A Reconstruction of the Life and Career of S. Aurelius Victor Author(s): H. W. Bird Source: The Classical Journal, Vol.

70, No. 4 (Apr. - May, 1975), pp. 49-54 Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3295765 Accessed: 18/05/2009 11:14
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A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIFE AND CAREER OF S. AURELIUS VICTOR One of the intriguing minor writers of the mid-fourth century A.D. was the imperial official Sextus Aurelius Victor. He was born in a country district of the province of Africa and his father, so Victor himself indicates, was of humble means and not educated.1 Nevertheless the father was no mere peasant but probably a reasonably well-to-do farmer of kulak status who was sufficiently provident that he was able to provide his son with a sound education which enabled him to rise to the rank of honestior and to become a senator and finally urban prefect at Rome. The date of Victor's birth cannot be fixed with certainty but he was presumably born c. 320 for in 337 he appears to have been in Rome and to have witnessed the people's anger when Constantine was buried in Constantinople and in 361 he was mature and experienced enough to be appointed consular governor of Pannonia Secunda.3 Moreover, as a non-military novus it is doubtful that he would have climbed the bureaucratic ladder with any great rapidity. Victor's elementary education, like that of his more famous North African contemporary, Augustine, was probably acquired locally for this was normally the case for upper and middle classes alike.4 Nonetheless, like Augustine, he would presumably have continued his studies at Carthage for he exhibits both knowledge of and affection for the African capital5 which was an outstanding educational centre at this time with a municipal professorship in Latin.6
1De Caes. 20.5-6; the inscriptions to the two surviving manuscripts at Oxford and Brussels describehim as Af(f)er. He, in turn, describesCarthage as "terrarum decus" (ibid. 40.19). Two basic works of reference used extensively for the present paper are A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire (Oxford 1964), cited as Jones, L.R.E., and A. H. M. Jones, J. R. Martindale and J. Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (Cambridge 1971), cited as P.L.R.E. 21bid. 20.5. The only other mentions of him are I.L.S. 2945; veterum principum clementiam sanctitudinem munificentiam supergresso d.n. Fl. Theodosio pio victori semper Augulsto, Sex. AuLr. Victor, v.c. urbi praef., iudex sacrarum cognitionum, d.n.m.q.e., Hieron. Epist. 10.3; Joh. Lydus De Mag. 3.7; Paul. Diac. Hist. Lang.

2.18. 3lbid. 41.17; 40.14; Ammianus 21.10.5; Euseb. Vita Const. 4.96. A. Alfoldi
(The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome [Oxford 1948] 121) says that

Victor's statement in 41.17 is just a piece of flattery to please Constantine's son but this is true only of the second half of the statement. 4Jones,L.R.E. 997. St. Augustine received his elementary education at Thagaste, studied rhetoric and grammar at Madaurus and pursued advanced studies at 6F. Schemmel, "Die Schule von Karthago," Phil. Woch. 47 (1927) 1342-1344; A. Audolent, Carthage romaine (Paris 1901) 692-700.
Carthage: Conf. 2. 3(5) ff. 5De Caes. 16.12; 26.2; 40.10; 40.28.

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to Victorappears have left Africafor Rome for he notes Subsequently was the withgreatdistress fact thatConstantine not buriedthere,the lack of of celebrations upon the eleven hundredthanniversary the city and the fact that one of the consulsof that year was namedPhilip.7 Between in 337 and 348, then, Victor was presumably Rome. His reasons for theremay well have been to pursuean educationin legal studies being like the friend and studentof Augustine,Alypsius, and other students from all partsof the empire.8 Duringhis stay at Rome Victor seeminglyobtaineda positionin the possiblyin the corpsof notaries,for his education imperialcivil service,9 would have equippedhim admirably such a post.10In view of his for of denunciations the army and the agentesin rebus it is most repeated unlikelythat Victor served in either of these capacities. Furthermore, the corps of notariesunderwent who rapidexpansionunderConstantius employedsenior notariifor numerousimportantand confidentialmissions and many membersof the corps received notable promotions.
Felix was appointed magister officiorum; Domitian became magister

sacrarumlargitionum later praetorian and prefectof the East; Taurus was promotedto the office of quaestor,was praetorianprefect in 355 and consul in 361; Dulcitiusrose to be consulargovernorof Phoenice and proconsulof Asia. All these,like Victor,were of humbleoriginfor Domitian'sfatherhad been a manualworker,the father of Dulcitiusa fuller." Othercelebrated notariiof the periodwere Procopius,a relative of Julian,and Jovianus,chief of the notariesin 363. The former was born c. 326 and was tribuneand notaryin 358. Julianpromotedhim to the post of comes and promisedhim the successionbut Jovian the was acclaimedemperor. In 365 Procopius primiceriusdomesticorum was proclaimedrival emperorto Valentinianand Valens but was executed the followingyear. Jovianus,too, was nominatedas a potential successor to Julian but subsequentlyexecuted by Jovian.'2 Finally
7De Caes. 28.2. 8H. I. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, Eng. trans. (Toronto 1964)

399. Furthermore, Victor demonstrates knowledge of Salvius Julianus' codification of the edictum tralaticium even though he confuses Didius with Salvius Julianus (De Caes. 19.2). He also shows evidence of interest in legal matters elsewhere (ibid. 20.13; 24.6; 28.6; 35.7; 39.31; 41.4) and sets great store by eloquence (ibid. 42.1ff.). 9In 370 Valentinianplaced studentsunder the control of the urban prefect (Cod. Theod. XIV. 9.1). The prefect each year drew up a list of the outstandingstudents who had places found for them in the administration. A similar system presumably functionedunder Constantius. '?He may, however, have served on the staff of Anatolius, the praetorian
prefect of Illyricum, or on the staff of the comes rei privatae, the comes sacrarum largitionum, the quaestor, or, indeed, in one of the three scrinia, memoriae, epistulae or libelli. "Jones, L.R.E. I, 127-128; III, 22.

2P.L.R.E. s.v. Procopius4; Iovianus 1.

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Flavius Philippus (whose father had been a sausage-maker)learned becamea notarius, rose to the rankof praetorian short-hand, prefectand was consulin 348 (P.L.R.E. 698). All in all the notarieswere a powerful group and conspicuouspromotionsfrom their upper echelons took and his immediatesuccessors. It was perhaps place under Constantius as a seniornotarius, that Victorwas sent to Sirmium sometime therefore, before 361.13 While there he almostcertainlymet the admirablePraetorianPrefect of Illyricum,Anatolius,whose efficientreorganization of the imperialpostalsystemhe praisesin De Caes. 13.6. It was at this periodthatVictorcomposedthe De Caesaribus, only the work, as far as we know, which he wrote. It was commencedat the earliestin 358 for the authornotes an earthquake Nicomediain the at of Cerealisand this particular occurredin August consulship earthquake of that year.l4 From internalevidencewe learn that the work was completedbetweenSeptember 359 and September 360.15Indeed,Victor 9, 8, may have writtenthe whole book at Sirmium,possiblyat the requestof Constantius Many of the army commanders, good proportionof II. a the senatorsat Constantinople and even some at Rome had difficulty in remembering simple facts of Roman history and for this reason the a few years later both Eutropiusand Festus were commissioned the by EmperorValens to write brief summariesof Roman history.16This situationhad existed for some time and Constantius,who had literary pretensionshimself'7and who had visited both Rome and Sirmiumin as a memberof his comitatusand instructedhim to compose a brief history of the empireto his own times. The work is not dedicatedto Constantius that may have been the originalintention. However, but soon afterthe completionof the De Caesaribus shortlybefore Conand stantius'death Victor had thrown in his lot with Julian and it would hardly have been prudentfor him to retain such a dedication. Julian arrivedat Bononia, some nineteen miles north of Sirmium,on about October 10th, 361 and after immediatelycapturing Lucillianus,the military commanderof Pannonia, he marched into Sirmiumwithout opposition. His stay therewas exceedinglybrief for afterthree days he resumedhis marcheastwards.Nevertheless clearlymet Victor during he the shortperiodhe spent at Sirmiumand the authormust have made a very favourableimpressionon him. When Julian arrived at Naissus, one beforenews of Constantius' probably or two weekslaterandcertainly
13Ammianus 21.10.5. 14De Caes. 16.12; Ammianus 17.5.1; 17.7.1.

357,18 may have discovered Victor at Rome and taken him to Sirmium

5De Caes. 42.20. 16Vid. the dedications of both Eutropius' Breviarium and that of Festus and W. Den Boer, Some Minor Roman Historians (Leiden 1972) 173ff. '7Ammianus21.16.4; Epit. 42.19. 18Ammianus16.10.1ff.; 16.10.20-21.

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death (November 3rd) had become known, he requestedthat Victor and leave Sirmium meet him at Naissus. The young emperorthen madeVictor consulargovernorof Pannonia Secunda (its capital was Sirmium) and honouredhim with a bronze statue.l9 Several factors presumablyinfluencedJulian in making his decision. First, Victor was a sound, dependableman (vir sobrietatis describes is gratiaaemulandus how Ammianus him20)with greatrespect for good government.21 additionhe possessed local knowledgeof In Pannoniathrough Victor,like Julian,had literary havingworkedthere.22 tendenciesand probablyagreedwith the emperorin mattersof policy and generalphilosophy. Both were pagansand admirers Rome's anof cient institutions.Finally Julianwas a usurperand since a numberof officialshad refused to serve him or had fled to Constantius23 was he to replacethem. obliged Victor'snew office carriedwith it the clarissimate, entryinto the senand ate,24 the possibilityof achieving"the one ancientRepublicanoffice which retainedits glamouruntarnished, ordinaryconsulate."25 the The authorpossibly gained this honour in 369 when the name Victor apbut pearedon the Fasti as consulfor the firsttime,26 more probablyas a novus he receiveda suffect consulshipsometimebetween c. 370-388. RagoniusVincentiusCelsus, prefect of the grain supply a year or two before 389, certainlyheld a suffectconsulship priorto his prefecture.27 The offices which Victor held between his Pannoniangovernorship and his urban prefectureare not known but one possibilityis that he as servedas proconsulof Africa. His immediate predecessor urbanpreSextiusRusticusIulianus,held that position between371 and 373 fect, and was, like Victor, not of senatorialorigin.28Moreoverthree other urbanprefectswho held the post between381 and 385, FlaviusAfranius were all previSyagrius,ValeriusSeverusand Q. AureliusSymmachus
'9lbid. 21.9.8ff.; for the appointmentof Victor and the statue, 21.10.6.
20lbid.

21DeCaes. 13.6; 33.13; 35.7; 35.12 et al. 22Forhis local knowledge of Pannonia vid. De Caes. 37.3; 40.9.7; 40.17. The last citation is a slighting comment on Pannonian rusticity. 23Ammianus 21.9.4ff.; 21.10.7. 24Jones,L.R.E. 531. Dill describesthe consulship of the fourth century A.D. as "one of those dignified fictions by which the Roman disguised the vastness which separatedhim from the days of freedom" (Roman Society in the Last Century of the WesternEmpire [London 1899] 145). 26P.L.R.E.s.v. Victor 4, p. 959 assigns this consulship to Victor the magister equitum of the East (363-c.379) which is logically likely since Dagalaifus, who was joint commander of Julian's rearguardagainst the Persians in 363, was consul in 366. Moreover the magister equitum was a military man and a Christian (in a period when such factors counted) and had a more illustrious career than the historian. s.v. 27P.L.R.E. Celsus 9, p. 195. s.v. 281bid. Iulianus 37, p. 497.
25Jones, L.R.E. 532.

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praefectus urbis et iudex sacrarum cognitionum.30 The office was much

Victor was an African,too, and his ously proconsulsof that province.29 of the provincemay have enhancedhis chancesfor selection knowledge to thatprestigious governorship. Theodosiusappointed Victor Finally,in 388 or early389, the emperor sought after by membersof the senatorialaristocracyas the crowning and point of theircareers31 was held at this periodby such eminentindividualsas Anicius AucheniusBassus,Q. AureliusSymmachus, Ceionius Rufius Albinus, FaltoniusProbus Alypius and NicomachusFlavianus. Victor, the self-mademan from Africa, was in illustriouscompanyand his prudenceand integrityseem not only to have impressedConstantius II and Julian but even the pious ChristianTheodosius. His tenure of office, however,was not lengthyfor by June 17, 389 he had been succeededby CeioniusRufiusAlbinus,32 of the most learnedmen of his one and a memberof the eminentCeioniiRufii. day33 AlthoughVictor'stermas urbanprefectwas shortit need not indicate eitherthat he died in office, as did his predecessor,or that Theodosius was displeasedwith his performance. Most of the urban prefects in those difficulttimes appearto have servedfor only short periods. Furthermore Theodosius at Rome in the summer 389 andthe appointwas of ment of Albinusmay have been part of his attemptat conciliationwith the pagan aristocracy the city. The date of Victor'sdeath,therefore, of like that of his birth, cannotbe fixed precisely. Nevertheless is likely it thathe died in 389 or soon afterfor (if my earlierchronologybe accepted) Victor would be about seventy years old. In addition,Ammianus' mentionof Victorin 21.10.5 may be readas an obituarynotice of a man whom he admiredand Syme sets the completionof book twenty-twoof
Ammianus' history in about 390.34

Victor'scareer,like those of severalof his contemporaries who were also novi hominessuch as Domitianand Dulcitiusmentionedabove, indicates that the imperial bureaucracyof the middle and later fourth century admittedcompetentand reliable men from the ranks of the humiliores. The emperorsof the fourthcenturyneeded large numbers of such officialsand presumablyhad this in mind when promulgating
29Ibid.s.v. Syagrius 2, p. 862; s.v. Severus 29, p. 837; s.v. Symmachus 4, p. 865;
1075 and vicarii Africae,

Cf. the lists of legati proconsulis Africae in P.L.R.E.

and the Historia Augusta [Oxford 1968] 9) considers August, 388 as a reasonable date of appointment, after the defeat of Magnus Maximus. 31Jones,L.R.E. 385-386. 32P.L.R.E. s.v. Albinus 15, p. 37. 33Macrob. Sat. 6.1.1. 34Syme(above, note 30) 10.

30C.I.L. VI, 1186=1.L.S. 2945; Ammianus 21.10.6; A. Chastagnol, Les fastes de la prefecture de Rome au Bas-Empire (Paris 1962) 232ff. R. Syme (Ammianus

1079. There are some strange inconsistenciesand numerous errors in the P.L.R.E.; vid. T. D. Barnes, Phoenix 26 (1972) 140ff. and Phoenix 27 (1973) 135ff.

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laws encouraging education. Men like Victor, who had no curial duties awaiting them at home, were suitable candidates for the administration. The criterion for first appointments was academic ability (though, naturally, knowing the right people invariably helped then as now) and Valentinian's law of 370 (Cod. Theod. XIV.9.1) probably merely regularized what had long been a practice, namely that the urban prefect provided a list of outstanding students for placement in the bureaucracy. Hence Victor could say with candour that he had achieved his rank of honestior by means of his studies.35 Thereafter Victor's career depended upon the manner in which he executed his duties and upon chance. It was his good fortune to be at Sirmium in October, 361 when Julian arrived there. It was similarly fortunate that Constantius died the following month. Nevertheless, without the education he had received, his sobrietas so admired by Ammianus and the production of his little book, the De Caesaribus, he would not have obtained his consular governorship or the urban prefecture, an outstanding achievement for a novus. H. W. BIRD University of Windsor

35De Caes. 20.5. Vid. also Pan. Lat. IV.5.6; VII.23; Auson. Protr. 43-44; Symm. Ep. .25.