio between subsequent terms is denoted by r.
8.5.1 RULES
The common ratio r can be calculated by The nth term is given by Tn = arn 1.
, where n = 2,3,4,....
The sum of the first n terms of an GP is given by Proof of this is given by:
We say that the geometric series is convergent if the sum to infinity | r | < 1. Hence, if | r | < 1, then approaches some limit. This occurs when
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8.6
BINOMIAL EXPRESSIONS
A binomial is a polynomial with two parts in the form (a + b), such as (x + 1). When a binomial is raised to a power, you could simplify it by multiplying out the brackets several times. The expanded polynomial is called a binomial expansion, and all binomial expansions follow a pattern that can be used to expand binomials quicker than multiplying out several brackets. For now, we will only look at binomial expressions which are raised to positive integers.
8.6.1 EXPANSIONS OF (X + 1)
Here are the expansions of x + 1 raised to different powers. (x + 1)1 = (x + 1) = (x + 1)3 = (x + 1)4 =
2
(x + 1)5 = 1x5 + 5x4 + 10x3 + 10x2 + 5x + 1 If you look at the coefficient of each term, you may notice a pattern. These numbers are called binomial coefficients and are found by adding the two numbers above it.
1 10
Since each number is found by adding the two numbers above it, it is possible to find a few lines of the triangle to help you expand binomials. For binomials
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raised to powers greater than 10, you should use the binomial coefficient formula.
The ! means factorial and multiplies n by every integer less than itself, down to 1. So .
To find the binomial coefficients, you use the formula with the required value of n, and r = 0, r = 1, r = 2, and so on, until r = n. Most scientific calculators will have two buttons that will be useful in this process, one is the factorial button, usually labeled n! and the other will actually
find and is often labeled nCr or . (The C stands for "choose" or "combination" which is based on the formula's use in probability.) You should be aware that Pascal's triangle is symmetrical, so once a coefficient is repeated, you can write down the rest of the coefficients with ease.
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3. Add the binomial coefficients to each term, either from line n in Pascal's triangle (ignoring the 1 at the top), or by using the binomial coefficient formula. You then simplify where necessary. For example, for the expansion of (x + 2)4: x in descending powers: x4 + x3 + x2 + x1 + x0 2 in ascending powers: 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 Grouping everything together we now have: x420 + x321 + x222 + x123 + x024 The fourth line of Pascal's triangle is: 1 4 6 4 1
Adding in the binomial coefficients: 1x420 + 4x321 + 6x222 + 4x123 + 1x024 Finally simplifying will now give us: x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 + 32x1 + 16 This process is summarized in the equation known as the binomial theorem:
In case you are not familiar with sigma notion this means:
Several simplifications can be made but they aren't worth memorising as you will pick them up automatically:
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9.
9.1.1 MULTIPLICATION
Firstly, is which is . So when you multiply a base by the same base you add the variables. To clarify, here is an example with numbers:
1 2
2 4
4 16
8 64
8 64
9.1.2 DIVISION
. There is a similar situation with division: . So when you multiple or divide two different bases
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raised to the same variable you can multiply or divide them first and then raise them to the variable.
the positive root and so is defined as . Another similar case is when the fraction has a constant (designated as c) other than 1 in the numerator, for example so .
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9.2
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
In mathematics you can find the inverse of an exponential function by switching x and y around: becomes . The problem arises on how to find the value of y. The logarithmic function solved this problem. All conversions of logarithmic function into an exponential function follow the same pattern: becomes . If a log is given without a written b then b=10. . There are 2 cases where the .
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now check
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Function
Inverse Function
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Defined
Equivalent to
Sine
Tangent
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The Cast Model is used to show in which quadrant a trigonometric function will be positive. A sine function is positive in quadrant 1 and 2. A tan function is positive in quadrant 1 and 3. A cosine function is positive in quadrant 1 and 4. A good way to remember this is by the saying All Students Take Calculus.
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, Angle b is
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Example: What is the area of triangle when A = 4 cm, B = 8 cm, and is equal to .
Heron's Formula
where What is the area of triangle when A = 4 cm, B = 8 cm, and C = 10.
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We get:
To visualize this, imagine sine and cosine drawing out a circle with radius 'c'. Any point on this circle will therefore have coordinates . As its centre is the origin, by Pythagoras' theory, we can say that the length of the radius squared (c2) is equal to the sum of the squares of the x and y coordinates. Dividing through by the radius squared, c2, gives the identity.
Proof:
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11.
INTEGRATION:
Integration is the process of anti-differention. Earlier we saw that differentiating a function gives the gradient (or rate of change) of that function. Integrating a function, on the other hand, gives the area underneath the curve of that function.
11.1.3 EXAMPLES
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1. If 2.
The first rule states that if we integrate a function and then we differentiate the resultant then we will arrive at the same function. The second part says that we can find a definite integral by subtracting the value of f at the endpoints.
11.2
INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
The first part of the Fundamental theorem of calculus establishes that if we differentiate a function and then integrate a function we get a indefinite integral. When we evaluate an indefinite integral the resultant will be a function. For an indefinite integral we use the appropriate rule to get the general antiderivative. If a point on the graph is given we solve for C, to get the complete antiderivative.
11.2.1 EXAMPLE
The rate of a function is given by the equation 4x3 + 3x2 4x + 2, the point (0, -7) is on the curve. Find the equation of the curve. 1. We need to find the general indefinite integral of 4x3 + 3x2 4x + 2.
2. Now we substitute the point (0, -7) into the general antiderivative to get the value of C.
C=7
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1. 2. 3.
4. Area between a curve and the x-axis is 5. Area between a curve and the y-axis is
we take the absolute value of the area .If only part of the interval is under the x-axis we need to break up the integration function into positive and negative parts. For the negative parts we need take the absolute value of the
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area. For example: If we need to find the area of and on the interval's a,a1 and b1,b the curve is above the x-axis and on the interval a1,b1 the curve is below the x-axis, we would break the integral into these parts:
. If you are unable to evaluate the definite integral you will need to use a numerical method to estimate the area.
11.3.3 EXAMPLE
Evaluate
1. First we need to find the x-intercepts. In this case they will be at 0 and 2. 2. Then we determine where x is positive or negative on the interval. 0__f(1)=-5__2__f(3)=9. 3. Now we break the integral into parts.
+ . + = 9.25
11.4 AREAS INVOLVING TWO CURVES 11.4.1 AREA BOUNDED BY TWO CURVES
In order to calculate the area bounded by two curves we need to:
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1. Find the places where the 2 curves intercept. . The lower point of intersection will become the lower limit and the upper point of intersection will become the upper limit of integration. 2. Decide whether to integrate with respect to x or y. This is easy to do in most cases, see if the function is more easily integrated as y = f(x) or x = f(y). 3. Determine which curve is above the other curve. 4. Subtract the top curve from the bottom
11.4.2 EXAMPLE
Find the area bounded by y = x2 + 3x 3 and y = x. 1.
2. We will integrate with respect to x because the equation is in the form f(x). 3. We now have to determine which line is above the other. For this we just test a point. I will use f(x) = 0 and y = 3 and y = 0. So y = x will be above y = x2 + 3x 3. 4. Now we write out the integral.
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11.4.4 EXAMPLE
Find the area between y = x2 + 3x 3 and y = x between x = -4 and x = 4. 1.
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2. Since the graph have points of interception on the interval we need to split the integral into parts. The parts will be (-4, -3), (-3, 1), and (1,4) 3. We will integrate with respect to x because the equation is in the form f(x). 4. We now have to determine which line is above the other on each interval. For this we just test a point on each interval. For the line y = x __f(-4)=-4__f(-2)=-2___f(3)=3__. For the curve y = x2 + 3x 3 __f(-4)=-1__f(-2)=-5___f(3)=15__. Now we will know that on the interval (-4, -3) y = x2 + 3x 3 is above y = x, (-3, 1) y = x is above y = x2 + 3x 3, and (1,4) y = x2 + 3x 3 is above y = x. 5. Now we write out the integral.
+ + +
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Where:
11.5.2 EXAMPLE
using 4 strips.
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Where:
and
11.5.4 EXAMPLE
using 4 strips.
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As you can see the resultant from the midpoint rule is closer to the true value than the trapezium rule.
11.6
INTEGRALS TO INFINITY
or is lower limit going to
is an improper integral and cannot be computed directly instead we need to find the limit of the function. The improper integrals and
is convergent if the limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist. The rules to calculate a integral going to infinity are:
1) If
, then
2) If
, then
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3) If
and
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12
12.1 PERMUTATIONS
How many ways can we arrange r objects selected from a set of n distinct objects? This question applies to numerous statistical and probabilistic situations. Example .We have a tray with 20 rock samples. How many ways can you select 3 samples from the 20? The first rock can be any of 20, the 2nd will be any of 19, while the 3rd is one of 18. The total ways must therefore be ways. We can write the number of choices as we find , and in general (1) It is convenient to introduce the factorial n! defined as (2)
This quantity is called the number of permutations of r objects selected from a set of n distinct objects. Let us find how many different hands one can be dealt in poker. With n = 52 and r = 5, we find (4)
This assumed that the order in which you received the cards are important.
12.2 COMBINATIONS
Many times, however, we don't care about the exact ordering of the r objects, i.e., abc is the same choice as acb for our purpose. In general, r objects can be arranged in r! Different ways (rPr = r!). Since we are only concerned about which
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r objects have been selected and not their order, we can use nPr but must divide the result by r! (5)
The
quantities
are
called
the
binomial
coefficients.
Example .In how many ways can you pick three tide gauge records from 10 stations? (6)
After picking the r objects, n - r objects are left, so consequently, there are as many ways of selecting n - r objects from n as there are for selecting r objects, i.e., (7)
12.3 PROBABILITY
So far we have studied only what is possible in a given situation. We have listed all possibilities or determined how many possibilities there are. However, to be of use to us we need to be able to judge which of the possibilities are probable and which are improbable. The basic concept of probability can be stated: If there are n possible outcomes or possibilities, and s of these are regarded as favorable (or ``success"), then the probability of a success is given by P = s/n (8)
This classical definition applies only when all possible outcomes are equally likely. Example.What are the probability of drawing an ace from a deck of cards? Answer: . How about getting a 3 or a 4 with a balanced
die? Answer: s = 2 and n = 6, so While equally likely possibilities are found mostly in games of chance, the classical probability concept also applies to random selections. E. g., If 3 of 20 water samples have been contaminated and you select 4 random samples, what are the probability of picking one of the bad samples? Answer: We have 4845 ways of making the selection of our 4 samples. The
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[we pick one of the three bad samples] = 2040. It then follows
that the probability is . Here we used the rule of multiplicative choices. Obviously, the classical probability concept won't be useful when some outcomes are more likely than others. A better definition would then be The probability of an event is the proportion of the time that events of the same kind will occur in the long run. So, when the Weather Service says that the chance of rain on any day in June is 0.2, it is based on past experiences that on average June had 6 days of rain. Another important probability theorem is the law of large numbers, which states If a situation, trial, or experiment is repeated again and again, the proportion of successes will tend to approach the probability that any one outcome will be a success. which is basically our probability concept in reverse.
Where P = 1 means absolute certainty. If two events are mutually exclusive, the probability that one or the other will occur equals the sum of their probabilities (11) Regarding notation, means Union (read as ``OR"), means intersection (``AND"), and ' means complement (``NOT"). We can furthermore state (12) since absolute certainty is the most we can as for. P(A) + P(A') = 1, (13)
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The addition rules demonstrated above only holds for mutually exclusive events. Let us now consider a more general case. The sketch in Figure is a Venn diagram, a handy graphical way of illustrating the various combinations of possibilities and probabilities. The diagram illustrates the probabilities associated with finding hydrocarbons during a hypothetical exploration campaign. We have from the diagram that (15)
Now, if we used the simple addition rule we would find (16) This value overestimates the probability because finding Oil and finding Gas are not mutually exclusive since we are might find both. We can correct the equation by writing
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(17) The general addition rule for probabilities thus becomes (18)
Note that if the events are mutually exclusive then the original rule
and we recover
In our exploration example, we can find the probability of finding oil given that gas already has been found as (20)
We can now derive a general multiplication rule by multiplying it by P(B) which gives (21)
Which states that the probability of both events A and B occurring is given by the probability of one event multiplied by the probability that the other event will occur given that the first one already has occurred (occurs, or will occur). This is also called the Joint Probability or Bayes Basic Theorem. Now, if the events A and B are independent events, then the probability that A will take place is not influenced whether B has taken place or not, i.e. P(A|B) = P(A). Substituting this expression we obtain (23) (22)
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That is, the probability that both A and B will occur equals the product of their probabilities. In general, for n independent events with individual probability pi, the probability that all n events occur is (24) E.g., what are the probability of rolling 3 ones in a row with a die? Answer: With n = 3 and p =1/6, (25) While P(A | B) and P(B|A) may look similar, they can be vastly different. E.g., let A be the event of a death on the Bay Bridge, and B the event of a magnitude 8 earthquake in San Francisco. Then, P(A|B) is the probability of a fatality on the Bay Bridge given that a large earthquake has taken place nearby, while P(B|A) is the probability that we will have a magnitude 8 quake given a death on the bridge. Clearly P(A|B) seems more likely than P(B|A) since we know the former to have happened in the past but can find many other causes of death on the freeway than earthquakes (traffic accidents, heart attacks, gang violence, etc.). We can arrive at a relation between P(B|A) and P(A|B) by equating the two expressions in We obtain or (26)
This is a useful relation since we may sometimes know one conditional probability but are interested in the other. For example, we may know that salt domes often are associated with large curvatures in the gravity field. However, we may be more interested in the converse: Given that large curvatures in the gravity field exist, what is the probability that salt domes will be the cause of the anomalies? If there are more than one event Bi (all mutually exclusive) that are conditionally related to event A, then P(A) is simply the sum of the conditional probabilities of the Bi, i.e. (27)
(28)
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Location of fossil find with respect to the two drainage basins from which it probably originated.
This
is
the
general
Bayes
Theorem.
Example .Let us assume that an unknown marine fossil fragment was found in a stream bed in Kansas, and a paleontologist would like to send a student field party out to search for a more complete specimen. Unfortunately, the source of the fragment cannot be identified uniquely since it was found below the junction of two dry stream tributaries. The drainage basin B1 of the larger stream covers 180 km2; the other (B2) only 100 km2. Based on this we might expect that the probabilities that the fragment came from one of the basins are (29)
based solely on the percentage of basin area to total area. However, inspecting a geological map reveals that 35% of the outcropping rocks in the large basin B1 are marine, while almost 80% of the outcrops are marine in basin B2. We can now state two conditional probabilities P(A|B1) = 0.35 Probability of a marine fossil, given it was derived from basin B1. P(A|B2) = 0.80 Probability of a marine fossil, given it was derived from basin B2. With these probabilities and Bayes theorem we can find the conditional probability that the fossil came from basin B1 given that the fossil is marine (30)
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Similarly, the probability of the fossil coming from the smaller basin B2 P(B2|A) = 0.56. (31)
It therefore seems somewhat more likely that the smaller basin was the source of the fossil. However, P(B1|A) and P(B2|A) are not very different and depends on the assumptions used to select P(Bi) and P(A|Bi).
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Formulae
The Laws of Indices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
2. 3. Polynomials Parabolas If f(x) is in the form a(x + d)2 + e 1. -d is the axis of symmetry 2. e is the maximum or minimum value
Formulae
becomes The Quadratic Formula The solutions of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 are:
Point-Gradient Form The equation of a line passing through the point . Perpendicular lines Lines are perpendicular if Distance between two points and having a slope m is
Mid-point of a line
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Formulae
Equation of a Circle Circles and Angles Conversion of Degree Minutes and Seconds to a Decimal
where X is the degree, y is the minutes, and z is the seconds. Arc Length Note: needs to be in radians Area of a Sector
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Formulae
Rules of Stationary Points If and , then c is a local maximum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave down on the interval. If and , then c is a local minimum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave up on the interval. If and point of f(x). Dividing and Factoring Polynomials Remainder Theorem If you have a polynomial f(x) divided by x - c, the remainder is equal to f(c). Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: f(-c). The Factor Theorem A polynomial f(x) has a factor x - c if and only if f(c) = 0. Note if the equation is x + c then you need to negate c: f(-c). Formula for Exponential and Logarithmic Function The Laws of Exponents 1. 2. 3. 4. and , then c is a local inflection
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Formulae
can be written as
Trigonometry The Trigonometric Ratios of An Angle Function Written Cosine Defined Inverese Function Written Equivalent to
Sine
Tangent
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Formulae
Area of a Triangle
Heron's Formula
where
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Formulae
Trigonometric Identities
Integration Integration Rules The reason that we add a + C when we compute the integral is because the derivative of a constant is zero, therefore we have an unknown constant when we compute the integral.
1. f 2. 3.
4. Area between a curve and the x-axis is 5. Area between a curve and the y-axis is
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Formulae
Trapezium Rule
Where:
And
Formulae
MCQ,s
1. For perpendicular lines, the product of their slopes (gradients) is . a) 0 b) 1 c) -1 d) 1 There are seconds in a degree. a) 60 b) 100 c) 360 d) 3600 In Herons formula, if a= 2, b= 3, c= 5, s is equal to a) 1 b) 5 c) 10 d) None of above There are . Degrees in radians a) 90 b) 180 c) 360 d) 10 k log X = . a) k log X b) log kX c) 1/k log X d) log X + log k
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. The point when a function changes from concave up to concave down is called a) Zero Point b) Inflection point c) Concave up point d) Vertex 7. 3-3 = . a) 1/81 b) 1/27 c) 81 d) 27 The area of a sector with a 3cm radius and an angle of 2 is . Cm2 a) 28.27
8.
Formulae
9.
10. are
b) 27.28 c) 6 d) 18 If relative error in a calculation is .02, then its percentage error will be a) 2% b) 20 % c) .02% d) 200% If descriminant is less than zero, then the roots of the quadretic equation a) b) c) d) Real Rational Natural complex