STRUCTURES

Definition: a set of elements capable of withstanding forces and transmit These forces acting on a structure called fillers. The fillers may be: o The own weight of the structure The weight of the items placed on it. The wind pushes the snow that lands on it. Etc. them to the point where it supports to be sturdy and stable.

CARGOES

TYPES OF STRUCTURES
Natural: Examples: human skeleton and animals and plants. Manmade houses, bridges, etc.. Built by animals: birds nests, spider webs, etc.. Artificial:

EXAMPLE OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURE

Natural: Crab Artificial: Telecommunications antenna When a structure is subjected to forces, called fillers, each of the elements EFFORTS: are the forces that appear in the elements of a structure when Each element of a different structure can withstand efforts, which may

TYPES OF EFFORTS
is subjected to stresses. subjected to forces or other loads. becompressive, tensile, flexural, shear or shear and torsion.

TRACTION
A structure or element is subjected to a tensile stress acting on it when forces which tend to increase its length, i.e. to stretch it.

Examples of traction
The strings that are the winds of a tent are subjected to tensile stresses, so you have to tighten them often.

Examples of traction
Alamillo Bridge, Seville is a suspension bridge in which the cables are subjected to stresses which tend to lengthen (traction).

COMPRESSION
A structure or element is subjected to a compressive force acting on it when forces which tend to decrease its length, ie to compress.

Examples of compression
Temple of Concord, Sicily, Italy: The columns support the roof of the temple. They are subjected to a compressive stress.

FLEXION
An element of a structure or a structure is subjected to a bending stresswhen the forces or loads tend to bend.

Example bending
Bridge: An bending stress on the board. An element is subjected to a shear stress or shear when the forces acting

SHEAR
parallel to its cut section tend to, ie tending to displace one with respect to another section. Example: Scissors cut paper. Not only support shear forces that want to cut elements. In general, almost

all work to cut the connecting elements of a structure.

EXAMPLE OF SHEAR
The support pin or shear shear stresses. An element is subjected to torque forces on it when there which tend Examples: when tightening a screw or turn the doorknobs are exerting

TORQUE
torotate one section relative to the other, ie, they tend to twist. atorque.

Example of torque
Screw Eraser Take a copper wire and other tin. Hold one end in a vise and, using pliers, Which of the two wires is broken before? SOLUTION:

TESTS OF TORQUE
twisting the other end sees.

TESTS OF TORQUE
The solder wire breaks before. We say it is less resistant to twisting than copper.

ELEMENTS OF A STRUCTURE
Most of the structures are formed by the union of several elements. Each element is designed to support different types of stress, so that the The elements are used in structures: foundations, columns or pillars,

end result is a strong and stable structure. beams, arches and braces. FOUNDATIONS All structures need to rely on a strong foundation. This base constituent foundation, which often below ground level. It is

equivalent to the tree roots.

Most buildings are constructed on a concrete foundation to prevent sinking

due to its weight.

Columns or pillars
Vertical bars are specially designed to withstand compression stress. Are horizontal bars that support bending stresses. The different floors of a building are supported with beams. Is a curve shaped element which serves to cover a gap between two

BEAMS

ARC
abutments and supporting a part of the weight downloading structure at the ends.

BRACES These cables or bars which support tensile stresses.

And steel can be used to increase the strength and stability of structure. Carlos Fernandez Casado Bridge, Leon:

Resistant Structures
The structure should withstand loads (be tough) and fall (be stable). Resistant structure: when retains its shape by applying loads. However, all the materials suffer a small deformation when a force is when the force is so great

applied. The problem arises

that permanentdeformations occur or broken structure.

Resistant Structures
Dilation of the Eiffel Tower: o The sun rises in the east and begins to heat the east side of the Eiffel Tower. Iron profiles are forcing dilate tower to tower to lean towards the west. In the afternoon the opposite happens, the sun is in the west and the expansion of the profiles located in that place that the tower will lean to the east. This phenomenon makes the top of the tower is provided on the vertical midpoint of the base. Oscillations occur throughout the day are more noticeable than in summer.

Resistant Structures
The elements that provide strength and stability to the structure are: TRIANGLES ARCOS BRACES

Resistant Structures
TRIANGLES: The only geometric shape that can be deformed by applying forces in atriangle sides. This was the basis for making triangular structures.

Resistant Structures
ARCOS: An element which also adds strength to the structure. Working under compression.

It was used by the Romans to build bridges with stone or brick. Roman arches are held with the support of a brick on top of another and

not use any glue between the pieces. They usually have a wedge shape and fit perfectly. The central brick called cornerstone or key; is holding the bow, and is often larger than the rest.

Example of arc roman

Alconetar Roman bridge, Caceres: from the Romans to the present is still used to build the arch bridges.

RESISTANT STUCTURES
STRAPS: are elements that provide strength and stability to a structure. Stable structures are those that applying a force on them, retain their Are those unstable structures by applying a small push, lose their balance. Stability is related to the center of gravity. Center: it is an imaginary point where all the mass would object if you could this point is outside the base of the object, then it

STABLE STRUCTURES
position.

compress. When

becomesunstable and goes.

Assays center of gravity

For the location of the center of gravity of an object can perform the o Hang a plumb line in the balance. Make the vertical line of the thread on the subject. Repeat hanging the object of two or three different points. following activities:

PROFILES
Bars of different sections are used to make structures. Many of the structural members (columns and beams) are made of profiles. If we had to do massive beams and pillars, and would weigh much

so expensive(much material) could not make large structures. The profiles allow us to make structures stronger, lighter and cheaper at the same time.

Types of Profiles
OPEN: V-shaped, T, U, L, X, H CLOSED: shaped O, ,

TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES There are many types of structures.

A simple way to classify them is by their shape or the According to the elements that underpin them are: o Massive structures elements that underpin them.

Domed structures Lattice structures Triangulated structures Suspended structures

MASSIVE STRUCTURES
Are those dominated by a large concentration of material. They are characterized by: solid, stable and very heavy. They employ highly resistant materials to compression, such as granite, Examples: Egyptian pyramids, Mayan pyramids, Greek temples, reservoirs,

marble or concrete. dams, walls, levees ...

Domed structures
In these structures many arches, domes or cupolas as clamping elements DOME: a succession of several arches. DOME: a hemispherical dome shaped. These elements are able to withstand high compressive stresses, so that and support.

cover large areas with stone materials such as stone or concrete. The weight of these items falls on the side walls, so they need to be strengthened with buttresses and flying buttresses. Examples: theaters, circuses and Roman aqueducts, churches and cathedrals, some mosques and certain current and tunnel constructions.

LATTICE STRUCTURES
Structures are formed by a set of profiles of wood, steel or concrete that intersect each other. Structural elements

are beams, pillars or columns and foundation. Examples: the buildings are covered with glass bricks or after placing the pillars and beams. This represents a reduction of weight with respect to massive or vaulted structures old, resulting in the possibility of increasing the height of the existing construction.

STRUCTURES TRIANGULATED
space. Each triangle is subject to their own tensile and compression, balancing the The materials used to build these structures are wood or steel. The triangles Examples: pylons, cranes, oil rigs, sports stadiums and some bridges. These structures are very resistant and light, as they are hollow. structure and allowing it to grow all you want. made of wood are called knives,and those made with steel trusses. They are formed by the union of many triangles, flat networks or building

The structures triangulation provides

stability

and

strength

with

the minimum number of profiles.

SUSPENDED STRUCTURES
Are those that are supported by wires or profiles subjected to support elements. They predominate braces, which are subjected to tensile stresses. Suspension bridges have a board for the passage of vehicles normally metal The straps holding the board for the passage of vehicles normally metal and

and concrete pillars with a very deep foundation. concrete pillars with a very deep foundation. The straps holding the board resting on the pillars and firmly tied from shore. The bridge is literally hanging from the cables. If the cables were broken, the bridge would collapse. This technique allows to build longer bridges with less clamping intermediate pillars, which is especially interesting to cross wide rivers, bays, etc. Example: 25 April Bridge, Lisbon. STRUCTURES AIR: inflatable, lightweight and removable. They are mainly

OTHER STRUCTURES
subjected to tensile stresses. Examples: hot air balloon, inflatable attractions for children, air mattresses ... STRUCTURES LAMINAR: are characterized by being formed of sheet material where the structural elements are ribs that run the structure or parts of the surface having a greater thickness. Examples: objects housings, plastic buckets, car body ... STRUCTURES GEODETIC: spatial networks are formed by the union of pentagons or hexagons. They are lightweight and strong, and are used in the construction of spherical or cylindrical shapes. Example: greenhouse

EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE
In big cities space is a luxury. Soon we will have no where to build. One possible solution is the construction of skyscrapers, high-rise structures that provide shelter to thousands of people and take up little space. Some of the tallest towers in the world are the Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) (450 m), the Sears Tower in Chicago (USA) (443 m), the Empire State Building in New York (USA .) (381 m), the Eiffel Tower in Paris (300 m). In Spain: the Torre Picasso (Madrid) (157 m) and a hotel-Bali in Benidorm (Alicante) (186 m).

EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE
But these towers will be overshadowed by the Bionic Tower. This project has been designed by Spanish architects based on the tree

trunks. Measure up to 1228 m in height and will have capacity for 100,000 residents. Include hotels, cinemas, offices and even hospitals. 368 elevators will

join the 300 plants planned. Is intended to be possible to reach the top floor in two minutes. Water and electricity are transported through pipes 92 columns of the same shape as the sap is driven by the tree trunk. The foundation may also be improved by the tower grows, in the same manner roots growing trees. Its base will occupy an area slightly smaller than a football field, and will be For now it is only a draft, but the Chinese government is interested in surrounded by an artificial lake to absorb the vibrations caused by earthquakes. it. Would the solution to the problems of overpopulation of the city of Shanghai.

EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE
The City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia is a complex of buildings with a very original architecture for the dissemination of culture. It consists of several buildings with visible and amazing structures made from glass, cement and concrete. It was designed by architect Santiago Calatrava. It has the following buildings: o Hemisferic Museum of Science L'Umbracle L'Oceanografic Palace of Arts

EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE
Hemisferic: eye-shaped half, a movable structure that mimics a lid that can be opened and closed by hydraulic mechanisms to regulate temperature and light. Observed from the outside, this means eye is reflected in the lake surrounding it by drawing a full eye. Inside and documentary films are suggesting a 3-D effect. Science Museum: a lattice structure with glass coatings seems the ribcage of a whale with huge concrete white suspenders. Inside there are numerous panels and experiences to better understand science. L'Umbracle: dish is a transparent dome to enjoy a nice walk through the L'Oceanografic: a laminar structure with curvilinear shapes that immerses vegetation. In its lower part there is a two-storey car park. visitors in the aquatic world through a transparent underwater tunnel. It is one of the largest aquariums in Europe. Palace of Arts: boat-shaped structure, is designed to celebrate great opera, music and theater.