CONSULTANTGUIDEBOOK2008 UNIVERSITYWRITINGCENTER

CONTENTS
MISSION STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................... 1

PHILOSOPHY STATEMENT....................................................................................................................... 1

A HISTORY OF THE WRITING CENTER .................................................................................................. 2

CONSULTING .............................................................................................................................................. 5 Questioning and Listening ........................................................................................................................................5 Questions as a way to engage students .....................................................................................................................5 Listening in the Writing Center ................................................................................................................................6 Listening Self-Assessment for Consultants ..............................................................................................................6 Suggested Consultation Procedures ...........................................................................................................................7 Allocating Time ........................................................................................................................................................7 Stage 1: Meeting and Receiving Writers (5 minutes) ...............................................................................................7 Stage 2: Defining Needs and Setting Priorities (5-10 minutes) ................................................................................7 Stage 3: Responding to the Text (20-25 minutes) ....................................................................................................8 Stage 4: Closure (5 minutes).....................................................................................................................................9 Performance Feedback for Consultants ....................................................................................................................9 Writing as a Process ..................................................................................................................................................10 Stage One: Brainstorming.......................................................................................................................................10

 Stage Two: Shaping ................................................................................................................................................12 Stage Three: Completing ........................................................................................................................................13 Guidelines for Teaching Grammar, Mechanics, and Usage ..................................................................................13 Mini-guide to Frequent Errors ................................................................................................................................13

SPECIAL SITUATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 18 Writers Block ............................................................................................................................................................19 Learning Disabilities .................................................................................................................................................19 English as a Second Language..................................................................................................................................22 Asian and Far Eastern Languages (including various Chinese languages, Japanese, and Vietnamese) .................25 Slavic Languages (including Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian, etc.) .........................................................25 Romance Languages (including French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese).........................................25 Consulting with Students Using Nonacademic Varieties of English .....................................................................26 Computer-Assisted Consultations ............................................................................................................................27 On-line Consultations (OWLs) ...............................................................................................................................28

Mission Statement
TheUniversityWritingCenterstrivesto: provide faculty and students of Texas A&M University with the opportunity to enhance written communications skills through the use of both face-to-face and online consulting sessions and other resources; promote proficiency in written work across the curriculum; promote research on writing and on the teaching of writing; assist faculty in developing writing intensive courses.

Philosophy Statement
The University Writing Center is student-oriented. The director and consultants work together with the Texas A&M faculty toward one comprehensive goal: to help the student become an active, independent learner. Through conferencing and other collaborative activities, the student becomes involved with the process of writing. These interactive activities focus on affective instruction in that they promote a change in attitudes; the student writer learns to take risks, to draw on personal resources, and to make choices. The University Writing Center encourages students to delve into language: to explore ideas, discover meaning, and communicate with an audience. The absence of evaluation by the consultant allows the student to broach concerns and express doubts. This low-risk environment promotes self-confidence and autonomy. The University Writing Center encourages faculty to improve student writing by providing opportunities for students to practice and by providing direct instruction in writing in their specialties. Faculty are guided to reflect upon what genres of writing students will need both in the university and in their careers; to articulate what constitutes good writing in these genres and in their respective fields; and to communicate to students via models, descriptors, critiques, comments, textbooks, lectures, and on-line materials how to produce such writing. Faculty are invited to educate University Writing Center consultants about the standards and expectations for writers in their fields. Consultants benefit by working in the University Writing Center; their abilities as writers and teachers are enhanced as they discern the needs of each individual student, experiment hands on with theories of writing and learning, and modify and personalize strategies and techniques which accommodate different learning styles. Consultants may encounter varying degrees of ability, cultural difference, and nonWestern rhetorical traditions. The University Writing Center incorporates a holistic approach to address the needs of the entire writer, not merely the piece of writing. Faculty, consultants, and students work together to cultivate students self respect, confidence, and appreciation for the task of writing.

A History of the Writing Center at Texas A&M University

Jan Little with Sam Gladden and Valerie Balester In the summer of 1990 when Dr. Valerie Balester first began teaching English 657, a graduate class in how to run a writing center, no writing lab existed at Texas A&M. There had been a lab headed by a lecturer, Ray Leighman, in the 1970s and 80s, but it was closed in 1986. Tutors in that early lab were graduate students and lecturers, and students attending it would get from 1-3 credits for working in oneon-one or in a small class. Many of the clients were referred by their colleges for remedial help, and they included athletes and students from courses with basic exams or courses that stressed writing, like journalism, science, education, and English. The original English 657 was tied to the writing lab, but when the lab closed, the course stayed on the books as a summer offering. Students would run a lab for English 104 students using a box of exercises they had devised. They used a classroom, but they did not look at student drafts. Balester and her students set out to create a different sort of lab, what they saw as a writing center, a student-centered environment where writers could come for advice and encouragement at any stage in the writing process. Subsequently, Balester and the nineteen graduate students in the class decided to open the Writing Center in a couple of offices of the English Department in the Blocker Building. The graduate students volunteered their time to help writers in one-on-one thirty-minute consultations. At the end of the summer, Balester and the graduate students, supported by Dr. Jimmie Killingsworth, the Director of Writing Programs, decided to continue operations. Dr. Larry Mitchell, Head of the English Department, agreed because he felt the Writing Center would fulfill several needs in the English department. First, because English had just eliminated one of its courses in composition (which changed the freshman composition requirement from two semesters to one), many in the university outside the department would be clamoring for more help for freshman writers. Mitchell argued that the Writing Center would be able to aid those students who needed extra help but who did not need another writing course. Second, he saw the need to prepare the departments graduate students for future jobs in composition studies. The Writing Center would serve as a locus of professional development for graduate students who might someday be faced with directing a Writing Center at another university. Third, Mitchell hoped that the Writing Center would serve to bring together faculty in linguistics, rhetoric and literature by involving the entire department in the endeavor. During the fall of 1990 and the following spring, the center was directed by Balester and staffed by volunteer graduate students. Open twenty hours a week, the 1990-91, 381 visits were recorded. In the fall of 1991, the English department hired six graduate assistants to staff the center. These graduate students, along with those who were taking English 657 that semester, worked in the Writing Center under Balester and Dr. Paul Taylor, the new Writing Center Co-Coordinators. Visits increased to 477 in the fall semester of 1992 and 728 in the spring of 1992, when the center was staffed only by graduate assistants.

 Since that time, the department employed graduate assistants in varying numbers to staff the center. From its beginning until 1996, the Writing Center did not have a paid receptionist or any other support staff. Students in English 657 and other graduate student staff made a series of handouts, composed the Consultants Guidebook, and handled the daily paperwork. Although faculty involved in the Writing Center were given reductions in their teaching loads, they did not work with the center full-time; graduate students served as directors, usually in pairs as co-directors, under faculty coordinators. In the fall of 1995, Killingsworth and Dr. Chris Holcomb, a new Assistant Professor of rhetoric and composition, became Co-Coordinators of the Writing Center. Balester became Writing Programs Director, and Taylor went on leave to work on Daedalus computer software. Beginning in the fall of 1996, Holcomb served as the sole Coordinator. In the fall of 1994, the center received 1348 visits, the most on record during one semester, because of class visits and the use of writing groups in addition to one-on-one tutorials. Since that time, numbers have dropped due to staff cuts and the discontinuation of writing groups; in the spring of 1996, the center recorded only 534 visits and 659 in the fall of 1997. In 2000, the Core Curriculum Review Committee of the Faculty Senate recommended that the university create a writing center as a first component in a writing-across-the curriculum program. Partly due to the efforts of Dr. Mitchell and the College of Liberal Arts to extend the mission of the English Department Center, it was agreed that the new centers director would be a full or associate professor of English. The center, to be renamed the University Writing Center, would be funded by an $8/semester fee to undergraduates and would report to the Associate Provost for Undergraduate Programs and Academic Services (UPAS), Dr. Mark Weichold. Its mission would include service to faculty teaching writingintensive courses. The English Department Center closed its doors at the end of the summer term, 2001, and re-opened as a university wide center in Evans Library Fall 2001 under the direction of Dr. Valerie Balester, the first Interim Director. Andrew Jenkins, a former English 657 student, was hired as the Assistant Director, and Leah Curtis was hired as the first Administrative Secretary. Eight consultants made up the inaugural staff, including graduate students from English (Debbie Pipes, Christopher Kreiser, Amber Anderson, Katy Everett, and Cody Dolan); a journalism instructor from Blinn College (Nishia Livingston); a local CPA (John Krajicek, also a former English graduate student); and graduate student from the Bush School (Johanna Wilson). An undergraduate student, Jonathan Deonarine, was hired to help with computer applications and to create our web page. Our first logo, who we dubbed Pencil Dude, was designed by Solomon Adams, who won a logo contest In the years to follow, many new consultants were hired, including two professional staff members, Pat DiCuffa, a former English teacher who became the driving force behind our classroom workshops program, and Ronald Hayes, a former English teacher and Army chaplain. Some other history highlights: Debbie Pipes was promoted to an Assistant Director. Assistant Director Peter England set up our first local network. Brady Creel, who began here as a consultant, became our Communications Coordinator and redesigned our logo; he also reformatted our newsletter and redesigned our Web site. Michelle Hall Kells, our first Associate Director, turned out the first edition of our faculty newsletter, Writing Matters. Nancy Vazquez, first a consultant, became editor-writer of Writing Matters. We opened a satellite center in the West Campus library in 2006. In the fall of 2007, we began serving graduate as well as undergraduate students.

 The UWC, still under the Direction of Dr. Balester, continues to report to the Associate Provost for Undergraduate Programs and Academic Services and Undergraduate Dean (now Martyn Gunn). Our Associate Director is Candace Schaefer, and the Assistant Director is Steve Kaminczak. The office manager is Margarette Goss. A couple of consultants from the early days remain, Ronald Hayes and Nancy Vazquez. Although the names and faces do change, we try to keep in touch. To see and interact with our staff from years gone by, go to Facebook and request to join the University Writing Center group.

Ourfirst,pixilated,logo,PencilDude

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Consulting
This chapter provides invaluable information for beginning and experienced consultants: it includes strategies to maximize the potential for each consultation; it provides a suggested format for the flow of a session; it provides information about each stage of the writing process; and the final section of this chapter lists information on basic grammar and syntax that every consultant should know so that you the consultantmay address each student and his or her particular writing needs. Questioning and Listening An open line of communication needs to be established between the writer and the consultant in order for a productive consultation to take place. A provocative question can stimulate the writers thoughts, knowledge, and understanding, as well as help her consider new ideas. After you pose a question to the client, be careful to allow enough time for the student to express her thoughts. Thus, a collaborative dialogue which allows both the client and the consultant to speak and listen to each other is crucial during any consultation. Questions as a way to engage students It is important for the session to focus on the clients ideas and concerns; therefore, most of the talk needs to come from the client while the consultant participates by listening. However, we know that it is the natural inclination of some students to regard the consultant as a tutor, or even an expert, to whom they must defer, so they willingly relinquish control of their writing. One way for you to actively ensure client involvement is by asking questions that require the client to think and respond. Your questions can be limited and closed (requiring the writer to respond with a simple yes/no answer) or generative and analytical (requiring the writer to use critical thinking and interpretive skills in order to respond). Here are some possible generative/analytical questions that you can use to help the client: Reflect on the topic and her stages of development: How did you choose this topic? What is the purpose of this paper? What are you trying to say? Prove? Explain? Demonstrate? How might you summarize your ideas for this paper? What is your greatest area of concern in this assignment? Or, what did you find difficult about writing this paper? Consider ways to expand analysis or argument: How might you carry this idea into the next section of your paper? What if you called attention to more of the details in this example? Can you incorporate that idea within your thesis statement? 5

 Can you think of examples that support the thesis? Reevaluate structure or organization: Whats this paragraph doing specifically? How does it tie-in with your thesis? How does it prepare the reader for the next paragraph? How many ideas do you have in this paragraph? Do you need to separate these two topic paragraphs or consolidate them? What would be the implication of doing either? Can you think of a different way to approach this interpretation? Listening in the Writing Center The key to being a good listener is knowing which questions to ask. In a client-consultant dialogue, ask generative questions that encourage the client to do most of the talking. But, the second component in the client-consultant dialogue is listening. Listening is your way of participating in the writing process of a fellow writer. Further, good listening supports the complex interaction of questions and answers that help writers examine their work. Following are suggestions for incorporating questions and listening into a consultation: Start the session with general questions (i.e., ask the student to summarize her topic and the requirements for the assignment). Use leading questions to probe the depth of the writers understanding. Leading questions require the writer to respond with explanations and analytical answers (i.e., ask the client to consider how her reader might interpret what she says, or ask the client to trace her thesis statement through the development of her entire paper). Listen reflectively. Refer to the writers previous ideas by repeating or paraphrasing them. Be prepared to listen to the writers responses without making comments. Whenever possible, reinforce the writers ideas with positive signals or gestures that indicate your attention to her explanation. Avoid interrupting. Let the writer finish expressing an idea before you comment or ask questions. Avoid filling every silence with tutor talk. Short silences and pauses in the writers speech allow the writer time to think, and subsequently explain, or comment. Silences also give you time to listen, conceptualize, and understand what the writer is communicating. A pause does not always mean the writer is finished speaking. Again, dont be afraid of small silences; pauses and silences allow the writer time to consolidate her thoughts in order to continue expressing an idea. Listening Self-Assessment for Consultants Howdoyouknowifyouaredoingtoomuchtalkingandnotenoughlisteningwhiletutoring?Herearesome techniquesfromTheAllynandBaconGuidetoPeerTutoring(GillespieandLerner,2000)thatmighthelpyou evaluateyourleveloftalk: This ones obvious: If you are hoarse at the end of tutoring, you are talking too much. If you are doing more than fifty percent of the talking, you are probably talking too much. (However, some sessions might require more consultant dialogue than others.)

 If you find yourself interrupting the client, you are not allowing the client to complete her train of thought. You can try either audio or videotaping your own sessions to decide for yourself how much talk is appropriate. Or, you can have another tutor observe you and provide feedback. Suggested Consultation Procedures Allocating Time The following suggestions will help you work effectively within a 30-45 minute session, but remember to remain flexible because each session will be different. The overriding objectives are to determine the students personal resources, to draw on the knowledge they bring to the session thereby ensuring the students involvement, and to stress a variety of active techniques useful in the writing process. By questioning and helping students talk about their drafts, you can become the link between writing and thinking. Our goal is to improve writers ability, not just the example at hand. This approach gives the individual writer more choices and greater confidence. A consultation can be best understood as having four stages: 1. 2. 3. 4. Meeting and Receiving Writers Defining Needs and Setting Priorities Evaluating and Reacting to the Text Closure

Stage 1: Meeting and Receiving Writers (5 minutes) Make sure any necessary materials, such as a scratch pad or handbook, are available in the carrel. Meet the client in the reception area, introduce yourself, try to put the writer at ease Open a client-consultant dialogue by engaging the writer in a few minutes of casual conversation, and then move on to a more specific discussion about her goals for the session. Listen to the writers goals and ask questions about the writers particular areas of concern.

Stage 2: Defining Needs and Setting Priorities (5-10 minutes) Identifyandsuggestgoalsandconcerns.If the writer has trouble deciding what goals to set and what concerns to address, ask questions that gauge what issues the consultation might need to emphasize. Sometimes it is helpful to establish an idea of the writers previous experiences with writing: What kinds of difficulties has she encountered with past writing assignments? What seemed especially troublesome with this particular assignment?

Define the assignment. If the writer has a copy of the prompt, read it together and ask the writer to
provide her interpretation and to describe how she approached the topic. Together, you might want to discuss the assignment specifications (i.e., what information needs to be addressed, what questions need to be answered in the assignment, or what citation format the instructor requests).

Approach the draft. Once you have a clear understanding of the assignment, it is a good time to start
looking directly at the writers work. It can be helpful if you start by reading through the first section of the work, but if the writer is comfortable with reading her own work aloud, ask the writer to read through the first section of the draft. A section could be a sentence, a paragraph, or the entire assignment, depending on the length of the assignment, the clients comfort with reading aloud, and the kinds of errors apparent in the draft. Determine the kinds of problems you see in the writers draft and ask the writer to point out anything she noticed while reading.

Focus on global concerns. If the writer seems preoccupied with addressing local concerns (i.e., editing
for grammatical errors) when you observe global concerns (i.e., lack of thesis coherence, organization, logic, and development) that need attention, explain that you see a more pressing problem and, since the draft might change, it could be better to focus on broader concerns. If the writer does not want to work on global concerns, address the local problem first, and then try to move on to global concerns.

There is no quick fix. Remember, it is not your job or the University Writing Centers goal to completely
fix every paper, but by focusing your efforts on the most important elements, you can help the student attain better individual writing ability. Addressing global concerns is more constructive for the long-term development of the writers ability. Stage 3: Responding to the Text (20-25 minutes)

Do not become the writer. It is preferable for the writer to write. If you need to jot down notes to help
the writer keep track of ideas and directions that are revealed by your discussion, do so unobtrusively and on a separate sheet of paper. If you are editing a working draft, encourage the writer to do the actual marking on the text as you discuss changes.

Listen for ideas. The writer may know more about a subject than what has been captured in her writing.
Ask leading questions and encourage the writer to jot down ideas, words, or phrases that may help develop the paper. If you hear something significant that is not in the draft, pause and encourage the writer to make a note. These ideas can create a focus for the writer as well as provide details and examples for developing the text.

Give positive feedback. Praise is a welcome response to the efforts of the writers who come to the Writing Center. Encouragement from you will boost the writers continued efforts. Praise can also mean simply respecting what the writer has to say. Establish eye contact with the writer and practice reflective listening. Show the writer that you are listening. Reinforce your positive eye contact and body language with an occasional Yes, I see, or an affirmative Okay. React to the ideas and written work. Respond to writing and the writing process, not the writer. Do not
allow a personality conflict to distract you from listening. If necessary, let the writer know that your comments are directed at the writing process, not the writer. If you cannot work with a particular writer 8

 (or a writer is reluctant to work with you), diplomatically arrange for one of your fellow consultants to take your place. Such occasions may occur; handle them as courteously and professionally as possible.

Do not jump to conclusions. Make no assumptions about what the writer is going to say; this goes along with good listening behavior. Let the writer finish completely before you offer comments, suggestions, or responses. One of the benefits of your discussion is the new directions the writers mind may take. If a new idea develops, encourage the writer to jot it down; pursue it at a later point in your discussions. Always be open to undeveloped or new ideas that can come up in conversation.
Stage 4: Closure (5 minutes) It is important to create a sense of closure for each session so that the writer realizes he or she has accomplished something; a good sense of closure can also help you review what techniques worked well and what material should be included in the Client Records. Thus, it is helpful for both the client and the consultant to allow for a short re-cap at the end of a session. Here are some suggestions for following through with a closing: Allow about 5 minutes for closing. Give the student suggestions for further work on his or her writing and suggest any resources you think the client might find useful. Suggest a follow-up visit or a web visit, if necessary. Offer information about how to make future appointments. Allow the client to have the last word. Ask the client to review what was accomplished during the session. Ask if there are any areas that the client feels you neglected to cover. Before the student leaves, double check to make sure that you have all the information you need. Performance Feedback for Consultants Writing is a social activity that requires communication between writer and audience, and in order for a writer to improve her ability to communicate, she needs feedback from her audience. Similarly, a consultant needs feedback on her performance after a consultation. At the conclusion of a session, it is often helpful for you to ask the client directly: Do you think coming to the Writing Center was helpful today? or Do you feel like I was able to answer your questions about this assignment? You, as a consultant, can also ask yourself questions to evaluate your own performance. (Hint: these questions are also helpful to keep in mind as you are filling out your consultation records): What type of consulting took placewas I directive or more collaborative with the client? Did the writers goals and concerns change during the session (i.e., did she say she wanted to work on punctuation at the beginning of the session, but then change her mind and want to work on organization?) If so, what motivated her to change her mind? Do you feel like you and the writer established a good rapport? Can you see yourself working with this person again? Did the client ask about scheduling a follow-up visit? Did the writer ask you questions about her own text? Did you encourage positive aspects of the clients work?

 Did you and the client discuss issues not directly related to her paper? Did digressive conversation help your mutual understanding of the assignment at hand? How did you respond to the writers attitudes? Did you feel like you had to adjust your tone in order to work with her? Did you feel as if the writer expected something from you that you werent prepared to offer (i.e., did she expect you to edit and make all the corrections yourself)? If so, how did you negotiate her expectations? Were you and the client able to spend a few minutes reviewing at the end of the session? Did you suggest any follow-up strategies for the client? What would you change or do differently about the session?
Adapted from: Gillespie, Paula and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000

Writing as a Process Process writing suggests working on writing as a set of successive steps culminating in an end product. There are basically three steps or stages in process writing: brainstorming, shaping, and completing. One way to conceptualize the writing process is to think of writing as a cycle where the process of brainstorming, editing, and revising is repeated before a final draft emerges. The three stages are interconnected, and each one can be repeated during the writing process. You should be able to identify the stage of a draft and apply the appropriate strategies.
Gillespie, Paula and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2003.

Stage One: Brainstorming Brainstorming is quite possibly the most crucial step in the writing process because it is the stage which involves developing and recording new ideas that will form the foundation for the final draft; therefore, a high quality draft is often built upon clever and well-developed ideas. One approach to creating an idea is simply to encourage a discussion about something that interests the writer. Here are some tips for a quality brainstorming session: Brainstorming works best as a group activity, so the University Writing Center is a great place to brainstorm. Everyone in the group must feel free to say whatever comes to mind, and no idea is excluded. Jot down all the ideas as they are spoken so that there is a list to use later. Ask each writer to evaluate the ideas privately some time after the brainstorming session. Its also important to remember that when youre brainstorming, some ideas are created that just dont lead anywhere. But thats okay; just keep going. There are virtually thousands of ways to select and develop a topic, so every brainstorming session is going to be unique. Listed below are other techniques that writers can use to create ideas. ListMaking 10

 Sometimes it is helpful for the client to just start talking while you jot down important ideas that the client mentions; it might be helpful for other clients to compose a list of prospective ideas themselves. A very effective method is to have both the client and the consultant compose separate lists that the writer can use to compare and refer back to. Whether you or the client is responsible for starting the list, it might help to follow these steps: Figure out a title for the listthis can help keep your list focused. List as many things as possible in 3 to 4 minutes (or however long time allows, or until you run out of ideas). Use short words or phrases that relate to the title, describe the subject, or support ideas that are connected to your stream of thought in any way. Dont slow down for corrections. Write as quickly as possible. When the list is finished: Select the items that seem to have the most promise. Start putting the list items in some kind of order (i.e., number them or bullet the most important items). Cross out items that dont seem to fit with the organization of the list. Expand on one or two items, then move on and expand on other items until everything in the list is filled out. Add new items if you think of any. The goal of this exercise is to finish with a nicely organized list that you can use to shape the outline for the paper. ReportersFormula Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? The six basic questions that reporters use to develop a story can also have non-journalistic applications. The answers to these questions may reveal a particular part of the subject that the writer knows enough aboutor has enough interest into use for the main idea in a paper. This is a particularly good technique to use when something has to be written quickly, like a journalism assignment or a response on an essay exam. TimedFreewriting Timed freewriting focuses the writers efforts into a short burst of energy; and, like the reporters formula, freewriting is a good way to help prepare for writing a response within an allotted period of time. Freewriting is also helpful if a writer is struggling with one persistent idea that needs to be developed. Here are the steps: Time the student for one or two minutes (or as long as you feel is necessary) of non-stop writing. (If you need to, step outside of the carrel and let the student compose independently.) Fragments and run-on sentences are encouraged as long as the student does not cease writing. When time is up, look for themes and details that might be developed and incorporated into the paper. ClusterMapping Clustering, mapping, networking, or webbing can help writers generate ideas using visual charts or patterns. This strategy helps writers understand the relationship between elements of a topic. There is

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 no right or ideas. wrong way to design a cluster diagram, and they can be very effective for organizing different Write down ideas related to the topic. Draw lines to connect ideas that support each other. Write down terms that describe main ideas and connect them with lines.

Stage Two: Shaping Every writer generates ideas in her own waysome writers brainstorm extensively before attempting to write anything; others develop ideas by writing then re-writing, scrapping, and writing more. Once a writer decides on a topic and generates ideas in a brainstorming session, you can shift attention to the processes of early shaping: establishing a focus, organizing ideas, and producing a trial draft. EstablishingaFocus This strategy helps the writer find an idea that is manageable and holds promise. At this point in the writing process, the writer has a good idea about what she wants to say, she probably has her thesis in mind, and she might even have an outlined list prepared. The next step is to narrow the scope of the information; a good way to start shaping is to consider the purpose of the work and what kind of writing assignment is at hand. Engage the student in question-and-answer dialog to pinpoint the best place to start. If the purpose is to:

Narrate or describeconsider the sequence the information needs to follow. Inform or explainconsider facts, definitions, or explanatory information that needs to be Persuade or argueconsider different opinions that will need to be addressed.
See: Kroitor, Harry P. and Lee J. Martin. The 500-Word Theme. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994. OrganizingIdeas After gathering and collecting information, the writer should think about organizing ideas in a manner that will make them clear to a specific reader or audience. Ask: Who does this writing need to appeal to? What information will he or she expect? (You can also start to consider appropriate tone and style at this point.) If the writer has an outline or some brainstorming material to work with, you can help her start to construct a logical organization. Usually writers experiment with different patterns for arranging information. Try to: Construct arguments based on supported claims (like the Toulmin model), or try logical syllogisms (claim A=B; claim B=C; therefore claim A=C). Illustrate different points and define terms using examples instead of formal definitions. Compare and contrast different points in relationship to each other. Analyze cause and effect relationships. Remember that the basic outline of any paper contains a beginning, middle, and end. Detailed explanations of these patterns are found in The St. Martins Handbook, by Andrea Lunsford and Robert Connors. You can also refer to Everythings and Argument, by Andrea Lunsford and John Ruszkiewicz. WritingaTrialDraft Now that early shaping is finished, make sure the writers thesis is still intact and that it holds the draft together. Remember what the paper is being written about, why it is being written, and to whom it is 12 included

 being written. If the writer has trouble starting a first draft, suggest she start working in chunks and put off the introduction and conclusion until a later draft. Once the writer has started the draft, encourage the writer to keep writing: it is always easier to erase first and add more later. For the second and subsequent drafts, the writer should start developing the introduction and conclusion, as well as smooth out the trial draft. (But serious polishing and editing is done in the 3rd and final stage completing.) The introduction should stimulate reader interest, as well as provide the purpose and thesis. The conclusion should remind the reader of important points, as well as close the paper in a satisfying manner. Stage Three: Completing Most consultations here at the UWC involve a completed draft that the student has already reviewed and proofread. At this point in the writing process, the writer is usually very familiar with her work and the your goal is to help the writer re-think material and to evaluate the paper from the perspective of the reader. Examine the paper constructively, not critically. The purpose of reviewing a complete draft is to ensure the final product is presentable to the target audience. The procedure for evaluating a complete draft is explained in Suggested Consultation Procedures; however, the following sections explain how you, the consultant, can approach different situations to suit the needs of individual writers. Guidelines for Teaching Grammar, Mechanics, and Usage According to the University Writing Centers philosophy, when consulting students work, emphasis should be placed on how well a text gets its point across rather than on correctness for its own sake. Therefore, the UWC does not serve as a quick-fix for grammatical errors, mechanics, or usage. However, because grammatical errors and incorrect language can often harm the effectiveness of a piece of writing, you can help the writer make the necessary corrections when these problems appear. Additionally, punctuation, style, and syntax can be used to make a text more interesting or effective. You are not expected to know the answer to every grammar question that you might confront, and it is okay to admit that you do not know something, but always attempt to search for the answer with the client. When you and the client work together to find the correct solution, the client has the opportunity to practice finding answers to her own questions. A variety of materials and handbooks that will help you help the client answer grammatical questions is located in the consultation carrels and on the reference shelf, including: Dictionaries, thesauruses, style manuals Handouts located on the rack outside the front door Online handouts and Webliography Workbooks for English literacy Rhetoric texts Readers Technical/business writing guides

Mini-guide to Frequent Errors 13

 As a writing consultant, you probably have a high degree of familiarity with the usage of standard academic English. But, just to give you an idea of what kinds of grammatical errors you will probably need to address at one point or another with a client, this section provides material explaining some of the most frequent errors that consultants see in student writing. SentenceStructure The most common problems with sentence structure are fragments and run-ons, or comma splices: 1. Fragment: a group of words punctuated as a sentence but lacking all the grammatical elements to make it a complete sentence. Make sure that: All phrases are part of a sentence instead of acting as freestanding fragments. Prepositional phrases, noun phrases, adverbial phrases, or appositive phrases can exist without a subject, a verb, or both, but they cannot act as sentences. All dependent clauses are in the same sentence as an independent clause. Look for sentences in which the dependent clause is placed before the independent clause [hint: watch out for sentences that start with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) or with other transitional words (also, because, such as, for example)] and make sure these sentences contain a complete independent clause.

2. Run-on and Comma Splices: a run-on sentence contains two independent clauses without a connecting word or punctuation to separate them. A sentence containing a comma splice appears as two independent clauses connected only by a comma. To remedy either of these problems, try: Turning one of the clauses into a dependent clause. Separating the clauses into two independent sentences. Adding a comma and coordinating conjunction as a connector. Inserting a semi-colon between the two clauses. (It has to be a semi-colon because a comma wont function between two independent clausesthat would turn a run-on sentence into a comma splice.)

EditingforCommas The uses for commas are many: commas isolate introductory material at the beginning of a sentence; separate clauses in compound or complex sentences; separate items in a list; isolate nonrestrictive information; set off interjections, direct addresses, and contrasting elements. Commas are also used to separate dates from years and cities from states. Five things to look for when editing for commas: 1. Put a comma after introductory expressions, phrases, words, and elements. (Look for transition words or phrases at the beginning of sentences such as: currently, at that time, suddenly, in conclusion, and separate them from the rest of the sentence with a comma.) 2. If you have a compound sentence (an independent + an independent clause), make sure a comma precedes any coordinating conjunction. (To remember the list of common coordinating conjunctions, try memorizing the acronym A.B. F.O.N.S.Y.and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.) 3. Look at relative clauses (clauses beginning with which, who, whom, whose) and decide if the information is pertinent to the understanding of the sentenceif it is not, isolate the clause with commas. 4. Locate all adjective clauses (clauses beginning with that), and make sure there are no commas isolating the clause.

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 5. Check your lists and series. Make sure your commas are consistent every time you have a series. AmbiguousPronouns The most common pronoun problem that you will see in student writing is ambiguity that occurs when there is disagreement or confusion between the pronoun and its corresponding antecedent. Heres the editing protocol: 1. Identify the antecedent for every pronoun. In most situations, a pronoun needs to be in the same sentence as its antecedenta pronoun that refers to an antecedent in a separate sentence is ambiguous. If a pronoun does not have an antecedent within its own sentence, then you can: Replace the pronoun with a proper noun He said its raining. Jim said its raining. Include the antecedent in the sentence somewhere before the pronoun He said its raining. Jim called, and he said its raining.

2. If there are multiple subjects or objects in a sentence that the pronoun can logically refer to, look for any confusion between the pronoun and the noun it connects with. Heidi, Marissa, and Caitlin decided to go to the park to play volleyball and to walk their dog Connie, but she stepped on a broken bottle and cut her foot. In the example there is a misunderstanding about who stepped on the broken glass? Connie or one of the three girls? You can clarify the confusion by simply replacing the pronoun with the correct noun: Heidi, Marissa, and Caitlin decided to go to the park to play volleyball and to walk their dog Connie, but Connie stepped on a broken bottle and cut her foot. MisplacedorDanglingModifiers Misplaced or dangling modifiers create sentences that are confusing or that convey unintentional meanings because the modifying words or phrases are not connected to the objects they modify. The best way to edit misplaced modifiers is to read through each sentence and look for words or phrases that are out of place or that can be interpreted incorrectly. For a writer, one of the most effective ways to identify misplaced modifiers is to ask someone else to read through a section; usually, the reader will recognize the problem more quickly than the writer, who is already familiar with what she intended to mean. Here are some examples of misplaced modifiers: 1.
Ambiguous

The fire truck sounded its siren, the fire fighters at the ready, streaking past like red lightning.

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 It is unclear what is streaking past, the fire truck or fire fighters? The sentence can be clarified by positioning the modifying phrase, streaking past like red lightning, after the object it affects.
Revised

The fire truck, streaking past like red lightning, sounded its siren, the fire fighters at the ready. The fire truck sounded its siren, the fire fighters, streaking past like red lightning, at the ready. The Grand Canyon looks tiny when zooming in a super-fast jet high over the southwestern United States.

Revised

2.

Ambiguous

Surely the Grand Canyon isnt zooming in a super-fast jet, but there is nothing else in the sentence that this phrase can modify. The sentence needs an additional element that zooming in a super-fast jet can refer to.
Revised

The Grand Canyon looks tiny when viewed by a passenger zooming in a superfast jet high over the southwestern United States.

InconsistentVerbTense The tense of a verb indicates the time when an action took place, takes place, or will take place. Choosing the appropriate verb tense is important for clarity and accuracy, but it can be difficult when writing about complex actions which require on-going actions, completed actions, future actions, or prospective actions. Additionally, different academic disciplines require a writer to use a specific tense (i.e., the present tense is used to refer to events in a work of literature, but the past tense is acceptable when writing about historical events). When explaining the different verb tenses to a writer, you might want to try doing a verb synopsis like this one using the verb to live in the first and third person singular: Present I live, he lives Past I lived, he lived Future I will live, he will live
Present Progressive Past Progressive Future Progressive Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Future Perfect Progressive I

am living, he is living I was living, he was living I will be living, he will be living I have lived, he has lived I had lived, he had lived I will have lived, he will have lived I have been living, he has been living I had been living, he had been living I will have been living, he will have been living 16

 Its easy to identify when an action takes placewhether it took place in the past, it is taking place currently, or if it will happen sometime in the future. The most common problems appear when writers confuse the basic present, past, and future tenses with any of the Progressive, Perfect, or Perfect Progressive forms. Remember: Use Progressive for action that is continuingis happening, happened, or will happen for a period of time. Use Perfect for action that is completedhappened for a period of time but is not happening now. Use Perfect Progressive for action that is definitehappened for a period of time in the past, is still happening now, but will not continue to happen forever.

InappropriateVerbVoice Verbs occur in two different voices: active and passive. The active voice is often preferred because it places emphasis on the subject performing the action rather than emphasizing the recipient of the action. Editing for passive voice is not always simple because: (1) passive voice is widely accepted in conversation and (2) sometimes it only appears after reading and interpreting the meaning of the entire sentence. But, any conjugation of the verb to be is a red-flag for passive voice. Here are some examples for to carry in the 1st person and 3rd person singular passive and some revision suggestions:
Present (passive) Revised (active) Past (passive) Revised (active) Future (passive) Revised (active)

I am being carried, he is being carried X carries me, X carries him I was being carried, he was being carried X carried me, X carried him I will be carried, he will be carried X will carry me, X will carry him

It is at the writers discretion whether the main subject of the sentence needs to perform or receive the action because there are different implications for both choices. Look at the Present example sentence above: in the passive voice, I and he are not actively participating in the action of the sentence because another subject is performing the carrying; in the active voice, the person/thing doing the carrying is the subject while me and he are the direct objects of the sentencethe writer needs to decide which interpretation is more appropriate for the meaning of the sentence. LackofSubjectVerbAgreement A verb needs to agree with its subject in person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) and in number (singular or plural). Editing for agreement between subject(s) and verb(s) is simple, even though it can seem complicated when you are dealing things like compound subjects, collective subjects, indefinite subjects, verb phrases, irregular verbs, or any other complexity. The trick is to break down the sentence, isolate the subject and its action, and then make sure they both agree. Here are some example sentences that show when and how to use the correct verbs with different subjects (all of the subjects are in the 3rd person; subjects are underlined and the verbs are italicized).

Compound subjects: take singular or plural verbs

Singular

Eating and swimming at the same time remains a dangerous combination. 17


Plural

Mike and Jen are at the store.

Collective subjects: take singular verbs

o o Half of the group is in agreement. The jury continues to deliberate.

Indefinite-pronoun subjects: take singular verbs

o o Anyone can do it. Of the applicants, no one appears qualified.

Relative pronoun subjects: the verb should agree with the pronouns antecedent (in bold)
Plural Plural Singular

The packages which arrived yesterday are on the table. You are one of those people who always do exemplary work. You are the only person who always does exemplary work.

Titles and words as subjects: take singular verbs.

o o According to some intellectuals, James Joyces Finnegans Wake is the greatest literary achievement of the 20th century. Ulysses S. Grants Personal Memoirs might be a nice gift for any American History scholar.

For advice on addressing these frequent errors, as well as any other grammatical, mechanical, or usage issue, consult any available writing handbook, style guide, or online reference. Concerning the information specifically addressed in this section, see: Andrea A. Lunsford. The St. Martins Handbook, 5th ed. Boston: Bedford St. Martins (2002).

Special Situations
The University Writing Center is a place where any student can seek assistance and advice on any writing project. One of the main purposes of the UWC is to provide every student the individual attention he/she needs in order to improve his/her writing ability. It is important for you to: Be aware that each student requires a different kind of assistance, Be aware that each student will receive advice differently, And remain flexible when consulting any student.

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 There are some special situations that arise in the consultation carrel when a student is experiencing specific challenges; students who experience anxiety when starting a writing project, students challenged by learning disabilities, students who are non-native English speakers, and students who use different varieties of English may visit the University Writing Center to seek advice on their work. This chapter provides you, the consultant, with information you need to be aware of when working with students who fit into any of these categories. This chapter also addresses some of the things you might want to keep in mind during a session with one of these students. Writers Block Even the best writers may experience the frustration and confusion that leads to an inability to write. When you consult with a writer who is blocked, reassure him or her that there is a way to break the block, with calmness, patience, and clear direction. The suggestions listed below offer strategies to help: Take a few minutes to introduce yourself and get to know something about the writer. Try asking about her hometown, major, hobbies, etc. Look for mutual interests that can serve to diffuse anxiety and produce a relaxed atmosphere. Let the writer know that everyone experiences problems starting out, and that it is better to begin than to remain stuck. Converse naturally to demonstrate that it is all right to take a break for brief intervals. Look at the topic and ask the writer to clarify the purpose of the paper. Have the writer indicate the problem area and express any opinions about how/why the impasse was reached. Do some brainstorming with the writer to develop the papers argument. Make it clear to the writer that there is more than one way to write a paper. She may be stuck because she thinks that there is only one way to approach the assignment, when there are always different approaches. Move to another part of the paper, perhaps the conclusion, and work backward. If this part has not been written, you can discuss it in order to help the writer to pull her thoughts together and visualize what is to be emphasized. Help the writer understand that the significance of a first draft is to record thoughts as they come. Editing and rearranging come later. Compliment the writers efforts and ensure that she can leave the UWC with a feeling of accomplishment and a realization of her abilities.

Source: Caposella, Toni-Lee. The Harcourt Brace Guide to Peer Tutoring. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1998.

Learning Disabilities As a Writing Center consultant with the capacity to provide individualized instruction, you are uniquely able to meet the special needs of learning disabled students. With some understanding of what the term learning disabled (LD) entails and some creative consulting, you should be able to be of true service to these students.

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 Students diagnosed as learning disabled (and probably many others who share the same characteristics but have never been diagnosed) have mild to severe problems in math, reading, writing, spelling, or in oral and written word association. They have, almost certainly, come up against the rigid constraints of academia and may have encountered academic difficulty under the increased reading and writing loads of college courses. Papers written by LD students may be distinguished from those of other students by excessive spelling or mechanical errors or by problems with sequencing, transitions, and overall organization. LD Students may have difficulty paying attention while they are reading their own papers; they may have a difficult time remembering or retaining information; some may learn better when they listen, while others have to see or even feel. In any case, when you work with LD students, it will be especially helpful to analyze and emphasize strengths as well as weaknesses in their papers. Some researchers argue, in fact, that as a students selfconcept improves, the need for support diminishes. There is sometimes dramatic improvement even without direct instruction. Areas you may wish to focus on are described below. The key to helping such students is to integrate a variety of approaches, techniques, and devices during the consulting session and to introduce oral, visual, and kinetic aids to reinforce these techniques. GeneralSuggestions Dont assume you can use the approaches you would with a student without a learning disability. Use different means of communicating at the same time. For example, talk with the student while he or she is writing. This technique will get the student more involved in the session. Try alternative techniques or tools to help the student get physically involved with the text. Computers can be helpful in this regard. Some learning disabled students focus more on transcribing rather than composing what they write. They will benefit from practicing freewriting and draft-writing, without concern for mechanics. Do not get frustrated if the student does not remember something you have said. Quite often, LD students have difficulty retaining information. You may want to be more directives in sessions with LD students. They may need more guidance and modeling, especially when it comes to surface errors. Above all, be patient with LD students. Try to maintain a cheerful and helpful attitude.

Below is an example of how a student with a Learning Disability might see a simple text. Keep in mind that although these students are perfectly intelligent, they have many more issues to attend to in the simple act of reading than other students.

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Figure1:HowanLDStudentmightseeatext

Spelling Many researchers suggest using multi-sensory approaches to spelling. Students may wish to simultaneously trace or write out a word they are learning to spell while vocalizing it over and over. Encourage students to keep lists of words they consistently misspell, and model using the dictionary when spelling is in doubt. Suggest they type their assignments on computers with spell-checkers. Some LD writers prefer a word list to a dictionary for checking spelling because it contains less information and thus is less distracting. You may want to suggest the use of index cards for troublesome words. Mechanics Mechanics are probably best taught, as Marie Wilson Nelson suggests, at the point of need that is, when the writer or reader encounters a difficulty that is related to error or a problem with usage or style. Where appropriate, you may wish to refer to a handbook and demonstrate its use. You may prefer instead to give a mini-lesson in grammar yourself, using the students text as a basis for your comments. Organization Try drawing diagrams in different ways to develop a paper through example, sequence, comparison and contrast, etc. Some students will benefit from visualizing the papers structure. Suggest that they write each paragraph on a separate page or write only on every other line. Students may benefit from

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 discussion which utilizes illustrations to visually represent transitional devices and connections in their argument. Proofreading Students may find it practically impossible to proofread their own work, but encourage them to do so. One method used is to read back to students the words or sentences in question so that they can hear any problems. Students should be able to eventually do this on their own. Computers Encourage students to use word processing software if they are not already doing so. Research suggests that word processing can be very useful for these students in particular in all stages of their writing processes. Be Creative Every learning disabled student has a different learning style; what works for one student may not work for another. You may need to cover the same material in several different ways in order to find one that works. By this time in their academic careers, LD students are probably already aware of the methods by which they learn besttry to accommodate these methods as much as possible. If not, encourage students to spend time recalling the conditions under which they have had their most successful learning experiences. It has been suggested that writers hampered by learning disabilities write more fluently and solve more of their nagging problems when they move from pen and paper to the computer. Word processors provide ease of correction, a relative freedom from fine motor and hand-eye coordination problems, the clarity of on-screen format, and editing aids. When you recognize a learning disabled writer, ask her if she finds a word processor easier to work with than a pen and paper. Also try to invite your student to sign up for regular sessions to receive individualized attention and positive responses to her writing. English as a Second Language Because students from countries all over the world attend Texas A&M University, the University Writing Center should be prepared to suit their individual needs. In this section are some general suggestions for helping international students adjust to writing in standard academic English, followed by some observations on general groupings of the major types of native languages commonly encountered in a diverse community. You are encouraged to familiarize yourself with ESL teaching through research and through using the materials on the ESL shelf in the University Writing Center library. GeneralSuggestions Always try to establish a connection with ESL students. They probably feel very uncomfortable. (After all, they are living and studying in a foreign country.) Even if they seem shy, try to draw them out by asking them about how their language works or about their studies to get them talking about something they have confidence in. Establish rapport with continuityalways invite the ESL student back to the UWC. Seeing a familiar face means a lot to some ESL students, and we want them to feel comfortable here. With ESL students, it is permissible to use a more directive approach. You may have to model or explain things that a native English speaker might know intuitively. 22

 Make sure that you are always patient. Think of how you feel when you are trying to read or write in another languageit takes time to think, translate, and concentrate. Silence is very important when you are tutoring ESL students. They need time to think through concepts that you may find very simple. Do not jump to fill the silence; rather, let the student think through the issue you are addressing. By browsing through the UWCs resources on ESL tutoring, you will find all kinds of suggestions for exercises, lessons, and techniques that you might want to encourage ESL students to work on at home.

Organization Clear, direct communication and the linear style of English academic prosewith thesis statements, blocks of information, and topic sentences to reflect organizationare not a familiar concept to many ESL writers. In the writing styles of some cultures: It is acceptable to end with a thesis statement rather than place it in the first paragraph. Digression does not reflect disorganization. Abstract or convoluted statements require the audience to read between the lines and draw its own conclusions. Elaborate and ornamental language is emphasized and does not signify insincerity or an exalted tone. Explain that in American academic prose: The main idea is stated first, with details added to explain, clarify, and support. A simple style is preferred, with a single main idea in each paragraph, supported by facts, examples, or description. Written prose should be direct, simple, and clear. Specific formats are expected in assignments, such as the five-paragraph expository theme or summaries with balance and objectivity. Also, a basic research paper organization might include an introduction, literature review, methods and material, data, results, and conclusion.

Content Many ESL writers have a good background in grammar but little experience with composing personal, persuasive, or opinion-based writing, which in their cultures might be considered inappropriate in academic writing. Explain that: It is acceptable to express convictions or write about personal experiences if a particular writing assignment requires it. Writing is a process, and revision and editing will result in an improved final written product. Communication ESL writers are sometimes unsure about appropriate behavior in an academic environment. In some foreign educational systems, it is considered rude if students question teachers because doing so would challenge the teachers authority or imply a lack of understanding. Therefore, some ESL students might be reluctant to ask questions of a consultant when they dont understand something. To ensure foreign students get the full benefit of your consulting: Anticipate questions and realize that silence may mean the student is showing respect for the teacher, or that he/she doesnt understand something. Avoid asking Do you understand? Instead, try to get the student to demonstrate proficiency, or use an example that qualifies the explanation.

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 Speak in a straightforward manner and be aware of idioms in your speech. If you use idioms, be prepared to explain them. (Idioms are phrases whose meaning cannot be directly translated from the literal meaning of the actual words.) Qualify statements. For example, say In English, this would be considered correct rather than This is the rule. This technique prevents the foreign student from feeling like his/her natural writing and language skills are not being contradicted or compromised. Be careful with your body language. Some cultures have different ways of communicating with their bodies; for example, eye contact may not be appropriate in certain cultures, and some cultures carry different boundaries of personal space. Try to mirror the student, and learn to adjust to whatever he is comfortable with.

StructuralProblems ESL writers sometimes have difficulty with word order, articles, subject-verb agreement, prepositions, converting nouns from singular to plural, homophones (there/their/theyre), logic, and plagiarism. ESL students with these problems will benefit from using an Error Log to track their most persistent mistakes. This guidebook has already discussed some grammatical information that every consultant needs to know, so there is no need to readdress the same information, but here are some common errors prevalent in ESL writing:

Word Order

In English, adjectives frequently come before the noun they modify, but in other languages this is not always the case. In Spanish the civil war would be written as la guerra civil [the war civil]. In English, adverbs usually come after the verb they modify, and most ESL writers realize this; however, in the case of to be verbs placement may vary (especially if the phrase takes an object). An ESL student might consider the following sentence correct: ESL students stumble while they speak because they are watching carefully their mistakes. In this case the adverb would directly follow are (because they are carefully watching). Articles The omission of articles is the primary problem with most ESL writers because many languages especially Asiandont use articles. (Usually in such cases articles are indicated within the meaning of the noun itself.) In English, article usage can be very irregular. However, some articles can be explained by their use with countable nouns and as definite articles: Countable nouns can be signaled by the indefinite article, a, or a specific number: a house, three houses; an experience, two experiences. Definite articles. The usually marks a specific previously mentioned noun: the men on the corner; the blue coat I want for Christmas. Agreement The person and number of the subject always agree with the person and number of the verb. 3rd person singular The dog barks all night and bothers the neighbors. 3rd person plural The dogs bark all night and bother the neighbors. The person and number of the pronoun always agrees with person and number of its antecedent unless the pronoun is indefinite (in which case it might look plural but have a singular meaning):
3rd person singular 3rd person plural Indefinite

The man left his wallet in the restaurant. The girls checked out their books. Any people who believe this are wrong. 24


Source: Boyne, Martin and Don LePan. The Broadview Book of Common Errors in English, ESL Edition. Petersborough, Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press, 1993. 152-155.

Asian and Far Eastern Languages (including various Chinese languages, Japanese, and Vietnamese) Most languages in this group do not have definite or indefinite articles. Therefore, native speakers of Asian and Eastern languages have a tendency to omit them or, as a result of over-compensation, to add too many. Verbs tend to function without conjugation. Because of this, speakers of such languages are likely to construct English sentences without -s on third person singular forms, without past tense markers, and so forth. Instead of conjugating the verb, some speakers will add tense or person markers to the infinitive, such as: It was difficult to felt. Word order is extremely important because of the lack of verb conjugation and noun declension. This leads to a rather rigid approach to the placement of various parts of speech which carries into their English writing. Errors occur frequently in the positioning of adverbs, verbs, and adjectives. Personal pronouns are either highly complicated or not important in these languages. Both extremes lead to usage problems, especially with he, she, and you. The plural form of nouns is rarely expressed. A complex system of articles leads to confusion in such areas as prepositions, negation, interrogation, and possession.

Slavic Languages (including Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian, etc.) Slavic languages have complex systems of noun declension which permit a rather loose word order. This leads to the most common problem these speakers face: following the rules of English word order. As in Asian languages, this affects adverbs, verbs, and adjectives, as well as the position of direct and indirect objects. The number of verb tenses tends to be fewer than in English, resulting in a poor understanding of the verb tense distinctions in English. The present perfect tense is particularly troubling, but the verb systems usually do distinguish between Perfect and Imperfect aspects. Definite and indefinite articles are rarely expressed in these languages. The verb be either does not exist or is not used to the same extent as in English. A common error is the simple subject-predicate construction like "He teacher, she engineer. Double negatives are permissible in Slavic languages; simple negative participles are used to form the negative. Possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives, distinguished in English, tend to be identical in Slavic languages. As in many other languages, the relative pronouns who and which are not distinguished in Slavic languages. The same technique (infixing) is employed to form the comparative and superlative forms of the adjective. The distinctions between much and many and few and little are not clear to Slavic speakers. This presents problems with countable and uncountable nouns. Romance Languages (including French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese) Adjectives can be placed after the nouns they modify, something which is rare in English. In Romance languages, comparative adjectives are formed like: more big, while in English, comparative adjectives are formed by adding the suffix -er to the adjective (i.e., big

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 becomes bigger). Superlative adjectives are also unfamiliar to native speakers of Romance languages. There is confusion between animate and inanimate forms of the relative pronoun (i.e., who and which). In addition, the words for that and what are often not distinguished. In most Romantic languages, object pronouns precede the verb and the rules governing the position and order of object pronouns are strict. While strictness itself is not problematic, the rules are not followed in English. Reflexive verbs are more common, often expressing concepts for which English does not require a reflexive. Particles, not auxiliaries, are used to form negatives and interrogatives. Double negatives are permissible. While word order is often parallel, the position of adverbs can fluctuate greatly. The present tense is often used for the future in constructions like Tomorrow I come to see you. Articles tend to be over-used in English translations of Romance sentences. There is particular overuse of the definite article. With the exception of Spanish, progressive tenses do not exist. This leads to problems in constructing sentences which require a distinction between simple and progressive tenses. Although grammatical gender does not pose too many problems in itself, it affects possession. Possessive adjectives agree with what is possessed, and not with who is possessing. A distinction like that between her dog and his dog would not exist.

Consulting with Students Using Nonacademic Varieties of English Writers who speak different varieties of English do not always have a complete knowledge of written Edited American English, but others are adept at switching between varieties of English as appropriate for the situation. Some use their alternate Englishes mostly in their speech, and features of these varieties may transfer to their writing. Colloquial or other nonacedmic versions of English can be appropriate in some types of writing; however, in most academic writing, students will have to adhere to the conventions of edited academic English. Working with a student who is not accustomed to using edited academic English is, in many ways, similar to working with ESL students, and some of the same general suggestions apply. However, as native English speakers, they do struggle with specific challenges. Here are some things to keep in mind: GeneralSuggestions Be prepared to take a lot of time and have a lot of patience. These students may not have the intuitive understanding of the conventions of edited academic English that you do. Do not offend students who use different or more colloquial varieties of English; the way they speak and write, although different, is perfectly legitimate. Be careful about the students feelings. They may have little confidence in their abilities because of much criticism and negative feedback (often unjustified) from teachers and academics. They may also feel positively about the variety of English they normally use. Studies have shown that some students feel that using more standard forms of English betrays their culture. It is not true that edited American English is the only correct Englishit is one variety of English among many. Remember that no one actually speaks the English we use in academic writing; no ones English is pure.

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 Many of the strategies that work for ESL students will also work for these writers. Refer to the ESL section for more suggestions. Error Logs may prove helpful. Students can keep a log of their errors in order to learn which mistakes they make most frequently. Help students use their alternative Englishes as strength. Explain that there are many ways to write, and every writer needs to find the way that works best for a given rhetorical situation. Students need to know they can make choices and that in some situations even their spoken or colloquial variety of English may be appropriate. Remind them that good writers often violate reader expectations for stylistic effect or emphasis, using spoken varieties of English where in unexpected places. Help students analyze models of the type of writing they are trying to produce.

For more information and a good discussion on how and when to use Non-Standard Varieties of English in academic writing, see Lunsford, Andrea and Robert Connors. The St. Martins Handbook, 2nd edition or later, Chapter 28.

Computer-Assisted Consultations Computer-assisted consultations can occur at any stage of writing: prewriting, drafting, or editing/proofreading. Regardless of the written work, make sure the client has his or her own storage media: we cannot furnish disks For prewriting, you might ask the client to start with a blank screen and go through a series of questions that generate content. (See information on invention in this manual or in any good writing textbook.) You might work together on composing a thesis or the opening lines of a letter. Or you might generate some ideas, ask the client to write on his own, then come back to see how the writing went. In the drafting stages, consultations over a computerized draft should be much like a consultation where a paper draft is shared. The client should have control of the keyboard and should be reading the text aloud. The session should focus on the text itself as a work in progress rather than on its format or final form. Suggest that the client use a duplicate of her latest draft for your session, so that she can work freely with changing or moving the text, while still keeping track of the pre-session text. This is also a helpful precaution against a text being lost or corrupted. The advantage of a session using a screen version of the paper is that clients may be more likely to experiment with diction, organization, or other elements of style. Changes can be made, viewed, and assessed rapidly and undone as well. Try to encourage a dynamic interaction whereby the client makes changes during the session. For example, consider showing two versions of a sentence or paragraph on the screen for comparison. In the editing or proofreading stages, youll probably find it necessary to move quite a bit between the screen and hard copy. Also, you may have to help more with software issues (for example, how to change margins or created footers) at this stage. Encourage clients NOT to depend on their spell check. Ask them to print out a hard copy and read carefully since (1) spell checkers do not catch all errors; and (2) proofing on-line is hard on the eyes and the brain. If you are checking format or document design, youll want clients to compare what they see on the screen with what appears on the printed page. 27

 On-line Consultations (OWLs) At the UWC, your purpose is to help clients become independent writers. One way to lead the writer to such independence is to consult not prescriptively, but dialogically. Through questions that form conversation, you nudge writers into solving their own composing, revising, and editing problems. Such consultations are models for the writers future problem-solving challenges. However, some worry that an online writing lab (OWL) session does not always encourage problem-solving, collaboration, or independence. While conducting an online session, it may be more difficult to maintain the ordinary emphasis on active and independent learning. You may be tempted to simply correct the text, rather than explain the rationale behind a correction or build a dialog with the client. Most consultants have given considerable thought to these issues. Below you will suggestions on how to handle some common concerns and OWL responses written by UWC consultants. These are good models to follow when answering online questions: What do I do if a paper is very long and needs a lot of work? Do I have to write out every detail?

You should not spend more than 30-45 minutes on an OWL. Do not write out every detail; instead, find the main issues and address these. It may help to look for patterns, habits, or repeated problems so that you can correct one instance and direct the writer to find and correct the others. As always, tell the student your plan and end with a suggestion for follow-up. Consultant Example
Hi Lauren! Thank you for submitting your paper to our OWL. Another consultant and I both had a look at your paper. Because your paper was a little long, I won't be able to go over everything in detail in this response. First of all, we're not quite sure what your paper is supposed to be about. You have a thesis, but it's not very specific. What is the point? Why are you talking about all this? Can you specifically tie in each point of your thesis to human rights (which we think is what your paper is supposed to be about)? I had a little trouble following the organization of your paper. It seems to flow like a narrative, moving from paragraph to paragraph. However, for an academic paper, this might not be the best choice. Generally for academic papers, you try to have each section account for one of the major points outlined in your thesis. Can you combine a lot of the paragraphs? Can you give a topic sentence at the beginning of these new paragraphs that outline the way you'll present the arguments/history within the paragraphs? You seemed to use a variety of words, so your word choice seems ok. However, your paper was long, and I might have missed a few words you might have repeated. To catch these, try reading the paper out loud to yourself. Because your paper is very long, and you'd like help in a variety of areas, I would recommend that you make an appointment to come into the writing center to go over it in person with a consultant. We're located on the second floor of Evans library. We're open Monday-Thursday from 9:00am-10:00pm, Friday from 9:00am-2:00pm, and Sunday from 6:00pm-10:00pm. You can make an appointment or just drop by for a walk-in.

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Thank you again for using the OWL, and we look forward to seeing you! Jodi

A personal connection can make all the difference. Do not assume a student is using the OWL because she is lazy or wants you to do all the work. Students who use our services online expect and deserve the same courtesy and attention that students who visit us in person receive. Use names, yours and the students. Tone may not come across as well in writing as in speaking, so make an extra effort, even to the point on overdoing it, to be cheerful, positive, and tactful. Consultant Example
Hi Abby! Thank you for submitting your paper to the University Writing Center OWL. I tried to address all the issues that you indicated in your online request and I included some comments, mainly referring to passive voice, grammar, and punctuation. I am attaching the paper with my comments included. As for your organization, you provided topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph and I believe your paper flows well. However, the last section of your paper (your conclusion) seems to be a bit underdeveloped. You may want to work on it some more, especially when it comes to the issues related to the correlation between the gender/quantity of snacks consumed daily and the weight of Aggie Band members. Another issue that you may want to consider is diction, i.e. word choice. You are using a lot of words that some instructors define as meaningless or do not like to see in a research paper, such as the verb to be, for instance. Try to replace these words with more meaningful, less common ones, but at the same time try not to overuse your thesaurus. I hope I was able to address all of the issues you were concerned with. If not, please do not hesitate to make an appointment to come to the Writing Center to go over your paper in person with a consultant. We are located on the second floor of Evans Library, right past Current Periodicals section. We are open Monday-Thursday from 9:00am-10:00pm, Friday from 9:00am-2:00pm, and Sunday from 6:00pm10:00pm. You can make an appointment or just drop by for a walk-in. Thank you again for using the OWL, and we look forward to seeing you! Have a great evening and good luck with your project! Masha How can I help the student become a better writer? I am not sure this is possible without dialogue.

How can I keep an individual/personal connection with students in online consultations?

You are having dialogue in an OWL, but it is more extended and slower. Dont fall into the trap of forgetting that you are writing to an individual. Asking questions and providing resources are ways to show you expect action on the part of the student. Consultant Example

Mark, Thank you for submitting your paper. Overall, your paper seemed to be well-written. However, I do have a few comments to make regarding grammar and punctuation. These tips can be applied to your entire paper, as well as your writing, in general. When you begin a sentence with introductory phrases, you should follow with a comma. For example, in the sentence, "Further Faulkner condemns and laments those who would try to control nature," there should be a comma after "Further." 29

 What citation method are you using? If you are using MLA, then the internal citation should be (Author page #), with no comma between the author and the page number. If there is no author, then use the first few words of the citation as listed on the Works Cited page. The link to the MLA worksheet is as follows: http://library.tamu.edu/portal/binary/com.epicentric.contentmanagement.servlet.ContentDeliveryServlet/ WORLD-SHARE/Instructional%20Services/Intranet/Handouts/Citations/Using%20MLA%20Format.pdf When using appositives, or phrases that can be left out of a sentence without changing the meaning of that sentence, be sure to put commas before and after the phrase. For example, in the sentence "This influence particularly after the blood ceremony with the deer, changes Isaac to be respectful of the land and nature," there should be a comma after "influence." When describing a situation, you may want to use a colon to distinguish the situation from the rest of the sentence. For example, in the sentence "Faulkner bombards the scene with a plethora of images, the statuesque buck rising from the undergrowth calmly, and elegant; aware of the presence of the young boy and fathers, but uninterrupted," a colon might be useful after "images." Also, you want to make sure that your adjectives are in the same form. For example, you either want to say "calmly, and elegantly," or "calm, and elegant." If you have any other questions, feel free to make an appointment to visit with one of our consultants. This can be done by calling 979-458-1455 or by visiting our website at writingcenter.tamu.edu. Thank you. I am worried that it is too easy to edit online rather than tutor. What if they ask me to proofread?

Simple. Dont do it! And explain our policy if you need to. Then offer acceptable help, rather than just say We dont proofread, so I cant help.
Daphne, I am required to tell you that I cannot edit your paper for you. I am also not allowed to let you know how I feel about your paper gradewise simply because what I think about the quality of your paper doesn't really matter; it's what your professor thinks that does. That being said, I can definitely help you identify some problem areas that you seem to be having that you can look closely for in your paper. 1. Look out for comma usage after prepositional phrases and introductory words. Ex. In the country of Mexico, people speak Spanish. Ex. Therefore, the results were inconclusive. Ex. Next, the boy washed his hair. 2. Make sure that you have used commas and necessary conjunctions to separate clauses in a sentence. Ex. While I waited for a table, my sister went to the restroom. Ex. I waited for a table, and my sister went to the restroom. Ex. He wanted to make a good grade, but he didn't have time to study. 3. Be aware that spell check does not catch words that have the same sound but do not mean the same thing. 4. Make sure you're using possessive apostrophes appropriately. Ex. The mother's children were rowdy. (one mother) 30

Consultant Example

 Ex. The mothers' children were rowdy. (more than one mother) Look on our website for handouts that you can use to aid you in some of these items!! Allison How do I help clarify a students writing when I dont know what hes trying to say?

Let the student know directly and clearly about what confuses you. That is valuable feedback. This may be a good time to suggest a face-to-face consultation. Consultant Example
Zhe, Thank you for submitting your paper. I have attached a copy of your paper with some suggestions that I made. I will also go over some of the more prevalent problems that I noticed in your paper. There seemed to be a few places where you needed an article. There is no easy way to learn where to put an article; it is just something that is learned over time and through use. However, if you care to stop by the Writing Center, we have some handouts that may help with the learning process. I noticed that you used the term "Older adults'" several times in your paper. I know that this is the main focus of your paper, but you may want to consider using another phrase to describe the senior citizens. There were some phrases and sentences that were a little confusing to me, and I was unsure of the point that you were trying to convey. For this type of problem, it is usually easier to have a face-to-face consultation with someone so that you can explain, to the consultant, what you are trying to say in the sentences. However, I have highlighted a few of the confusing phrases and made suggestions so that you can go over them. If you have any more questions, feel free to come in and visit with one of our consultants. Since you are a graduate student, you cannot make an appointment since only undergraduates pay the Writing Center Fee. However, since your paper is due tomorrow at 11AM, you could come in at 9AM, as a walk-in client, for a quick overview. Again, thank you for submitting your paper. I hope my suggestions were helpful.

Stay on a general level by grouping the types of problems you see and suggesting one or two corrections only, then letting the student know there is more work for him to do. Suggest resources that would let him work independently. Consultant Example
Hi Mark, Thank you for submitting your paper to the University Writing Center OWL. Your paper seems to be very interesting and quite poetic; I really liked some of the metaphors and imagery you used. As for the concerns you indicated in you online request, one of the most prevailing errors in your paper is comma usage. I noticed that you frequently forget to use introductory commas after dependent clauses. I think reading our handout on Proofreading for Commas would be highly beneficial for you: http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/content/view/25/78/ I also noticed that you underlined certain words in the first part of your paper (e.g. externally, omniscient, animalistic, etc.). Im not sure if there is a specific reason for you to do this. If not, make sure you fix this before submitting your paper. I also noticed that you had problems with comma splices, run ons, and fragments. To be more specific, 31

How do I give general feedback without commenting on every mistake?

 the following sentence, for instance, is just a fragment (not a full sentence) and needs to be rephrased: Particularly when I took the small boat out to the middle by lamp and would drop my line, anchor and extinguish the light. Heres another fragment (which also requires rephrasing): How life seems to stand still as the sun or moon overpass with time. Our handout on Comma Splices, Run Ons, and Fragments may be helpful in this case: http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/content/view/13/78/ Furthermore, the following sentence sounds a bit awkward to me as the object of your discussion is not clearly defined: While men have come to it and used it, Thoreau sees that it stays relatively unchanged, a protected sanctuary from the encroachment of society. Finally, I think you need to be a bit more specific in answering the exam question (Are all people capable of these experiences by being in his position or only Thoreau?). In your paper you are discussing your own experiences as well as those of your family and friends, but do not seem to address this particular question in a straightforward manner. I hope you will find my comments helpful. If you have any further questions, please feel free to either send us a message through the OWL contact us at our Write Line (979) 845-2160 (for quick-help tips and hints) or give us a call at (979) 458-1455 to make an appointment with a Writing Consultant. Thank you again for using the OWL, and good luck with your finals! Masha

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