Truman State University Organizational Communication Spring 2009 Introduction to Organizational Communication Why Study Organizations?

? Why Do We Study Organizations? To make organizations better at what they do To manage relationships in productive ways To gain insights that are relevant to other fields of communication study To equip communication and business professionals for better performance in the workplace. What Are We Interested In? Content of organizational communication The arguments of organizational messages The strategy of organizational messages The structure of organizational messages Structure of organizational communication The flow of organizational messages The impact of hierarchy on messages and members. Interaction of participants in an organization Group dynamics Methods of managing conflict and crisis Other issues What is an Organization? A social collectivity A group with organizational and individual goals A group with coordinating activity A group with an identifiable structure A group with a location inside the environment of other organizations What Kinds of Organizations Are There? For Profit Organizations Non-Profit Organizations Service Organizations Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Cooperatives Virtual Organizations vs. Brick and Mortar Organizations Social Organizations Modeling Communication Traditional Transactional or Constitutive Models Craigs Metamodel: There are occasions requiring different models Communication as a way of getting information from one person to another Communication as a way of sharing dialog Communication as a means of persuasion and motivation

Approaches to Study Traditional approaches rooted in the social sciences and management theories

Interpretive approaches that view organizations as cultures Critical theories that understand organizations as potentially oppressive structures

Classical Approaches to Studying Organizations Management The Machine Metaphor Classical theorists of organizational communication like to think of organizations as machines. Machines have properties that are similar to organizations. Specialization of parts for tasks Standardization and replaceability Predictability Henri Fayols Classical Management Theory Background French management theorist Wrote General and Industrial Management in 1916. Introduces the concept of five fundamental elements of management Planning: looking to the future to find the best way to achieve the goals of an organization. Organizing: arrangement and evaluation of human resources. Command: setting tasks for employees to complete toward the end of meeting organizational goals. Coordination: uniting the different activities of the organization into a single whole. Control: making sure the organization is functioning as planned. Fayols Principles of Organizational Hierarchy Scalar Chain: the organization is structured in a vertical hierarchy in which communication moves up and down the chain. Unity of Command: employees receive commands on a particular task from a single supervisor. Unity of Direction: activities with similar goals are placed under the same supervisor. Division of Labor: assumes that work is best accomplished when employees are assigned a limited number of specific tasks. Order: assumes that there should be an appointed place and employee (s) for each task within an organization. Span of Control: assumes organizations operate best when there is a limit to the number employees over whom any specific manager has control. Gangplank / Fayols Bridge: a horizontal connection between managers at the same level.

Fayols Theories of Organizational Power and Reward Principles of Organizational Power Centralization: assumes organizations are more effective when management authority is centralized. Authority and Responsibility: responsibility derives from both position and ability and should be proportional to authority.

Discipline: organization members should be obedient to rules and the mangers who enforce them. Principles of Organizational Reward Remuneration of personnel: individuals must always consider organizational goals first. Equity: employees should be treated justly. Tenure stability: organizations should guarantee sufficient time on the job for employees to maximize their performance, but too much stability in ones tenure can be counterproductive to the organization. Fayols Theories of Organizational Attitude Subordination of Individual Interest to the General Interest: individuals must always consider organizational goals first. Initiative: managers should direct employees efforts in ways that benefit the interests of the organization. Esprit de Corps: there should be no dissention in the organizations ranks. Max Webers Bureaucracy Theory Background Born in Germany in 1864 Considered one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th Century Was an accomplished sociologist and political scientist His analysis of bureaucracy comes from a work known as Economy and Society. Characteristics of Webers Bureaucracy The bureaucracy should have a clearly defined hierarchy. Bureaucracies have a clear division of labor. Bureaucracies centralize decision making power. Bureaucracies are relatively closed systems that shut themselves off from the outside world. The Function of Rules for Weber Rules are very important for the functioning of an organization. There should be a rationally-developed rule for every possible contingency in an organization. Rules should be codified in written form. Webers Types of Authority Traditional Authority or Legitimate Authority: power based on long-standing beliefs about who should be in control with an organization. Charismatic Authority: power based on personality and attractiveness to followers. Rational-Legal Authority: power based on the rational application of rules. Obedience isgiven to the norms rather than the person.

Frederick Taylor Background Born in 1856 He was a mechanical engineer who was looking for ways to increase efficiency in the workplace.

One of the earliest management consultants His theories were actually admired by the likes of Lenin and Stalin, who saw his ideas as early models of industrial efficiency. Frederick Taylors Scientific Management Theory There is one best way to do every job. This is found through time and motion studies that determine the most efficient method, which is then taught to workers. The best workers should be chosen for each job. The best workers should be trained to perform the job using the one best way. There is an inherent difference between management and workers. Managers are best suited for thinking, while workers are best suited for labor.

Communication in Classical Settings What Do People Communicate About: Content Communication related to tasks: messages about performing workplace tasks Communication about innovations: sharing information about new ideas Not preferred in classical management systems because such ideas should come from management. Communication about maintenance: aimed at maintaining human relationships Not preferred in classical management systems because social interaction can be a distraction to the performance of tasks. Classical Communication Flow Vertical flow is preferred in the classical context, particularly when communication is flowing down the scalar chain. Horizontal flow, in which employees at the same level are talking to each other is OK at the management level, but not preferred among lower-level workers. Free-flowing communication between all members of the organization runs counter to the classical model. Preference for Rules Because classical theories prefer rules, there is often a preference for the use of employee handbooks and written instructions. Feedback is often obtained in written forms as well, such as in the case of performance evaluations. Written forms of communication provide a degree of permanence. Communication Style Formal language Use of leadership titles, Mr., Mrs., etc. Avoidance of slang and colloquialisms Formal dress or uniforms

Human Relations Approaches to Organizational Communication Background The movement emerged in the 1930s. The movement was prompted by what scholars learned from the Hawthorne Studies. Research conducted by Harvard researchers at Western Electrics Hawthorne plant in Illinois. Different Hawthorne Studies The Illumination Studies: changing light levels did not appear to correlate with the effectiveness of worker productivity. Change resulted in positive changes. The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies: A variety of changes in work conditions were instituted, and each of these changes was discussed with the workers ahead of time. It is theorized that the greatest benefits came out of the social associations of the test group and the extra attention paid to managers of the group.

The Interview Program: As a result of the questions posed by earlier research, interviews were conducted of the workers. Workers were most interested in talking about their feelings and attitudes. The Bank Wiring Room Studies: Simple observation of workers was conducted. These observations of task work concluded that employees but social pressure on each other to speed up or slow down. This pressure stood in opposition to the directives of management.

Hawthorne Study Findings Worker output increased as a result of the attention paid to workers by researchers. (Known as the Hawthorne Effect) Worker output was increased through informal social factors. Open communication between workers and managers seemed to account for some of the observed productivity changes. Hawthorne Study Flaws Subsequent research has rejected the conclusions of the Hawthorne studies and suggested instead that increased productivity had more to do with other factors (pressure from management, selection of subject, etc.) What is important about these studies is that they encouraged a movement away from classical theories and toward human relations approaches. McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Developed by Douglas McGregor in 1960. Illustrates the differences in views between the worst adherents to classical perspectives and the best attributes of the human relations perspective. Influenced heavily by Maslows Hierarchy Theory X Postulates The average man is by nature indolenthe works as little as possible.

He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led. He is inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs. He is by nature resistant to change. He is gullible, not very bright, and the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue. Theory Y Postulates The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bring about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and selfcontrol in the service of objectives to which he is committed. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards, such as the satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs, can be direct products of efforts directed toward organizational objectives. The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution or organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized. The Human Resources Approach Central Tenet: Individuals have feelings. Those feelings are important. These individuals are simultaneously instrumental in achieving the organizations goals. Connections to Maslow: The approach assumes that higher order needs are satisfied when employees are happier. Increased Productivity?: The jury seems to be out as some studies conclude that there is no definitive connection between happiness and productivity. Human Relations vs. Human Resources The Human Relations Approach: participation is encouraged to satisfy needs for affiliation and esteem with the hope that the resultant happiness produces increased productivity. The Human Resources Approach: participation is encouraged, not to fulfill the needs of the participant, but to take advantage of subordinates ideas. Continued participation with little control over the results will eventually result in frustration by the participant.

Likerts Systems System I: Exploitive Authoritative Motivates through threats and fear Downward and inaccurate communication Top-down decision making System II: Benevolent Authoritative Motivation through economic and ego rewards Limited communication Top-level decision making with orders and comments

Belief by managers that the approach is best for the workers. System III: Consultative Organization Decisions are made at the top, but employees are consulted to take their opinions into account. Goals are set after discussion and communication moves up and down the hierarchy. System IV: Participative Organization Goals are set and decisions are made by all organizational members. Communication is extensive. Organizational members are strongly valued and employees needs are satisfied. Communication in the Human Resource / Human Relations Organization Content Maintenance Communication Innovation Communication Flow Vertical communication still exists A greater emphasis is placed on horizontal communication than in classical organizations. Channels Face-to-face communication is prioritized. More attention paid to matching communication to the task. Style Communication attempts to break-down barriers in status between managers and employees. A preference for an informal communication style exists.

Systems Approaches to Organizational Communication Origins of the Systems Metaphor The idea of a systems metaphor for studying organizations emerges from the work of Ludwig Bertalanffy, a biologist who saw the benefit of applying organic metaphors to other contexts. Subsequent theoretical extrapolation of this concept made arguments such as: Organizations experience interaction of component parts as well as with the outside environment. Exploration of how the structure of organizations systems marries with the function of certain operations within an organization (structural-functional systems). Parts of Systems Hierarchical Ordering: systems are arranged in complex ways involving subsystems and supersystems ordered hierarchically. Subsystems: consider the departments and offices of the University. Supersystems: consider the larger interacting institutions, such as the Department of Higher Education, student loan authorities, etc. Interdependence: the functioning of one component of a system requires interaction with other components of the system. Permeability: information can flow in and out of the different components of the system. The level of permeability varies with the openness of the system.

System Processes Information Processing Input: materials or information from the environment Throughput: the work of the system to transform the materials or information Output: the return of transformed materials or information to the external environment Exchange: characterizes the process of sharing input and output with the environment outside the system. It is more or less effective based on the degree of openness that exists in the system.

Feedback: is information that helps to facilitate the interdependent functioning of systems components. Two broad categories of feedback: Negative / Corrective / Deviation-Reducing: this is the kind of feedback that makes the system function smoothly by fixing errors and setting participants on the correct course. Positive / Growth / Deviation Amplifying: this is the kind of feedback that helps the system grow and improve. It is transformational. Dysfunctional Feedback: sometimes codependent relationships exist in organizations and these relationships reinforce positive or negative feedback in nonproductive ways. Basic System Properties Holism: a system is more than the sum of its parts.

Equifinality: a system can reach its final state through a variety of paths and starting points. Negative Entropy: rather than running down, open systems sustain themselves and grow (conversely, a state of entropy exists in closed systems, where the system runs down). Requisite Variety: the internal workings of a system must be as diverse and complicated as the environment within which the system is located. Four Kinds of Systems Theories Cybernetic Systems Theory Label is somewhat confusing because it is based on the Greek use of cybernetics (boat steersman), rather than the contemporary use of the term, which tends to be associated with computers or robotics. The theory focuses on the question of how systems are steered toward reaching their goals. Assumes a goal which is located at the control center, and various mechanisms and feedback that seek to regulate the system to reach or maintain the goal (textbook analogy is human body temperature control, another might be the stock market, or the Federal Reserve System). Karl Weicks Theory of Organizing Begins from a fairly complex definition of the process of organizing: the resolving of equivocality in an enacted environment by means of interlocked behaviors embedded in conditionally related processes. Organizations exist in both a physical and an information environment. Individuals create their information environment through the process of enactment, where they give information different meanings. This creates a non-static reality (equivocal) for an organizations environment. It is dependent on the meaning people attach to the information they make contact with. Organizations compensate for the lack of predictability in the information environment by creating assembly rules and or recipes that guide certain processes. They also employ communication cycles to introduce ideas into the system and to react to them. New Science Systems Theory New Science refers to new fields in the natural sciences that dont necessarily consider an ordered Universe. Examples include Chaos Theory and Complexity Theory. These theories set-aside pre-conceptions about linearity, equilibrium, and predictability and instead assume a lack of predictability. The conclusions that stem from this theory call on participants in the system to be more aware of a lack of predictability and to embrace inter-connectedness and the sea of information flow around them. Luhmanns Social Systems Theory Niklas Luhmanns work is relatively recent, but still in the process of being translated out of German, so his impact is only now being felt. He views organizational systems, not from the perspective of persons and actions, but from communications, which occur as means are formed between people.

These communications can reproduce themselves. Organizations are constituted by their ability to control the reproduction of communications. How Do We Study Organizational Systems? Network Analysis: attempts to create and analyze maps of the relationships between systems and their sub-systems. Modeling Techniques: involve the use of statistical analysis to model patterns of behavior in an organization. Case Analysis: involves the use of observation, interviews, questionnaires, and archives to get a more nuanced picture of an organizational system.

Cultural Approaches to Studying Organizations The Cultural Metaphor Organizational communication derives its cultural metaphor from fields like anthropology that study cultural groupings. The cultural metaphor in organizational communication adopts the assumption that groupings of people working together exhibit the characteristics of a culture. There are two kinds of cultures that are described in different kinds of literature: Culture as something an organization has: This perspective assumes a culture is something an organization acquires from among a range of options. Culture as something an organization is: This perspective assumes that an organizations culture is inherent to the organization. It is not chosen, but is instead inextricably linked to the identity of the culture. The Importance of Language Linguistic Determinism / The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: our thoughts are determined by the language we use. Different cultural communities use language / symbols differently. The language we choose to employ, and our shared understanding of symbols meanings, shape our communitys sense of reality. Prescriptive View of Cultures Deal and Kennedys Strong Cultures perspective assumes that an organizations performance can be enhanced through the creation of a strong organizational culture. Values: the beliefs and visions that members hold for the organization. Heroes: people who exemplify the organizations values. Rites and Rituals: ceremonies through which organizations celebrate organizational values. Cultural Network: the communication system through which values are instituted and enforced. Flaws of Prescriptive Approaches Falsely assume that there is a single ideal formula for organizational success. These formulas oversimplify the complexities of organizational life. Unique exigencies might warrant different needs. These perspectives assume that culture is a thing that an organization can possess. Objectification of a culture has the potential to oversimplify it and to create the false assumption that all members of an organization share it. Approaching Cultures as Fragmented Embraces the view that cultures are variable, containing a variety of values, practices, narratives, and so forth. This perspective is defined by a cultures: Complexity: There are a number of facets to an organizations culture, including rites, values, stories, etc. Emergent Nature: Cultures develop or emerge through the interaction of members. Lack of Unitary Identity: There are multiple sub-cultures within a larger culture. Ambiguity: The fragmented nature of cultures is inherent in any normal contemporary culture.

Edgar Scheins Model of Organizational Culture: Basic Assumptions Culture is a group phenomenon. Beliefs of a culture are relatively enduring and difficult to change. Cultures are learned or invented as a group meets internal or external challenges. New members become socialized into a culture, but they also bring independent contributions that add to the cultures development. Levels of Sheins Model of Culture Artifacts: things displayed, or behavior exhibited by, organizational members. Things such as architecture, furniture, technology, dress, and office decorations might be factors worth considering. Espoused Values: individual and group values and preferences. Basic Assumptions: cores believes about how things work that are shared by all members of the culture of sub-culture uniformly. Methodology for Cultural Study Ethnography is generally the preferred method for observing an organization. Participant Observation: becoming one of the organization members to experience what it is like to be a member. Non-Participant Observation: watching members of the organization in detail. Archival Analysis: studying records of an organization and conducting interviews. Writing the Ethnographers Tale Realist Tale: like a documentary, objective account of observations. Confessional Tale: the ethnographer describes personally what they observed and how they felt conducting the investigation. Impressionist Tale: a narrative in which information is included in the story that might stand on its own as having literary merit. Critical Tale: narratives whose goal is to uncover deeply rooted power structures in an organization.

Critical Approaches to Studying Organizations What Does it Mean to Be Critical? Critical doesnt necessarily mean to be negativethough it often may be. When we are critical, we are often engaged in the act of questioning, or testing certain ideas, claims, or assumptions. In a scholarly context, critical often refer to a range of philosophical approaches to the questioning of structures of power in the world. What Unites the Approaches Weve Discussed So Far? One common thread that unites our discussions thus far is a political frame of reference. Unitary Frame of Reference: emphasis is placed on common organizational goals. Pluralist Frame of Reference: emphasis is placed on the range of groups with divergent interests in an organization. Radical Frame of Reference: emphasizes the nature of an organization as a battleground where rival forces play out their conflicts over potentially incompatible ends.

A second thread is the role of the theorist in studying the organization Classical, Human Relations, and Human Resources approaches are concerned with better organizing the collective. Systems and Cultural scholars want to be able to explain observed phenomena, but generally dont seek to change the organization. What is Different About a Critical Approach? Critical scholars choose the radical frame of reference when approaching their studies. They view organizations as sites of domination. Critical scholars see theory as a source of possible liberation of people from sources of domination with in the organization. The theorist takes an activist role in trying to overcome domination within the organization. Who Are Critical Theorists? Many critical theorists can trace their influences back to the works of Marx. The best known body of Critical Theorists is associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Originated at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main in Germany. Produced thinkers such as Jrgen Habermas, Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse, to which you have probably had some limited exposure in other courses. Other critical theorists have emerged since the Frankfurt School, and continue to emerge. So What Do They Believe? They believe that certain social structures and processes lead to fundamental imbalances in power. They believe that these power imbalances lead to oppression of certain groups.

They believe their job is to discover and investigate these systems and bring them to the attention of the oppresses so that they might be able to engage in activities that liberate or emancipate. Its All About Power Critical theorists believe power is EVERYWHERE! Critical theorists are concerned with those deep structures within organizations that produce and reproduce power relationships. Economic, social, and communicative relationships must be explored to see how they perpetuate the power disparities. Sources of Power (See Table 6.1 on page 103 of the text) Formal authority Control of scare resources Use of organizational structure, rules, and regulations Control of decision processes Control of knowledge and information Control of boundaries Ability to cope with uncertainty Control of technology Interpersonal alliances, networks, and control of informal organization. Control of counterorganizations Symbolism and the management of meaning Gender and the management of gender relationships Structural factors that define the stage of action The power already has. Power in the Communication of an Organization Power relationships are produced and reproduced through the discourse of organizations. Organizational reality is constructed socially through the interaction of members of the organization. People adopt language to describe their jobs and to tell the story of the organization. These stories serve to reinforce the power hierarchies that exist in the organization. Ideology and Hegemony Ideology is a slippery term. Can be described as assumptions we make about the world around us that influence how we think. Ideology becomes so controlling that we often dont question or doubt the assumptions being made. Characterized by Marx and others as false consciousness. The concept of ideology leads naturally into the concept of hegemony, offered by Antonio Gramsci, in which a dominant group leads another group to accept domination as a norm. In such situations the subordinated group readily accepts domination as normal.

The dominated groups not only accept the domination, but discursively reinforce their position through language. Emancipation and Resistance The initial impulse is to assume that a radical appraisal requires a radical, or revolutionary response. That need not be the case. Anthony Giddens has argued that workers can become aware of their oppression and develop discourse that shifts the balance of power in the organization. Where resistance occurs it comes in forms that we are already somewhat familiar withunionization, strikes, boycotts, social movements. The Theory of Concertive Control Originated by James Baker, George Cheney, and Phil Tompkins in the 1990s, drawing, in part, on the work of Michel Foucault. Begins with the premise that organizations have a variety of means by which they exert control over their members: Simple Control: direct or authoritarian control in the workplace. Technological Control: control exerted by technological processes in the workplace (such as assembly lines, punch cards, computerized dialing, etc.) Bureaucratic Control: is based on the power of hierarchy and rational or legal rules created by these hierarchies.

Identification occurs when one perceives themselves as one with the organization of collective, or defines themselves in terms of that organization. They identify and accept the terms, values, goals, etc., of the organization. Discipline (Foucaults contribution) involves the assertion of control from members in the working group who reward or punish those who deviate from the values of the group. Feminist Perspectives Some feminist scholars see organizationsparticularly traditionally-organized onesas inherently patriarchal. Logic, aggression, and competitiveness are stereotypically male characteristics and are negative. A positive alternative is an environment that privileges cooperation, emotion, and support.

Decision Making in Organizations Ways of Modeling Decision Making Rational Models This is the normative model most commonly recommended in management texts and courses. Involves five stages Formulation Stage: managers use a variety of methods to assemble ideas and feedback from the organization and its members. Development Stage: managers would look at a variety of options for implementing the change. Detailing Process: sub-groups or teams work on assembling the pros and cons of implementing the various options. Evaluation Stage: the information gathered is subjected to intense scrutiny in order to quantify the costs and benefits of implementation. Implementation Stage: the preferred option is adopted.

Alternative Modeling (March and Simon) While the rational model may seem to be the most logical and systematic approach to decision making, James March and Herbert Simon argued in the late 1950s and early 1960s that that approach isnt realistic for most organizations. March and Simon argued that most organizations simply attempt to find an adequate solution, not the optimal solution. In other words, they want to know what is sufficient to do the job, not what will produce the perfect result. March and Simon refer to organizational decision makers as possessing bounded rationality. They lack the cognitive ability to make the perfect logical decision. Decisions may often be made based on logical connections to prior actions. What may have worked once before may work just as well in the present circumstance. Simon referred to this as Intuitive Decision Making.

The Garbage Can Alternative (March, et al.) March and some new colleagues (Cohen and Olsen) proposed in 1972 that another way of looking at decision making was more haphazard. They suggested that decisions often arise out of happy coincidence as convenient pairings of problems, solutions, actors, and choices coincide. This suggests that certain actions are perceived as serendipitous by actors. Decision Making in Small Groups Significance: The vast majority of organizational decisions are made at the smallgroup level, whether they be by management teams, special committees, etc. The classic model of small group decision making has four stages: Orientation: people get to know each other and the problem Conflict: people debate the possible solutions to the problem Emergence: consensus begins to emerge from the debate Reinforcement: a decision is finally arrived at

Criticism: Critics of this kind of model argue that groups take a variety of different paths to reaching decisions based on the kind of problem they are working with (consider the non-rational models previously discussed). What Makes for Bad Decision Making Processes? The most well-known theory of dysfunctional group decision making is called Groupthink, which got the most extensive early attention by Irving Janis, a research psychologist. Janis defines groupthink as a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. (Janis, 1982)

Symptoms of Groupthink Behavior Illusion of invulnerability Illusion of morality Stereotyping (of outsiders) Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity Direct pressure on dissidents Reliance on self-appointed mind guards (protecting the group from contradictory outside influences) Hirokawa and Gourans Functional Theory Alternative Effective decision making requires members of a group to remain focused on certain critical functions of group interaction. These functions include: A correct understanding of the issues to be resolved Group consensus on minimal characteristics an acceptable alternative must exhibit Group identification of relevant and realistic alternatives Careful examination of all alternatives in comparison to the previously established acceptance characteristics The group should select the alternative most likely to have the desired characteristics. Group Participation Research has suggested that participation in the decision making of an organization makes members less resistant to change. This research suggests that participation satisfies the higher-order needs of members (esteem and self-actualization on Maslows Hierarchy). (Affective Model of Participant Decision Making) This research also suggests that there may be improvements in the flow of communication in an organization if such participation takes place (Cognitive Model of Participant Decision Making)

Managing Organizational Conflict What is Conflict? Putnam and Poole (in your textbook) employ a useful tool for conceptualizing conflictThe Three Is Incompatible Goals: such as disagreements over the way work should be done, resources should be divided, or what values should be paramount. Interdependence: individuals generally need to be intertwined in their work before conflict emerges. Interaction: conflict assumes an expression of incompatibility, not merely the existence of it. What are the Locations of Conflict? Intergroup Conflict: conflict between groups within the organization Interorganizational Conflict: conflict between two or more organizations Interorganizational Conflict in Competition Interorgainzational Conflict in Cooperative Settings Levels of Conflict (L.R. Pondy) Latent Conflict: conditions are ripe for conflict Perceived Conflict: one or more of the potentially conflicting parties believes incompatibilities and interdependence exist Felt Conflict: parties begin to consider conflict management strategies and the range of acceptable outcomes Manifest Conflict: communication occurs Conflict Aftermath: the conflict is settled, but relationships and conditions in the organization might be different. Managing Conflict Figure 9.1 Conflict Management Styles

Alternative View of Styles Critics have described the previous model as too simplistic. In essence critics find a two-dimensional model insufficient to describe the complexity of relationships and problems. Increasingly research is turning to questions related to the style of communication used and the intersection of interpersonal communication theory with organizational contexts. Negotiating Conflict What is Negotiation or Bargaining? A formal process where disputants settle conflicts. A representative forum where individuals serve as representatives of the parties in the dispute. A strategy used to resolve inter-group or interorganizational conflicts, as opposed to interpersonal conflicts (though these, too, could be resolved through bargaining). Types of Bargaining Distributive Bargaining: the parties try to maximize their own gains and minimize their own losses.

Integrative Bargaining: the parties try to maximize gains for both parties

Case Study: UAW and Big 3 Automakers Third-Party Resolution Managerial Intervention Sometimes the first response to a conflict between workers comes from a manager. The manager might assume a variety of different roles (judge, mediator, investigator, marshal, etc.) Mediation and Arbitration Involves an invited third party whose job is to help the parties in dispute come to a satisfactory resolution to the conflict. May employ a variety of tactics aimed at encouraging the sharing of information encouraging the parties to see each others perspective. Factors Impacting Conflict Management Personal: how participants frame the conflict, or the individual characteristics of the parties may impact feelings. Relational: the level parties are in the organizational hierarchy potentially impacts the dynamic of the conflict and the strategies they use to respond. Cultural: different cultural norms may influence how parties respond to one anothers goals and needs. Ethical Problems A good conflict management approach involves honest exchange of information, values, and objectives. Competitive motivations might spur parties to lie or manipulate to gain a competitive edge. Lying undermines trust Lying potentially thwarts optimal outcomes Lying jeopardizes the longevity of relationships established through conflict management or negotiation.

Leadership and Change Evolution or Design An evolutionary perspective on organizational change holds that organizations have life cycles and change during different phases of that lifespan. A perspective that views change as planned involves organizations recognizing a need for change and managing that change to meet needs. These two perspectives can coexist, but some theorists see one as preferable over the other. People and Change Organizations cannot be viewed apart from the people that compose them. Consequently, the political and emotional impacts of change need to be considered. Research by Kuhn and Corman (2003) (see textbook, p. 181), has suggested that organizational members possess certain knowledge structures (schemata) that define their beliefs about organizations. These schemata can be disrupted/challenged by change. Key Change Problems Management Support: Managers must enthusiastically share the vision for change. Resistance: Members of the organization exhibit behaviors designed to thwart the implementation of change. Uncertainty: Members feel communication is inadequate and they experience stress about the change that is coming, or in the process of being implemented. How Leaders Communicate Change (DeKock and Cashman, 2000) Spray and Pray: lots of information is given to members in the hope that they will sort it out. Tell and Sell: management tells employees about a limited set of key issues and sells employees on the proposed approach to dealing with them. Underscore and Explore: management focuses on fundamental change issues and allows employees the freedom to explore possibilities. Identify and Reply: management listens to member concerns and responds as the issues are raised. Withhold and Uphold: management withholds information and conforms to the party line when confronted with questions or rumors. Eek! A Crisis! (Seeger, et al.) Precrisis: organizations work to prevent crises or prepare possible contingencies. Crisis: a trigger event threatens the survival or reputation of the organization. Postcrisis: communication focuses on responsibility, apology, and changing the organization to prevent repetition of the crisis. Case Study: Tylenol Scare Product Changes Leadership Theories Early theories focused on the idea that certain traits or communication styles could be associated with effective leadership. Contemporary theorists critique the trait and style theories on two similar grounds: Not all leaders are effective across all situations.

Different individuals might be better suited to leadership in different situational contexts. Contemporary Leadership Models Contingency Theory: individuals need to be matched to certain kinds of situations; groups of leaders may be required for some situations. Transformational Leadership Model Transactional Leadership: involves an exchange of some sort between leaders and followers. Transformational Leadership: creates a relationship between leaders and follows that helps all reach their full potential and changes both the leader and the lead. Such leaders must exemplify the behavior they seek in others. Effective Communication Styles Visionary Content Strong Commitment to Stakeholders Careful Framing of Meaning

Stress and Social Support in the Workplace Logic vs. Emotion Thus far, the primary focus of the research we have discussed assumes logic and reason control organizational decision making. The reality is that emotional concerns often cloud good judgment in organizations. Dennis Mumby and Linda Putnam (1992) have argued that we should set-aside the notion of bounded rationality and substitute bounded emotionality. This thread of research suggests we should think of emotion, rather than rationality as central in the workplace. Emotional Labor Some jobs require people to use their emotions actively as part of their role. When these emotions dont come naturally in the role, sometimes acting is required. Surface Acting: using fake non-verbals to convey a certain emotion. Deep Acting: visualizing conditions that promote the necessary feelings. Some emotional workers feel their emotions genuinely, because of the nature of their work (particularly in professions that require expressions of compassion). Workplace Relationships (Waldron, 2000) Tension between public and private in work relationships: relationships sometimes transcend the public/private boundary, and private information is sometimes disclosed in public places in the workplace. Relational networks and emotional buzzing: emotions can amplify information in negative ways, particularly when rumors or fears emerge. Conflicting allegiances: divided loyalties in the workplace create tension for employees. Emotional rights and obligations at work: workplaces often experiences tensions when workers violate or challenge established moral codes of behavior and fairness. Appropriate Emotional Displays Research has attempted to determine what workers believe are appropriate emotional displays. Those displays may vary depending on whether the emotions are being displayed to clients, or whether they are being displayed to co-workers. Emotional Intelligence is a term that refers to ones knowledge about what is appropriate and professional in difference workplace contexts. Stress Stress is a term that means are variety of different things to the people who experience it and study it. Workplace conditions that are hard to deal with (stressors) The negative effects that arise from these negative working conditions (burnout) Burnout also has complex definitions It can be used to describe the cumulative toll on employees from workplace stressors. Emotional exhaustion is at burnouts core and manifests itself in fatigue and frustration.

Workers experience burnout often feel like the have a lack of personal accomplishment and are unable to achieve career goals. Workers experience a sense of depersonalization, a negative feeling of those they work with (particularly clients). Burnout Coping Strategies Problem-Focused Coping: dealing directly with the causes of the burnout. Appraisal-Focused Coping: changing the way one things about stressful situations. Emotion-Centered Coping: dealing with the negative feelings that result from burnout.

Possible Organizational Responses to Stress and Burnout Enhancement of role definitions. Monitoring of workload. Flexible work arrangements (flex-time, special breaks, sabbaticals). On-site daycare and other ways of easing the home/workplace divide. Increasing the role of employees in decision making (participation in decision making-PDM) Social Support in the Workplace Emotional Support: letting others know they are loved and cared for. Informational Support: the provision of information and advice to help people cope. Instrumental Support: physical or material assistance to help someone deal with stress and strain. Sources of Support Support from supervisors Support from coworkers Support from friends and family

Diversity in the Workplace Statistics on Women in the Workplace1 The labor-market participation rate for women 25 to 44 years of age - the average child bearing years - rose from less than 20% to more than 75% between 1900 and 1999 (Source: Business Week) 60% of US women work outside the home, earning $1 trillion each year in aggregate (Source: Chicago Tribune, 1999) Net increase of the workforce between 1992 and 2005, 62% are projected to be women (Source: U.S. Federal Government, Bureau of Labor Statistics) Of working married women, 48% provide half or more of the household income (they are the primary bread winner and if we pay well, they want your jobs) (Source: Families and Work Institute Study) 99% of working women describe equal pay for equal work as extremely important aspect of their job to them. Almost one-third say their current job does not provide equal pay for equal work (Source: AFL-CIO)
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Source: Sexual Harassment Defense Center http://stopharass.com/article-womenmarketplace.htm (accessed December 17, 2008) Statistics on Minorities in the Workplace (EEOC Statistics, 2000) White 70.8% Black 14.0% Hispanic 10.3% Asian/Pacific Islander 4.3% American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.6% Workplace Discrimination Statistics Less than 3% of the Fortune 500 companies have top executives who are women. A 2005 Gallup Poll indicated that 26% of African Americans and 31% of Asian Americans witnessed or experienced workplace discrimination. Both women and minorities appear to have a harder time reaching the ranks of upper management. Stereotyping and the Workplace Prejudice: negative attitudes toward persons based on their group identity. Discrimination: acting upon prejudices in concrete ways. Fronts of discrimination are broadening: Intersectional identities Immigration Homosexuality and Transgender Identity

Subtler Forms of Exclusion Limited Access to Informal Communication Networks Limited Access to Mentors Absence of Needed Work Experiences to Advance Developing a Multicultural Organization (Morrison and Von Glinow, 1990) First-Generation Affirmative Action: the corporation meets legally-mandated requirements for diversity.

Second-Generation Affirmative Action: legal requirements are met and goals shift to the support of female and minority employees. Multicultural Organization: the organization embraces policies that deliberately capitalize on workplace diversity. Opportunities From Diversity (Cox, 1991) Cost argument Resource-acquisition argument Marketing argument Creativity argument Problem-solving argument System flexibility argument Problems in the Diverse Workplace Tensions associated with Affirmative Action policies Ambiguity in the definition and enforcement of sexual harassment policies Fairness in balancing work and home concerns (how is the single person treated fairly?; how are childcare concerns addressed?)