THE BOOK WAS

DRENCHED

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""

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Q&MANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY &A i!?r

,

Accession No.

Author

This book should be returned on or before the date last marked below*;

COMMENTARY
NEW TON'S PRINC1PIA.
A SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME.

PES1ONKD TOR THK

I'SF.

OF STUDKNTS AT

Till-:

L'XIVFJISITIES

J.
I

M.

F.

WRIGHT.
1'ROni

A. B.
AUTHOR OF
Xo.

-VTK

SCHOLVtt OF TRIVITV CO! LKT.F, CXMBRTTH^.K,

OF 1HK (MMnniTH.K

KMS,

<!Cr.

IX T\VO

VOLUMES.
I.

VOL.

LO N DON
PRINTED FOR
T.
T.

&

J.

TEGG,
CO.,

73,

CHEAPSIDE:

AND RICHARD

GRIFFIN &

GLASGOW.

MDCCCXXXIlf.

GLASGOW

GEORGE BROOK MAN, PRIMER, VILLA PlfcLD.

TO THE TUTORS
OF THE

SEVERAL COLLEGES AT CAMBRIDGE.

THESE PAGES,
WHICH WERE COMPOSED WITH THE VIEW
OF PROMOTING THE STUDIES

OVER WHICH THEY SO ABLY PRESIDE.

ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED
BY THEIR DEVOTED SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

in which the Glasgow Edition of Newton's Prinbeen received, a second impression being already on the verge of publication, has induced the projectors and editor of that work, to
flattering

THE

manner

cipia has

render, as they

humbly conceive,

their labours

still

more

acceptable,

by

From amongst the presenting these additional volumes to the public. several testimonies of the esteem in which their former endeavours have
been held,
avoid the charge of self-eulogy, to select the following, which, coming from the high authority of French mathematical criticism, must be considered at once as the more decisive and impartial.
it

may

suffice, to

It
<le

has been said by one of the

Glasgow

fait

" I/edition geometers of France, that honneur aux presses de cette ville industrieuse. On peut
first

a la memoire de Newton.

un plus bel hommage merite de 1'impression, quoique tres-remarquable, n'est pas ce que les editeurs out recherche avec le plus cle soin, pour tant le materiel de leur travail, ils pouvaient s'en rapporter a 1'habiaffirmer que jarmiis Tart typographique ne rendit

Le

lite

de leur

artistes

mais

le

choix des meilieures editions, la revision

la

plus scrupuleuse du

texte et des epretives, la recherche attentive des fautes

qui pourraient echapper meme au lecteur studieux, et passer inapercues ce travail consciencieux de Pintelligence et du savoir, voila ce qui eleve
cette edition au-dessus

de toutes " Les editeurs de Glasgow ne

S'ils

celles qui I'ont precedee.

s'etaient

charges que d'un travail de reet complcter Vceuvre des

vision.

avaicnt confu

le

prqJt cFamelrorer
a3

**

PREFACE.
les

conmentateurs, Us auraient sans doute employe, comme eux>

successeurs de

travaux des
Principes.

Newton sur les questions traitees dans " Les descendans de Newton sont nombreux,
titres incontestibles
;

le livre des

et

leur genealogie est

prouvee par des

ceux qui vivent aujourd'hui verraient

sans doute avec satisfaction que Pon format

un tableau de

leur famille, en

reunissant les productions les plus rernarquables dont Pouvrage de

Newton

a fourni le germe

que ce
ses

livre

immortel
:

soit

entoure de tout ce Pon pent

regarder

comme

developpemens

voilti

son meilleur commentaire.

et

Uedition de Glasgow pourrait done

enrichie"

etre continuce^

prodigieusement

The same
bonne
laissti

philosopher takes occasion again to remark, that

la gloire

c*

Le

plus

beau monument que Pon puisse clever a

edition de ses ouvrages
:

de Newton,
les

c'est

une

et

il

est

etonnant que

Anglais en aient

ce soin aux nations etrangeres.

partie, le tort

Les presses de Glasgow viennent

nation Anglaise
belle, la
:

de reparer, en

de

la

la nouvelle edition

des Principes est effectivement la plus

plus correcte et la plus com-'

mode qui

ait parujusqu'ici*

La

collation des anciennes editions, la revi-

sion des calculs, &c. ont ete confiees a

un habile mathemadcien

et rien

n'a cte neglige

pour

eviter toutes les erreurs et toutes les omissions.

ll,faut esperer

que

les editeurs

continueront leur belle entreprise, et

tous les

qtfils

seront assez encourages

pour nous donner9 non seulement

ouvrages de Newton, mais ceux des savans qui ont complete ses travanx."

The encouragement

here anticipated has not been withheld, nor has

the idea of improving and completing the

comments of "The

Jesuits",

contained in the Glasgow Newton, escaped us, inasmuch as long before

these hints were promulgated,
principally as
ten.

had the following work, which is composed a succedaneum to the former, been planned, and partly writhowever, a pleasing confirmation of the justness of our

It is at least,

own

conceptions, to have encountered even at

any time with these

after-

suggestions.

The

plan of the work

is,

nevertheless, in several respects,

a deviation from that here so forcibly recommended

The

object of the

first

volume

is,

to

make

the text of the Principia,

by

PREFACE.

Vll

in the very concise demonstrations of the prosupplying numerous steps

positions,

and

illustrating

them by every conceivable

device, as easy as
It
is

can be desired by students even of but moderate capacities.

sally

univer-

known, that Newton composed

this

wonderful work in a very hasty

manner, merely selecting from a huge mass of papers such discoveries as

would succeed each other as the connecting

links of

one vast chain, but

without giving himself the trouble of explaining to the world the

fabricating those links.

mode

of

His comprehensive mind could, by the

feeblest

exertion of

its

powers, condense into one view

position even heretofore uncontemplated.

many syllogisms of a proWhat difficulties, then, to hi\n

;

would seem
which he
little
is

his

own

discoveries

Surely none

and the modesty

for

proverbially remarkable, gave him

in his

own

estimation so

the advantage of the rest of created beings, that he

deemed these

difficulties as

easy to others as to himself: the lamentable consequence of

is

which humility has been, that he himself

day

scarcely

comprehended

at this

a century from the birth of the Principia,

in the first place, the Lectures of

We have had,

Whiston, who des-

cants not even respectably in his lectures delivered at Cambridge,

upon

the discoveries of his master.

Then

there follow even lower and less

for such

competent interpreters of

this great

prophet of science

Newton

must have been held

in those

dark days of knowledge

whom

it

would be

time mis-spent to dwell upon.

But the

first, it

would seem, who properly

estimated the Principin, was Clairaut.

After a lapse of nearly half a cen-

tury, this distinguished geometer not only

acknowledged the truths of the

Principia, but even extended the domain of Newton and of Mathematical

Science.

But even Clairaut did not condescend

to explain his views

and

perceptions to the rest of mankind, farther than

discoveries.

by publishing

his

own

For these we owe a

benefited,

vast debt of gratitude, but should have

sort of run-

been

still

more highly

had he bestowed upon us a

It is

ning Commentary on the Principia.

that the greater portion of the

generally supposed, indeed,

called

Commentary

Madame

Chastellet's,

was due to Clairaut.

The

best things, however, of that

work are

alto-

PREFACE
At any
work does not

gether unworthy of so great a master; at the most, showing the penoim-

ance was not one of his own seeking.

deserve the
safely

rate, this

name

of a

Commentary on

the Principia.

be affirmed of many

other productions intended to

is

The same may facilitate Newmore than

the

ton,
.

Pemberton's View, although a bulky tome,

Maclaurin's
speculations
also

little

a eulogy.

do but

little,

elucidate

dark passages of the Principia, although written more immediately for

heavy unreadable performance, and not worthy a place on the same shelf with the other works of that great
that purpose.

This

is

also a

geometer.

Another great mathematician, scarcely

field.

inferior to Maclaurin,

has also laboured unprofitably in the same

is

Emerson's Comments

a book as small in value as

it is

in bulk, affording

no helps worth the

perusal to the student.

pia,

Thorpe's notes to the First Book of the Princi-

however, are of a higher character, and in

many
to

instances

do

really

facilitate the reading of Newton.

Jebb's notes upon certain sections deserve

the same commendation

and praise ought not

be withheld from several

other commentators,

who have more

or less succeeded in making small

more accessible to the student portions of the Principia

such as the Rev.

Mr. Newton's work, Mr.

It

Carr's,

Mr. Wilkinson's, Mr. Lardner's, &c.

fall far

must be confessed, however,

that all these

short in value of the

very learned labours, contained in the Glasgow Newton, of the Jesuits

Le Seur and
ever, to be
first

Jacquier, and their great coadjutor.

to this erudite production,

Mucli remained, howand subsequently

to its

added even

appearance much has been excogitated, principally by the mathema-

ticians of

Cambridge, that focus of science, and native land of the Princi-

pia,

of which, in the composition of the following pages, the author has

liberally availed himself.

The most

valuable matter thus afforded are the

Tutorial

MSS.

in circulation at

Cambridge.

Of these, which

are used in

explaining

Newton

to the students

by the Private Tutors

there, the author

confesses to have had abundance, and also to have used them so far as seem-

ed auxiliary to his own resources.

ed, that
little

But

at the

same time it must be remarkall

has been the assistance hence derived, or, indeed, from

PREFACE.
other

IX

known

sources, which from the

first

have been constantly

at

com-

mand.

The

plan of the work being to

make

those parts of

Newton easy which

that portion of the

are required to

be read
is

at

Cambridge and Dublin,

Principia which
viz.

better read in the elementary works

on Mechanics,

the preliminary Definitions,

Laws of Motion, and

and

their Corollaries,
fifth,

has been disregarded.

For

like reasons the fourth

sections have

been but

little

dwelt upon.

The

eleventh section and third book have

not met with the attention their importance and intricacy would seem to

demand, partly from the circumstance of an excellent Treatise on Physics, of such labours; and by Mr. Airey, having superseded the necessity
second partly because in the
treated after the easier and

volume the reader

will find the

same

subjects

The
and

first

section of the
that,

first

more comprehensive methods of Laplace. book has been explained at great length,
of what has

it is

presumed

for the first time, the true principles

been so long a subject of contention been

fully established.
it

in the scientific

world, have there

It is

humbly thought

(for in these intricate specu-

lations
in so

is

folly to

be proudly confident), that what has been considered

many

lights

and so variously denominated Fluxions, Ultimate Ratios,

is

Differential Calculus, Calculus of Derivations, &c. &c.

here laid
It is also

down
hoped
is

on a basis too firm

to

be shaken by future controversy.

that the text of this section, hitherto held almost impenetrably obscure,

now

laid

open

to the view of

most students.

The same

merit

it is

with some

confidence anticipated will be awarded to the illustrations of the 2nd, 3rd,

6th, 7th, 8th,

and 9th

sections, which, although not so recondite, require

much

explanation, and

many of

the steps to be supplied in the

demonfirst

stration of almost every proposition.

Many

of the things in the

volume are new

so vast
it

to the author, but very probably not original in realityresults of science already accumulated.

and various are the

Suffice

to observe, that if they prove useful in unlocking the treasures of the

Principia, the author will rest satisfied with the

meed of approbation,

which he

will to that extent

have earned from a discriminating and im-

partial public.

PREFACE.
The
ment
second volume
is

designed to form a sort of Appendix or SuppleIt gives the principal discoveries

to the Principia.

of Laplace, and,

indeed, will be found of great service, as an introduction to the entire

perusal of the immortal work of that author

the Mecanique Celeste.

This volume

is

prefaced

by much

useful matter relative to the Integradifficult

tion of Partial Differences

and other

branches of Abstract

Ma-

thematics, those powerful auxiliaries in the higher departments of Physical

Astronomy, and which appear in almost everv page of the Mecanique Celeste. These and other preparations, designed to facilitate the comprehension of the Newton of these days,
fully acceptable to the
will,
it

is

presumed, be found
prosecuting
;

more advanced

readers,

who may be

researches even in the remotest and most hidden receptacles of science

and, indeed, the author trusts he

in his expectations,

is

by no means unreasonably exorbitant

when he

predicates of himself that throughout the

undertaking he has proved himself a labourer not unworthy of reward.

THE AUTHOR,

COMMENTARY

NEWTON'S PRINCIPfA.

SECTION
1.

I.

BOOK

I.

Tim

section

i^

introductory to the succeeding part of the work.

It

comprehends the substance of the method of Exhaustions of the Ancients, and also of the Modern Theories, variously denominated Fluxions, Dif~
ferential Calculus,
Calculus

them
ther,

it

treats of the relations

in

Like of Derivations, Functions, &c. &c. which Indefinite quantities bear to one ano-

and conducts

general by a nearer route to precisely the same

results.
2. In what precedes this section, Jinite quantities only are considered, such as the spaces described by bodies Jinitc times moving uniformly with Jinitc velocities ; or at most, those described bodies whose mo-

by

tions
of

i\v<?fM~l/brmly accelerated^

But what follows

relates to the motions

to various hypotheses, and requires the consideration of quantities indefinitely small or great, or of hiich whose Ration, by their decrease or increase, continually approximate to certain Limiting Values, but which they cannot reach be the quantities ever so

bod iestuxehr ni ted according

or augmented. These Limiting Ratios are called by Newton, " Prime and Ultimate Ratios," Prime Ratio meaning the Limit from which the Ratio of two quantities diverges, and Ultimate Ratio that towards which the Ratio To the term Liconverges.

much diminished

prevent ambiguity, miting Ratio will subsequently be used throughout this Commentary.

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

LEMMA

I.

3. QUANTITIES AND THE RATIOS OF QUANTITIES.] Hereby Newton would infer the truth of the Lemma not only for quantities mensurable

by Integers> but

also for such as

may be denoted by Vulgar

Fractions.

necessity or use of the distinction is none ; there being just as much reason for specifying all other sorts of quantities. The truth of the LEMMA

The

does not depend upon the species of quantities, but upon their confor-

mity with the following conditions,

4.

viz.

and approach nearer to each other than by any given difference. They must tend continually to equathat is, every Ritio of their successive corresponding values must be lity,
continually to equality,

That they tend

nearer and nearer a Ratio of Equality, the number of these convergencies being without end. By given difference is merely meant any that can be assigned or proposed.

FINITE TIME.] Newton obviously introduces the idea of time in this enunciation, to show illustratively that he supposes the quantities to con5.

verge continually to equality, without ever actually reaching or passing that and since to fix such an idea, he says, " before the end of that state
;

was moreover necessary to consider the* time Finite. Hence " or of our author would avoid the charge of " Fallacia Suppositions " the hypothesis" For it is contended that if you frame certain shifting relations between actual quantities, and afterwards deduce conclusions
time,"
it
,

from such

on the supposition of the quantities having vanished, such conclusions are illogically deduced, and ought no more to subsist
relations
this

than the quantities themselves. In the Scholium at the end of

says,

Section he

is

more

explicit.

He

The ultimate Ratios,

in which quantities vanish, are not hi reality the

;

Ratios of Ultimate quantities

tities

but the Limits to which the Ratios

,-

continually decreasing always approach

at,

of' quanwhich they never can pass

beyond or arrive
diminished.

unless the quantities are continually

and

indefinitely

however, neither our Author himself nor any of his Commentators, though much has been advanced upon the subject, has
After
all,

obviated this objection.

Analyst remain

to this

Bishop Berkeley's ingenious criticisms in the day unanswered. He therein facetiously denomi-

nates the results, obtained from the supposition that the quantities, before

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
finite

considered

and
it

real,

have vanished, the

is

" Ghosts of Departed

his

Quantities /' and

appellation.

must be admitted there

is,

reason as well as wit in the

The

fact

Newton

himself, if

we may judge from

says,

own

GIVEN are augmented continually, their Ultimate Ratio will be a Ratio of Equality," had no knowledge of the true nature of his Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios. If there be meaning in words, he plainly supposes in this passage, a mere Approximation to be
is

words in the above whose DIFFERENCE

cited Scholium,

where he

" If two

quantities,

the same with an Ultimate Ratio.

pressed in

namely, than by any assignable difference, by supposing the difference of the quantities continually augmented to be given, or In this always the same. sense the whole Earth, compared with the whole Earth minus a grain of
sand, would constitute an Ultimate Ratio of equality ; whereas so long as any, the minutest difference exists between two quantities, they cannot be

Lemma

I.

loses sight of the condition exthat the quantities tend to equality nearer

He

But it is now to be shown, that two quantities tend continually to equality, and approach to one If another nearer titan by any assignable difference, their Ratio is ULTIMATEsaid to
6.

be more than nearly equal.

LY

a Ratio of

ABSOLUTE
all

equality.

This may be demonstrated as

fol-

lows, even without supposing the quantities ultimately evanescent.

It is
if in

acknowledged by

writers

0, any equation put the aggregate of each species

on Algebra, and indeed self-evident, that there be quantities absolutely different in kind,
is

separately equal to 0.

For example,
0,
1

if

A +
since

a
is

+ B V~2 +
rational,

b V~2
b)

A +

(B

+ C V~^~\ = V 2 surd and C V

=
C =

imaginary,

they cannot in any way destroy one another by the opposition of signs,

and therefore

A +

0,

B +

0,

0.

if logarithms, exponentials, or any other quantities from one another constitute an equation like the above, differing essentially This being premised, let L, L' dethey must separately be equal to 0. note the Limits, whatever they are, towards which the quantities L + 1,

In the same manner,

L'

1'

ot continually converge, and suppose their difference, in any state

the convergence, to be

D.
L'

Then

L +
or

_ L'
V

1'

=
1,

-D=
and
2

D,
0,
1',

and since L, L' are fixed and former are independent of the

definite,
latter,

always variable, the

and we have

A COMMENTARY ON L

[SECT.

I.

L
L'
s= 0, or y->

1,

accurately.

Q.

e.

d.

This way of considering the question, it is presumed, will be deemed free from every objection. The principle upon which it rests depending the nature of the variable quantities, and not upon their evanescence, upon
(as
it is

ferent natures),

equally true even for constant quantities provided they be of difit is hoped we have at length hit upon the true and lo-

gical

method of expounding the doctrine of Prime and Ultimate Ratios*

or of Fluxions* or of the Differential Calculus* &c. It may be here remarked, in passing, that the Method of Indeterminate
Coefficients*

which

is

at

bottom the same as that of Prime and Ultimate

in

Ratios,

is

treated

illogically

most books of Algebra.

Instead of
others,

shifting the hypothesis," as is done in by making x == 0, in the equation

"

Wood, Bonnycastle and

a
it is

+ bx + cx*+dx 3 +
know that each term x being
rest,

0,
is

sufficient to

indefinitely variable*

he-

terogeneous compared with the

and consequently that each term

must equal
T.

0.

Having

established the truth of

to

LEMMA

I.

on incontestable
produce

princi-

ples,

we proceed

make such

applications as

may

results useful

to

our subsequent comments.

As

these applications relate to the Limits

of the Ratios of the Differences of Quantities, we shall term, after Leibnitz, the Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios,

THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

8.

stant quantities,

According to the established notation, let and z, y, x, &c., variable ones.

a, b, c,

&c
let

denote conz,

Also

y,

x,

&c., represent the difference between any two values of

spectively.
9.

z, y, x,

&c., re-

the

Required the Limiting or Ultimate Ratio of A (a x) and A x, i. e. Limit of the Difference of a Rectangle having one side (a) constant* and

the other (x) variable*

and of

the .Difference

Let

L be the

Limit sought, and

L +

of the variable side. any value whatever of the va-

rying Ratio.

Then

LOL^L-_-

= L =

,.

by

No

a.

BOOK L]
In
this instance the

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Ratio
is

the

same

for all values of x.

But

if in

the

Limit we change the characteristic

into d,

we have

L(if>

dx

= =

t
I

or

(b) v

d
d
(a x),
10.

(a x)

x-J

d x being

called the Differentials of a

x and x

respectively.

Required the Limit of

Afx*)

Let
rally.

be the Limit required, and

L +
x)
*

the value of the Ratio gene-

Then

L +
2 X

A(x

~~
2

(x

Ax

AX + AX 2
.-.

and since

L L

2 x

Ax=0
1

2 x and

Ax
0,

are heterogeneous

2 x
or

L = x2
and
.*.

--^-2x ~ 2x d x
or

d (x
1 1.

2 x d x

........
A

(c)

Generally^ required the Limit of

(X") ^~.
itself re-

Let

L
,

and

L +

be the Limit of the Ratio and the Ratio

spectively.

Then
1

T L +

A (X ^ ^-

=
1

(X

AX) x
1)

= nx
and

n. (n

^-

^-x

-2

Ax +

&c.

being essentially duTerent from the other terms of the series and from 1, we have

nx

^~ = L = nx-' ord(x) = nx^dx .....

or in words,

(d)

A COMMENTARY ON
The
Differential

[SECT.
is

I.

of any power or

root

of a variable quantity

equal to

the product of the Differential of the quantity itself^ the same power or roof MINUS one of the quantity^ and the index of the power or roof.

We have here supposed the

Algebra.
12.
It

Binomial Theorem as

may, however,

easily

by be demonstrated by the general prin-

fully established

ciple explained in (7).

From 9 and 11 we get d (a x n ) = n a x n - d x

!

13.

Required the Limit of

A(a + L

......
ZTx~~^

bx n + cx m + exP +

-(e)
2

&c.)

Let

be the Limit sought, and

L +

the variable Ratio of the

finite

differences; then

L+l- A(a

+ bx u + cx m + & c Ax
1 1

.)

P, Q, &c.

+ &c. a bx n cx M &c. AX m&c. + PAX + Q(Ax) -f &c. +mcx + 2 And equating the being the coefficients of A x, A x + &c.
quantities,

homogeneous determinate

i, 14.

T> r- v .A(a Required the Limit of

-

By

11

we have

we have

+ bx n + cx m + ^~
r (a

--&c.)
*

d. (a

+ bx n + cx m + ~

&c.)

+ bx- + ex- +
11

&c.)

'-

and by 18

'

n m d(a + bx + cx n r m d(a+bx +cx +&c.)

-dx
x.

+ &c.) = (nbx - + mcx *- + &c.) dx = r nbxn + mcx^ + &c.)(a + bxQ + &C.) - (g)
1
1

~~ l

..

the Limiting Ratio of the Finite Differences A (a A x, that is the Ratio of the Differentials ofa

+ b x n + c x m + &c.), + bx n + cx + &c,,
tn

and

15.

Required the Ratio of the Differentials of

ft

+ bx + c x~l^+~&^
,

and

x, or the Limiting

Ratio of their Finite Differences.

Let

be the Limit required, and

L+

the varying Ratio.

Then

A + B (x + A x) + C (x +

A x) m

&c.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

which being expanded by the Binomial Theorem, and properly reduced

gives

LX

+ b x" + &c.) + L X {P. AX + Q (A x)* +&c. + X fa+bx' + &c. P. A x + Q (A x) + &c.J = (a+bx' + cx/* + &c.) X (nBx"+ n m + m Cx- + & c + &c.) X (vbx'(A + Bx + Cx 2 + p c x /"- + &c.) + P'. A x -f Q' (A x) + &c.
(

.)

P, Q, P', Q' &c. being coefficients of

x, (A x)

&c. and independent of

them.

Now

equating those homogeneous terms which are independent of the

powers of

+ &c.) 2 = (a + b x* + &c.) (n Bx n ~ +mC x m L(a + n m (A + Bx + Cx + &c.) (vbx- +/t6cx'*- 4- &c.) A + B x +- C x + &c. and putting u = we have finally a + b x~r + c x f+ &c .~
b x"
]
1
|
'

x,

we

get

-f &c.)

d u

d u
L, and therefore

=
1

c.)~(A+Bx^+&c.)(vbx>(a

+ acx^ +&c.)
1
/

+ bx + cx^ +
y

&c.)

the Ratio required.

16.

Hence and from

n

11

we have
P
q

the Ratio of the Differentials of

an(* * n short,

(A
^il

+ Bx + Cx
v

&c.)
)

V7~jLTTTv -p LJ A

a. f-

L<

v ~ A M

oT'wl *f CX/V.

anc* x

>'

from what has

al-

ready been delivered it is easy to obtain the Ratio of the Differentials of any Algebraic Function whatever of one variable and of that variable.

N. B.

By
,

Function of a variable

is

meant a quantity anyhow involving

that variable.
tity,

The term was

3
,

first

as

x2 x

&c.

But

it is

now

used to denote the Powers of a quanused in the general sense.

The quantities next to Algebraical ones, in point of simplicity, are Exponential Functions; and we therefore proceed to the investigation of
their Differentials.

Required the Ratio of the Differentials of a Ratio of their Differences. ing

17.

and x

or the Limit-

Let

be the required Limit and L a* + A * A a

'

the varying Ratio

then

_ ~~

*)

AX
a x

_ ~"

a*

AX
1
*

a Ax

AX

A COMMENTARY ON
But
since

[SECT.

a*

=
1)

(1

1)*

y (a

+
(a

y '- (y

^
3

(a

1)

1)

+
3

&c.,

it is

easily seen that the coefficient of y in the

2

expansion

is

(a
1

I)

(a

I) ~

&c.

Hence

+ =
d.(a)
r

a---g2
c

J\3 --

&

and equating homogeneous

v

quantities,
I)

we have
(a I)

(a

-c.
(h)

= A
equal to the

a*

........

or the Ratio of the Differentials of any Exponential and

its

exponent

is

Hence

product of the Exponential and a constant Quantity. and from the preceding articles, the Ratio of the Differentials of

any Algebraic Function of Exponentials having the same variable index, may be found. The Student may find abundance of practice in the Collection of

Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus, by Messrs. Herschel and Babbage. Peacock, Before we proceed farther in Differentiation of quantities, let us investigate the nature of the constant A which enters the equation (h).

For

that purpose, let (the two first terms have been already found)

a x

l+Ax

+ Px 2 + Qx +
3

&c.

Then, by d (a *)

13,
2

^ =A + 2Px + 3Qx
(h)
also

But by equation d (a x ) -

= A

a -

and equating homogeneous quantities, we get 2 P = A 2, 3 Q = A P, 4 R = A Q, &c.

&c.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. = A
*

whence

u= F

1 rk-AJ! vi

373,

D = AQ R -j-

A = 234) &c.
4

&c.

Therefore,
a
x

_
>

j.

A "p /.

"j"

Again, put

Ax =
1

i
a

= =

111
1,

o M

1^3
"j*
g\

A4
"i"

A.

Q x J

o tJ o <&

TC

/i.

*j"

otc.

then

-g

jj-jj

g-g-|

+ &c

2.718281828459

as is easily calculated

by supposition.

Hence

........
for the system

00

whose base is e, 1 being the characteristic of that system* This system being that which gives
e
V (e

~+
1)

v (e

I) ~^

&c.

is

called Natural

from being the most simple.

Hence

the equation (h) becomes

(1)

"-^laxa* ........
17

Required the Ratio of the Differentials of Let 1 x = u. Then e u = x

a.

(x)

and

x.

.-.

dx

=
'

(e

e u

d u

u,

by 16
(m) {m)

d(lx)

~dhT =

--1 ........ - x
is a,

Ix
In any other system whose base

we have

tog. (x)

=-y^-

-tr

log.

x x

.......
;

w
,

any Algebraic, or Exponential Functions of Logarithmic Functions, provided there be involved but one variable.
differentiate

We are now prepared to

Before

we

differentiate circular functions, viz. the sines, cosines, tan-

gents, &c., of circular arcs,

text as far as

we

shall

on the proceed with our comments

LEMMA

VIII.

10

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

LEMMA
18.

II.

L and I/ Limits of the circumscribed and inscribed rectilinear figures, and L + L' + any other values of them, whose variable difference is D, the absolute equality of L and L is clearly demonstrated, without the supposition of the bases A B, B C, C D, D E,
In No.
6, calling
1,
I'
7

being infinitely diminished in number and augmented in magnitude. In the view there taken of the subject, it is necessary merely to suppose them
variable.

LEMMA
19.

III.

This

LEMMA
II.

is

also demonstrable

by the same process

in

No.

6,

as

LEMMA
Cor. 1.

The

rectilinear figures cannot possibly coincide with the curvi-

linear figure, because the rectilinear boundaries

albmcndoE,
a, b, c, d,

aKbLcMdDEcut
finite angles.

the curve a b

in

the points

in

learned Jesuits, Jacquier and Le Seur, in endeavourto remove this difficulty, suppose the four points a, 1, b, to coincide, ing and thus to form a small element of the curve. But this is the language

The

of Indivisibles, and quite inadmissible. It is plain that no straight line, or combination of straight lines, can form a curve line) so long as we understand by a straightlinej^^ jji&tjyhich
lies

evenly between

its

extreme

pointsman*! by &Uve_line, "that which does not lie evenly between its extreme points;" for otherwise it would be possible for a line to be The truth is manifestly this. "slrSIght^iKrhot straight at the same time.

The Limiting

Ratio of the inscribed and circumscribed figures

viz,

is

that of

equality, because they continually tend to a fixed area,

that of the

But although this intermediate curvilinear given intermediate curve. area, is the Limit towards which the rectilinear areas continually tend and
approach nearer than by any difference ; yet it does not follow that the The rectilinear boundaries also tend to the curvilinear one as a limit.
rectilinear boundaries are, in fact, entirely heterogeneous with the interme-

diate one,

We will now clear up the above,

and consequently cannot be equal to it, nor coincide therewith. and at the same time introduce a strik-

ing illustration of the necessity there exists, of taking into consideration the nature of quantities, rather than their evanescence or infinitesimality.

BOOK L]
Take
angled triangle a

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
LEMMA
two legs
II.,

11

the simplest example of

in the case of the righta,

equal. figure being constructed as in the text of LEMMA II, it follows from that Lemma, that the Ultimate Ratio of the inscribed and cir-

A, having

its

AE

The

cumscribed figures is a ratio of equality ; and moreover follow from Cor. 1. that either of these
coincided
ultimately

it

would

also

with

the

triangle

E
E

albmcndoE
a
ultimately)

A. Hence then the exterior boundary

coincides

exactly with

,,

and they are consequently

Limit.

equal in

the

As we have only

straight lines to deal with in this example, let us try to ascertain the exact ratio of
a

to the exterior boundary.

M
B

If n be the indefinite

number of equal
is

bases

B,

C, &c.,

it

evident, since

= A
1

E
&c.

albmcndoE
=
V"a
2

E, that the whole length

of

=
a

2 n
2.

A V

B.

Also since a b
a

+
is

P1 = V
:

A
2

B, we have
:

E =
:

2.

= b c = A B.

Consequently, a 1 b c n d o E

V~2

1.

Hence
a E.

it

plain the exterior boundary cannot possibly coincide with

clear, that

Other examples might be adduced, but it must now be sufficiently Newton confounded the ultimate equality of the inscribed and

circumscribed figures, to the intermediate one, with their actual coincidence, merely from deducing their Ratios on principles of approximation or rather of Exhaustion, instead of those, as explained in No. 6 ; which
relate to the homogeneity of the quantities.

In the above example the

boundaries being heterogeneous inasmuch as they are incommensurable^ cannot be compared as to magnitude, and unless lines are absolutely equal,
it is

not easy to believe in their coincidence. Profound as our veneration is, and ought to be, for the Great Father of Mathematical Science, we must perhaps find fault with
occasionally
his obscurities.

But

it

shall

be done with great caution, and only with

the view of removing them, in order to render accessible to students in " This of human gegreatest monument general, the comprehension of
nius."

20. Cor. 2. 3. and 4. will be explained under

lates to the

LEMMA

VII, which re-

Limits of the Ratios of the chord, tangent and the arc.

12

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

LEMMA
denoted by
P, Q, R, &c.
p,
q, r,
let
:

IV.

21. Let the areas of the parallelograms inscribed in the two figures bf

&c.

respectively

and
:

them be such
:
:

that
:
:

r,

&c.

m
r

n.

Then by compounding
But

these equal ratios,

P + Q+ R + P + Q + R

....: p
.

. . .

and p

+ +
m

q
q

+ +

we get + ....::
. . .
.

n
curvili-

r -f

have with the

near areas an ultimate ratio of equality. areas are in the given ratio of : n.

Consequently these curvilineai

theii

Hence may be found

the areas of certain curves, by comparing

incremental rectangles with those of a known area. Ex. 1. Required the area of the common Apollonian parabola comp'iset between its vertex and a given ordinate.

Let a c

be the parabola,
is

whose vertex
Latus-Rectum
its

E, axis
a.

E A and

Then

A A'

circumscribing rectanbeing let any number of rectangle,

gles vertically opposite to one another be inscribed in the areas

E
c,

A, a
c

E
7 ,

A', viz.

b,

b A'

&c.

And

since

A b = A K. A B A b= A'l. A'B' =
7

from the equation to the parabola.

'"

AJt> A' b

- A

a.

AB

K. A'

Also

(A
or

a)

Bb* =
X

AE
=
a X

(A a

+ B b)

A' B'

AB

BOOK
...

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.
a

18

'

+ Bb Ab = Aa + Bb = 2Bb + Ka = B~b Bb A^b

A
b
in the

"-|rjP = A

Ka
B~b

Hence, since
the first term,

Limit -rrr becomes fixed or of the same nature with

we have

Ab_o
A'b
ultimately.

And
tangles a
.-.
;

the same

may be shown

of

all

other corresponding pairs of rec-

a A' : : 2 : 3. : rectangle or the area of a parabola is equal to two thirds of

tangle.

EA E A

consequently by a E A' : : 2 :

LEMMA
:

IV.

its

circumscribing rec-

Ex.

2.

To compare

the area

of a

semiellipse with that

of a

semicircle

described on the same diameter.

inscribed rectangles Taking any two corresponding

P N,

P'

we

have

PN

FN

M FM
:

b
ellipse
;

a and b being the semiaxes major and minor of the

and

all

other

have the same constant ratio ; corresponding pairs of inscribed rectangles LEMMA IV, the semicircle has to the semiellipse the ratio consequently by

of the major to the minor axis. As another example, the student

with that of
its

may compare

the area of a cycloid

to circumscribing rectangle, in a manner very similar

Ex.

1.

This method of squaring curves is very limited in its application. In the progress of our remarks upon this section, we shall have to exhibit a
general

way of

attaining that object

14

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

T.

LEMMA
22.

V.

For the
as
it

LEMMA
and 20.

definition of similar rectilinear figures, and the truth of thii to them, see Euclid's Elements B. VI, applies Prop. 4, 19

The

farther consideration of this

LEMMA

must be deferred

to the ex-

planation of

LEMMA VIL

LEMMA
23. In the demonstration of this
is

VI.

LEMMA,

" Continued Curvature19

at

any point,

tacitly defined to be such, that the arc does not make with the

tangent at that point, an angle equal to ajinite rectilinear angle. In a Commentary on this LEMMA if the demonstration be admitted,

any other

definition than this

is

plainly inadmissible,

and yet several of

the Annotators have stretched their ingenuity to substitute notions of continued curvature, wholly inconsistent with the above. The fact is,
this

LEMMA

is

so exceedingly obscure, that

it

is

difficult to

make any

In the enunciation, Newton speaks of the angle between the thing of it. chord and tangent ultimately vanishing, and in the demonstration, it is the angle between the arc and tangent that must vanish ultimately. So

would seem, the arc and chord actually coincide. This has not yet been established. In LEMMA III, Cor. 2, the coincidence ultimately of a chord and its arc is implied but this conclusion by
that in the Limit,
it
;

no means
No.

may easily be gathered from be proved by aid of this LEMMA is, that the 19. The very Ultimate Ratio of the chord to the arc is a ratio of equality, it being
follows from the
as

LEMMA itself,

thing to

But if it be already considered that merely subsidiary to LEMMA VII. of course they are equal, and LEMMA VII becomes nothing they coincide^
less

than " argumentum in circulo." Newton introduces the idea of curves of " continued curvature," or

such as make no angle with the tangent, to intimate that this LEMMA does not apply to curves of non-continued curvature, or to such as do make a
finite angle with the tangent.

meaning of his But it may be asked, are there any curves whose tangents are words. inclined to them ? The question can only be resolved, by again admitting
least this is the plain

At

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
;

15

the arc to be ultimately coincident with the chord that curves may be imagined whose chord and
inclined at a finite angle.
is

and by then showing,

tangent ultimately shall be

The

Ellipse, for instance,

whose minor

axis

major axis, is a curve of that kind; for taking the tangent at the vertex, and putting a, b, for the semiaxes, and y, x, for the ordinate and abscissa, we have
its
2

indefinitely less

than

y and

b -

X (2ax-x*)

/Ta

.*.

since

is

indefinitely smaller than a

x,

is

indefinitely greater than

and supposing y to be the tangent cut off by the secant x parallel to the axis, x and y are sides of a A, whose hypothenuse is the right angled
y,

chord.

greater than the

angle.

opposite x is ultimately indefinitely But they are together equal to a right Consequently the angle opposite x, or that between the chord and
it

Hence

is

plain the

L.

opposite to y.

is Other cases might be adduced, but ultimately finite. enough has been said upon what it appears impossible to explain and establish as confess our to do logical and direct demonstration.

tangent,

We

inability

this,

and

pretty confident the critics will not accomplish it. 24. Having exposed the fallacy of Newton's reasoning in the proof of
feel

this

LEMMA, we

shall

now attempt something by

chord.

M'ay of substitute.

Let

AD

be the tangent to the curve at the

point A, and

AB

its

Then if

be

supposed to move indefinitely near to A, the

shall indefinitely decrease, proangle vided the curvature be not indefinitely great.

BAD

Draw
gles to

R D passing through B

at right an-

normal
ly.

A B, and meeting the tangent A D and A R in the points D and R respectivesince the angle
if

Then

BAD equals the

AR

angle

A R B,
B

or indefinitely greater than A B; which is the same if the curvature at A, be not indefinitely thing, great;
the angle

when come

approaches

ARB A
;

decrease indefinitely that is, if be-

We have

BAD also decreases indefinitely.

Q.

e. d.

already explained, by an example in the last

article,

what

is

16

A COMMENTARY ON
It is the

[SECT.

I.

pression

meant by curvature indefinitely great. " continued curvature." The

same with Newton's exbe discussed

at length

subject will

under
ness as

LEMMA
it

XL
quantities are objectionable
it

their nothingbeing sufficient to consider variable quantities, to get their limiting ratios, as capable of indefinite diminution, the above enunciation has been spmewhat modified to suit those

As vanishing

on account of

has already been hinted, and

views.

LEMMA
25. This
blished,

VII.

LEMMA,

supposing the two preceding ones to have been fully esta-

would have been a masterpiece of ingenuity and elegance.

By

the aid of the proportionality of the homologous sides of similar curves, our author has exhibited quantities evanescent by others of any finite magnitude whatever, apparently a most ingenious device, and calculated
to obviate all objections.

shown

that

LEMMA V

But in the course of our remarks, it will be cannot be demonstrated without the aid of this

LEMMA.
First,

therefore those at

by supposing A d, A b always finite, the angles at d and b and and B which are equal to the former are virtually

considered

finite,

or

RD

cuts the chord

and tangent
of

at finite angles.

Hence

the elaborate note

upon

this subject

Le Seur and

Jacquier

is

rendered valueless as a direct comment.

In the construction of the figure in this LEMMA, the deSecondly. for granted. But scription of a figure similar to any given one, is taken
the student would perhaps like to

know how

this

can be

effected.

only enunciated, from being supposed to be a mere to LEMMA III and LEMMA IV, would afford the means immedicorollary But we have clearly shown it thence legitimately deduced. ately, were

LEMMA

V, which

is

(Art. 19.) that rectilinear boundaries, consisting of lines cutting the intermediate curve ultimately atjinite angles, cannot be equal ultimately to the curvilinear one, and thence we show that the boundaries formed by the

chords or tangents, as stated in

mately equal, by consequence

LEMMA III, Cor. 2 and of that LEMMA, to the

3,

are not ulti-

curvilinear one.

Newton

in Cor.

1,

LEMMA

III,

asserts the ultimate coincidence,

and

therefore equality of the rectilinear boundary whose component lines cut the curve at finite angles, and thence would establish the succeeding cor-

BOOK
ollaries

I.I

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
fortiori.

17

But the truth

is

that the curvilinear

boundary

is

the

limit, as to

ries

magnitude, or length, of the tangential and chordal boundaalthough in the other case, it is a limit merely in respect of area.
repeat
it,

cannot be made to follow from the Newton's implied definition of simiAccording preceding lar curves, as explained in the note of Le Seur and Jacquier, they are the So they might be consicurvilinear limits of similar rectilinear figures.
Yet,

we

that
it.

J.EMMA

LEMMAS

to

dered, if it were already demonstrated that the 1ijryt.ing raft^ of and arc is a ratio of equality ; but this belongs to LEMMA VII.

thip

chord

Newton

himself and

all

the commentators

whom we
best

committed a solecism.
seen

Even the

have perused, have thus Cambridge MSS. and we have

many belonging
more

to the

tors in that learned university,

most celebrated private as well as college tuhave the same error. Nay most of them

are

still

inconsistent.

They

give definitions of similar curves wholly

different

LEMMA
tions,

from Newton's notion of them, and yet endeavour to prove For the verification of these asserV, by aid of LEMMA VII.
else

which may

peruse their

MSS.

The

appear presumptuously gratuitous, let the Cantabs origin of all this may be traced to the falsely
rectilinear boundaries,

deduced ultimate coincidence of the curvilinear and See Art. 19. in the corollaries of LEMMA III.

We now give a demonstration

similar curves,

of the

LEMMA

without the assistance of

and yet independently of quantities actually evanescent.

By
gles.

hypothesis the secant

RD

cuts the

chord and tangent

at finite an-

Hence, since

A + B + D = = B + D or L + 1+L'+1'=
.;.

180"

180

180

A A

Art. 6

and L' being the limits of B and D and 1, V their variable parts as in and since by LEMMA VI, or rather by Art. 24, A is indefinitely
;

diminutive,

we

have, by collecting

homogeneous

quantities

L +

L'

180

But A B, A D being ultimately not indefinitely great, it might easily be shown from Euclid that L = L', and .; A B = A D ultimately, (see Art. 6 ) and the intermediate arc is equal to either of them.

18

A COMMENTARY ON
OTHERWISE,

[SECT.

I.

If

we

refer the curve to

its

axis,

A
in

a,

b being ordinates, &c. as the annexed diagram. Then,

.

by Euclid, we have

Bd
B A

AD =
s

BP + 2B d B D. AB
2

since by Art. 24 or than either of the angles

Now,

LEMMA
or

VI, the
.*.

L.

D
its

is

indefinitely less

D,

BD

is

indefinite

compared with

AB
we

or

D.

Hence

being the limit of A

A~D

and

variable part, if

extract the root of both sides of the equation and

compare homogeneous,

terms,

we

get,

L =
26.

or &c. &c.

Having
is

and

tangent,

thus demonstrated that the limiting Ratio of the chord> arc a ratio of equality> when the secant cuts the chord and tangent

at FINITE angles,

digress from the main object of this work, to take up the subject of Article 17. By thus deriving the limits of the ratios of the finite differences of functions and their variables, directly from the

we must again

of this Section, and giving to such limits a convenient algorithm or notation, we shall not only clear up the doctrine of limits by numerous examples, but also prepare the way for understanding the abstruser
parts of the Principia.
to

LEMMAS

This has been before observed.

Limit of the Finite Differences of the sine of a cirRequired arc itself, or the Ratio of their Differentials. cular arc and of the Let x be the arc, and A x its finite variable increment. Then L being
Jind the
the limit required and
T JU
,

L +
sin.
'

the variable ratio,

we have

__ mr

sin.

AX

x ~~

__

(x

A
"

x)

sin.

x
x)
Sll}

.----..- -,

AX

__ sin. x. cos. "~

(AX)
(A x)

+
-I

s-

sm

(&>

AX
sin.x. cos.

sin.

AX

sin,

cos. x.

AX

AX

AX
,
.

Now

by

LEMMA

r sm. nut of

AX.is

VII, as demonstrated in the preceding Article, the li- .. sin. x , cos. v , (A x) r ' have no definite limits. 1,

AX

AX

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
sin.

19

Consequently putting
cos. x.

AX
x

(A x) *

cos.

4T-

1', >

we have

L +

cos.

1'

sin '

x - COS'

AX

AX

AX

and equating homogeneous terms L = cos. x

or adopting the differential symbols
d. sin.

d x or

C os

*\

I
C

sin. x = d x. cos. x J Hence and from the rules for the differentiation of algebraic, exponential, &c. functions, we can differentiate all other circular functions of

21.

one variable,

viz. cosines,

tangents, cotangents, secants, &c.

Thus,

sin.

(-

x)

cos.

('

x)

=si. x

or
d. cos.
=

=
==

sin.

or
d. cos. [. COS.

X x

d x
or
d. cos. .

Sill.

"V

/
I

=
is
z

x. sin.

x J

Again, since for radius

1

1,

which
sec.

generally used as being the most simple,

tan.

=
d.

=
cos.

x
cos. x. d. cos. cos.
z

..

2 tan.

x. d. tan.

=
,

,1
cos.
; 2

x d

See 12

(d).

Hence and from

tan. x.
d. tan.

(b) immediately above,

we have

x x

=
=

x. sin. x ,3 cos. x
=

.. d. tan.

d x.
cos.

(c) *

Again,
cot.

tan.

B2

20
Therefore,
d. cot.
i

A COMMENTARY ON
x

[SECT.

I.

d.

1
--

tan.

_. __
tan.

d. tan. = ---- ;-

tan.

(12. d) ' v

dx
sin.
8

x. cos.

Again,
sec.

x
x

= =
j d.

COS.
i

/. d. sec.

X
1

cos.

x X

=
x

cos.
, 2

x -x

,,

ix

cos.

(12. d) v
,

x. sin.
COS.
2

and

lastly since cosec.

sec.

f~

x}

we have

d. cosec.

d. sec. f

x)

=
cos
2
-

(I- x)
(0

x. cos.
*

sin.

Any

function of sines, cosines, &c.

may hence be

differentiated.

28, In articles 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 26 and 27, are to

be found forms for the differentiation of any function of one variable, whether it be algebraic, exponential, logarithmic, or circular.
In those Articles
first difference

we have found

in short,

the limit

of the

ratio of the
its

of a function, and of the

first

difference of

variable.

Now

suppose in this first difference of the function, the variable

x should
first

be increased again by A x, then taking the difference between the difference and what it becomes when x is thus increased, we have the
ference of the
first

dif-

difference of a function, or the second difference of a

all

function, and so on through

the orders of differences,

making A x

al-

ways

the same, merely for the sake of simplicity.

Thus,
3

A
and

(x

A2

(x)

= (x + Ax) x = 3X*AX + 3XAX* + AX =3(X + AX) AX + 3(X + AX)AX + AX

3

3x AX
2

3 X

AX
e

AX
3

3.

2x AX +

AX

BOOK L]
denoting by

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
A2
the second difference.

21

Hence,

^-(x; = AX
)
2

3.2.x

+ 3Ax
'

and

2 or the ratio of the second the limiting ratio of A 2 (x 3 ) and , 3 differential of x , and the square of the differential of its variable x, be

if

Ax

required,

we should have

L +

3. 2.

Ax

and equating homogeneous terms d 2 fx 3^

d x-

VV = L =
that

3. 2.

In a word, without considering the difference, we may obtain the seJ 2 cond, third, &c. differentials d u, d u, &c. of any function u of x immediately,
if

we observe

-p;

is

always a function

itself

of x, and

make d x

constant.

For example,
a

let

xn

b xm

&c.

Then, from Art. 13. we have

4-H

dx

= nax n - + mbx
l

m-

&c.

~ ~^ =
Vdxy

d(du)
n. (n

=
l)ax
n

=
Similarly,

+ m(m
2) a

l)bx

m~

&c.

fl? = d x
3

n. v (n

1).

(n

xn

-3

&c.

&c.

&c.
limits of the ra-

the Having thus explained the method of ascertaining

tios

of

all

powers of the invariable

differentials

orders of finite differences of a function, and the corresponding first difference of the variable, or the ratios of the

of the

first

orders of a function, and of the corresponding power differential of its variable, we proceed to explain the use of

of

all

these limiting ratios, or ratios of differentials,

by the following

B3

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

APPLICATIONS
OF THE

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
29. Let
it

be required to

draw a tangent

to

a given curve at any given

point of

it.

P be the given point, and the axis of the curve, let P being x be the ordinate and y,
Let

AM

abscissa.

Also

let

point; draw P nate P' M' in N, and join

let

P' be any other meeting the ordi-

PP

7
.

Now
in

T P R meeting M' P and M A R and T be the tangent required.

Then
since

by

similar triangles
:

PN

M MT
:

.-.

MT

MT + TT =
;

y.

~
x,,

being supposed, as it always is in curves, a function of seen that whether that function be algebraic, exponential, &c.
in the limit, or

Now y

we have

-jA

is

always a definite function of x.

Hence

putting

^^ AX
we have

__

d x

dx
and equating homogeneous terms,
(e)

which being found from the equation to the curve, the point T will be T is called known, and therefore the position of the tangent P T.

the subtangent. Ex. 1. In the

common
v*

parabola,

= ax

BOOK L]
Therefore,

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
d x
d y
"~

23

2 y
a

and
2 y MT = -j2

= 2x

or the subtangent is equal to twice the abscissa, Ex. 2. In the ellipse,

MT

and

it

will

be found by differentiating, &c. that

Ex.

3.

In the logarithmic curve,

y
cl

= =

Jfx
..

I-

X y

(see 17.)

which

is

therefore the

same

for all points.

of deducing the expression for the subtangent is and obviates at once the objections of Bishop Berkeley strictly logical, The fact is, relative to the compensation of errors in the denominator.
these supposed errors being different in their very essence or nature from

The above method

the other quantities with which they are connected, must in their aggreThis ingenious gate be equal to nothing, as it has been shown in Art. 6.
critic calls 1
)X

R =

then, says he, (see

'

fig.

above)

whereas

it

d y + ought to have been

MT

y.

d x
z accurately
;

MT

= A7 +

A x
z

AX
the finite differences being here considered.
definite function of

AX

Now

A
in the limit,

r-- becomes a

x represented by

d y
-j

Consequently

if

be put

for

-the variable part of

Ay
-,

we have

24

A COMMENTARY ON
y
z
]

[SECT.

I.

ri +
and
it is

+ rk
Art. 25, that z
is

evident from

LEMMA VII and

is

indefinite

pared with

x.

.*.

-r~r

indefinite

cqmpared with

M T,

ds*
y
-T---,

com;

and y

and

1 is

also so

hence

MT -rx
gives
v.

dx

which proves generally

rase of the

for all curves,

common

parabola ; and at

what Berkeley established the same time demonstrates,

in the

as

had

been already done by using

T T' instead

of P' R, incontestably the ac-

curacy of the equation for the subtangeiit. 30. If it were required to draw a tangent to any point of a curve, referred to a center by a radius-vector % and the L. 6 which f describes by
revolving round the fixed point, instead of the rectangular coordinates x, y ; then the mode of getting the subtangent will be somewhat different.

Supposing x to originate

in this center, it is plain that

COS.
&

X
y
and substituting
e.)

= =
d

sn.
x,

for x, y,

y,

hence derived in the expression (29.

& <
P

we have

MT =
,,

rin.lx d ;, in

de

cos*
.

sin. 6
.
.

d<c08><

(f)

Ex. In the parabola

1

cos. &

'

where a

is

the distance between the focus and vertex, or the value of

at

the vertex.

Then

substituting

we

get, after

proper reductions

and the distance from the focus

to the extremity of the subtangent

COS.

is

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
2 a

25

""1
as
is

cos. &

well known.

30. a.

The

expression (f ) being too complicated in practice, the following

one may be substituted for it. Let P T be a tangent to the

curve, referred to the center S,
at the

point P, meeting
at right angles

drawn
in

to

S T S P,

T
to

and
;

let

P' be any other

7

point.
it

Join
,

P P
let

and

and produce T P be pro7

dticed to

meet S

produced in

R, &c.

Then drawing P
S

T =
7

PN S T + T T = TO
A
0,

N parallel to

S T, we have

x S

But

P
and

N =

{ tan.

S P'

+A

Therefore, substituting and equating homogeneous terms, after having

applied

LEMMA VII

to ascertain their limits,

we

get

Ex.

1.

In the spiral of Archimedes

we have

..ST =
Ex.
2,

In the hyperbolic spiral a

.-.

=T T s
*

31. It
axis.

is

sometimes useful to

know

the angle between the tangent and

^
See
fig.

PM

d y

to Art. 29.

26
Again, in
fig.

A
Art.

COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

30

a.

frequently of great use, in the theory of curves and in many other collateral subjects, to be able to expand or develope any given func32. It
is

tion of a variable into

an

infinite

series,

proceeding according to the

powers of that variable.

We have already seen one use of such developmeans any function of

then, as
u'
it

ments in Art. 17.

This may be effected in a general manner by aid of

x, or

successive differentiations, as follows.

If

f (x) where f (x)

;

any expression

involving x and constants d u

(u'

has been seen,

d x

being a
Similarly

new

function of x)

u'

d u"
&c.

= =

u" d x
u'"

d x

&c.

But d2 u
&c.
,

X dx
d x

d
2

x X d u
(6k)
2

&c.
d. (d x)
2 by d
;

denoting d. (d

u),

u,

d2

x,

and (d x)

by d x
and

2
,

according to the received notation

r!2

Or, (to abridge these expressions) supposing

dx

constant,

.*.

d 2 x = 0,

u'

= dx
u/

du d^ =
din =
d
3

d2 u u

u//

&c.

&c.

which give the various orders of fluxions required. Ex. 1. Let u xn

=
n

Then

du
d*

i*i

~ 1

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
d3 u
c

27

f^3
&c.
n

= =
=

n.

(n

1).

(n

2)

xn ~3

&c.
n.

d
Ex.

3^-5
2.

(n

1).

(n
2

2)

3.

2.

1.

Let u

= A + Bx + Cx + D
2

+ E
3

x4

&c.

Then,

~=B+
l

Cx +

Dx +
2

Ex +

&c.

j-;73

&c.

= =

2,

D+

2.

3.

&c.

&c.

u be known, and the coefficients A, B, C, D, &c. be unknown, the latter may be found ; for if U, U', U", U'", &c. denote the

Hence,

if

dud
values of u, 9
,

u
, '

d
i

u
, '

d x d x
then
U',

, '

-\

J d x3

&c.

when x

=
U,
&c.

0,

A =
&c.

B =

C =

-g"

U",

D =

~
|-g

U'",

E =

U"",

=
u

and by

substitution,

= U +

U' x

+ U" ~ +

U'"

&c
named

(b)
(after its inventor),

This method of discovering the

coefficients is

MACLAURIN'S THEOREM.

The
For
or
1.

uses of this
obvious.

Theorem
it

in the expansion of functions into series are

many and
(1

instance, let

be required to develope

sin. x,

or cos. x, or tan. x,

+
u

x) into series according to the

sin. x,

or

cos. x, or

powers of x. Here 1. tan. x, or x), (1

'.

j^ =
d u
JT-!t
2

du

cos. x,

or

=
or

sin. x,

or

11
=
2

~>

or

r+
=

x
1

sin. x,

cos. x, or

sin.

-37' or

/i

xl

28

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.
2

I.

ds u
&c.

= =

cos. x, or

sin. x,

or

s
1,

sin.

x
>

or

= /fT"^

&c.
.-.

U =0,
U'

or

=1, U" =0,

&c.

or
or
1,

U'"

= =
x
i

or

= = = =

or or
1,

0,

or or

0,

= = = =

0,
1,

or

or

0, or
2,

or

= = = =

1
1

&c.

Hence
sin.

=
=

x3 373 x2
-g

x5
g. 3. 4.

&c.

cos.

x
x

+ inn:
2x
3
5

&c

tan.

= _

x3
x

17x

-3+^y
l!
A

+ gr^ +

&c.

^L
<Sj

Hence may

also be derived

TAYLOR'S THEOREM.
For
let

f(x)

= A + Bx + Cx + Dx
2

-f

Ex +
4

&c.

Then
f (x

h)

= A +

B. (x

h)

C. (x

+
2
2

h)

+ D.

(x

h)

&c.

+ + +

(B

+ 2Cx + 3Dx )h (C + 3 Dx + 6 Ex h (D + 4 Ex + 10 Fx h
)
2
)

&c.

the theorem in question, which is also of use in the expansion of series. For the extension of these theorems to functions of two or more variables,

and

for the

still

more

effective

theorems of Lagrange and Laplace,

the reader

is referred to the elaborate work of Lacroix. 4to. shown the method of finding the differentials of any quantiHaving

BOOK
ties,

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

29

and moreover, entered in a small degree upon the practical application of such differentials, we shall continue for a short space to explain
33.

their farther utility.

Tojlnd

the

MAXIMA and MINIMA

of

quantities.

If a quantity increase to a certain magnitude and then decrease, the If it decrease state between its increase and decrease is its maximum.
to a certain limit,

and then

increase,

the intermediate state

is

its

mi-

nimum.

evident that in the change from increasing to decreasor vice versa, which the quantity undergoes, its differential must have ing, from positive to negative, or vice versa, and therefore (since changed
it is

Now

signs
this

moreover

When a

change is continued) have passed through zero. Hence (a) quantity is, a MAXIMUM or MINIMUM, its differential = 0. .
.

Since a quantity may have several different maxima and minima, (as for instance the ordinate of an undulating kind of curve) it is useful to have

some means of distinguishing between them. 34. To distinguish between MAXIMA and MINIMA. LEMMA. To show that in Taylor's Theorem (32. c.) any one term can be rendered greater than the sum of the succeeding ones, supposing the
coefficients of the

powers of h to be

finite.

be any term of the theorem, and P the greatest coefficient of the succeeding terms. Then, supposing h less than unity,

Let

Q
P

n ~~

(I

h8

in infin.)

= P

fa

is

greater than the

infin.

sum

(S) of the succeeding terms.

But supposing k

to

decrease in
1

h*

n
i

= P

ultimately.

Hence

ultimately

Ph>S
Now

Q h n~l
and
since

phn

Q. p

fc>

Q and P are finite, and h

h
a

Hence

infinitely small
fortiori
*

therefore

Q >
is

P h,

'

is

>

h n , and a

>

S.

Having

established this point, let

u = f(x) be the function whose maxima and minima are to be determined

also

when u
ft f

max. or min.

let

x
u

a.

\\ (a-h) =

a f

(a)

d3u _. ^-jji-^h

du

Then by d* u h*

Taylor's

Theorem
h3
-3

+
,

a &c.

30

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

and

and since by the LEMMA, the sign of each term that and the subsequent terms,

is

the sign of the

sum

of

...fa-h) =
f(a

fa)-i M
f(a)

h)

Now
and f
(a

since f (a)

max. or min. f

(a) is

>

or

< than both f (a

h)

h),

which cannot be unless

ad a
Hence

d
2

(a-h) =

f(a)+^.

MO
(a) is

and

f (a) f (a

is

max. or min. or neither, according as f

h) and
f (a

>,

< or =

to

both

h), or according as

d 2 u. -5

is

negative, positive, or zero .....

If

it

be zero as well as

--

d a

we have

N"

and f

(a)

cannot

max. or min. unless

d a

'

which being the case we have

f(a-h) = fa +
f(a

^ .M"0
4

+ h)=f +

l?.

N'"}

and as

before,

BOOK L]
f (a)
zero,
is

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
d
4

31

max. or min. or neither, according as

-.

is

negative^ positi ve, or

and so on continually.

Hence
If in u
or

the following criterion.

the resulting value of

f (x),

=0,

shall give

MAX.

u
is

MIN. or NEITHER, according

d u // n J d x
=: 0,

as

-,

vl

X2
, 3

negative, positive, or zero.

d^ u 'd x 2
.

0, '

and

d
-,

"*

11

d x

0, then the resulting value 9 to

of u J

shall be

a MAX., MIN. or
;

NEITHER

according as

Ci

-j

is

NEGATIVE, PO-

SITIVE, or ZERO

and
the

so on continually. the ordinate

Ex.
bola.

1.

To Jind

MAX. and MIN. of

y

of a common para-

= V
___

a x

"
winch cannot

d y d x

1
'

""

v~x

0, unless

Hence
Ex.
2.

the parabola has no

a maxima
.

or minima ordinates.

To Jind

the

MAXIMA and MINIMA

of y in the equation

Here
d v
1 d y

_ dx~~y
.

a y

z 2

2 a
y
2

/d y
(-r^v

ax'dx

""

-j-i

d x
y

dx

ax

and putting y^Cl X

cly

=
ab

0,

we

get

_ -

a ) -v~~(i~I^^y (1 which indicate and determine both a maximum and a minimum.

_+
To

_ -

b
2

V7l^Ty

""

_
b

d x

_
2

Ex.

3.

divide a in such a
th

manner that

the product

of the

w th power

of the one part, and the ?i power of the other shall be a maximum. Let x be one part, then a x = the other, and by the question n = u = x m (a max. x)
.

,\

xm-

l
.

(a

x)

X (ma

x.

m+

n)

32
and

A COMMENTARY ON
d*u

[SECT.

I.

dx
Put

x m~2

(a

x)"-

X (m

1.

m+

n.

x2

&c.)

d x

=
x

then
0,

or

a,

or x

ma m + n

the two former of which

when m and n

are even numu^ia gi*c ///** ww,

and the
Ex.

last the

required maximum.
\_

4.

Let u
1

=
1.x

x
.

Here
d u

_^ =

u.

^-2

='

0,

/.

1.

1,

and x

e the hyperbolic base

2.71828, &c.

Innumerable other examples occur in researches in the doctrine of curves, optics, astronomy, and in short, every branch of both abstract and applied mathematics. Enough has been said, however, fully to demonstrate the general principle, when applied to functions of one independent variable only. For the MAXIMA and MINIMA of functions of two or more variables, see

Lacroix, 4to. should be finite when is infinite, 35. If in the expression (30 a. g) S is called an Asymptote to the curve, and then the corresponding tangent since ^nd this Asymptote are both infinite they are parallel. Hence

To fold
In S

the Asymptotes to a curve,

T =
;

d
2

6
,

-j

make

a then
,

eachjinite value of

T gives

an

Asymptote

curve the values of

which may be drawn, by finding from the equation to the = a, (which will determine the positions of g), d for g

then by drawing through S at right angles to & S T, S T', S T", &c. the several values of the subtangent of the asymptotes, and finally through T, T", T", &c. perpendiculars to S T, S T', S T", &c. These perpendiculars will be the asymptotes required.

Ex. In the hyperbola

~~
_

e cos.

0)"

Here
.*.

=
d

gives 1

e cos.

0,

.*.

cos.

&

whose

cos. is

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
b2
a e sn.
a
e
2

Also S

T =

=
1

whence
.

it

will

be seen that

the asymptotes are equally inclined (viz. through the center.

by

6)

to the axis,

and pass

The expression (29. e) will also lead to the discovery and construction of asymptotes. Since the tangent is the nearest straight line that can be drawn to the
curve at the point of contact, it affords the means of ascertaining the inclination of the curve to any line given in position ; also whether at any point the curve be inflected, or from concave become convex and vice versa

e.

whether at any point two or more branches of the curve meet, whether that point be double, triple, &c. 36. To Jlnd the inclination of a curve at any point of it to a given line
;

also

.-

find that of the tangent at that given point, which will be the inclination
required.

Hence

if

the ordinate will then be a

tan.

the inclination of the tangent to the axis of a curve be zero, maximum or minimum ; for then

T = j| =

(31. h)
curve.

37.

To fnd

the points

of Inflexion of a
n^

B
;

f (x) be the equation to the curve a b Let y tangent at the point any two ordinates, and

then
if

A A

a,

B Bb

being

ana

a,

we put

y,

and

AB = Aa =

h,
f

we

get

x
-

(32.c)

+
y.

M
+ y.

<

34 >
Consequently
i.

But

Bn =
-r

mn =
d2 v
is

h.

is

< or > B n

according as

negative or positive,

e.

the curve is concave or con-

34
vex towards

A COMMENTARY ON
d
its
2

[SECT.

I.

axis according as

-=

y 2

is

negative or positive.

Hence
vice versa,

also,

must become zero or infinity, d 2 y = or a d x 2

since a quantity in passing from positive to negative, at a point of inflexion

and

Ex. In the Conchoid ofNicomedes

xy =
which
gives,

(a

y)

(b

y.

by making d y constant, d'x _ 2 b 4 a _b 2 yj^ 3 bj>ji y 2 "" 2 3 2 2 "(b y "y *)~V (b -^y )~ <Tp and putting this = 0, and reducing, there results
which
will

y + give y and then

s

3ay = 2b
2

x.

which the Theory of (34) indicates as belonging to neither maxima nor minima ; and pursuing this subject still farther, it will be found, in like manner, that in some curves

These points of

inflexion are those

^4 = d x
4

or

<x

-y-1? 6

d x

or a

&c.

&c.

also determine Points of Inflexion.

38.

To jind DOUBLE, TRIPLE, $c. points of a curve. If the branches of the curve cut one another, there will evidently be as
tangents as branches, and consequently either of the expressions,

many

Tan.

T = 41 d x =
-^-^L d y

(31. h)
x

MT

(29. e)

as derived from the equation of the curve, will have as many values as there are branches, and thus the nature and position of the point will be ascertained. If the branches of the curve touch, then the tangents coincide, and the multiple points becomes too intricate to be in-

method of discovering such

For the entire Theory of troduced in a brief sketch like the present. the reader is referred to Cramer's express treatise on that subject, Curves
or to Lacroix's Different, and Integ. Calculus, 4to. edit. once more return to the text, and resume our comments. 39.

We

We
al-

pass

by LEMMA VIII

as containing

no

difficulty

which has not been

ready explained.

As

similar figures and their properties are required for the demonstra-

BOOK L]
tion of

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
IX, we
shall

35

LEMMA

now
to

use

LEMMA VII

V, and

shall thence

proceed

show what

establishing LEMMA are similar and how to figures

in

construct them.

According to Newton's notion of similar curvilinear figures, we may define two curvilinear ^figures to be similar when any rectilinear polygon being inscribed in one of them, a rectilinear polygon similar to the former,

may always

be inscribed in the other.

Hence, increasing the number of the

figures will be the limits linear polygons, and we shall,

nishing their lengths indefinitely, the lengths

and dimiand areas of the curvilinear by LEMMAS VII and III, of those of the recti-

sides of the polygons,

and areas

in direct

therefore, have by Euclid these lengths and duplicate proportions of the homologous sides

respectively. 40. To construct curves similar to given ones.

If y,

x be the ordinate and

abscissa,

and

x' the

corresponding abscissa

of the required curve,

we have
:

x
the ordinate of the

x'

x'

y'

(a)
it

required curve, which gives that point in

which

corresponds to the point in the given curve whose coordinates are x, y ; and in the same manner may as many other points as we please be determined.

In such curves, however, as admit a practical or mechanical construction, it will frequently be sufficient to determine but one or two values of y'.

Ex.

1.

In the circle
r (the radius)

let x,
;

mity, be

then y

measured along the diameter from = r, and we have

its

extre-

y' J

-2-

x'

x'

where

x'

may be

of any magnitude whatever.

are similar ^figures.

Hence,

all semicircles,

and

therefore circles, Ex. 2. In a circular arc (2 a) let

x be measured along the chord (2

r
.

b),

and suppose x

r sin.

then y
vers. a
:

vers. a

y J

sin.

X x
any semichord
J
*

which gives the greatest ordinate required arc, and thence since
>

to

as

an abscissa, of the

y
it

'

_V
r'

li

will

be easy to find the radius

and

centre,

and

to describe the arc

required.

36

A COMMENTARY ON
since
y' __ r/ vers * a/ __ vers. a' __ vers. ~~ ~~ ~~ x' r' sin. a! sin. a sin.

[SECT.

I.

But

a
a

therefore
.

cos.
Sin.

2 2

sin.

~
.

21
.

cos.
sin.

sin.

-^ 2
.

a
cos.

a -~

a
-g

sin.

cos.

-~

a'

sin.

a -~

or

a
tan.

= =

a'

tan.

and
.*.

a'

which accords with Euclid, and shows that similar arcs of

equal angles.

circles

subtend

Ex.

3.

Given an arc of a parabola, whose latus-rectum

p'.

is

p, to

Jtnd a

similar one 9 whose latus-rectum shall be

In the
ties

first

place, since the arc

is

are

whence may be determined

given, the coordinates at its extremiits axis and vertex ; and by the usual

mode
Now,
x, x'

of describing the parabola

since
2

it

may be Completed

to the vertex.

p x

being measured along the

axis,

and when

x
v' V

P P T'y = i

^ i x

x' A.

-H y

x' JY.

2 (W

x' A:

which shows that

all semi-parabolas^

and

therefore parabolas^

are similar

Hence, having described upon the axis of the given parabola, figures. other having the same vertex, the arc of this latter intercepted beany
tween the points whose coordinates correspond to those of the extremities of the given arc will be the arc required.
Ex.
4.

In the ellipse whose semi -diameters are

a, b, if

x be measured

along the axis, when x

a,

=
T-

b.

Hence
'

y'

and x7 or the semi-axis major being assumed any whatever, this value of will y' give the semi-axis minor, whence the ellipse may be described.
This being accomplished,
let (a,

p)

(a', jff)

be the coordinates

at the

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

37

extremities of any given arc of the given ellipse, then the similar one of

the ellipse described will be that intercepted between the points whose coordinates, (x', y') (x" 5 y") are given by

p
ff

x
x"

*
.

y
v"

j
)

a
..

a"

b"

In like manner

it

may be
so,

found, that

All cycloids are similar.

Epicycloids are

when

the radii

of their wheels

oc

radii of the spheres.

Catenaries are similar when* the bases

40. If
it

tensions, fyc. fyc.

were required to describe the curve

A
its

(fig.

to

LEMMA

VII) not only similar to

the given length
(c)
;

AC

B, but also such that

chord should be of

then having found, as in the last example, the coordinates (x', y') (x", y") in terms of the assumed value of the abscissa of (as a' in Ex. 4), and (a, /3), (a', j3') the coordinates at the extremities

the

given arc,

we have
C

v^ ^^ ^(7
/ /

"

o~

^T =

f (')

a function of a'

whence

a'

may be

found.

Ex. In the case of a parabola whose equation is y 2 = a x, it will be found that (y /2 = a' x x being the equation of the required parabola)
a
'

whence (a') is known, or the latus-rectum of the required parabola is so determined, that the arc similar to the given one shall have a chord = c. 41. It is also assumed in the construction both to LEMMA VI I and

LEMMA

IX,

that,

If

in similar figures, originating in the

same point, the

chords or axes coincide, the tangents at that origin mil coincide also. Since the chords A B, b (fig. to LEMMA VII), the parallel secants

D, b

d,

and the tangents

each, to the similar figures,

A
and L

A D, A d are corresponding we have (by LEMMA V) B BD Ab bd

: : :
:

sides,

each to

B = L

b.

Consequently, by Euclid the

z-BAD =

bAd,

or the tangents coincide.

38

A COMMENTARY ON
To make
7

[SECT.

I.

this still clearer. Let be two similar curves, 7 and A B, A7 B similar parts of them.

M B, M B
fall

Let

from A, B,

A B
7

7
,

the or-

dinates

A a, B
b,

b,

A
7

b7

cut-

ting off the corresponding abscissae

M M Ma Mb
x

7
,

a,

and draw
also

the chords

A
7

B,

A B

7 ;

draw

C,

A C
7

at right angles to

b,

Then, since (by

LEMMA V)

BA C =
L.

B A C
7

7
,

i.

e.

AB
7

is

parallel to
to

A B
7

7
.

Hence
be
VI,) at

if

B,
i.
7

move up

A, the chords

parallel,

A,

A
if

Hence,

e. the tangents (see LEMMA are parallel. the chords coincide, as in fig. to

B, A B shall ultimately III, Cor. 2 and 3, or LEMMA

7
7

LEMMA

VII, the tangents

coincide also.

The

student

is

now prepared

for the

demonstration of the

LEMMA.

He

will perceive that as

approaches A, new

curves, or parts of curves,

c b similar to the parts C are supposed continually to be described, the point b also approaching d, which may not only be at ajfinite distance from A, but absolutely fixed. It is also apparent, that as the ratio be-

tween
line

A B and A b A b as its limit.

LEMMA
XI.

decreases, the curve

b approaches

to the straight

42.

The

construction will be better understood

when

thus effected.

Take

A C

of any given magnitude and draw the ordinate e c meeting c describe the curve (see 39) produced in c, and upon

Ae

Abe

BOOK L]
similar to

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
A B
b
C.

39

Take

= A
since

AD
-r

A.

^ &

and erect the ordinate d b

e are the abscissae corre-

meeting
ordinates

c in b.

Then,

d,

sponding to

A
B,
:

D,

A
:

E, the ordinates d b, e c also correspond to the

C, and by
:

d b and the
b
is

DB
L-

L.

D =

LEMMA V we have EC Ae A E A d A C (by construction)

e c
: : : :

d.

Hence

in the straight line

AB

43. This
follows
:

LEMMA may

produced, &c. &c. be proved, without the aid of similar curves,

as

ABD =

^5

(D F
tan ' a
.

+ F +
,

B)

- A 1) _ An*
anil

D.BF
.

A C E - A w A r T? = Ah-.

tan a
* ,

AE CG
g

where a
'"'

=
__ ~~

L.

DA
2
.

F.
tan, a

ABD ACE

AD A E"

2
.

tan. a

+ AD BF + AE CG
.
.

by LEMMA VII, since L. B A F is indefinite compared with F or B; Hence therefore B F, C G are indefinite compared with A D or A E.

Now

if

be the limit of

AO

and

L +
2
,

its

varying value,
.

we have

JL/

+
we
get

AD

B F tan, a + A D A^Ttanrr+ "A E C G"

.

and multiplying by the denominator and equating homogeneous terms

L A E
.
. .

2
.

tan. a

,.

T r Limltof

ABD __ =

AD AD __.
2

tan. a

44.

LEMMA

X.
is

"

"
continually" curvature" in

here introduced for

Continually increased or diminished." the same reason as

The word
'*

continued

LEMMA

VI.
its effects

If the force, moreover, be not "finite" neither will

be

or

the velocity, space described, and time will not admit of comparison.

40
45. Let the time

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

be divided into several portions, such as d, the locus of the extremities of the ordinates which b B being repreB, d b, sent, the velocities acquired

AD

&c.

D Then upon these lines D d, &c.

AD

as bases, there being inscribed rect-

their

B, and when angles in the figure number is increased and bases

diminished indefinitely, their ultimate the curvilinear area sum shall

But each of these rectangles represents the space described in the time denoted by its base for during an instant the velocity may be considered constant, and by mechanics we have for constant velocities S = T X V. Hence the area A B D represents the whole space described in the time A D. In the same manner, (see fig. LEMMA X) represents the time A E. But by LEMMA IX these areas are " ipso motus initio," as A D 8 and A E 2 Hence, in the very beginning of the motion, the spaces deIII.)
;

= A B D (LEMMA

D'

ACE

scribed are also in the duplicate ratio of the times. 46. Hence may be derived the differential expressions for the space
described^ velocity acquired, &c.

Let the velocity

BD

acquired in the time

(A D) be denoted by

v,

and the space described, by s. Then, ultimately, we have = d t,

Dd

v,

and

Dnbd =
v
,
,

ds

=
,

DdXdb
,

= dtXv.
.

Hence

Again,
are

= d s d s = v d dt = d s v t if D d = d D', the spaces described in these

t,
ci

(a)

successive instants,

b,

D' m, and

sented by

therefore ultimately the fluxion of the space repreHence is b n r or 2 b B'. the ultimate state of D'

d (d

s)

X b

m m m B' ultimately,

and supposing B' to move up to A, since in the limit at A, B' coincides with A, and B' B' or d (d s) represents with A D, and therefore b " in the the of the- motion." described

space

very beginning
t
2

Hence by

the

LEMMA, d(ds) <x2d

d
2

a dt 2
(b)

or with the sajne accelerating force

s

a dt 2

BOOK L]
With
or diminished, and

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
d
*

4l

different accelerating forces

.. (see

must be proportionably increased

Wood's Mechanics) d 2 s a Fdt 2

Hence we
and
.%

have, after properly adjusting the units of force, &c.

d's s

= Fd Fd t*^
S
2

F-^1 ~ dt
Hence
also and by

(c)
</

\
considering d
t

means of

(a)

constant,
(d)

F =
all

g^,vdv

= Fds

of which expressions will be of the utmost use in our subsequent

comments.

X. COR. I. To make this corollary intelligible it will be useful to prove the general principle, that a body, moving in a curve, be acted upon by any new accelerating If force, the distance between the points at which it would arrive WITHOUT
47.
that the
time.

LEMMA

and WITH the new force in the same time, or " error," is equal to the space new force, acting solely, would cause it to describe in that same

Let a body move

force act

in the

curve

ABC,

and when
Also

at
let

B,

let an- additional

upon

it

in

the direction

B b.

D,

E,

EC;

by the and when moved by the sole action of the new body moving force. Then draw tangents at the points B, D, E meeting d, E e, C c, each parallel to B b, in P, Q, R, Also draw F M, G R, b d parallel to B P; and S V, N T, e c parallel to S, R N, d e parallel to D Q
F,

G,

G b be

spaces that

would be described

in equal times

in the curve,

EH.

42

A COMMENTARY ON
since the
it

[SECT.

I.

Now
the

body

at

is

acted

would cause
spaces
is

to

move through
and
their

upon by forces which separately D, B F, or, when the number of

increased

P, through these forces act together, the body will move in that time through the In the same manner it may be shown to move from diagonal up to M.

B F

in

magnitude diminished in infinitum, same time, therefore by LAW III, Cor. 1, when

to N, and from N to C in the succeeding times. Hence, if the number of the times be increased and their duration indefinitely diminished, the body will have moved through an indefinite number of points M, N,

&c. up to C, describing a curve B C. Also since b d, d e, e c are each at B, D, E, or ultimately to the curve B EC parallel to the tangents .'. b d e c ultimately assimilates itself to a curve equal and parallel to

BD EC
toBb.
Hence,

moreover

is

parallel to

b.

Hence C

is

also equal

then,

The Error caused by any disturbing force acting upon a

body moving in a curve, is equal to the space that would be described by means of the sole action of that force, and moreover it is parallel to the direction of that force. Wherefore, if the disturbing force be constant, it is and IX, and indeed is shown in all books inferred from LEMMAS easily

on

Mechanics, that the errors are as the squares of the times in which they
Also, if the disturbing forces be nearly constant, then the quamproxime. But these conclusions,

are generated.

errors areas the squares of the times

the same as those which Note 118 of the Jesuits,

edit.

Le Seur and

Jacquier,

do not prove the assertion of Newton (see Glasgow in the corollary under consideration, inasmuch as they are general for all curves, and apply not to similar curves in particular. 48. Now let a curve similar to the above be constructed, and completing
1822.) leads to,
the figure, let the points corresponding to A, B, &c. be denoted by A', B'5 &c. and let the times in which the similar parts of these curves, 7 E' ; viz. C, E' C' are described, be in the ratio E, D, B' D';

D
;

t'.

Then

B
t
:

F,
7

B F
7
.

the times in which, by the same disturbing force, the spaces 7 b 7 are described, are in the ratio of F G, F 7 7 b,

G
:

Hence,

"

in ipso

motus
:

initio" (by
7
:

LEMMA X) we
72
2

have

B F

B F
7

t
t

2
:

FG
and
therefore,

F G'
7

2
:

t'

&c. &c.

B F + FG +

&c.

B'

F + F
7

G +
7

&c.

2
:

72

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
B F
4-

43

But, (by 15,)

G +

&c.

= =

the error

c,

and
B'

F + P G' +
which

&c.

the error C'

c',
t
:

and the times

in

B C

C, B' C' are described, are in the ratio

c

t'.

Hence then
:

C'

c'

2
:

t'

or

The ERRORS arising from equal forces, applied

the motions

at corresponding points,

disturbing of bodies in similar curves, which describe similar those curves in proportional times, are as the squares of the times parts of
in which they are generated

EXACTLY, and
to

not "

quam proxime"
by

Hence Newton appears

have neglected

to investigate this corollary.

The

corollary indeed did not merit any great attention, being limited several restrictions to very particular cases.

It would seem from this and the last No. that Newton's meaning in the forces being " similarly applied," is merely that they are to be applied at corresponding points, and do not necessarily act in directions similarly

situated with respect to the curves.

For explanation with regard

49.

to the other corollaries, see 46.

LEMMA

XI.

" Finite Curvature"

Before we can form any precise

notion as to the curvature at any point of a curve's being Finite, Infinite or Infinitesimal, some method of measuring curvature in general must be de-

This measure evidently depends on the ultimate angle contained by the chord and tangent (A B, AD) or on the angle of contact. Now, although this angle can have no finite value when singly considered, yet when two
vised.

such angles are compared, their ratio may be finite, and if any known curvature be assumed of a standard magnitude, we shall have, by the the equality between the ratios of the angles of contact and the curvatures,
curvature at any point in any curve whatever. In practice, however, it is more commodious to compare the subtenses of the angles of contact

VII, having radii in a ratio of equality, and therefore are accurate measures of them), than the

(which

may be

considered circular arcs, see

LEMMA

angles themselves.
50. Ex. 1. Let the circumference of a circle be divided into any number of equal parts and the points of division being joined, let there be t from tangent drawn at every such point meeting a perpendicular let fall

the next point ; then it may easily be shown that these perpendiculars or subtenses are all equal, and if the number of parts be increased, and then

44

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

magnitude diminished, in infinitum, they will have a ratio of equality. Hence, the CIRCLE has the same curvature at every point, or it is a curve
of uniform curvature. 51. Ex. 2. Let two
circles

touch one
the

another in the point A, having common tangent A D. Also let

D
7
.

be perpendicular to
circle

AD
Join

and cut the

A D
since

in B'.

Then

B,

(LEMMA VII) they are equal to one another, and consequently the limiting ratio of B and B' D, is

equal to

AD

A B, B B' are ultimately

that of the curvatures of the respective

circles

(by 17.) But, by the nature of the circle,

C,

AD
2

AD
R and r being
Therefore

= 2R

DB'

DB =2rx DB
/2

DB

the radii of the circles.

L +

DB
D
R
B'

211
""
r 2 ~"r

DB'

DB

and equating homogeneous terms we have

i.

e.

The

52. Hence, if the curvature of the circle

curvatures of circles are inversely as their radii. whose radius

is 1,

(inch, foot,

or any other measure,) be denoted by C, that of any other circle whose radius is r, is

C
-'

53.

Hence,

if

the radius r of a circle

compared with
if r
is itifinite,

1,

be

Jinite,

its

curvature compared with C, isjinite > curvature infinitesimal ; if r be infinitesimal the

all

be infinite the curvature

is

the higher orders of infinites

and

infinitesimals.

and so on through By infinites and in-

finitesimals are

understood quantities indefinitely great or small.

The

above

sufficiently explains

why

curvature, compared with a given

are yet to show standard (as C), can be said to bejinite or indefinite. the reason of the restriction to curves ofjinite curvature, in the enunciation of the

We

LEMMA.
circles

54.

The

which pass through A, B,

a, b, g, (fig.

LEMMA XI)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

45

with the curve and the same subtenses. Hence have the same tangent A (49. and 52.) these circles ultimately have the same curvature as the curve,
i.

e.

AI
is

is

the diameter of that circle which has the same curvature as the

curve at A.
at

so likewise,

Hence, according as A I is finite or indefinite, the curvature compared with that of circles of finite radius.

Now A G

ultimately, or
A T "" 1

AR2 - ~~
If finite,

whether

be

finite

or not.

BD

AB

2
,

as

we

also learn

from the

text.

55. If the curvature be infinitesimal or

is infinite,

AI
than

infinite

then since

AB

TT-TY

B being , or, always considered in its ultimate state an infinitesimal of the first order, a A B3 B is that of the third order, i. e. B The converse is
must be
infinitely
less
2

B D

A B

also true.

Ex. In the cubical parabola, 'the abscissa a as the cube of the orhence at its vertex the curvature is infinitely small. At other dinate
;

points, however, of this curve, as

finite.

we

shall

see,

hereafter, the curvature

is

at once the different proportions between the subtenses of the of contact and the conterminous arcs, corresponding to the differangles ent orders of infinitesimal or infinite curvatures, and to make intelligible
this intricate subject,
let

To

show

AB

ultimately considered be indefinitely small

compared with
pared with

then since

AB = A ^
"

B,

A B

is

infinitesimal

com-

AB
may

and generally Ttnfzri

ABn
l

= A

B, shows that

A Bn

is

infinitely small

compared with

A Bn~
2
3
,

so that the different orders of in-

Jinitesimals

be correctly denoted by

AB,
Also since
1 is infinite

AB AB

AB

4
,

&c.

compared with the

infinitesimal
irjfinites

compared with sented by

AB
_____

AB'
56.

1111 _
,

&c. the different orders of

B B, and be repremay

n~ AB
2 '

________

35

A~F"

'

Hence

if

the curvature at any point of a curve be infinitesimal in

the second degree

46

A COMMENTARY ON AB
2

[SECT.

^nTT a JL> JD

p A JD
1

g >

and

BD

or

AB

4
,

and conversely.

And

generally, if the curvature be infinitesimal in the

n th degree,
,

AB
Again,
if

TTTT

T^Rn

an(^

BD

A Bn+

and conversely.

the curvature be infinite in the n th degree,

AB
The

-gy-

A Bn

and

B D a A B -n
2

and conversely.

parabolas of the different orders will afford examples to the above

conclusions.
57.
.

The above
2.

is

sufficient to explain the first case

of the

LEMMA.

Case

presents no

angles to
fall

A
b,

D,

d, difficulty ; being inclined at any equal they will be parallel and form, with the perpendiculars let

for

BD

from

upon

D,

similar triangles,

tional, the ratio between

D, b d
i.

will

whose sides being proporbe the same as in Case 1.

Case
point,

3. If

BD

converge,

e.

pass through

and ultimately when d and difference between the angles A d b, A D B

b d

will also,

when produced D move up

will

to a given
to

A, the

be

less

than any
;

that can be assigned,

i.

e.

B D
Case

and b d
2.

which reduces
Jacquier.)

this case to

be ultimately parallel (See Note 125. of PP. Le Seur and

will

to touch perpetually
will
still

Instead of passing through a given point, B D, b d may be supposed any given curve, as a circle for instance, and B

AD

2
;

for the angles

from the same point

D, d are ultimately equal, inasmuch as there can evidently be but one line drawn touchmight be devised, but the above be deterNewton's expression, " or let B

ing the circle or curve. Many other laws determining

will

BD

be

sufficient to illustrate

mined by any other law whatever." It may, however, be farther observed For instance, the that this law must be definite or such as wilier B D.

LEMMA

would not be true

if this

law were that

should cut instead of

touch the given circle.

58.

LEMMA

XI.

Con.

II.

It

may be

thus explained.
s

Let

be

the given point towards which the A B, A b, converge. S G, s g A B, A b, &c.

g, bisecting the chords sagittee shall ultimately be as the squares of

S G,

BOOK L]
For join
them, as

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
produce meet the
t

47

P B, P b and also P G, P g, to

d'

D'

Then if B ? t. tangent in D, d, and b move up to A, the angles P D, t P d, or the differences be-

tween the angles and between A t

ATP and A D P,
P
and

d P, may
is,

be diminished without limit; that

(LEMMA
at
t,

I),

the angles at T,
ultimately equal.

D
B

and
are

d are

Hence

the

triangles

ATS, A D
A
t s,

similar, as likewise are

A
:
:

b.

Consequently

S
and
s

T
t
:

DB
d b
:

A
A

AB
A
b

and
.-.

s t

DB
S

d b

Also by

LEMMA
S

VII,

s t

G
8

and by

LEMMA

XI, Case

3,

DB
.'.

d b
S
r

AB
AB

Ab

AbQ.
e. d.

Moreover,

It

hence appears, that the sagitta which

cut

the chords, in

ANY GIVEN RATIO WHATEVER and

tend to a given pointy have ultimately the same ratio as the subtenses of the angles of contact, and are as the squares

of the corresponding arcs, chords, or tangents.

59.

LEMMA
a
t,

XL
.-.

COR,

III.

" given,"

the space described

is

If the velocity of a body be constant or Hence proportional to the time t.

AB
60.

and

G AB
<x

<x t

LEMMA XL

COR. IV.

AD
to

Supposing

B D, b

at right angles to

(and they have the same proportion when inclined at a given angle D, and also when tending to a given point, &c.) we have

48

A COMMENTARY ON
*

[SECT.
.

I.

ADB

Adb

AD_xDB AjTxdb
-

A D*
:

X
:

AD

AD
A-

Ad
DB

3
.

Also

AADB:AAdb:

d b

(DB)^

(db)*

may be observed here, that the tyro, on reverting to usually infers from it that
It

LEMMA IX,

AA

DB

AD

and does not

ex.

AD

3
,

but then he does not consider that

D,

Jinite angle with the curve, whereas in

in LEMMA IX, cuts LEMMA XI it touches

or makes a
the curve.

61.
scissa

LEMMA XL
2
,

COR. V.
ordinate,
that

Since in the

common

CD
area

a square of the
it

and likewise
curve

BD

or

AC

parabola the ab* a A or

is

evident

the

may
1,

ultimately be considered

parabola.

This being admitted, we learn from Ex.

No.

4,

that the curvilinear

A C B = $ of the rectangle C D. Whence the curvilinear area A B D = \ of C D = f of the triangle A B D, or the area A B D a So far B D, b d have been &c. (by Cor. 4.) triangle A B D a A D
3
,

considered at right angles to D. Let them now be inclined to it at a " be determined by any given angle, or let them tend to a given point, or other law ;" then (LEMMA, Case 3, and No. 25) B D, b d will ultimately

be

parallel.

Hence,

D', b d'

(fig.
it is

No. 26) being the corresponding

plain

subtenses perpendicular to

A D,

enough

that the ultimate dif7

ferences between the curvilinear

areas

d,

A b
are

d'

are

the similar
as

A B D, A B D triangles B D D', b
,

and between

d
,

d',

which
4
,
i.

differences

therefore
4
.

B D2
<x

b d 8, or

as

A B

e.

BDD'oc

AB

But we have shown that

ABD

AB

s
.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
3

49

ABD' = ABD+BDD' = axAB + bxAB =AB

4

Consequently
b'

(a

and

X A B

being indefinite compared with

ABD' =

axAB

a, (see
3
.

Art. 6,)

AB

Q.

e. d.

SCHOLIUM TO SECTION

I.

62. What Newton asserts in the Scholium, and his commentators Lt Seur and Jacquier endeavour (unsuccessfully) to elucidate, with regard to the different orders of the angles of contact or curvatures, may be briefly

explained, thus.

Let

DB
(see

<x

A Dm

Then

the diameter of curvature,

which equals
n
,

No. 22 and 24),

a.

AD
2

ra
.

Similarly

if

diameter of curvature
diameters,

AD

n
.

Hence

and

D B x A D the D represents these

and
a'

we have

=
and
if

--

(a

being

finite)

2 or D'

\xzJinitC)

then

D will

be Jinite^

injinitesimal^ or infinite^

2, any number, (whole, fractional, or even transcenless than 2, or any number greater than 2. dental) Again, if m = n then D compared with D' is finite, since D' : a a'. If m be less

according as

m=

or

is

is than n in any finite degree, then n positive, and be greater than n, then If finitely less than D'.

is

always

in-

and
f

m D ~~ _ D being positive, D
is

a^
a'
is

ADm

always

infinite

compared with

D'.

Hence

then, there

no

limit to the orders of diameters of curvature,

infinitesimal,

jwith

regard to

infinite

and

and consequently not to the

curvatures.
63. In this Scholium

Newton

says,

that "

Those things which have

jbeen demonstrated of curve lines

and the surfaces which they comprehend are easily applied to the curve surfaces and contents of solids." Let us
attempt
1st,

this application, or rather to

show,
bases be inscribed in be also circumscribed

That if any number of parallelepipeds of equal solid, and the same number having the same bases any
VOL.
I,

A COMMENTARY ON
about
it s

[.SECT.

then the number of these parallelepipeds being increased and their magnitude diminished IN INFINITUU^ the ultimate ratios which the aggre-

and

gates of t he inscribed and circumscribed parallclopipeds have to one anot/iet to the solid, are ratios of equality.

Let
planes

same point A', and perpendicular to one another. Also let the intersections of these 7 planes with one another be A A', A V, A' Z, and with the surface of the solid be A U V, A Y Z and Z 1 V. Moreover let A' V, A' Z be each 7 7 7 7 7 livided into any number of equal parts in the points B T U'; D X , Y ,
,

A S T U V Z Y X W A be any portion of a solid A A V, A A' Z and Z A' V, passing through the

7

cut off by three

md

through them

let planes, parallel to

AA Z
7

and

be supposed to

pass,,

whose

intersections with the

A A V respectively, planes A A V, A A Z
7
7 7

BOOK
shall
7

I.]

NEWTON'S PR1NC1PIA.
TT U B m T n U
B
7
7

51

Y', and with the plane X', o Y', respectively. Again, let the intersections of these planes with the curve surface be S P 1, m, o respectively. Also suppose their several P t, R n; s,

be S
1

U'
t

WD
s
7

A Z V,

D',

XQ YR
P

TQ
77
,

mutual intersections to be
&c.
;

7
,

P E P" x,
7

P'"

G QF Q H Q K
7

7
,

Z V, being those of these planes taken in pairs and of the plane C 7 , E 7 , x, G', F 7, 7 , 7 , I 7 , &c. and those of these pairs of the points 7 77 777 7 77 , , R, &c. planes and of the curve surface, the points P, P , P , P , Q,
7

H K

Q Q

, , passing through B , being all parallel to 7 V. Also A A' Z, are parallel to one another and perpendicular to A 7 7 7 are parallel to because the planes passing through , , V, 7 Hence Z. they are parallel to one another, and perpendicular to

Now

the

planes,

T U
7

AA

D X Y
7 ,
,

AA
7

T T U U W D X X Y Y as also P C P E P" x, P" G Q F, Q H Q K &c. &c. are parallel to A A and to albo evident, for the same reasons, that B one another. It T m, U n, X Y' o to are parallel to A Z and to one another, as also are D Hence also A' V and to one another. follows that A B' C D B' C E T &c. are rectangles, which rectangles, having their sides equal,
(Euc. B.

AA
7

XL) S B
7

/7

is
7

1,

t,

s,

it

are themselves equal. Again, from the points A, P, Q,

in the

curve surface, draw

7

A
7

B,
;

Q II, Q K R L, R N parallel to A B A D' C E C' G F' IT, T K I o, I n and meeting B S, D W; E P', G' P H Q K Q produced in the points B, D; E, G; H, K, reThen complete the rectangles A C, P F, Q I which, being i?pcctively.
D;
7

P
;

E,
7

P G
7
,

7//

77

7 C 7, C 7 F 7 , F 7 I 7 , will evidently, when C 7 P, F 7 Q, equal and parallel to I are produced to C, F, I, complete the rectangular parallelepipeds A C', P F 7 , I'. Moreover, supposing F' I' the last rectangle wholly
7

Q
,

within the curve

7 ,

Z V produce

and complete the

parallelopiped

F and make I L I N' equal Also complete the rectangle P M

7

7
.

N R to the points d, b g, e; k, h, and complete the rectangles P a, Q p, R q thereby dividing the P F Q I', each into two others, viz. A P, parallelopipeds A C aC PQ, pF; Q R, q I Now the difference between the sum of the inscribed parallelopipeds a C p F q I and that of the circumscribed ones A C P F Q I R M is evidently the sum of the parallelopipeds A P, P Q, Q R, R M'; that R I, Q F, PC is, since their bases are equal and the altitudes I R
Again, produce

P,

G
7 ,

P, II Q,
7

KQ L
;

R,

are together equal to A C 7 In the same

.

AA

this difference is equal to the parallelopiped

if

manner

a series of inscribed and

circumscribed

52

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

7 7 , be rectangular parallelepipeds, having the bases B' E', E H', H' the difference between their aggregates will equal the paralconstructed, 7 lelepiped whose base is B' E' and altitude S B , and so on with every series that can be constructed on bases succeeding each other diagonally.

Hence then
it, is

the difference between the sums of

all

the parallelepipeds

that can be inscribed in the curve surface

AZV

and circumscribed about

of the parallelepipeds whose bases are each equal to A' C' 7 7 and altitudes are A A', S B', Let D', T', , U',
the

sum

XX YY

number of the parts A' B', B' T', T U7, U' V, and of the parts A D D' X7, X' Y Y' Z be increased, and their magnitude diminished in infinitum> and it is evident the aforesaid sum of the parallelepipeds, which are comprised between the planes A A' Z, S B' 1 and between the

now

the
,

planes

7 that is, the A' V, t, will also be diminished without limit difference between the inscribed and circumscribed whole solid is ulti;

WD

mately

less

equal, and a of them (see

than any that can be assigned, and these solids are ultimately fortiori is the intermediate curve-surfaced solid equal to either

LEMMA

and Art.

6.)

Q.

e. d.

Hitherto only such portions of solids as are bounded by three planes perpendicular to one another, and passing through the same point, have

been considered.
four such portions,

But
it is

since a complete curve-surfaced solid will consist of evident that what has been demonstrated of any

one portion must hold with regard to the whole. Moreover, if the solid should not be curve-surfaced throughout, but have one, two, or three plane faces, there will be no difficulty in modifying the above to suit any particular case.

If in two curve-surfaced solids there lelopipeds, each of the same number; and
2dly,

be inscribed two series ofparal-

ultimately these parallelepipeds

have

to each other

a given

ratio^

the solids themselves have to one another

that same ratio.

This follows at once from the above and the composition of ratios.
3dly, All the corresponding edges or sides, rectilinear or curvilinear^ of
similar solids are proportionals
;

also the corresponding surfaces, plane or

;

curved, are in the duplicate ratio of the sides

and

the volumes or contents

are in the triplicate ratio of the sides. When the solids have plane surfaces only, the above true by Euclid.

is

shown

to

be

When,

however, the solids are curve-surfaced, wholly or

to be similar

in part,

we

must define them

when any plane* surfaced

solid whatever

being inscribed in any one ofthem> similar ones

may

also be inscribed in the

BOOK L]
others.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
it

53

Hence

is

evident that the corresponding plane surfaces are

are

similar, and consequently, by LEMMA V, the corresponding edges proportional, and the corresponding plane surfaces are in the

duplicate

of these edges or sides. Moreover, if the same number of similar be inscribed in the solids, and that number be parallelepipeds indefinitely increased, it follows from 63. 1 and the composition of ratios, that the
ratio

curved surfaces are proportional to the corresponding plane surfaces, and therefore in the -duplicate ratio of the corresponding edges ; and also that the contents are proportional to the corresponding inscribed parallelopior (by Euclid) in the triplicate ratio of the edges. These three cases will enable the student of himself to pursue the anahe may wish. shall " leave him to his own devices," logy as far as
peds,

We

after cautioning

that a curved- surface, at any point of it, has a certain fixed degree of curvature or deflection from the tangenttherefore that there is a sphere, touching the tangent-plane at plane, and that point, whose diameter shall be the limit of the diameters of all the

him against supposing

be spheres that can

analogously to
surface,

made

to touch the tangent-plane or curved-surface

I in

LEMMA

XI. Every curvilinear section of a curved-

a plane passing through a given point, has at that point a different curvature, the curved-surface being taken in the general sense;
it is

made by

and

a problem of

Maxima and Minima To

and
least degrees

determine those sections

which present the greatest

of curvature,

If other points of this Scholium require no particular remarks. the student be desirous of knowing in what consists the distinction between the obsolete methods of Exhaustions, Indivisibles, &c. and that of

The

to the let him go to the original sources works of Archimedes, Cavalerius, Sec. 04. Before we close our comments upon this very important part of the

PRIME AND ULTIMATE RATIOS,

Princi2)ia,

we may be excused, perhaps,

if

we

enter into the detail of the

afforded us so much Principle delivered in Art. 6, which lias already illustration of the text, and, as we shall see hereafter, so many valuable results. have thence obtained a number of the ordinary rules for

We

deducing indefinite forms from given definite functions of one variable and it will be confessed, by competent and candid judges, that these applications of the principle strongly confirm it. Enough has indeed been
;

already developed of the principle, to prove

it

the clearly divested of all

metaphysical obscurities

and

inconsistencies,

which render the methods of

and which have given

Fluxions, Differential Calculus, &c. &c. so objectionable as to their logic, rise to so many theories, all tending to establish
I)

54
the same rules.

A COMMENTARY ON
It is incredible that the great

[SECT.

I.

men, who successively introduced their several theories, should have been satisfied with the So many conthem. reasonings by which they attempted to establish
the principles flicting opinions, as to
all

of the science, go only to show that

Although it is generally difficult, and often the most sharp-sighted of men, to discern truth impossible, for even when through the clouds of error in which she is usually enveloped, yet,
were founded
in error.

she does break through, it is with such distinct beauty and simplicity that In the muvkiness around her there are she is instantly recognized by all. indeed false lights innumerable, and each passing meteor is in turn, by

many
when

observers, mistaken for the real presence ; but these instantly vanish exposed to the refulgent brightness of truth herself. Thus we have

seen the various systems of the world, as devised by Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe, and Descartes, give way, by the unanimous consent of philosoIt is true, the principle of phers, to the demonstrative one of Newton. was received at first with caution, from its non-accordance gravitation

but the moment the cause of this discreof an arc of the meridian, was pancy, viz. the erroneous admeasurement be coeval removed, it was hailed universally as truth, and will doubtless
with astronomical observations
;

with time

itself. The Theories relative to quantities indefinitely variable, an argument from which may be drawn conclusions directly oppresent Newton himself, dissatisfied with his Fluxions, proposite to the above.

duces PRIME AND ULTIMATE RATIOS, and again, dissatisfied \vith these, he introduces the idea of Moments in the second volume of the Principia.
first in his is every where constrained to apologize for his obscurities, Fluxions for the use of time and velocities, and then again in the Scholium, shown at the end of Sect. I of the Principia, (and in this instance we have After Newton comes how little it avails him) for reasoning upon nothings. so designate him, such Leibnitz, his great though dishonest rival, (we may Newton himself), who, bent upon oblitebeing evidently the sentiments of melts it down into another form, but yet falls traces of his

He

spoil, rating all than the discoverer into greater errors, as to the true nature of the thing, absolute nothings of the difhimself. From his Infinitesimals, considered as

ferent orders, nothing can be logically deduced, unless by

Him

(we speak

Such/a/s we mortals with reverence) who made all things from nothing. nor do we therefore admit in science, finite cannot issue with the same effect, and tangible consequences deduced from the arithmetic of absolute noThen we have a number of theories proever so many. things, be they &c. &c. mulgated by D'Alembert, Euler, Simpson, Marquise L'Hopital,

BOOK
all

I.]

NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA.
less modifications of the others
all

55

more or

struggling to establish

and

illustrate

what the great inventor, with

genius,
truth

failed to accomplish.

sophers make, as it had not then unveiled herself to any of them. Newton strove most of any to have a full view, but he caught only a glimpse, as we
ceive

almost supernatural All these diversities in the views of philohas been already observed, u strong argument that
all his

by

his

remaining

dissatisfied

with

it.

Hence then

it

may perappears, to us

at least, that the true

variable,
this

remain to

this

metaphysics of the doctrine of quantities indefinitely day undiscovered. But it may be asked, after

obtained

sweeping conclusion, how comes it that the results and rules thence all agree in form, and in their' application to physics produce
is

in conformity with experience and observation ? These forms and results are accurately true, aleasy. though illogically deduced, from a mere compensation of errors. This has been clearly shown in the general expression for the subtangcnt (Art. 29),

consequences exactly

The answer

and

are liable

the methods, not even Lagrange's Calcul des Fonctions excepted, Innumerable other instances might be to the paralogism. adduced, but this one we deem amply sufficient to warrant the above
all

assertion.

After these preliminary observations upon the state of darkness and error, which prevails to this day over the scientific horizon, it may perBut we arrogate haps be expected of us to shine forth to dispel the fog.
to ourselves

satisfaction as to the

no such extraordinary powers. All we pretend to is selfremoval of the difficulties of the science. Having

engaged to write a Commentary upon the Principia, we naturally sought to be satisfied as to the correctness of the method of Prime and Ultimate
to remove objections, the more they themselves ; so that after spending many months in continually presented the fruitless attempt, we had nearly abandoned the work altogether ;

Ratios.

The more we endeavoured

when suddenly, in examining the method of Indeterminate Coefficients Dr. Wood's Algebra, it occurred that the aggregates of the coefficients

in

of

the like powers of the indefinite variable, must be separately equal to zero, not because the variable might be assumed equal to zero, (which it never
is,

although

it

is

of the capable of indefinite diminution,) but because

essentially different from,

different

powers being

and forming no part

ot

one another.
this a train of reflections followed, relative to the treatment of homogeneous definite quantities in other branches of Algebra. It was ot of an soon that

From

perceptible

any equation put

1)
I

0, consisting

aggregate

56
different quantities

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

incapable of amalgamation by the opposition of plus and minus, must give each of these quantities equal to zero. Reverting to indefinites, it then appeared that their whole theory might be developed
principles, and making trial as in Art. 6, and the subsequent of the preceding commentary, we have satisfied ourselves most fully parts of having thus hit upon a method of clearing up all the difficulties of

on the same

what we
entitle

shall henceforth, contrary to the intention expressed in Art. 7,

THE CALCULUS

INDEFINITE DIFFERENCES.
65.

constant quantity

is

such, that from

its

very nature

it

cannot be

made

less or greater. Constants, as such quantities

first letters

may briefly be

called, are

denoted generally

by the

of the alphabet,
a, b, c, d, 8cc.

A definite

quantity essentially variable. Definite quantities are denoted by the last letters of the alphabet, as quantity
is

GIVEN VALUE of a
z, y, x,

w, &c.

quantity is a quantity essentially variable through all diminution or of augmentation short of absolute NOTHINGNESS or degrees of

An INDEFINITE

INFINITUDE. Thus the ordinate of

a curve,

considered generally,

is

an

indefinite,

But if any particular value, being capable of every degree of diminution. as that which to a given abscissa, for instance, be fixed upon, this value is
definite.

All abstract numbers, as

1, 2, 3,

&c. and quantities absolutely

is

fixed, are constants.

66.

The difference between two definite values of the same

may be
represented by

quantity (y)

a definite quantity, and

*y
and

(a)

adopting the notation of the Calculus of Finite (or definite] Differences. In the same manner the difference between two definite values f A y
a definite quantity,
is

is

denoted by

A (Ay)

BOOK
or

I.]

NEWTON'S
A'y

PR1NC1PIA.

57

more simply by
(b)

and so on to

An
67.

difference between a Definite value and the Indefinite value of is Indefinite* and we call it the Indejinite Difference of y, and any quantity y denote it, agreeably to the received algorithm, by

The

<iy
In the same

(c)

manner
d
(d y)

or

d2 y
the Indejinite Difference of the Indejinite Difference of y, or the second indefinite difference of y.

Proceeding thus we arrive at

dy
by
lines, as follows
:

(d)

which means the nth indefinite difference of y. 68. Definite and Indejinite Differences admit of being also represented
t"

= y be any fixed or definite ordinate of the curve A U, and taking P' Q' = Q? R' = R/ & = &c. let ordinates be erected meeting the curve in Q, R, S, T, &c. Join P Q, Q R, R S, &c. and produce
Let

P'

them

to

meet the ordinates produced

in

r, s, t,

&c.

Also draw

s',

t',

68
&c. parallel to

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.
s
t',

I.

S,

S T, &c. and draw

s t",

&c. parallel to

&c.

and

n, o, &c. perpendicular to the ordinates. finally Now supposing not only P P' but also R' s &c. fixed or defiQ', nite ; then

draw

P m,

Q m = Q Q' PP = APP' = Ay Rr = n r nR = Qm Rn = AQm = A(APF) = A PF = A y

2
2

s s'

= Ss = A*y
t t'
3

Ss'
t"

= Ss
=
t t' 4

Rr = A R
S S' 3=

t"

t'

S S'

= A (A and so on to any extent.

But
if

y)

=A

Q m,
69.

the equal parts P' Q', Q' R', &c. be arbitrary or indefinite, then r, s s', 1 t", &c. become so, and they represent the several Inde2 dy, d y d
}

Jinite Differences of y, viz.

3

y,

y,

&c.

The

reader will henceforth

and

Indefinite Differences.

We

know the distinction between Definite now proceed to establish, of Indefinite

Differences, the

FUNDAMENTAL
It is evidently

PRINCIPLE.

a truth perfectly axiomatic, that No aggregate of INDEFINITE quantities can be a definite quantity, or aggregate of definite quantities, unless these aggregates are equal to zero.
a x) 2 a, in which (x) is indefinite, said that (a x) ( constant or definite, is an instance to the contrary ; but then the (a) x are not indefinites in the sense of Art 65. x and a reply is, a
It

may be

and

70.

Hence

if in any equation

A +
A, B, C, &c. be have

Bx+Cx

+ Dx +
3

&c.

=
;

definite quantities

and x an

indefinite quantity

then

we

A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, &c. A For B x + C x + D x + &c. cannot equal But by transposing A to the other side of the equation, and consequently Therefore A = Bx + Cx + D x + &c. =
2
3
2
3

unless

it

does

A = 0. = A.

or

x (B

+ Cx + Dx +
2

&c.)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
indefinite

But x being
Hence,

cannot be equal to
2

..

as before,

B + Cx + D x + &c. = it may be shown that B = 0, and x (C + D x + & c =

.)

therefore

Hence

C =

0,

and so on throughout.

71. Again, if in the equation

A, B,
then

B',

C, C', C", D, &c. be definite quantities^ and x, y

INDEFINITES ;

B x + B' y =z \-when C'xy + C"y = oj

2

A - 0^

is

a function qfx.

For,

&c. = = z x, then substituting let y A + x (B + B' z) + x (C + + x (D + D' z + D" z +

2

C' z

+
3
)

C"

D"'

+
z

&c.
2

=
0,

Hence by

70,
0,

A =

B +
v

B' z

0,

C +

C' z

C"

&c.

and substituting

for z

and reducing we get

A = 0, B x + B' y 0, &c. In the same manner, if we have an equation involving three or more indefinites, it may be shown that the aggregates of the homogeneous terms
must each equal zero. This general principle, which is that of Indeterminate Coefficients divide legitimately established and generalized, (the ordinary proofs

Bx + Cx
and not
;

+
x
is

&c.

by

x,

which gives

B + Cx + Dx2 +
truly results

&c.

=
which

then put

0,

and thence

B =

as we know from algequantity whatever, bra ; whereas in 70, by considering the nature of x, and the absurdity of we avoid the paralogism) conducts us by a near route to making it

instead of being 0,

may be any

the Indefinite Differences offunctions of one or MORE variables. 72. To Jind the Indefinite Difference of any function ofx.

Let u
of

= f x denote the function. Then d u and d x being the indefinite

x
itself,

differences of the function

and

we have
u

tl

f (x

d x) d x

Assume
f
(

d x)

= A + B

+ C

d x"

&c.

60

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

J.

A, B, &c. being independent of d x or

constants; then

definite quantities involving

x and

u
and by 71, we have

d u

= A +B

d x
.

+ C

d x

&c.

u = A, d u = B d x Hence then this general rule, The INDEFINITE DIFFERENCE of any function of

x, f x,

is

the second

term in the devclopement off(x

d x) according

to the increasing

powers
the

xn Then it may easily be shown independently of Binomial Theorem that n = x n +n.x n ~ dx + Pdx 2 (x + d x) n B d x /. d (x ) = n x
Ex. Let u
.
1 '

The
rule.

student

may deduce the

results also of Art. 9,

0,

&c. from this general

To find the indefinite difference of the product of two variables. Let u = x y. Then u + d u = (x -f- d x) (y + d y) = x y + x d y + y d x + d x cl y /. d u = x d y + y d x + d x d y and by 71, or directly from the homogeneity of the quantities, we have
73.
.

du =
z)

xdy + ydx

(a)

Hence
d (x y

and so on

for

x d (y z) -f y z cl x x z d y + x y d z + y any number of variables.

2
.
.

= =

d x

(b)

Again, required d

Let

=
,

u.

Then

/.

x x
y

=
=

y
.

u,

d u

and d x d x

--u y y x cly
z

d y
,

d n

u y

Hence, ami from

rules already delivered,

may be found

the Indefinite

two or more variables. Differences of any functions whatever of refer the student to Peacock's Examples of the Differential Calculus for
practice.

We

The result The sum of

Difference.

(a)

may be deduced

geometrically from the

fig.

in Art. 21.

the indefinite rectangles

b,

b A' makes the Indefinite

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1P1A.
this place,

61 &c. Indefinite

We might, in
Differences,

investigate the second, third,

and give rules for the maxima and minima of functions of two or more variables, and extend the Theorems of Maclaurin and Taylor to
such cases.

Much

might also be said upon various other applications,

but the complete discussion of the science we reserve for an express Treatise on the subject. shall hasten to deduce such results as we

We

of our subsequent remarks ; beginning with the research of a general expression for the radius of curvature of a given curve, or for the radius of that circle whose deflection from the
shall obviously
in the course

want

tangent

is

the same as that of the curve at the point of contact.

74. Required the radius of curvature for any point of a given curve. P be the given Let

QR

curve, referred to the axis

AO

by the ordinate and abscissa or y and x. P P M, A

be N, being fixed let other ordinates taken at any

OR

N, equal indefinite intervals and produce O. Join P

N
P

it

to
t

meet

Q O R in r

and

let

be the tangent at P drawn Art. 29, meeting N, by

OR

q and t respectively. Again draw a circle (as in construcin

tion of

LEMMA XI,

or other-

wise) passing through fore touching the curve

P
;

and

Q and touching the tangent P and therediameter parallel to A O. and let B D be

t,

its

Now

Q V

=
let

y,

d x,
s,

2 (d x

d y 2 ) or d

if s

arc

= P Q A P.

(LEMMA VII)

Moreover

PM' =
then
it

y';

that readily appears (see Art. 27)

= Rdx

being the ra-

dius of the circle.

Again

Pq = Qq = Qq
2

X (Qq
(Q q

2 d y

Q N') + 2 y')

62
or

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

But since

R
and

Qq
:

P
1

2
:

Q
t r

2
:

(LEMMA XI)

Qq
.-.

2
r

t r,

or

Qq

.-.

Qq=

^ = *1Z (by

Art. 68.)

Consequently

and equating Homogeneous Indefinites d2y , d s2 = d s

,

dxd
/,

(dx
?

y~"

dxd

+
,

d y a
2

dx

the general expression for the radius of curvature. Ex. 1. In the parabola y 2 ax.

and since when the curve

d

is
2

concave to the axis d

is

negative,

_ ~dx
...

y
2

_ ""

__

a_
2

'

2y

dx

dy _ ~

4y

_ ""

R =

Hence

at the vertex

R=

3, ,

and

at the extremity of the latus rectum,

R = -:

2.

BOOK L]
Ex.
2.

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.

63

the focus

If p be the parameter or the double ordinate passing through and 2 a the axis-major of any conic section, its equation is

yS y 1 fence 2 y d y

_ P x + JL X - PX x g a
.

p d x +_

-'-

x d x

and

"
and

" y d x
,

P( 1+ ~) a ^
"~

2 y

T- 2 P

d x

4 y3

.-.

R =

which reduces to

Ex.

3.

In the cycloid

it is

easy to show that

dx
or path of the circle.

"

r being the radius of the generating circle,

and

x,

y referred

to the base

g 2

*'dx
Hence
it is

y ""

_ __r
y

.-. R = 2 V 2 Y y = 2 the normal. an easy problem iojind the equation to the of curvature for the several points of a given curve.

locus

of the

centres

and x be the coordinates of the given curve, and Y and X those of the required locus, all referred to the same origin and axis, then the stuIf y

dent will easily prove that

64

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

and

Y=
which
will give the

d2 y

dx
equation to the given curve.
In the cycloid for instance

equation required, by substituting by means of the

X=
whence
it

+ V (2ry

that the locus required easily appears

is

the same cycloid, only

one. differing in position from the given 75. Required to express the radius of curvature in terms

ordinates

of a curve,
'
,

viz.

in terms

of

the

radius vector

of the polar coe and traced-

angle

Q.

X
and
y
.-.

=
=

cos. COS. &

sin.

&

taking the indefinite differences, and substituting in equation (d) of Art.

74,

we

get

which by means of the equation to the curve

ture required.

will give the radius

of curva-

Ex.

1.

In the logarithmic spiral

= = -$

la

Xa

(Art. 17.)

'

R _ "" ~
.

(g'+
2(la)V

(la)

e *)

_ ~

(!__+

(1

a)')

(la)V+^
!

*(!"+" (Hi)')

=fU +

(la) l^

BOOK
Ex.

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
In,

65

2.

the spiral

of Archimedes
S

and
2

R ~
Ex.
3.

(*

+
2

a 2 )^ ^
2

'

2 a

"+l

In the hyperbolic spiral

Ex.

4. /;*

Me

Lituus

"

2a 2
g

'

4 a
2

4
e

Ex.
r

5.

//j

Me

Epicycloid

(r

r')

-- 2

r (r

+ +
3

r')

cos.

and

r'

being the radius of the wheel and globe respectively.

Here

_ '-

(r

rQ (3 r* 2 (3r 2

r'

r"
r /2
)

2 jft
f

2r

r'

Having already given those results of the Calculus of Indefinite Differences which are most useful, we proceed to the reverse of the calculus,
which consists in the investigation of the Indefinites themselves from their In the direct method we seek the Indefinite Differindefinite differences.
ence of a given function.
inverse

In the inverse method

we have given

the Inde-

finite Difference to find the function

whose

Indefinite Difference

it is.

This

method we

call

THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS

or

INDEFINITE DIFFERENCES.
76.

ence

The integral of d x of x + C is d x.

is

evidently

C, since the indefinite

differ-

77. Required the integral By Art. 9, we have

VOL.
I.

of&dx?
=r a

d (ax)

d x.

06

A COMMENTARY ON
reversely the integral of a d x is a x. integrals which there are of a d x.

[SECT.
is

I.

Hence

This

numerable

We
x

=
in

only one of the inhave not only d (a x)

a d x but also

(a

C)

a d

which

is

any constant whatever.

.-.

ax + C

=/adx = a/dx
a x
p

(a)

(see 76)

generally, being the characteristic of an integral. 78. Required the integral of

x.

By Art 12
d (a x
.

n
-J-

C)

n a xn ~ d x
'

a x

d x + C =y*n a x = n x/ax n - dx
l l
.

n ~~

.-.

/a

n n

-*d x

ax C = -- -n

(77)

But

since

is

any constant whatever

n

may be

written C.

.-./ax

- dx
l

+ C

Hence

it is

plain that

Or To find
variable

the integral

th of the product of a constant the p power of the

power
79.

the Indefinite Difference of that variable, let the index of the be increased by 1, suppress the Indefinite Difference, multiply by the

and

constant, divide by the increased index,

and add an arbitrary

constant.

Hence

/(a xPdx + bx axP-H fax"*P

80.

+T +
n

+r

dx + &c.) = << + * + r

Hence

also

/axJ
ax
Let

dx =
l

(n

- -r

1)

x D-l

C.

81. Required the integral of

m~

dx
e

(b

+ ex m )P.
l

u
..

=
a

b d u

=mex m ~
!

x rc

.'.

xm ~ d x

dx
.

d u

../ax m
47

dxflb+ ex m )P

=J fm

UP du
e

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
a

67

me m
82. Required the integral of l

/
.

(p a

r-YY + 1)

u P41

+ c ^

( v

78 ) '
1

e (p

(b

X ex*)?*

C.

1)

d x
.

By 80

it

would seem that

/^=
and
if

when
x -=
0,

^ C =c,

w_/_

/d

_^
1

But by Art. 17

a.

we know

that

11 d 1 x
.

x x

Therefore

Here

it

may be

convenient to

make

the arbitrary constant of the form

Therefore

/
Hence
the integral

+ C = C
1

x
Indefinite Differ-

of a fraction whose numerator

is

is the

ence of the denominator9

the hyperbolic logarithm of the denominator

PLUS

an arbitrary
83.

constant.

Hence
x >ax m ~ dx
l

__ /a m + e""bm/ bx /

m x ~~ dx /"mx m ~ d e x mi
/"
l

'

TT

m ..

=
and so on

m ..
%

for more complicated forms. 84. Required the integral o/ a x d x. By Art. 17

d. a*

a. a

dx

r. a
1

68
85. If y, x,
d;

A COMMENTARY ON
t, s denote the then we have, Art. 26, 27.

[SECT.

I.

sine, cosine, tangent,

and secant of an angle

dy
1

__

d x

__

__

ds

y
sin.

v 2s

sec.-'s+C
is

~'y, cos.~' x, &c. being symbols for the arc whose sine is y, cosine

x, &c. respectively.

86. Hence,

more

generally,

or

-^-r

X angle whose

sine

is

^J

to rad. 1

C.

Also

u- cos.-'u
Again

J-+ C ^
a

^ ' (b)

d u
a

+ bu

_ "

^ /

V~d a

vT5V j,b u

and

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
versed
sine

69
0,

= V

Moreover, if u be the u 2 ) and (2 u

of an

angb

then the sine

du

''

= d (1 cos. = d = d*. V(2u u du _

6)
2

sin. &

(Art. 27.)

Hence
u*)

='+C
=
vers.
x

+C
2b
a
, d u

and generally

/du_
,

r
/

V(au

bu 2 )""

87. Required the integrals of

dx
a

dx
'

bx

bx'
d> /"

bx*'

AjL?.__
a

+ bx

=1 b*^

a (
a

+ bx + bx

(0
and

/d b x _ __l^^d(a
""

b-'

bx) bx

=
see Art. 17
a.

.1. (a

bx)

+C

(g)

Hence,

lMTbSc +
-f
,

bxj

_ f ^adx ""-/a bx*

8

l.(a v

bx)

T-.1. (a v b

bx)

b E

"

"

a
3

bx

70

A COMMENTARY ON
easily get

[SECT.

Hence we

by analogy

/*_Ai_2 = _JLJ a bx Vab

88. Required the integral of

_
2
a x
2

V *+ v'b.x V a bx Va + vb>x L-.i. + V ab* V a Vb.x

"

l. "

dx bx

+
b

c*

In the

first

place

-i_
2

(b

4 a

c) i
2

V(b

4ac)\

//

bv

4ac
2

Hence, putting

we have
d x

d u
d u b2

and
d x
a

(;

4ac

which presents the following cases. Case 1. Let a be negative and c be positive d x

then

d u

-ax'+bx
_ _,

"V

2 a

(seeArt.86)

-J ^^^y

tan.-'(x

+ ^) J
d_u

^q^+C

(i)

Case

2.

Let c be negative a;z d a positive : then *u^ and / dhx r d u

a (

.11I + Ili)
/ b*

~.~~T

+ 4ac

u5
b

b 2 +4ac

-X

~2-a

see Art. 87.

BOOK
r
'

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
2

71
;

Case
2

3.

= ax + bx + c"~ / /

Let b be dx

>

4 a
/-

and

a,

c be both positive

then

~T~
a

dj,

u (

b*

-4a

/ a /

du
b2
4 a c ^~
!>

b8
/
l

4ac

*V

2a(b
c

'

W_
2 a
2a
/

4ac)

Case

4.

Z,tf

&?

<

4 a

and

a, c fo both positive

r
^

a(4a-b
Case
5. 7/"b
2

2 )

''
;

fte>4ac

awti a, c Z)oM negative

r J

_
"~

/"

ax*+bx

_ b2

d u

4ac

^^

Case

6.

Ifb

be

<

4 a c awrf a and

c both negative

Then
*^

d x ax 2 +bx

! /
c~~ a /

d u

4ac

b2

~2l
1

"
/

4ac
2 a

b2

N
b2 )*
j'
.

+X + 2Tx
X

2a(4ac
89.

4ac

b2

SU

~2S

Required the integral of any rational function whatever of one

comprised
general form

variable, multiplied by the indefinite difference of that variable. under the Every rational function of x is

Ax
a

m
n

+ Bx 7 + Cx + b x n ~ + c x n - + +
m
l
l

m-g
*

&c.
&c.

Kx + L k x +1

4-

72
in

A COMMENTARY ON
which A, B, C, &c.
If
a, b, C,

[SECT.

I,

&c. and m, n are any constants whatever.

n
then

0,

we have

(Art. 77)

B
a
c.)

\m-t-i-

m
division

constant.

to the

Again, if form

m be >

n the above can always be reduced by actual

'is

'-^

^
d x

T
its

A'x+B" x ~
_

n
*

-2

a x

b x

&c.

and

if

the whole be multiplied by

one of which

m
it

integral will consist of

two parts,

found to be (by 77) A' m~"

n+1
f ^

B'

m
1

m~" x---

&c.

and the other

A"

x
a

"

"

x"

+
2

x n - g + &c, b'x"- + &c.

B//

X<

Hence then
form

is

necessary to consider only functions of the general

i

x n~ x

li

u + Ax~ ~ + Bx- - + &c. _ U "" u V +ax + bx u +&c.

ll

s!

in order to integrate an indefinite difference,

rational function whatever.

whose

definite part

is

any

Case

1.

Let the denominator

-

x -*->

&c

V consist qfn. unequal real factors, x Assume according to the theory oj algebraic equations.

U ~ P _ ^T^T^ V
,

Q
x
/3

+
.

R
x~T7
shall

+ ^c

'

and reducing

to a

common denominator we
.

have

U = P x /3.x y ... to (n 1) terms Q.X a.x 7 + R x a x = (P + Q + R + &c.)x n ~ _ JP.(S a) + Q. (S + {P.(S a.S a + Q.(S 181
.
.

|8

j9)

/3.

1.

&c.

where
tjvery

S,
i

S &c. denote
i.t

the

sum

of a,

&

y &c. the sum of the products of r

two of them and so on.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

73

But by the theory of equations

S= S=
1
1

...

U = + +

= &c. + Q + R + fccOx*(P {a(P + Q + R + &c.) {b (P + Q + R + &c.) + a(Pa + ~ + (Pa + Q/3 + R r + &c.)J x n

c.
2
2

Qj3
&c.

&c.)

Hence equating
a

like quantities (6)

P + Q + R + &C. = 1 Pa + Q/5+R 7 + &c. = A + + a (A a) + P a + Q + R 7 +

2
2
2

j8

&c.

&c.
giving n independent equations
to determine P,

= B = &c.

Q, R, &c.

Fx
Here

i. r,x. 1

A.CI Let

U_
^
r

-_

6 x

+ 6x + S + nx+
2

6
11

P + + P + + P + p =

Q + R = 1-v 2Q + 3R = 6 V whence 4Q + 9 R = 3J _ 1, Q = 5 and R = 3

d x
r 5

Hence
/

J
P,

Udx ~ r _ r = C
~

dx

3 d x

1.

(x

1)

51. (x
:

2)

3L(x

3).

Q, R, &c. may be more

easily

found as follows

Since

xn

+ A

-2

&c.

= P (x + Q (x + R (x + &c.

0). (x
a),
a),

7).
7).
j8).

&c.

(x (x

&c.
&c.

let

a, ft >,

+ Aa n ~ + &C. = P .( -' + A^ n - + &C. = Q.(/3 n ~ + A7 n ~ + &c. = R,(7 7 &c. = &c.

*-

&c. successively ; we shall then have

2

|S)

(a
(j8
(

a).
a)
.

y)&c.-\ 7 )&c. V.

.(A)

r _/3)8tcJ

In the above example a

we have
1, j8

=r
3.

2,

3 and n

A =

6 and

B =

74
.

A COMMENTARY ON
p

[SECT.

I.

1
1.

+
2.

_ ~"

_
=
5

ZTTl R = 5L-J- Ajt 2

X
as before.

Q =

_3 *

Hence then

the factors of
will give the

above methods

being supposed all unequal, either of the coefficients P, Q, R, &c. and therefore

enable us to analyze the general expression into the partial fractions ^7

as expressed

by

U _
and we then have

Q
+ Q +
+
2

y-^
Ex.
2.

= P
* 3

(x

a)

1.

(x

13)

8cc.

C.

f** /a^x
a a
1

+ bx = /! dJE + + x x
1

5-+
2
a

A^a^ x f
+
1
.

!L

d x
a

= =
Ex.3.

x
x

(a

x)
a2

(a

x)

(a

+
5

b)

V
*

x2

+ C
/

by the nature of logarithms.

/_JL

C.

clx

dx

^
/Qd

-2) +

Pdx
where
a

= 2a+ V(4a +
2

b 2 ),

/3

=2a
2
)

and

P a

a
18

-. ""

2a+

v^(4a + b 2 V (4a 2 + b 2 )
2

Case

2.

Zrf

all the factors

qfVbe

real

and

equal, or suppose

(3

&c.

Then

U _ ""
V

+ A
7v

Tn

~^+^&c.

BOOK L]
and since
a
the forms

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
|8

75

0,

&c.
In this case we

marked (A)

will

not give us P, Q, R, &c.

must assume

U_
V
1

P
(x
a)
n

^
,

Q
(X
n

'

R
(X

-2

a)

to

n
let

terms, and reducing to a

common
)

now
Also

U = P + Q (x = a, and we have n + A
.

+R

denominator, we get 2 &c. a) (x

-a

+ '&c. =

P.

^= Q+
<

(x

a)

3 S

2
.

(x

a)

&c.
2

11H = ax
2

2 2

R+
.

3.2. S.

(x

)+ 4.3.T(x

&c.

i!LJ dx 3
&c.

T
a,

(x

a)

&c.

&c.

and

if

in each of these

x be put
&c.

=
2

we have by Maclaurin's theorem

the values of

Q,

11, S,

v .bx.

1.

JLet ^7

U = V

x2
7

3x+
77-5 3

(x

4)

Then

76

A COMMENTARY ON
Here

[SECT.

I.

U=

xs

x3

=
dx
d
5

60 x !

HIT
.-.P

U =120
35
27

= Q=

+ 3 = 27 X X 16 = 432
3

10

270

T=

360
120
.

W=
Hence

3. 4.

1.

dx

dx

dx

which admits of farther reduction.

.

T et Let

U
x2

(T
Here

U=
and

+x

do X

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Hence

77

__
It

appears from this example,

I) 2(x and Indeed

it is

is

otherwise evident, that the

number of partial fractions into which

exceeds the dimension

necessary to split the function

9

qfx

in

U, by

unity.

This

is

the

first

time, unless

we

mistake, that Maclaurin

Theorem

has been used to analyze rational fractions into partial rational fractions. It produces them with less labour than any other method that has fallen

under our notice.

Case
equal.

3.

Let

the factors

of the denominator

be all imaginary

and un-

We know then
the form

if in

1. Hence V must be of an even number of dimensions, +h k and must consist of quadratic real factors of the form arising from k \/"=T) (x + h + k V"HT) (x + h

+ V

+ kV

V, which is real, there is an imaginary factor of 1, then there is also another of the form

or of the form (x

h)*

k.
-

Hence, assuming

u _
V
(x

+ QX
|3

F+
(X + a')

Q'X
8

+ a) +

&c
2
2

and reducing to a

common

denominator,
2
')

we have
')

U = (P + Qx) f(x + + 19"! K* + a/ + /S" X &c. + (P'+ Q'x) J(x + *) +*} t(x +a") +" X &c. x + a + 'I x &c + (V" + Q" x) f(x + a) + J(
! 2
2
2

'

/5

')

"

+ &C.
Now
then
for

substitute successively
J3

V~^l, a'+ & V"^l,

for

a/7

+ ^ V^H, &C.

U will

become

c> have as many equations containing respectively P, P'> Q' ; P"> Q" & ; as there are pairs of these coefficients ; whence by equating homogeneous ; obtain P, Q ; P , Q'? &c. quantities, viz. real and imaginary ones, we shall

each partly real and partly imaginary, and we

78
Ex.
1.

A COMMENTARY ON
Required the integral of

[SECT.

I.

x3 d x

+ 3x + 2* Here the quadratic factors of V are x + 1, x + 2 = 0, = 1, and = V a = 0,

x
4
2
2

'

.-.

j8

jS'

Consequently

x3

= (P + Qx)(x + 2) + (F + Q'x)(x' + l)
2

Letx

= V

}.

Then

= (P + Q V 1) = P + Q V~=H
1,

2)

Again,

let

==

^2. V

and we have

_g
Hence

V~^Ti
.-.

-F F=
0, __

= (F +

Q' V~2.

V"=l)

(2+
x

1)

Q' V~2. V"=TT and Q' = 2

/

d x

+
Ex.
2.

3x 2

+2

""/ x 2

=C
Required the integral of

+ + /x T +"2 il(x + !) + (x + 2)
1
2
!.

xdx

/2

xd

dx
l

+ X 2n

'

To

find the quadratic factors of

1

+x 2n

we assume
x2n
and then we have

=
1

0,

x
it

2n

cos.(2p+ l)r+
is 1,

being 180

of the circle whose diameter

1 sin. (2 p + ])r and p any integer what-

ever.

Hence by Demoivre's Theorem

x==
But

cos.

2+l
also

-..
r
.

+l
by pairs of the form
1

since imaginary roots of an equation enter

1
.

it

iV

B,

we have

= cos.

2p+
?

- 1

sin.

2p+
*

BOOK L]
and

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
X

79

...(^coe.a^^VTTT .rin.iLJ,r)
(x

cos.

|-i* + V^=l
2P ** 2 n

sin.

i|J *)

x2
which
is

2xcos.
general

the

quadratic factor

of

x 2n +'!

Hence

putting

0, 1,

n
2

successively,

x 2n
2

+1 =

(x

2xcos.
1 )

^&n

1 ) /

2
.

(x *

2xcos.
cos.
".

~+ n

) /

(x ^

2xcos.

~+ X an/
P
and

.... (x 2 \

2x

+ O 2n/

Hence
assume

to get the values of

corresponding to the general factor,

T+x
Then
1

JL

2n ~~

P
x2

+ Qx
2 p +i
^r+
f

N
,

M"

2xcos.-^
2

=(P+ Qx).M + N(x

=
x2

But

1^2xcos. -

"

;
*

n
for

and becomes of the form

smt

when

x we put

cos.

+V

lx

PT 2 n
cos.

tf

its

value however

may
.

thus be found
1

Let
then

2 p 4-J^ :r
& n

*/

1 SIIK

2 p -f
V,;" & n

and

M
Again

=
x
r

let

=
2A

y ; then

M
Tt/r

i-* = l+y

+2ny

s2L

80
But
r 20

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

= cos. 2p+ I.T + V^^n sin. 2p + 1. = 2n r "* 211 y gn ~ r + =

r
1

Hence when

for

x we put

r,

0,

and

M = 2JLL"
r
r

and from the above equation we have 9n vsn

1

(P

+ Q r)

2JL1

or
1

SB

nP.co,.SI^Hl. + 8 n p

v-^i x

sin.
us

_2nQ
.

(since

,.=

.._

.*.

equating homogeneous quantities

sin .

we

get

i!, =nP n
2
-_

sln

.2p_+!:l^li
2 n

and
Jk

-WW.

.2n -

2 n

But

Hence

the above equations become

;.rin.gJL+

2n

g nPri.

2 n

.'.

^ = F

irfc andQ=

-1

cos.

2p+ *~
2 n

Hence

the general partial integral of

dx
"3

TT

IS

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S
1
11

PRINCIPIA.
) /

81

/ f

N (

-x

cos '

HlT* E n
~
2 n
2

d X
__

'

X
1

2X

COS.

cos

2 p

-}-

~2~iT~
2 n
2 p ~-^-

*
'

/ 2x dx / _
2

cos.

2 p

+
-.

2n

*.d
I

2_p +J1 O

sin.

-.

sin.

1 2p + *1 2n

*
k>x

tan.

/ /x - ./
J

cos.

2 p

+1

*"/ 2n

see Art. 88. Case 4.

Hence then
n

the integral of

d x
1
*"*"

which

is

the aggregate of the results

obtained from the above general form by substituting for p

1,

0, 1,

2 ...

may

readily be ascertained. instance

let

As a particular

f
n

X be y6
3

required.

Here

and the general term

is

sin.

2p + *,,-

*
*
.

tan.

x
i

2
cos.

sin.

*-^
;

*
it

Let p = 0,

1,

2, collect the terms,

and reduce them and

will

appear that

f d*
/
1

+x
I.

-l
""6

the proceeding according to the above method it will be found, that fractions to be integrated in the integrals of general partial

By

VOL.

8*

A COMMENTARY ON
dx
*

[Scr.

I.

and
2 p

xr d x
r
i-

are respectively
cos.
if

n
and
cos.

x 2-2xco
2 r p *

(r + l).2p* *-2 '---* x n~

n
and when these

_
, *

cos.

n
, c
'

cos.

2 p *

--

partial integrals are obtained, the entire ones will

be

found by putting p
odd.

0, 1

.... - or 2

according as p

is

even or

Ex.

3.

Required the integral of

x r dx
x
where a
is

<

2ax" +

1.

First let us find the quadratic factors

ofx 2n
1

2ax n

-fl.

For that

purpose put
x 2a

2ax n =
a-h

Then
x
since a
is

=
=-

v a8
f

a+ V

1.

a2

<

1.

Now

put a

cos. d; then

xn

s= cos. d

+ V
cr

1 sin. 6

.-.

= cos. (2 p v + 5) + V~^"l sin. (2 p + d) 3 2p* + d 2 ^ ^ -x = cos. p + + V 1 sin. n

.
.

-1

and the general quadratic factor of x 2n 2ax

1S

o 2

^ 2 x

cos.

2 p *

-^- ~
r

4. d

4- 1
1.

where p may be any number from

ence,

0, 1,

&c. to n

Hence to find we assume

the general partial integral of the given indefinite differ-

o 2

cos.

BOOK

I.]

and proceeding as

in the last
(r -

Q=
and

sin.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
example,
1)
i

83

we

get

(2pr+

a) L

x
1

=r sin.

-i

(n

Case

n sin.

r).(2p*+a) x 2--2
;
v
f

sin. 9

whence the remainder of the process is easy. Case 4. Let the factors of the denominator be
t

all

imaginary and equal in

pairs.

In

this

Case,

we have

the form

U
and assuming as
in
2.

u-

P +
x

Q*

+ o + /S) K + Lx
7

F + Q'
x
|''

/3

K'

L' x

and reducing to a common denominator,

U = P + Qx + (P + Q
and substituting

x)

(F+^l

/3

&c.

for x one of its imaginary values, and equating homogeneous terms, in the result we get P and Q. Deriving from hence the

values of

-^

d x

-5

d x*

r- ,

&c. and in each of these values substituting for x

al one of the quantities which makes x terms we shall successively obtain mogeneous

ft

0,

and equating ho-

P, Q'; P", Q", &c. Tin's method, however, not being very commodious in practice, for of present case, we shall recommend either the actual developement

the
the

above expression according to the powers of x, and the comparison of the coefficients of the like powers (by art. 6), or the following method. as above, make Having determined P and

Q TT,-U-(P + Q *) X+ +P' U' (P' + Q x) T,,

! )
7

&c.

&c.

Then

since U',

U", U"', &c. have the same form as U, or have an

F2

84

A COMMENTARY ON

[Sacr.

i.

2 ft* sz a) integer form, if we put for x that value which makes (x and afterwards in the several results, equate homogeneous quantities 0, we shall obtain the several coefficients.

P',

Q'; P", Q",&c.

Case

5.

If

the denominator

V
x

consist

of one
&c.
;

set

of Factors simple and

unequal of the form

x
of several sets
(x

a',

of equal simple Factors, as

e) P,

(x

e')

S &c.

and of equal and unequal sets of quadratic factors of the forms x 2 + a x + b, x* + a' x + b', 8cc. 2 2 (x + 1 x + r) /, (x + V x + r') >, &c.
then the general assumption for obtaining the partial fractions must be

U _
w-r

ax
-L.
'

M
(x

/
.

"f~

OcC

X (

E
e)
P

+
(x

+ &C e)p-i
+ S'x

e')

+
(x

F
4
e')

&C

"

T +
.

x2

P + QX + ax +
,

^
.

x2

^LJ?^_ + &c ^ + a x
+
b'

R + Sx

B'

1Q _

Q + Hx

C/+H'x

and the

several coefficients

may be found by

applying the foregoing rules

for each corresponding set. They may also be had at once by reducing to a common denominator both sides of the equation, and arranging the

numerators according to the powers of x, and then equating homogeneous

quantities.

have thus shown that every rational fraction, whose denominator can be decomposed into simple or quadratic factors, may be itself analyzed into as many partial fractions as there are factors, and hence it is clear
that the integral of the general function

We

Ax m + ExM^ + Scc. Kx + L a x + b x "- + &c. k x +

1

may, under these restrictions, always be obtained. It is always reducible, in short, to one or other or a combination of the forms

/dx
Having disposed of
rational

/*dx

forms we next consider irrational ones.

Already (see Art. 86, &c.)

/+ V
(a

dx

/*
2

d x
2

d x (ax

bx

)'

-/xV(bx

a)'

J V

_
bx
8

BOOK

I.J

NEWTON'S PKINCIPIA.

85
to treat of

have been found in terms of circular arcs.

Irrationals generally ;
is

We

now proceed

to

and the most natural and obvious way of so doing investigate such forms as admit of being rationalized.

90. Required the integral of

dx X F
where

x,

x,

x n , x*, x S &c.
quantities between the brackets.

denotes

any rational function of the Let X = U m n P q &C.

,

Then
i

X lu
j.

~u npqr

....

X n =:u mpqr .... 1 X * = u mnqr

.

&c.

&c.
..
.

and

dxnmnpq.

Xu mn P q

~ x du
!

and substituting for these quantities in the above expression, rational, and consequently integrable by the preceding article.
Ex.

it

becomes

b Here

+ ex*

X7

= U*

and
dx

6u

5D

u.

Hence

the expression

is

transformed to

whose

Case 3, Ex. 2. integral may be found by Art. 89, 91. Required the integral of

dx X F

fx, (a

+ b x)

",

(a

+ bx),

where F, as before, means any rational function. Put a + bx = u nm P"" then substitute, and we get

which

is

rational.

86

Examples

which are

x 4 dx
(a

A COMMENTARY ON
-x*dx(a
v

to this general result are

an(j

ex

bx)*

-)

[Scr..I.

+ bx)* +c (a + bx)?

easily resolved.

92. Required the integral of j d X

F / X, \
-n
I

/a

I-s-f \f

+ b x\ 2 /a + n Vf + + g x/ >(~3-

b x\ E x) g x/
<!

.
,

&C.

\ >
)

Assume

and then by

substituting, the expression 93. Required the integral of

becomes

rational

and

integrable.

dxFJx, V
Case
1.

(a

+ bx +
=
c(x

ex

)}

When
Then
x
""

is

positive, let

+ bx +
, ,

cx*

u)

_
v

a-

cu 2

an

_
2

2c(cu j
cu
x
,

b_u_+ja) d u

'

and

substituting, the expression

2.

Case

When

is

becomes rational. be the roots of the equation negative,

if r, r

+ bx
7

ex
x)

Then assume

V c (x
and we have X
2
2

r) (r

=
(r

(x
r

r) c

_ cru + r' ~" cu + 1

_ ""

)2cu du

(cu

+l)

and by

substitution, the expression becomes rational. 94. Required the integral of

dx

{x, (a

+ b x) *,

(a'

b' x)

Make
a

+ bx = (a' + b'x) uS-

... ^+b

"b' -b'u uV(ab' a'b) x) = ^8

_a

a'u*

dx ^
'

(a

b/ a)2u
2

du

(b'u

b)*

,,,,,,,, = V(ab' v (a + b x)

-^_

a'b)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
above expression becomes of the form

87

Hence,

substituting, the

b)} F' denoting a rational function different from that represented by F. But this form may be rationalized by 93 ; whence the expression becomes
integrable.

duF'Ju, V(b'u 2

95.

Required the integral of

x m-i dx(a
This form

-f

b xn
either

P
)TT

may be

rationalized

when

or

+
P,

is

an integer.
a

Case

n l.Leta+bx =u q then(a+b x )T
1D

xn

^~

x m-

'

Xm

dX

nb"

Hence

the expression becomes

_.

which

is

rational

and integrable when

is

an integer.

Case

2.

Let a

+ bx n = x"u q
qa"^* f

then substituting as before,

we

get the

transformed expression

which

is

rational

and integrable when

is

an integer.

Examples are

x g dx

x'2m dx
2m
-f
1

96. Required the integral

ra
1

of

x - dx(a
stitutions, as that

+ bx n )q
in the

X F(x

n
).

This expression becomes rational

of 95,

same

cases,

and by the same sub-

To

this

form belongs

and the more general one

p
"

x X

(a

b x)

8a
where

A COMMENTARY ON
P = A + Bx n + Cx 2n +
and
&c.

[SECT.

I.

Q=

A'

B'x
1

ft

C'x 2n

+ &c.
u

97. Required the integral of

x m -'dx X F^x

",

xn
q

Make

a
.

+ bx
u
q

n
1

=u
.

(a

+ bx
/
)

)~^

then
r

"- d X Xm
1

q == -1
is

- d u
,

/u q
(

no

a\.!2._i n

d U

and

in the cases

where

an integer, the whole expression becomes ra-

tional

and

integrable.
tlie

98. Required

integral

X'

X dx + X" + V (a + bx + ex + X"
\/(a

of

2 )

where X, X', X" denote any rational functions ofx. Multiply and divide by

and the

X'

_
result
2
11

X'

is,

after reduction,

XX'dx X"*(a + bx +
also

__
cx
2

+ bx + x

XX"dx

/2

V(a X" 2 (a

+ bx + cx + bx + cx')
2

consisting of a rational and an irrational part

The

irrational part, in

many

cases,

may

be rationalized, and thus the whole made integrable.

99. Required the integral of

xm

dxF[x n

<v/(a

+ bx n +

cx 2n )}
into

Letx

then the expression

may be transformed

which may be rationalized by Art. 93, when

100. Required the integral of

is

an integer.

xm

dxF{x n V
,

(a

+b
(a

x* u ),

bx u +

V (a +

b s x 2l

%
1

Let

bx u
then
m dx x mi

+ V
=

+
1

b 2 x 2n )

= u;
.

--

rr

u2 + a -

/u g

a\ m +
n

..,

du
is

and the whole expression evidently becomes

integer.

rational

when

an

Many

other general expressions

may be

rationalized,

and much might

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

89

be said further upon the subject ; but the foregoing cases will exhibit the of such reductions. If the reader be not satisfied let him general method
consult a paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1816, by E. Ffrench Bromhead, Esq. which is decidedly the best production upon the Integrals of Irrational Functions, which has ever appeared.
is the theory of Rational Functions, yet the like has not been with regard to Irrational Functions. The above and similar artiattained fices will lead to the integration of a vast number of forms, and to that of

Perfect as

many which
;

really

occur in the resolution of philosophical and other

problems but a method universally applicable has not yet been discovered, and probably never will be.

now proceed

Hitherto the integrals of algebraic forms have been investigated. to Transcendental Functions.
101. Required the integral of a x dx.

We

By

Art. 17,

d.a x =l.a X

dx

Hence

/a m

dx

i-

a m

+C

.....

(b)

102. Required the integral of

Xa*dx
where

By

an algebraic Junction o/*x. form (see 73) the d (u v) = u d v

is

vdu

we have

fu d v = u v
Hence

fv d u.

the law of continuation being manifest

90
Hence, by

A COMMENTARY ON
substitution,

[SECT. I

a"

dX
is

&X

d'

al

which

will terminate

when

of the form
s 8

A+
a*x
3

Bx+Cx + &c.
3a*x
3.2a*x
3.2a*
OTHERWISE

x
x

=
putting

/Xdx

/la.a clx/Xdx X'~ la/a*X'dx

Hence

X'=/Xdx. /aX'dx = aX" la/a*X"dx &c. = &c.

and substituting, we get d x = a x X' /a*

a*
d

X" +
x,

(1
7

a)

a* X'"

&c.

X', X",

/;/
,

&c. being equal

to/X

/X

x,

/X"

x,

&c. re-

spectively.

which does not terminate.

By
than

this last

tegrated in
1,

an

example we see how an Indefinite Difference may be infinite series. If in that example x be supposed

inless

the terms of the integral

become

less

and

less

or the series

is

con-

vergent.

Hence then by

taking a few of the

first

terms we get an apwill

proximate value of the integral, which in the absence of an exact one,

frequently suffice in practice.

The
series,

general formula for obtaining the integral in an infinite or finite corresponding to that of Taylor in the Calculus of Indefinite
is

Differences,

the following one, ascribed to

John Bernoulli, and usually

termed

JOHN BERNOULLI'S THEOREM.

r J dx
xd
2

/Xdx = Xx /xdX * xax - dx x A" A 2

i

' -

dx

'

'

2
s

dx

X
2
'

./dx

dx_dj^X
2
&c.

~dx
&c.

'2.3

dx d il_/x2.3~'<^ _5 J x'
3

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

91

Hence

the theorem in question.

xmdx

= *m+

xm+

'+^-x

+ '~&c.

+C

But since

_l)

m+ i+ m+

'

&c.

as in Art. 78.

102. Required the integral of

where

Xdx(lx)"
is

any Algebraic Function qfn,

the Hyperbolic logarithm of x,

and n a positive integer.

By

the formula

we have

fu d

uv

fv d

/
where

dx(lx)

(lx)

//

-2

(n

l)/(lx)

~X

//

&C. S= &C.

x
,

X",

/x/
,

&c. are put

for/Xdx,y*^-'dx,/*"

d x, &c.

re-

spectively.

Hence
'rrX'tlx)

nX

//

(U) -'+n.(n

l)X"'(lx)"-

&c. + C.

93. Required the integral of

where

U w any function oflx.

98
Let

A COMMENTARY ON u = x.
1

[SECT,

Then
d
,

dx = -_

and substituting, the expression becomes algebraic, and therefore integrable in

many
n

cases.

104. Required the integral of

Xdx(lx)*
"where
is

negative.
it is

Integrating by Parts, as
c /*u

d v

termed, or by the formula u v v d u

we

get, since

Mix)"

/Xdx ~ _

__Xx
(n
1)

(lx)"-

+n

dx
n

fv

d(Xx)
'
1

"

(lx)

dx

and pursuing the method, and writing d (X x) x/ =

dx

"" A _ d(X'x) dx &c. = &c.

we have

Xx n-x.
or

X'x

__
(n

l)(ix)-'
is

_
or
(

.n2.(x'-

vr* l

/(n
is

___
l).(n

dx __
2)
. .
.

according as n

not an integer,

m
,

(n m)"(lx)--being in the latter case the

.

greatest integer in n.
1 --^X J Ex/**^- * f " n^TT 1 (Ti)^1 + *(1 x)
1
'

m+

__ _
n d
d
.

_
(n

2)"(fx)

+ l__ + u ~2
,

&c &C

l
'

(m
1)
(

+
n

I)"2)

/*x
1

m dx
1

____

when.m
d

is

an integer.

105. Required the integrals of

6
.

cos.

0, 7

sin.

0, *

d
d
^

tan.

0,

sec.

0, '

cos.

; ,

^
d

sin. ^

tan.

(a)

tf

By
and

Art. 26, &c.

sin. &
4 cos. &

.'./d

= =

cos.

d,

and d

sin. 4

+ C
cos, 4

.........

cos.

d sin. &

/d

4 sin.

= C

........

(b)

BOOK

I.]
let tan.

NEWTON'S PBINCIPIA.
s= t
;

98

Again

then

and

/d
since

tan. 4

= = C
=
=

/~^ =
1
.

(1

f)

+C
(c)

co$. 6

^ +

sec.

&

=
cos.

r-:
2

Again

d
cos.
1

d
d
1

cos.
sin.
2

sec.

=
~~

(sin. 6)

sin.

i *

d
'

(sin, 0)
sin. &

d
**
1

sin. d
sin.

+
.
.

/./d

^ sec. &

whicli

1-1-1 is the
Again
/

same

as / /

/*

d
6
.

= =

il.(l

+ sinJ) l.tan. 45+

i 1(1

sinJ
.

+C

(d)

cos. &

/ sin.

/ -.

-- = ^/
^

/,

cosec.

= /d I

sec.

(|

_
|)

= _/d

(I

-)

sec.

(i -l)

n.) +
Again

..........

(e)

Icos.
1
.

C(byc)
(0

=
m awd n

sin.

+ C
sin.

............
cos. a
6
.

106. Required the integral of

0.

6^/wg positive or negative integers.

94

A. COMMENTARY
Let
sin.

ON
1

[SECT.

I.

=u
,

then d

6 cos. 6

=d
(1

u and the above expression becomes

n

um d u
which
is
,
.

u 2 )T~
41

,,

is

uitegrable

when
If

either

J &

or

m+l.n 5 J-- --A &

1

+ =m^ &
ri

an integer (see

95.)

n be odd, the

radical disappears; if
if

be even

and

m even also,
is

then

an integer;

n be even and

odd, then

~
is

an

integer.

Whence
u m d u (1
1

u 2 ) "?

integrable

by

95.

OTHERWISE,
Integrating

/d

by Parts, m 6 cos.n 0= sin.

we have cif) m "~l/)

n

+
III

,- cos."
1
1
.

+ 6+
1

TTI'

m + ~/cos. 1
'

in

+ * 0.

sin.

m -2

-f

n
is

m+

and continuing the process In the same way we find

>0 cos."

diminished by 2 each time.

- m+
(a
(a
6

__/d x +n
6

sin.

"O

cos.

and so on.
107. Required the integrals

of

d u

dv
and

= =
=

& sin.

& sin.

+ +
+

b) cos. (a!

b7 )
b')

b) sin.

(a' &
x

+
+

dw

d cos.

(a

b) cos. (a
x

By

the

known forms of Trigonometry we have

a7

+ b + sin. (a a', d+b d v = dd Jcos.(a+ a 0+b + bO cos. (a^a'.^+b d w = d {cos. (fr+~a\ ^+b + b') + cos. (a^~a'
.0+b
)
7
.

du = d0sin. (a +
6

b x )J

bx ){

Hence by 105 we have

11

-r

IS V*

"

it W "% 2
l

cos, (a

ax .f+ b
"

a'

+ bQ T

"4-

cos.(a---a
"

/
.

+b
.

--r

bQ \ V
)

a
sin.

a'
tf

+b
sin, (a

(a^^^a' . " a

+b +b

b')

+a

/
.

STT?
These

+ b + b') +
,

sin.

(a^Ti?.

^^f

integrals are very useful.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE
Jn

95

108. Required the integrals of

& sin. 6,

and
n

&

cos.

6.

Integrating by Parts

we get
cos.

fd

Xd6

sin.

0=C
n

0+n

'

sin.

0+n

n
.

(n

1)

- 2 cos.0
n

&c.

and
n /0 Xddcos.0=C +

sin. d

+ n^-^cos.d
] !

n. (n

1)

~ 2 sin.

109. Required the integrals of

X d x sin. ~ X d x tan. X d x sec. &c.

x x

Integrating by Parts

we have

/dx/Xdx
&c.
bee Art. 86.

&c.

110. Required the integral of

ll

__
(a

cos.

'

0)

Integrating by Parts and reducing,

we have

_ ~
J
r(n

_
(n
1) (a f

Jag
2

l)(a

b"

)(a

bOsin.^ + bcbs.O
(n
2)

__
""
1

l
.

bg)
iT

+
b

osT^^

(ag-bf)cos^
is

which repeated,
required.

will finally

produce, when n

an integer, the integral

d*
a
or
1
,

2
"

cos. *

7rp
b+acos. ^+

'

tan

_
'

(a
* 1

~ b)tan
g

"

sin.

tf

(b

s )

V(b

2 )

a+"bcbs^

Notwithstanding the numerous forms which are integrable by the preceding methods, there are innumerable others which have hitherto resisted If any such all the ingenuity that has been employed to resolve them.

appear in the resolution of problems, they must be expanded into con*

9$

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

verging series, by some such method as that already delivered in Art 101 ; or with greater certainty of attaining the requisite degree of convergency,

by the following

METHOD OF APPROXIMATION.
111. Required to integrate between
Difference, in

b,

a,

any given

Indefinite

a convergent

series.

Let f

(x)

denote the exact integral of

/X

d x; then by Taylor's

Theorem

and making

h
f (x

+ b-a)_fx = X.
make
x
then

(b_a) + *?.
a

^H +

&c.

Again,

dX
become constants

d2

HT' -di"
A, A', &c.

&c

'

and we obtain

f(b)-f(a)

= A(b-a) + ^. (b-a)* +

^
is

(b-a)'

a is small compared with unity, which, when b gent for all practical purposes. If b a be not small, assume

sufficiently conver-

p./3

p being the number of equal parts

to

jS,

into

which the interval b

is

sup-

be divided, in order to make 13 small compared with unity. posed the integral between the several limits taking
a,
'a,

Then

a a

+ +
+

/3

2/3

&c.
o,

/3

BOOK
we
get

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

97

f. (a

+ 0)

f (a)

A/3

|B

|8

+ &c. +
&c.

f (a

+ 8j8)

f (a+/3)

&c.

= B/3+-. = &c.

/3*

+ +

/3*

f(a+p/3)
A, A',

f(a+^II.f3) = P/3 + &c. B, B', &c ....... P,

~
P',

^3

&c.

being the values of

X,^,&c.
when
for

dX
+
2
ft

x we put
a,

+
=

ft a

&c.

Hence
f(b)
f(a)

(A
(A'

+ B +

....P)/3
.

+
+

B'

+
+

F)
P-)

+ +

(A&c.

B-

1-3

the integral required, the convergency of the series being of any degree that may be demanded.
If /3 be taken very small, then
f (b)
f (a)

(A

+ B +
x n )T

____ P)

nearly.

Ex. Required the approximate value of

-^dx X
between the limits of x

(1

and x

m
neither
>

1,

when

n ^r

m p ~ +~

0n

integer.

Here

X=
and
d-\r A.
Cl

X m-l
p
Q

(1

X n )T
-*L

n _. p
i

X
1

b~a=l
Assume

0=1.
=
10

ft

and we have
JL
2.

for limits

VOL.

I.

88

A COMMENTARY ON
Hence

fSEcr.

I.

m being >

1,

A =

&c.

= &c

Hence, between the

limits

/Xd
+
(10

n
)

and x

=
1)1~

T 10 m + n q

X |(10 n l
'

(10

2 n )f

_3

f+

&c.

(10

)f I nearly.

We shall meet with more comments upon the text.

making

particular instances in the course of our

Hitherto the use of the Integral Calculus of Indefinite Differences has have contented ourselves so far with not been very apparent.

We
;

as rapid a sketch as possible of the leading principles

on which

the Inverse

Method depends

but

we now come

to

its

APPLICATIONS.
112.

Required

to

Jind the area of any curve, comprised between two

given values c Let

of

its

ordinate.
to

(fig.

LEMMA

II of the text) be a given or definite area

and C c, or and y. Then C c being fixed or Decomprised between = d y. Hence the finite, let B b be considered Indefinite, or let L b
Indefinite Difference of the area

is

the Indefinite area

BCcb.
Henjp e
if

EC =

dS = BCcb=CL + Lcb = ydx + Lcb.

CL
or y d x.
..

x,

and S denote the area

then

But

c b

is

heterogeneous (see Art. 60) compared with

v d *

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Hence

99

S=/ydx,
the area required.

Ex.

1.

Required the area of the common parabola.

Here
y
.-. ..

A d

= =

ax.
2 y d y J J
a

and

and between the

limits of

=
&

and y
2
(r

=r

r'

becomes
r")
x,

= = =

If

and m' be the corresponding values of

we have

|-~-

(r

r'

m')

of the circumscribing rectangle.

Let

r'

0,

then

S
Ex.
2.

-~ r

m
.

(see Art. 21.)

is

Take
it

the general Parabola whose equation m a x n y

Here

will

be found

in like

manner

that

m m +
between the
limits of

0,

and x

a,

/3.

termed ; or a square may be found whose area shall be equal to that of any Parabola. Ex. 3. Required the area of an HYPERBOLA comprised by its asymptote,

Hence

all

PARABOLAS may

be squared, as

it is

and one
If x,

infinite branch.

y be

parallel to the asymptotes,

and originate
a b

in the center

xy
is

the equation to the curve.

Hence

dx =

a b d y

y*

02

100
and

A COMMENTARY ON
s

[SECT.

I.

=/_iMy = c_abi y
=
.

Let

at the vertex

/3,

and x

then the area

is

and

C =
S

a b

&
.

Hence

ab.l.
y

1 13.

If

the curve be referred to ajixed center by the radius-vector

and

traced-angle 6\ then

For d S = the Indefinite Area contained by

g,

and g+df=(g+df)

^
/

=
have

(Art. 26)

and equating homogeneous

quantities

we

Ex.

1.

In the Spiral of Archimedes

_ .._~
Ex.
2.

_ _
&

g^.
2

In the Trisectrix
f
.-.

d S

= =

cos.

i/(2cos.

6+

l)

d^

which may easily be integrated. Hence then the area of every curve could be found, if all integrations were possible. By such as are possible, and the general method of approximation (Art. Ill) the quadrature of a curve may be effected either In Section VII and many exactly or to any required degree of accuracy.
other parts of the Principia our author integrates Functions by means of curves ; that is, he reduces them to areas, and takes it for granted that such areas can be investigated.
ordinate
114. Tojind the length of any curve comprised within given values of the ; or To RECTIFY any curve.
s

be the length required. Art. 25 and LEMMA VII.

.-.

Let

Then d
(d

its

Indefinite

Chord, by

ds
s

= V

x2

+ dy

and

=/v'(dx' +

dy')

.....

(a)

BOOK
Ex.

I.]
1.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
In the general parabola n m y = a x
.

101

Hence

dxS
and

= _JnL y ^-*.
n 2 air

dr

n*
which
is

a'

integrable by Art. 95
1

when

either
1

2m
-

n
ihat
is,

2 ^

2m
n

+8 ^
.

when

either
1
11

2*m
is

or

2"m

1m
n
even.
is

an integer

that

is

when
is

either

m or n
(1

The common

parabola

Rectifiable, because then

m=

2.

In

this case

ds= dy V
Hence assuming according
1

2
)

(r)

to

Case 2 of Art. 95,

2

4-

=
=

we

get the Rational

Form

ds
Hence by Art

d u

89, Case 2,

.=
x

2(_u)
a
2

JLi =!
'

8' l_Vu + 2
_

+V

..

...

A
*

+ V

6
But u

C.

VP
and making the ne-

Hence by
G
3

substituting

cessary reductions

103

A COMMENTARY ON
s

[SECT.

I.

Let y = then s = and we get C = ; and . between the Limits of y = and y =

|8

+
= ax

al.

a
~2

In the Second Cubical Parabola

s

and

which gives

at

once (Art. 91)

Ex.

2.

In the

circle (Art.

26)

which admits of Integration in a series by the Binomial Theorem, we have

only.

Expanding

(1

Hence,

and

and between the

limits of
. 8

=
L
2
2
.5

and y
4. ^

=
a3

"

1
2. 3.

- or for an arc of 30 & 3

we have

+
j.

2.4.5.2

4. KC + &r

3.

5.

-_
""
8

7.

9.

16

.0208333333

.0023437500
.0003487720
1^.0000593390
&c.

.5235851943 nearly.

BOOK L]
Hence 180 of
it

NEWTON'S PRJNCIPIA.
the circle whose radius
is 1 is is 1

103

or the whole circumference

of the circle whose diameter

= =

5235851943 ... X 6 nearly 3.1415111658

.

which

is

By

10000 more terms any required approximation to the value of v may taking
3.

true to the fourth decimal place

or the defect

is

less

than

be obtained.

Ex.

In the Ellipse
'

x2

where x

ae

the abscissa referred to the center, a the semi-axis major and the eccentricity (see Solutions to Cambridge Problems, Vol. II. p. 144.)
is

115. If the curve be referred to polar coordinates,

s

=fV (f'd+d
= sin. = m +
6

.......

and

0;

then
(b)

For
y

x
and
if

cos.

&

d x% d y
1.

(114. a)

be thence found and substituted in the expression the result will be as above.

"

Ex.

In the Spiral of Archimedes

2 a
see the value for
s

in the

common

parabola, Art. 114.

Ex.

2.

In the logarithmic Spiral

or
6

1. g

and we find
C. 2 f Content of any solid formed by the 116. Required the Volume or solid revolution of a curve round its axis. be the volume between the values and of the ordinate of the Let
s

= V~2/d =

+
y

Then d a cylinder whose base is * y and altigenerating curve. a quantity Indefinite or heterogeneous compared with either x tude d

V =

'1

or the cylinder.

G4

104

A COMMENTARY ON
ss

[SficT. I.

But the cylinder have

and
Ex.
1.

* yz d

x.

Hence equating homogeneous

terms,

we

dV =
In the
.-.

<ry*dx
2

V = <r/y dx ....... sphere (rad, = r) x y = r V = ,rr dx *x dx

2

(c)

and between the

limits

and

which gives the Hemisphere. Hence for the whole sphere

Ex.

2.

In the Paraboloid. y
..

= V =
2

flra x d x

and between the

limits

and a

Ex.

3.

In the Ellipsoid.

and between the

limits

V
X7

x = 2<rb 2

and a
**
,

=-3^

= 2<r ,. _.ab*.

Hence

for the

whole Ellipsoid

V = t,ab>.
The
formula (c)

may be

transformed to

V = ryS

*/Sdy

(d)

BOOK L]
where S

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
is

105
a singular

= f y d x or the area of the generating curve, which expression, /S d y being also an area.
that

Ellipsoids of different eccentricities, or approximately such. Hence then in preparation for such inquiry it would not be of great use to investigate the Volumes of Bodies in general.

In philosophical inquiries solids of revolution are the only ones almost we meet with. Thus the Sun, Planets and Secondaries are

If x, y,
fall

z,

denote the rectangular coordinates, or the perpendiculars

let

from any point of a curved surface upon three planes passing through a point given in position at right angles to one another, then it may easily be shown by the principles upon which we have all along proceeded,
that

d
or

V =

d d d

y/z d

x"

=
or

z/y d x

(e)

=
according as

x/z
d

d y^
which
z, y,

we take
Volume
and

the base of

in the planes to

or

is

respectively perpendicular

For

let

the

be cut off by a plane passing through the point

in the surface

parallel to

of the plane section thus

made

any of the coordinate planes will be

then the area

/z
or
or

d x"

dx

!>see Art. 112.

Then another

section, parallel

to/z d

x,

or/y

d x,

or/z d y and

at

the Indefinite distance

y, or d z, or d x from the former being made, the Indefinite Difference of the Volume will be the portion comprised by

these two sections

tion
is

y/z

and the only thing then to be proved is that this pord x or d z/y d x, or d x /z d y. But this is easily to
;

be proved by LEMMA VII. This, which is an easier and more comprehensible method of deducing d V than the one usually given by means of Taylor's Theorem, we have
enter into demerely sketched ; it being incompatible with our limits to tail. To conclude we may remark that in Integrating both y* z d x, and

/ d y / z d x must be taken within the prescribed limits,

y Definite and then
x.

first

considering

106

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

I.

117. Tojind the curved surface of a Solid of Revolution. Let the curved surface taken as far as the value y of the ordinate referred to the axis of revolution be

and s the length of the generating curve to that point; then d o the surface of a cylinder the radius of whose base is y and circumference 2 ie y, and altitude d s, by LEMMA VI L
<r,

and

like considerations.

Hence

do=2vyds
and
e

vfy
s

..........
2^/s dy

(a)

or

=
which
latter

2 cry

......
y
;

(b)

form may be used when not often be the case however.

Ex. In the common Paraboloid.

s is

known

in terms of

this will

a x

and

=
Let y

(y
a

a 2)

c.

and

|3,

then

between these

limits is expressed

by

.=*>+.>*
If the surface of any solid whatever were required, by considerations similar to those by which (116. e) is established, we shall have

+ d z )/ V (dx + d z (c) and substituting for d z in V d x + d z its value deduced from z = f + d z its (x, y) on the supposition that y is Definite; and in V (d y value supposing x Definite. Integrate first V (d x + d z between the prescribed limits supposing y Definite and then Integrate V (d y + d z
d

= V

(dy

between its limits making x Definite. This last result ) y v (dx will be the surface required. must now close our Introduction as it relates to the Integration of
/
2
2

>

+dz

We

Functions of one Independent variable. It remains for us to give a brief notice of the
tions of

artifices

by which Func-

two Independent Variables may be Integrated.

118. Required the Integral of

Xdx + Ydy =
where

0,

is

any function 0/*x,

and

Y a function ofy

the

same or

different.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

107

When each of the terms can be Integrated separately by the preceding methods for functions of one variable, the above form may be Integrated, and we have

/Xdx+/Ydy

C.

This is so plain as to need no illustration from examples. shall, nowever, give some to show how Integrals apparently Transcendental may in particular cases, be rendered algebraic.

We

Ex L 15 + 13L = x
.

o.

.-.

.-.1

= C = (xy) =
.-.

C'

i.

V
= _
y
l

and
x y

=
d

C' or

C.
*

d x
cj.
-

""

/""/-.

(I

x 2)
sin.
l

~z\

"T~

7~~ y 7~ri~ V (I

o\ 2 )

Here
.*.

C = = =
is

sin. {sin.
sin. (sin.

- x ~ x =
l
l

+
sin.

sin.

y]
~~

y
l

=r

C =

sin.

~~

C
~* x) sin. (sin. y)

~~

x)

cos. (sin.
)

y)
(I

+
x
2

cos. (sin.
)

V
if

(1

which

algebraic.

Generally

the Integral be of the form

f-'(x) +f.~'(y)

= C

Then assume

C = f.~'(C)
and take the inverse function of f ~
l

(C) and

we have

c = f{f-'(x)
which when expanded
will

f-'(y)l

be algebraic.
0.

119. Required the Integral of

Ydx + Xdy =
Dividing by

XY

we

get

*2 + iZ Y x
c

which

Integrable by art. 118. 120. Required the Integral of

is

where
nents

P and

Pdx + Qdy = 0; Q are each such Junctions qfx and y that the sum of the expoin every term

ofx and y

of the equation

is

the same.

108

A COMMENTARY ON
if

[SECT.

I.

Let x = u y. Then Q will be of the forms

be the constant sum of the exponents,

and

U and
Hence,
and
since

U x y m U' y m U' being functions of w. dx = udy + y d u, we have U.(udy + ydu) + U' d y =

(U u

+
art.

U') d y

+ Uydu =
<"

'y + UTTTJ-" .....

which
Ex.
is

Integrable by
(a

118.

1.

x + b Here

y)

dy

(f

+
U'

y)

x =

0.

U=
"
y which being rational Ex.
2.

P = fx+gy,

fu+
fu 2

g,

Q = ax + by = au + b
a)u
2

T
.

+
d x

(g

+
(x

+
y
2 2
)

b
89)

is

Integrable by

art. (88,

x d y

y d x
x,

Here

Q= U' =
or

V (x + y*) 1 V (1 + u u, U = 1 + *(l + u .jy ^ dn = u V (1 + u y

P =
8

_y

T
y

du
u

(I

u 2)

which
121.

is

Integrable by

art. (82, 85.)

These Forms are

called Homogeneous.

To

Integrate

(ax

+ by +

c)dy

+ (mx+ny+p)dx =
c

By

assuming

ax + by +
and

u-\

we

get
,

Cl

= mdu mb
1

is

mx + ny + p=
adv na
,,
5

vj

an(

-l
-

u X

bdv ndu = --- r-----

mb

na

and therefore

(mu

nv)du + (bv

au)du =

which being Homogeneous

Integrable by Art. 120.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Integrals which
is

109
of the greatest use in

We now come to that class of

Natural Philosophy
to

LINEAR EQUATIONS.
122. Required to Integrate

where X,

are functions of

X.

Let

v.

Then

udv + vdu + Xuvdx =

Hence assuming
d v

X' d x

d x
7

(a)

we have

also

v d u

= X

d x

(b)

Hence

+ X
.-.

d x

= = C

Iv

+/Xdx

or

= ec X e = C X e-Substituting for v in (b)

we

therefore get

du=~.e
Ex.

/Xdx

X'dx

which may be Integrated in many cases by Art 118.

dy + ydx = ax dx.
3

Here

X=
and

= ax* /Xdx = x
1,

X'

/X
see Art. (102)

d x e' Xdx

= a/x e = ae *(x
3 3

*
8

dx

3x + 6x
2

6)

Hence
y

= C e- x +

a (x

3 x*

6 x

6)

110

A COMMENTARY ON
LINEAR

[SECT.

J.

122. Required to Integrate the

Equation of the second order

+ xjj +

ry = .

where X, X' are functions qfn.

Lety

e' udx

then

^ = ue'
u x

udx

j
d x2

vd ,.-,(<} x

and

.*.

by

substitution,

which
rable

an equation of the first order and in certain cases may be Integand by some one of the preceding methods. When for instance X' are constants and a, b roots of the equation
is

u2
then
it

Xu+
y

X'
ax

will

be found that

= Ce
of

+C'e bx

123. Required the Integral

4. X dy +Xy ~ X" dT2+X d^ 4- X'v ~ X

d *y

where

X"

is

a new function ofx.

t

Let y
result

then Differencing, and substituting,

we may assume

the

+
/d

X^ + X'. =
t\

......
, dx

(a)

and
.-.

/d
(

t\
)

Vdx/

+ ^
.

(-5) Vdx/

v ^ (X + 7^. -3 z\ ) V Z dxJ
/
,

= X
z

x/
, . .

' (b) v

Hence

(by 122) deriving z from (a)

first

and

substituting in (b)
(-T

we have a
(-T

Linear Equation of the

order in terms of

);

whence

may

be found

and we

shall thus finally obtain

^ iTv'

y dx ^ dx'
SL.
, -*

d2 y

___

x
!

x 2<y

\r

~
"

a
____

I'

Here
^f
1.7
1

^^

//

BOOK L]
Equat.
(a)

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
becomes d2 z d z d x2 dx
1
"

__ "~

x2

whence

wherein z == e^ udx

which becomes homogeneous when

for

u we put v - 1

Next the

variables are separated

by putting (see 120)

x
and we have
d v
s
2

=: v s

V-

+
~

1
<

TP-T)
1
__

ls

and
\j v

Vs
8
;

/ ___

__

r
.

Hence
U

= =

-x- + x
1
2

--

, N

r / J U d X
|

(x

1)

x --x
2

and
z

e^ udx

_ ~ = X____
2

Again
e

/Xdx
//

e lx

.-.

and

/X
and

e/ Xdx

zdx =/adx = ax + C
]
'

y "

x"

^r~

x r(a x ~ C) x d~" ; X 2"^n:)"r (

a

which being Rational may be farther integrated, and

finally

it

is

found that

ax + C
Here we
the Direct
shall terminate

__

x2

(~

1\

our long digression.

We have

exposed both

and Inverse Calculus

reader to comprehend the uses we was the main object we had in view.

sufficiently to may hereafter

make it easy for the make of them, which

in Integral Calculus, in the higher some shape or other, it is impossible to prosecute researches branches of philosophy with any chance of success ; and we accordingly

Without the

Newton, partial as he seems to have been of Geometrical Synthesis, His Commentators, especially frequently have recourse to its assistance.
see

118
the Jesuits
Clairaut),

A COMMENTARY ON
Le Seur and
Jacquier, and
all

[SECT.

II.

Madame

Chastellet (or rather

its

have availed themselves on

occasions of

powers.

The

reader may anticipate, from the trouble

we have given ourselves

in establish-

ing

its

rules

and formulae, that we

also shall not

be very scrupulous in that

respect

Our
offer,

As

far as the

design is, however, not perhaps exactly as he niay suspect. Geometrical Methods will suffice for the comments we may
so far shall

have to

we use them.

But

if

by the use of the Algo-

rithmic Formulae any additional truths can be elicited, or any illustrations given to the text, we shall adopt them without hesitation.

SECTION

II.

PROP.

I.

124. This Proposition is a generalization of the Law discovered by Kepler from the observations of Tycho Brahe upon the motions of the planets and the satellites. " Wfien the body has arrived at B," says Newton, "let a centripetal act at once with a strong impulse, #."] But were the force force acting
incessantly the

body will arrive in the next For supposing the centripetal force
body
will

instant at the

same point C.

incessant, the path of the

B C. evidently be a curve such as if the move in the chord Again, body

B, and

B,

BC

be chords de-

scribed in equal times, the deflection

from

B, produced by an impulsive

force acting only at eating a velocity which

and communi- ^^~

wouldhavebeen

But B, is C c. generated by the incessant force in the time through if the force had been incessant instead of impulsive, the body would have at B, and in this case the deflection at the been moving in the tangent

BT

end of the time through B C would have been half the space described with the whole velocity generated through B C (Wood's Mech.) But

CT =
.-.

Cc

the

body would

still

be at C.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE

113

AN ANALYTICAL PROOF.
Let

denote the central force tending constantly to

(see

Newton

figure), which take as the origin of the rectangular coordinates (x, y) which determine the place the body is in at the end of the time t. Also let g be the distance of the body at that time from S, and & the angular distance of f from the axis of x. Then F being resolved parallel to the

axis of x, y,

its

components are

F.S

and F.

and

(see Art. 46)

we .*. have d2 x

_, = _F.

_ -_. _., d*y -_F.-. T ^p

x
y
,

Hence

yd

"dT1

x "

_ ""
2

""

T?

x J

_ -

x d2 y
d~tr*

y d

x
d
t

xd*y ~~ _

'

But
2 y d x

xd

.-.

integrating

ydx ^
Again,

-=

= dydx + yd x dxdy = d.(ydx xdy)

2

xd 2 y

xdv =
-

constant

^^ =
y

c.

.*.

x d x
d y

= = =

g cos. d,

sin

d,

x2
cos.
sin.

d d

d sin. &

cos.

+ +

d d

whence by

substitution

we

get
2

ydx
But
(see Art.
1

xdy = = " dt
pdd
<&

d0

13)
;=

d
*

(Area of the curve)

"~~

d
c

2
~~

H4
Now
there
is

A COMMENTARY ON
since the time

[SECT. II.
in the integration

and area commence together

no constant

to be added.
.-.

=
c

x A

A.

Q.
125. COR.
that generally
1.

e.

d.

PROP.

II.

By
V

the

comment upon LEMMA X,

it

appears

= ds

dl

and

here, since the times of describing

t is

B,

C, &c. are the same by

hypothesis, d
that

given.

Consequently v oc d s

the velocities at the points A, B, C, &c. are as the elemental spaces But since the area of a A described B, B C, C D, &c. respectively.
is

generally

A =

semi-base

X
v

perpendicular,

we
s

have, in symbols,

d.
.-.

A =
d
S,
,

p X d

oc

d.A a
P

and since the

and we

AA B

S,

BC
a
1

CD

S, &c. are all equal,

is

constant,

finally get

or

the constant being determinable, as will be shown presently, from the nature of the curve described and the absolute attracting force of S.
126. COR. 2.
parallel to

A B.

same

line.

parallel to

constructed, C V is equal and A B = B c by construction and they are in the Therefore C V is equal and parallel to B c. Hence B V is C c. But S B is alsa parallel to C c by construction, and

The parallelogram C A being

But

B S have one point in common, viz. B. They therefore coincide. That is B V, when produced passes through S. 127. COR. 3. The body when at B is acted on by two forces one in the direction B c, the momentum which is measured by the product of its
V,
;

mass and
rection

velocity,

S.

These acting

and the other the attracting single impulse in the difor an instant produce by composition the

momentum

measurable by the actual velocity X mass. Now these component and compound momentums being each proportional to the product of the mass and the initial velocity of the body in the directions B c, B V, and B C respectively, will be also proportional
in the direction
to their initial velocities simply,

BC

and therefore by (125)

to

V,

c,

C.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
is

115

Hence
the

BV

measures the force which attracts the body towards S when

at
1.

128.
figure

body COR.

and so on
II.

for every other position of the body.

PROP.
B,

In the annexed
c
is

= A
is

parallel to

S B, and C' c AS C B = S
from
in C,
its

parallel to S' B.

Now
if

B=SA

B, and

the

body by an impulse of S have

deflected

rectilinear course so as to

be

by the proposition the direction in which the centripetal force acts is that of C c or S B. But if, the body having
arrived at C', the

ASBC'be>SAB
by

(the times of description are equal

hypothesis) and

.*.

> S B C,
A S B

the vertex
7

C, and the direction of the force along c C or B S', has clearly declined from the course C'
falls

without the

B S
from

in consequentia.

The
129.

other case

is

readily understood

this other

diagram.
that a body cannot de-

To prove

scribe areas proportional to the times round

two centers.
If possible let

AS'AB = AS'BC
and

AB =
B C(=
S

S B C.
S'

Then

A
and
also

S'

A B)= S'Bc
But
it

is

parallel to S' B.

is

parallel to

B
S'

by

construction.

Therefore S
is

and

B coincide, which

contrary to hypothesis. 130. PROP. III. The demonstration of this proposition, although strictly rigorous, is rather puzzling to those who read it for the first time. At least
so I have found
it
:

in instruction.

It will

perhaps be clearer when stated

symbolically thus Let the central body be called and the revolving Qne L. Also let the whole force on L be F, its centripetal force be f, mid the force ac-

H2

116

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

II.

be f . Then supposing a force equal to P to be applied to celerating and in a direction opposite to that of f , by COR. 6. of the Laws,

the force f will cause the body

to revolve as before,

and we have

remaining
f

= F
f

P +
P.

or

F =

Q.

e. d.

ILLUSTRATION.

Suppose on the deck of a vessel in motion, you whirl a body round in a vertical or other plane by means of a string, it is evident the centrifugal
force or tension of the string or the power of the hand which counteracts i. e. the that centrifugal force centripetal force will not be altered by the

force which impels the vessel. Now the motion of the vessel gives an one to the hand and body and in the same direction ; therefore the equal
force

on the body

force on the

hand

centripetal

power of the hand.

uniform by

131. PROP. IV. Since the motion of the

body

in a circle is

supposition, the arcs described are proportional to the times. arc X radius ., , t a arc described a
,

Hence

oc

area of the sector.

Consequently by PROP. II. the force tends to the center of the circle. Again the motion being equable and the body always at the same distance from the center of attraction, the centripetal force (F) will clearly be every where the same in the same circle (see COR. 3. PROP. I.) But

the absolute value of the force

is

thus obtained.
edit.)

Let the arc

AB

in the (fig.

Glasgow

be described in the time T.

Then by the centripetal force may be considered constant,)

that time,

B indefinitely small, F, (which supposing the sagitta B (S) will be described in

and (Wood's Mechanics) comparing

this force

with gravity as

the unit of force put

1,

we have S
2

But by

similar

= f FT & = 32 feet. g being triangles A B D, A B G

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
VII.)
'

117

(LEMMA
If

p _ * -

2 S

_ 2

(arc

T be given
-,

jfT*

A B) RT
8

2
'

(arcAB)

If

T =

arc second

132.

COR.

1.

Since the motion

is

uniform, the velocity

is

arc

133.

COR.

2.

The

Periodic

Time

is

circumference
~"~

~~

_
2

*r

velocity

=
134.

gR P
k X

=
g
,

'

COR.

3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

Generally

let

P =
k being a
constant.

Rn

Then

- 3* R _
P
and
2

2 *

1
l

kR

n ~~

Rn~
4* 2
oc

F =
Conversely. If

R R sn gk
!T

oc

n jri

Rn
/

For (133)

R
F

COR. 8. A B, a b are similar arcs, and A B, a h contemporaneoussmall. ly described and indefinitely

135.

Now
and
a

a n

ultimately : a :

m
:

a h2

b*

m A
:

AB
:

(LEMMA V)
.-.

an

AM

ah*

ab.

AB

118
or
f 1
f

A COMMENTARY ON
h =JL FT
2

[SECT. II.

F
*

AB
AB V
2

ab
v*

ah
as

AB*
A

A (LEMMA V) v

a s

_y^

AS"
A
D, a d be divided

And

if

the whole similar curves

number of

indefinitely small equal areas

AB

S,

BC

S,

&c.

into an equal ; a b s, b c s,

&c. these will be similar, and, by composition of the whole times)

ratios,

(P and p being

time through

A B.
*

ajb

AB AS
V

time through a b

as
'*

*'

'

v
.-.

v
'

Pa A S

V
Hence
A

Ts

"F 5

"*

136. COR. 9. Let A C be uniformly described, and with the force considered constant, suppose

body would fall to L in the same time in which it would revolve to C. Then A B being
the
indefinitely small, the force

considered constant, and

down R B may be we have (131)

AC

2
:

AB

2
:
:

T AB T

2
:

AC
RB
2

2
:

AL

AL RB (131) AL AB AD
'*

Hence

AB = AL
2

X AD.
is

PROP. VI.

Sagitta

LEMMA
.-.

XI*

F when time when F is given

oc

given.

Also sag.

(arc)

by

when

neither force nor time

sag.
.-.

is

given
t
2
;

a F X
o

BOOK L]

[EWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
OTHERWISE.

119

By LEMMA X, COR.

4,

sP ace ip so

niotus initio

To

generalize this expression, let

be the space described Also

let

in I

77

at

the surface of the Earth by Gravity.

ty.

the unit of force be Gravi-

Then

F
* *

?%
t*
*=>'

g
'

2
-i.

xl"
v ^
t

"~~"

g*
by hypothesis.
137.

A 9

"""""

g
2

.I. A 2

Cou.

1.

QR^
t

QR
(area
T?

a To

O
S P* X

S P Q)
2
'

QT
P
^
"2
a

generalize this, let a be the area described in

7
'.

Then

the area

described in t"

QT
.
;

_ SP x QT.
and substituting
in (a)

we
T?

get
..
..

g
Again,
if

S P1 x

QT

/K\
2

'

the Trajectories turn into themselves, there must be a : 1" : : (whole Area) : (Period. Time)

.'.a

= A -

^r.

Hence by

(b)

we have

gT
which, in practice,
is

SP'xQT
X
X

the most convenient expression.

1S8.COB.2.
139. Cor. 3.

F = F =

-g yi

py

.......

(e)

120

A COMMENTARY ON
is

[SECT. Jl.
Since

Hence

got a differential expression for the force.

P v

=
g

dp

"

2p'pdg dp
dp
p
3

4 A'

Another is and the traced-angle

Because

.dg the following in terms of the reciprocal of the Radius Vector

0.

~gT

........

'"

p"

_
Let

<lg

g'do*

^ I
,

g'

Then
,

ds
also
1

d u

~-^
du
2
.

dp = 2dud i -j--p dP _A~_

3

u
J'

ft

.*.

rr "^

d d* u
'

2 u d u

U2

-^-

U3

and substituting

in f

we have

140. Con. 4.

a Vs X

This

is

generalized thus.

Since
s P ace

v _ v and

Tnse

- pQ

~r
F2

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA,

121

^ aXt(=7jsXt) = area described _ P Qx S Y ~

2

Hence
1

i
-

T *

and by COR.

3.

From

this

formula we get

V =-| x F x P V PV
2
<Q

But by Mechanics, if urged by a constant force

2

denote the space moved through by a body

F
x
s

V = 2g F

.-..-^

............

that is, the space through which a body must fall when acted on by the force continued constant to acquire the velocity it has at any point oj the Trajectory is % of the chord of curvature at that point.
',

Also

The next four propositions are merely examples to the preceding formulae. HI. PROP. VII. A V2 P V2 R P 2 (= Q R x R L) Q T 8
:
: :
:

QJR XJR L x PV*

AV

_ W T2 ~
PV
for
2

and multiplying both

S P2
sides

P2
I:

AV

gpp x PV _ ~
3

by

and putting

L, we have

SP
V
s

QT

QR
p* x P

AV
Also by (137
c.)

ps x P

V
1

A'

AV
SP
!

X P V

"

"gT

" Sgjrr* X 7

S P! X

PV

3 '

122

A COMMENTARY ON
.

[SECT. II.

OTHERWISE.
t

From

similar triangles

we

AV:PV::SP:SY SPx PV SY = AV * SY x PV = SP A. xV P V _ S P x PV
.-.

get

x
3

PV

AV

Fa
as before.

SY'x PV

a
S~P*

PV

OTHERWISE.

is

the equation to the circle

whence

IP=J. r
df
.

v_ 4A2

dP

_ 4 A<
8
r3

<

^ X

(r_a + f)'

OTHERWISE.

The

polar equation to the circle

5

is

1
>

+ COS.
.

"u

/
I

1 \
j

1
.

2a

cos. d

T
T i. I

COS.

2 a

= J~~ 2
"

sn
/3
\

cos.
sin.

2
8

d u d d*

"""

J[
2 a

cos.

52 a

cos.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
,

123

Hence

dT +
2

U -

si*1 -

*
'

2Tc^r^

~
4

cos.0

2 a cos.

2 a cos.
""

X (2sin. 2

sin.

^)+

+ 12 sin.

a cos.

which by (139) gives

F =

4A gT

2
2

acos.

_^
2

g~T~

g
142.

T X
2

(1

cos.*
$

a)

cos.

COR.

1.

Fa
SP
1

But

in this case

'

ST
COR.
2.

'

= P V. _32*r 01'""
x x
x

w
2

F: F::
S

RP
SP SP

PT

gT
3
:

SP

'

5
3

R
::
::

RP RP

2
:

SP x PV G ps x P V
p.r f

2
:

SG

3
,

^y similar triangles. This is true when the periodic times are the same.
different

When

they are

we have

T
F: F::
S

SP

RP
itself.

-4A R

SG

3
,

where the notation explains 143. PROP. VIII.

CP
and
.-.

2
:

PM

::

PR

2
:

QT

'"

PR = QRx(RN + QN) = QRx2PM CP PM ::QR x 2PM-.QT 9X! - ^PM ~"

2

QR

CP

124

A COMMENTARY ON

tSficx. II.

and

QT'XSP" - 2PM XSP CP

3

QR

' '

CP'

2PM

X
*

SP
3

P~M~'

Also by 137

1 ^
But
a

tL'v A
g

CP
SP2 SP'x
velocity

PM
=

P X

P X V
2

2
*

V x F =

OTHERWISE.

By PROP. VII,

F
But S

SP
PV =

X P
2

is infinite

and

P M.

OTHERWISE.

The

equation to the circle from any point without

it is

P
where c
is

~2r~*
r

the distance of the point from the center, and r the radius.

"
Moreover

""

"df in this case

2

c
"

c8 o~^

2cy

y*

dp
p
8

...

+
r
8
'

~
c'y

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
(139)

185

Hence

F =

4a
c

X -=
v J

= V'r* X
sr O

fir

v v

SCHOLIUM.
144. Generally

we have

P R

2
:

QT

2
:
:

PC

2
:

P M*

But

P R*

QR
and

: :

'

P C

M QT
P

(R

_ ""
But

R x
2

PC
^^
B7T
4

PM PM
3

rad. of curvature)
2

PV

2RxPM

R H

"

y P C

'

and

From

the expression (g. 139)

F =
But

4 a2
(T

we get d2 u
-3-77
Cl

".

"
Also
4.a
2 """

ad
2

_
'

1^

4
8

9*

d x

..

i d U

=:

126

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

II.

and

=
Hence

-^1

(see 69)

_ -~ v X dx* g ~ X dx*
~g~

This

is

moreover

to

be obtained
^

at

once from (see 48)

F
For

^8 y d ta

dt
...

V
O

F = I.

x-^.
is

PROP. IX. Another demonstration

the following:

T P
Let
lar.

PSQ =

2LpSq.
all

Then from

the nature of the spiral the

angles at P,

Q, p, q being equal, the triangles S P Q, S p q are simiAlso we have the triangles P Q, r p q similar, as likewise P T,

qp

t.

Hence

and by

LEMMA IX.
q' r
:

r'

2
:

2
:

72
:

q t*

BOOK

1.]

NEWTON'S PRINCJPIA.
q' t'*
"'

127

_ q'/-

qrt

qr"
S P

Hence

T l
'

QR
QT
.-.

SP
X S P
1
2

and
2

QR
F

SP

'

OTHERWISE.

The

equation to the logarithmic spiral

is

"

and by

(f.

139)

we have

F -

4<*

~ir x
4 "
'

A P p" d

~
t

* a*

Jb

~g~

a*

Using the polar equation,

9
/
,

viz.

b
V^ (a
o 2

r?\ b2

s lo ff ~ to
,

the force

may

also

be found by the formula

(g).

146. PROP.

X.

P
.-.

G
2

v2
2

PC
P C

2
:

CD
P F
!

Q v QT Pv x vG QT QTe v G
: :

2
:

2
:

PC

4
:

CD

p c2

x PF 2 CI)2 x P F
2

But

PV =

R, and

X PF

=
2

(by Conies)

BC X CA

also

ult v

G=

C.

128
.
'

A COMMENTARY ON
l?

[SECT. II

QR QT'XCP
(c.
""*"

2BC
2

PC
x C A"

pr

Also by expression
*

137)

we

get
8

F _
But

8A-' IT1 o

PC *^ T x 2B C X C A
2

A=
The
a CP.

*rxBCxCA

shows that the

additional figure represents an Hyberbola. The same reasoning in the center and repulsive, also in this curve force, being

ALITER.
Take

Tu = TV
and

vG

DC

2
:

P C*
2

Then

since

Qv
.-.

Qv

Pv x vG DC P C u V v G Q v Pvx v = P v x u V Q + u P X P v = P v x (u V + u P) = P v x V P.
2 2
: :

.-.

.-.

But

Qv = QT + Ty = QT +Tu = PQ PT + Tu = PQ*_ (PT* Tu = PQ Pu X Pv

2

2 Pv (chord P Q) _Jow suppose a circle touching

x V

P.
in

P R
if

cut

PG

in

and

in the

Q V be joined we have z.PQv=A.QPR = ^QV'P AQ P v, Q V P the Q P V common. They are

some point V.

and passing through

t<

Then

z.

is

there

fore similar,

and we have
.-.

.-.

PQ PQ PV 2 = v x V^rrPvx P PQ V P = VP

Pv
;

VP

or the circle in question passes through ; is the chord of curvature passing through C. .. P

3oo*I/j
Again, since

u
or

V =

p-9 = C
Pv)

PV
and
being homogeneous

Pu = C(PG
P
JT

V,

PG
pC P
Q

v =r

2T| P 8 "^ V

p
.^T

T\%

.%

(Cor. 3, PHOP. VI.)

t>

F
But
since

oc

P F* x

CD

'

equal to the rectangle

CD

by Conies the parallelogram described about an Ellipse under its principal axes, it is constant. .-. P F

is

is.

and

PC.
OTHERWISE.

By

(f.

139)

we have
4,

A*

But

in the ellipse referred to its center

p2

_ 1_
a
2

1and
differentiating,

b&

and dividing by
.
-

2,

there results

dp _
^ p d

"-

f -

which gives

In like manner
ellipse, viz,

may

the force be found from the polar equation to the

b*
e *cos.*d'

by means of substituting
VOL.
I.

in equat. (g. 139.)

I

ON
147. COR.

[Stop.

Ik

1. For a geometrical proof of this converse, see the Jesuits' or Thorpe's Commentary. An analytical one is the following. Let the body at the distance R from the center be projected with the elocity Vin a direction whose distance from the center of attraction is P.

tlso let

F =

/*e
1.

being the force at the distance

Then (by

F= P _4A

dp -=

vhich gives by integration, and reduction

and But

P being corresponding

values of

and

p.

in the ellipse referred to its center

we have

g*

which shows that the orbit

center,
*
8

is

also

an

ellipse with the force

tending to

its

and equating homogeneous

quantities,

we

get

ab
and

+b _^gT
8

4A
But

A=

-ra

b
(1)

which gives the value of the periodic time, and stant (See Cor. 2 to this Proposition.)

also

shows

it

to

be con-

Having discovered

that the orbit

is

an

ellipse with the force

tending to
its

tne center, from the data, semiaxes a and b.

we can

find the actual orbit

by determining

By

140,

we have

=^8 x
and

^g X

Boom

I.]

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.
a

1*1

.-.

b'

R'

T +~
*g

and

and

which, by addition and subtraction, give a and b.

OTHERWISE.

By

formula

(g. 139,)

we have
4

and multiplying by 2 d

u, integrating

and putting * /*.

rip

= M,

we have

To

determine C, we have
""

__
^

-'

d 9

and

in all curves

it is

easily found that

Hence, when

R, and p

P,

which gives the constant C. Again from (2) we get

*
*

V
Baynes &

Cu

u 4)

p. 160. Englished edit Son, Paternoster Row) and the constants properly published by determined will finally give $ in terms of 0; whence from the equation to the ellipse will be recognised the orbit and its dimensions.

which being integrated (see Hersch's Tables,

12

13S

A
COK.
2.

II.

This Cor. has already been demonstrated

see (1).

Newton's Proof may thus be rendered a little easier. By Cor. 8 and 8 of Prop. IV, in similar ellipses

T is
Again

constant.

for Ellipses having the same axis-major,

we have

But

since the forces are the

same

at the principal vertexes, the sagittae

are equal, and ultimately the arcs, which measure the velocities, are equal to the ordinates, and these are as the axes-minores. Hence, a (which

/.

Ta

-T-

oc

or

is

constant.

Again, generally if A and B be any two ellipses whatever, and C a third one similar to A, and having the same axis-major as B then, by what has just been shown,
;

T in B = T in C
*

and
.-.

T in C = T in A T in B = T in A.
Jesuits' Notes.

149. SCHOL.

See the

Also take

this

proof
its

of,

" If one

curve be related to another on the same axis by having

ratio,

ordinates In a

at a given angle, the forces by which bodies are given made to describe these curves in the same time about the same center in

and inclined

the axis are, in corresponding points, as the distances from the center."

The

construction being intelligible from the figure,

we have

.-.

PN:QN: pO qO PN: pO QN q O
:

N T O T ultimately.
:

BOOK L]
.*.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Tangents meet in T,

133

the triangles

CP

T,

C Q T are
P
:

in the ratio of
i.

PN Qh
:

or of parallelo*

grams

PNOp,

QNOq ultimately,
p

e.
:

in the given ratio,

and

CPT

NO: NT

P P T ultimately.

*:
:

C p P : C q in a given ratio. bodies describing equal areas in equal times, are in corresponding points at the same times.
.*.

:CQq:

qQ:QT CQT

..

.*.

p,

Q q are described in
parallel to

the same time, and

p and k q are as the

forces.

Draw C R, C S

T,

T;

then

nO: 10

O O
:

S)

Q.

e.

SECTION

III.

XL This proposition we one under another as follows portions

150.

PROP.

shall simplify

by arranging the pro-

But

IB*
:

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. Ill

.-.LxQR:QT: ACxLxPC'xCD': PCxGvxCD'xCB'

and

QR ~ ACx PC _ Qv x CB "" _ / QR P
*

A
.....

Qf

Q T* x

_
F
.

2 P~C
2

S P

8 \""

C B* x S
we have

Cx PC _ A C ~ 8CB X C B* AC ^ _J_ M
\
L*
.....
.

^s-z

Pv

0<

SP*

j,

2 .

Q.
Hence, by expression
(c)

e. d.

Art, 137,

-- tTrfTo 8

8A*

AC
a

gT

2
a
2

C B8 x S P8

8*

tl*.'- x

by observation.

where the elements a and

T are determinable
OTHERWISE.

A general expression for

But the equation

the force (g. 139)

is

to the Ellipse gives * * e CQS *

where a

is

the semi-axis major and a e the eccentricity. d u e sin* 6

''37
and
d8 u "H7 5
"

^ -

a (l
e cos.

e 2)

__ "

~a(l
1

e e 2)

2
)

"d^ +
t

d u

_
""

a(l

and

a(l-e*)'
But

A =
9

as b

=r

<r

ft

a 2 (a

the safne as before.

BOOK

1,3

NEWTON'S fMNCIBIA.
OTHERWISE.

Another expression

is (k.

140)
,
.

F r

_4A' X dp = j
gl*
prr;

p'd?
1
_

Another equation to the Ellipse is also 2 a 2a J^ __

^^

"

/-

=
4cr
2

x
a8 b2

4cr

tered in the

PROP. XII. The same order of the proportions, which are also letsame manner, as in the case of the ^Jlipse is preserved here* Moreover the equations to the Hyperbola are
151.
5
1

e cos.

and
*

F
which
will give the

b*g
2 a same values of F
$

as before excepting that

repulsive.

it

becomes

negative and thereby indicates the force to be 152. PROP. XIII. By Conies

4SP.Pv = Qv = Qx
2

ultimately.

But
..

SP. Q R

Qx

2
:
:

and

Qx
.-.
'

2
:

QT
2

::
::

SP
S P

2
:

4SP.QR QT
:

::

SP
1

S N2 S A S A

QR

TV-TIT-,

_ ~
4,

_ ~
*

L
1
""
'

being the latus rectum.

"F a
or

OR
x

QT'

SP

ST

5 8

8a e

2P V
P
the per-

a being the area described by^he radius-vector in a second, or pendicular upon the tangent and V the corresponding velocity.

OTHERWISE,
In the parabola we have

and

1=
P
which give
8

du
and

dp _
and these
give,

when

substituted in

F =
or

PZ VS

~T_ PV
g

w
1

/d 2 u

+
,

dp

g
the same result,
viz.

'P"dj

F =
Newton observes
from PROP. XI.

P* V*
that the

two

latter propositions

may

easily

be deduced

In that we have found (Art. 150)

4A

'

= P'V
"~g~"

Now when

sive the trajectory being

the section becomes an Hyperbola the force must be repulconvex towards the force, and the expression re-

mains die same.

Boo*!.}

NEWfOH'S

WtlftClPIA.

Again by the property of the

ellipse

which gives
.

b2 and
if

-1 ""
L
c8

~4a
=
(a
(a

JL

c be the eccentricity

b*

=
'*'

a*

+
c)

c)

X
2

(a
I

c)

a
(a

c)

"

L~ 4a'
c
is

Now when
Jtnite,

the ellipse becomes a parabola a and c are infinite, a

c
is

and a

of the same order of

like quantities,

infinites as a.

Consequently

r--j

isjfinite,

and equating

we have

P = L'
which being substituted above gives
' P- 2P V
'

the same as before.

Again,

let

the Ellipse

merge
*

into a circle

then b

a and

F=

P V* r
g
a
8

X jg
\/

A
"

*>v

~~ ~
i

V_ V ^

1
-~"
-

g
\T9

153.

g X PROP. XIII. COR. 1. For

(c)

the tangent being given, a conic a given curvature."]

of contact^ and position of can be described having at that point section

the focus, point
Jesuits' note,

For a geometrical construction see

No. 268.

The The

elements of the Conic Section

expression for

may
il 3 P

also

be thus found. be transformed to

in Art.

75 may

easily

R =
for

A COMMENTARY ON
Now
the general equation to conic sections being
f

_bf ^ a X
a
8

l+ecos.0

the denominator of the value of

R is easily found to be

which gives

R=
Hence
-

~
a

s 3

V-F'"
is

known.
Again, by the equation to conic sections we have

P* F

"

g e

2a +

which, by aid of the above, gives

a s=

+
-

3
ft

p R'

And

Whence
given.']

the construction

is

easy.

154. The Curvature

is given

from

the Centripetal Force

and

Velocity being

(P V
and

If the circle of curvature be described passing through P, Q, V, and the chord of curvature through the center of force,

PO
R,

passing being the diameter of curvature) ; then from the similar triangles

PQ

P V Q, we

get
T\

JT\

P O8 ^6
*

Also from the triangles P lar upon the tangent) we have

Q T and

P SY

(S

Y being the perpendicu-

~
and from

ST
2

PSY, PVO,
v _ rv-

Rx

Y ~

Boos 1.1
whence by

NEWTON'S
substitution, &c.

PRINCIPIA.

139

SP Q R QT'xSP'^SRx SY
.
'

' ' F - 2P V v

g
which gives

QTxSP'~RxSY
R is

QR

_ V'XSP

R=
Hence, S P, S

^Txr

X
quantities,

Y and

g being given

also given if

V and

are.

155.

Two
is

orbits

which touch one another and have the same centripetal

sufficient

force and, velocity cannot be described."]

This

clear

from the " Principle of

Reason/'

For

it

is

truth axiomatic that any number of causes acting simultaneously under given circumstances, viz. the absolute force, law of force, velocity, direction,

and

distance, can

one

effect is the

produce but one effect. In the present case that motion of the body in some one of the Conic Sections.

OTHERWISE.

Let the given law of force be denoted generally by

g,

where

means

any function

then (139)

- P*V> x dp
and since

~T~ FTJ

and

are given

But

if

A be the value of F at the

;

given distance

(r)

from the center to

the point of contact

then

F
and

A::

ff :fr

...

F=

f|

and

Wo
Hence

A 'COMMENTARY ON
~

'

~"

g
and

p d|
S

jT"*"

fr

-'

4\

P V
8

g
and integrating, we Have

and

2gA
Now/d
f
i

'

and/d

$'

are evidently the same functions of

and

g\

which therefore assume

<p

and f

g'

and adding the constant by referring % td the point of contact of the two orbits, and putting

P V*fr

2gA
we
get

M,

~-

=
jp

^/

in

which equations the constants being the same, and those with which and g are also involved, the curves which are thence descriptible are f identical. Q. e. d.

These explanations are sufficient to clear up the converse proposition contained in this corollary.
156. It

may be demonstrated

once as follows generally and at

By

the question

BOOK

I.J

NEWTON'S PBINCIPIA.

i*t

then

and

and substituting in
(d)

r*^t
g

_
}_

1
g

we have

J_

_
to

Jl^

Jl
is

But the general equation

Conic Sections

P
Whence
the orbit
is

a Conic Section whose axes are determinable from

8

b
and

~
-

_L

""

2 g

A
8

2 2

P V
i

JL
b
2

""

rM +
2

P2
5

= _^ ^^ p yf
and the section
is

an Ellipse, Parabola or Hyperbola according as

2

is

>,

or

or

<

2 g

r.

Before this subject

is

quitted

it

may

not be amiss by these forms also to

1,

demonstrate the converse of PROP. X, or Cor.

PROP. X.

Here
fr

Whence

_J1 p~5TJ + "P 2M'

1

But

in the

Conic Sections referred to the center, we have

which shows the orbit to be an Ellipse or Hyperbola and found as before.

its

axes

may be

COMMENTARY ON
construction

[SECT.

In the ease of die Ellipse take the following geometrical solution and

C, the center of force and distance

at

C P are given. The

(for

body
8

is

projected

P with the given velocity V.

2

Hence P V is given,
is

V =

-| 40

F P V.)
.

Also the position of the tangent

given,

.*.

position of

DC

is

given,

and
per-

PV =

D8
^"^

p-p

Hence

CD

is

given in magnitude.
*

Draw P F

CD. Join C f and bisect D. Produce and take P f pendicular to in g. Join P g, and take g C, g f, g p, g q, all equal. Draw C p, C q. These are the positions of the major and minor axis. Also major axis
=2

P q,
*
it

minor axis
will pass

= P p.

For from g describe a

right
.%

circle

through C,

f,

p, q,

and since

C F

is

through F.

Pp.Pq = PF.Pf=PF.CD
2

Also

PC 8 4-Pf
or

=5

8 8 a Pg 9 +gC + Pg +gf

(since base of A bisected in g)

PC 8 +CD 8 = Pg 8 + g q 2 + Pg 8 + gpl
1 But a and bare determined by the same .%Pp.Pq=PF.CD 2 Pq = a,Pp = b. Pp* + Pq* = PC* + CD / equations.
.*.

Also since p and F and F, and Ppx =

.% L.

are right angles, the circle

Pp x
if in

Cpq= = t- in Pp=s PF.Px

the EUipse

on x y will pass through p CFq = xFp, because x F C = pFq. .% P p is tangent. alternate segment.
.

But

A PF.Px = b. Cx be the major axis, PF.Px =b

fi

BOOK I J,
.%
.*.

NJ&WTON'S P$peiPlA.
the major axis, and is constructed.
.'.

C x is

C q is the minor axi$.

the Ellipse

The case of the body's PROP. XIII, COR. 2. See Jesuits' note. in a straight line to the center is here omitted by Newton, bedescent cause it is possible in most laws of force, and is moreover reserved for a
full

discussion in Section VII.

The
157.

value of the force

is

however

easily obtained
2

from

14>0.

PROP. XIV.

L =
a

Q Tf

QT

QT X

S P 8 by hypoth.

OTHERWISE.

By

Art. 150,

8A -x^ *
p

for the circle, ellipse,

and hyperbola, and by 152.

for the parabola.

Now

if /A

be the value of

at distance 1,

we have

Whence

in the former case

8 A*
and
in the latter

gLT-*
2P X
V*

_2P* X gL

V
(a)

(b)

s
:

A':T
P* X

AJ

SP X QT* _
8

V
(c)

158.

PKOP. XIV. COR.

I.

By

the,

form

(a)

we have
1.

A (=

* a b)

= ^J^ X V L x T V L.

A COMMENTARY QN
159.

PROP. .....

3$,V

From

the preceding Art.

in the ellipse

-*L=Xa*
160. PROP.

..........
see Jesuits' notes.

(e)

XVI.

For explanations of the text

OTHERWISE.

By

Art. 157

we get

for the circle* ellipse, hyperbola,

and parabola.

But

in the circle,

L =

2 P.

,-.V=
r

V~^X

Vg^X

(g)

being its radius. In the ellipse and hyperbola

161. PROP.

XVI, COR.

I.

By
!

157,
s
.

L =
162. COR.
2.

JJ^

g^

X P X V
&

V = ^
By

JLT

D being the max.

163.

or min. distance.
Art. 160, and the preceding one,

COR.

3.

V L

164. COR. 4.

By

Art. 160,

BOOK IJ
But

NEWTON * PBINCIPIA.
1

L
.'.

s=

2 b*
a
,

P =
I
:

b,

and r
f _

b
: :

ir

v7 a

v7 a ::!:!.

165.

COR.

6.

By

the equations to the parabola, ellipse, and hyper-

bola, viz.

the Cor.

is

manifest.

166. COR. 7.

By Art 160 we have

v$: v'
2
'*

2 P~

*'

"7

which by aid of the above equations to the curves proves the Cor.

OTHERWISE.

By

Art. 140 generally for

all

curves

8
But generally

and

in the circle

PV =

(rad.

=
e

jT* d

analogy which curve whose equation

167.

An

will give the

is

comparison between v and

v' for

any

given,
8,

COR.

9.

By

Cor.

and
v': v"::
.*.

L V t*J' NT

ex equo

VOL.

I.

A COMMENTARY ON
Hffi.

[S8cr.ni.
9

PROP. XVII.
viz.

The
p

known,

the value of

a&o/wte quantity of the fore/ most be in the assumed or else (he actual value of

orbit will not

be determinable ;

i.

e.
S

L:L'::P
will

V:F
it

V' 2

It

not give L'. must be observed that

orbit is

has already been shown (Cor.

of this Commentary.

1,

Prop.

XIII) that the

See
169. PRO*.

a conic
also

section*

Jesuits' notes,

and

Art 153

XVII, COR. 3. The two motions being compounded, the of the tangent to the new orbit will thence be given and therefore position Also the new velocity. the perpendicular upon it from the center.
Whence,
as in Prop.

XVII,

the

new

orbit

may be

constructed.

OTHERWISE.

Let the velocity be augmented by the impulse m times. Now, if i* be the force at the distance 1, and P and V the perpendicular and velocity at distance (R) of projection, by 156 the general equation
to the

new

orbit

is

such that
a

its

semi-axes are

'R

and

Moreover it also or hyperbola. according as the orbit is an ellipse 2 thence appears that when 2, the orbit is a parabola, and that the

m =

are equations corresponding to these cases

n2 P

- m' P x X

~2

E*

J R

or

or

= PXj.

fcnct]

NKWTON'8' PKIWCIPIA.

11*

DEDUCTIONS AND ADDITIONS

TO

SECTIONS
8

II

AND
2

III.

170. In the parabola theforce acting in lines parallel to the axis, required F.

4SP.QR:QT ::Qv*:QT'::YE :YA*::SE:SA::SP:SA

*'

Q R= OT*

4 S

an

^^

*s

constent>

"

1S

constant

S'

then since the force acts Let u be the velocity icsolved parallel to P to P M, u at any point must be same as at A, .*. if P be perpendicular
the velocity in the curve,

Q T = u = constant quantity, and a =:

F =

-^
S'

P QT

S'P.u
2
'

8a*.QR
.

gy^.QT'
P

T7

(see

which avoids the consideration of S

being infinite ; and

.*.

body must

fall

through
f

*v

to acquire the velocity at vertex,

which agrees

with Mechanics.

(At any point

V =

171. In the cycloid required the force

when

acting parallel to the axis*

M
S

R
and

P*

QT
.-.

::

Z Pl

ZT

::

V
:

F*

F*

VB BE
:

since the chord of curvature (C. c)

P M. R

Q QT
:

''

QR * VB 4PM" (CjT*
ii
(since

= 4 P M, R P* = 4 P M. R Q, V B (B E =) P M
:

'

S P

constant)
to

'

*u =
.

v =.u (At any point

172. In the cycloid the force
is

J p^.

parallel to the base

and since

RP:QT'::ZP*:ZT*:: V E* VM*:: VB: C c= 4EM RP = 4EM.RQ, V B V M, 4E M R Q QT

:

VM

.-.

QR

**

E M. V M a
u

VB

EM.VM
s

'

velocity parallel to

B.

BOOK

I.}

NEWTON'S PBJKCIPIA.

Up
*

V*

Sa'QR

g.SP*QT
F
in

_Su'.QR = " rT
~gTQ~'
u
.

u'.VB

ST^5 7

v (At any point

173. Find

.)

a parabola tending

to the vertex.

P
K

AN
:

TP
or

PN

TA

AE

/,^. y

P>

AE

)>

x
2 d p

H" a
8

ax

4 d x a x*

2 a x d x (4 x

4
L

2ax U X dx _
3

2
-

2x +
x3
=

dx U A

-^ a
.

p
Also

, 3

a x

d X

'

a d

2x ax
.'.Fa

+ ax _ 2 V
a

+
a

ax

AP

2x +
'

ax

ATN"8

A.
icctUy.

COMMENTARY ONLet P Q O be the circle of curvature,

v (C. c through the vertex of the parabola)

'

s=

PQ
QT
.-.

_ PO.Az ~
AJP !
8

but

PQ _ ~

QR
F =

AP

S
3

PO.Az

Sa'.QR ~ g.AP'.QT*
2

8a'. A P
g.

PO.Az'
2

but

PO.Az' =
.-.

AT' AS. !-[.- SP' =

4 a*.

AS. AN'

F =

AP

g.AS.AN

'

If the centripetal be changed into a repelling force, and the body

revolve' in the opposite hyperbola,

F a

^p

BOOK

1.3

The body

NEWTON'S FHiNCIPIA. is projected in direction P R R Q is the deflection, frogs the

j.

Tangent due to repelling force H. P,

find the force.

g.HP .QT
2

g.L.HP

2a flTF 2>

176. In any Conic Section the chord of curvature

for

=
2

S P*

P _ v - Q
2

QT
Q
=
5-

.S

-Q-jf
177. Radius of curvature
for

R.S v*

P ~ L.S P _ sv
2

L,

P
178.

W=
""

SY

~
8 a2

SY'

Hence

in

any curve

F =

SY*
^

PV
_ ~
g.SY'.lt
.

see

Art

74*

g.SY.8tLSY

K4

ON
tT9.
1?
'

Henoe
gT

in

Conic Sections

^ *?

SY'.PV ~ g.SY'.L'.gT"'
s Y*

8a'

84'

""

__ll*
g.L.SP*
8 L S P"

a S L_ P*

186. If the chord of curvature be proved s=

he proof

that

QT = ^R
2

independently of
in

L,

this general

proof of the variation of force

tonic sections might supersede Newton's ; otherwise not. 181, b, is whirled round so as body attached to a string, whose length

to describe

circle

whose center

to the horizon in

T";

is the fixed extremity of the string parallel required the ratio of the tension to the weight.

Gravity the string

=
;

1 5 .-.

v of the revolving body

s V

g F

b, if
8

b be the length of

..

(=s centripetal force

tension)

= Vy8

(131)

c "*cumference

8 vb

g
4 T2 b
:

F b

_ ~

.-.

'

Gravity

rr
s

lj

or Tension

weight

^r

1
.

If Tension

3 weight ; required T.

4* b:gT
If

2
: :

1,

T be given, and the tension = 3 weight, required the length of the string.

string from any point describe a circle, the string describes a cone / required the time of one revolution or

182.

If a body suspended by a

(/one oscillation. Let A C = 1,

BC =

b,

kept by 3 forces, grathe direction of B, tension in the vity in the centripetal force in direction C A, tod the direction C B.
is

The body

at rest

As
and

before, centripetal force ss

centripetal force

m^,
b
:

gravity
4/ "if A TT
"

b *, (from A)

^ ^ " 4* e b
:

W 4-t

..

T = 8r,y

_ K? U g ^ ~ b> = a constant
lf
is

quantity if

b*

be given.
.-.

the time of oscillation

altitude.

the same for

all

conical

pendulums having a

common

183. v in the Ellipse at the perihelion : v in the circle e. d. : : n : 1, Jind with that in the circle, and the major axis, eccentricity, and compare its

Jind the

limits

ofn.
c,
:

Let S

A =

v in the Ellipse

that in the circle

e. d.

V AC V HA V A C
:

VHP
n

in this case

by supposition,

.\2

AC
.-.

AS =
AC =

n8

AC,

T:Tinthecirde::AC*:AS*::
(2

n)

(2

n8

Also n must be
for if
if

<V
is

2,
is

= V 2, the orbit V 2, the orbit an >

n

a parabola
hyperbola.

184. Suppose % of the quantity of How matter of to be taken away.

much would
what the
the
circular.

T of

D be increased,

and

eccentricity of her

new orbit ?

D's present orbit being considered

At any point
perpendicular to
.'.

her direction

is

8 A,

if

the force be altered at any

point A, her v in the

new

orbit will

ifr
2 a
$7 her v in the circle, since v =s

g ^>

and S

as

S A, and a

is

the

same
'

at

A.
c,

Let

AS =
3
:

PV

at

A =

L, and

F =
2 b*

V* g p y
2

^
I

in this case,
.-.

2c

(=

L in
8 (a

the circle)

(= L

in the ellipse)
c
g )

__
*'

3b _ ""

^T*) "" 3 (2 ac _

8c s

And T in the circle

T' in the

ellipse

~^ (~ )
:

V V

4
2

2/

2 2

3.

Andtheexcentricity = a
185.

c=
new

- c

c ss

What

quantity must be destroyed that

orbit ?

D's

may

be doubled,

and

what Let

the eccentricity of her

of
"

:/ (new
v
AJ ^V

force) ::

a 2

F P V, and v is given,
.

...p:l;

^:2c:: a a
..

'- a - c
:

c ::
c,

^^
a
:

c ;:

2a-c

n a

2 a
c

Also

T in the circle T in the ellipse

:

cf

c*

:: ,\

(g_n)*
*

n*
n
/.

1:4:

(2

n)

=s

4 (2

n)

whence

n.

BOOK L]
Ind the

NE WTON^S
excentricity

PBINCIPIA.

ia*

=
186.

c c

__ C

""

(2 c

n n
orbit

c) __ c (n

^ 2~n1}

What
?

quantity must be destroyed that

may become a

parabola

.-. .*.

4c, 4 c : 2 c 2 : 1, the force must be destroyed.

:

L=

: :

187.
L.

F
S B

YTi>

a
9

*^

*5

projected at given
9

D, v

v in the

circle,

with

Since v

= 4>5 j/ind axis major excentricity, a^d T. = v in the circle, .. the body projected from B and ^ S B Y= 45
is
;

.-.

z-

C, or

.-.

C = S

B. cos. 45

C = 45, S B

2*

But
r* = D =
.*.

axis

axis major

and excentricity are found.

Art. 159.

And

T may be found from

Y

This

188. Prove that the angular v round is called Seth Ward's Hypothesis*
ellipse.

that round

S P

P.

In the
..

in as

Let P m, p n, be perpendicular to S Increment of S P = Decrement of n p, are equal, .-. triangles P m p, P

p, H P, HP = Pn

A P m = p n,
Angular v of S

and angular v

^^
:

189. Similarly in the hyperbola.

angular v of

PV

8 S

: :

.. :

-^ CDt
-g-p-

arn

2SP

AC AC
AC.

::

HP

[SlcfcOlJ.

Compared tiw* of falling to the center of the

The
times are as the areas.

tog**it*miapiral

area

t!A? f

(t

= A C SP),

ford, area

a Q T* SP
-

Also

tan. z.

YPT=

tan.

being constant)

2
'

-y.-.

a.

g
(for

area

= 2^e.. if

oc f

when

0,

area

0, .%

Cor.

0)

P, p, be points given,
:

T from P to center
191. Compare v in

from p to center
spiral

SP

f
:

S p2

a logarithmic

mth

that in a

circle^

e. d.

(140)
.-.

if

be given,
circle
:

V
:

..

v in spiral

v in the

V PV
a
a

in spiral

V
a
a
g

2 S

1.

192.
rr,

T 1D
.

Compare T*in a whole area t

.

in logarithmic spiral with that

circle, e. d.
8

spiral

~
__

area in 1"

4.V.SY
2
*
2

=
2 *
8

2v.j.sin.

whole area

2 v

.T.'T'::^

2 v.

^-^-s g. sin.

;^^;;
v
:

,;

2sm.a

:2ir:

a: 4
:

^r. sin. a.

tan.a: 4<r. sin.a:

l:4^rcos,

a.

lion,

192. In the Ellipse compare the timefrom the mean distance to the Afhewith the timefrom the mean distance to the Perihelion. Also given the

Excentricity, tojind the difference of the times,

and

conversely.

A D V is

described on
:

V.

T of passing through
:: ::

SBV:SB A

Aphelion

through Perihelion

SDV: SD A
C

Let

Q =
.-.

quadrant
.

t t

V, *

. :

a.ae
:

whence
193.
distance

(T+ t =) P: T t: 2Q:a. ae _ T _ _ p a ae A -g-jj if T T t be or, given, a e may be found.

. .

t,

If the perihelion distance of a comet

in

a parabola

64,
's

'$

mean

100, compare

its

with velocity at the extremity qf"L

velocity

at

mean
Since

distance.

moves in an ellipse, v at the mean distance = that and v in the parabola at the extremity of L V2 1 v in the circle rad. 2 S A
:

in the circle

v in the circle rad. 2

:

A AC:: VHTC V
:

v in the circle rad.

v in the parabola at
:

L
the ellipse at

in

B L

\/"8

""

A"C
2

V~S~A7
8

A ~~

10

194.
the

What

same

<"

is the difference between of a parabola and ellipse, having 800? Compare distance ss 1, and axis major of the ettipse

the v at the extremity

ofL
as

and

<

ft

distances*

In the parabola

ss 4.

150

L
v in the parabola
at

L'

U V*

150/

"" L\- JL 150*

A
:

v in the
:

circle rad.

v in the circle rad. S

:

v in the ellipse

e. d.

VTC:
V^l50:

VHP
^""299.

VTC: V 2AC
A
:

SA
:

.*.

v in the parabola
9
.

at

in the ellipse e. d.

VlOO

Similarly compare v

at the extremity of Lat,

R.

195. Suppose a body to oscillate in a whole cycloidal arc, compare the tension

of the

string at the lowest point with

the weight of the body.

The

tension of the

string arises

from two causes, the weight of the body, and the centrifugal force. At

V we may consider the body

in the circular arc rad,
centrifugal

D V,

revolving .. the

the velocity at

= centripetal force. Now V =: that down C V by the force of grav. = that with which the body revolves in
2CV.
/,
.*.

the circle rad.

grav.

centrifugal force

1,
1

tension

grav.
oscillate

2:

196.

Suppose

the

body to

B, compare the through the quadrant tension at B with the weight.

AtBthestring will be in the direction of gravity; .*. the whole weight will stretch
the string; /.the tension wills: centrifugal
force
force

+ weight Now the centrifugal = centripetal force with which the

in the circle e. d.
T>
,'
''

body would revolve

.',,,,';
;

And T

to the circle s=

V 2g.

F.

5-

BOOK

1-3

.'.Fsa
also

in this case,

V
-

at
1

B from grav. = V

2g

B, grav.

1.

erav

2j^
:

gincc v

=
A

v'.
.-.

tension

grav.

1.

197.

body vibrates in

a circular

arc

from
it

the center

through what arc must

vibrate so that at the lowest point the

tension

of the string = 2 v from grav. = v d

X
.

weight?

N
v'
.

V,
of

(if

be the point required)

lution in the
circle

revo.

=
:

v d

CV
-^
:

.-.

centrifugal force

grav.

v7

^
:

VNV
Y -

.-.

centrifugal force

+ grav. = tension)
(

'J
:

grav.

^J
2
:

+ V N V V NV
:

by

supposition.

+ VlTV

z=

N V = CV
is a hollow vessel inform an inverted paraboloid down which of a body descends, the pressure at lowest

198. There

n . weight^ Jindfrom what point point it must descend.

point P, the body is in the same situation as if suspended from G,

At any

P G being normal,
circle

and revolving
P.
.: at

in the

whose

rad,

Now P G
A,

s=

S P,

P G =

Ml
lA'JS*

Also v

at

with which the body revolves ss

.. centrifugal force

2 a

AS

and grav.

as

.-, if

height fallen from.

.

But the whole pressure

or

arises

from grav.

+ centrifugal fo rce, and = n

:

grav.

.. centrifugal force

grav,

grav.

''

AS
h

11
:
:

1}

.-.

= if^n .AS.

Compare the time (T') in wAecA a fody de~ scribes 90 gf anomaly in a parabola with T in flte circle rad. = S A.
199.

Time through
**

AL
""

area

a in 1"
f

_ x

IAS.SL " 4AS 3a a

:

AS*
a' in

T in the circle rad. S A 1 T= AS "a

.-.

whole

circle

1"

np/

rr\

**

and

a:a

::VL:V2AS::V4AS:V2AS::V2:l
4 3

':T::
Compare
parabola A
the time
1,

2*

2
in

<r.

of describing 90

Me parabola A L
:
:
:

in

(fig.
:

same.)

T in the circle rad. S A 4 8 V T in the circle S A T in the circle rad. < R T through A V 2 v 4 SA* .. t through S A through A
t
7
:

2. *

\f

9!

t'

<r

A *.

See Sect.

VL

Prop. XXlX.

BOOK!,]
200.

N&WTQIT8 'WMKCIPIA.
the diameter
:

Draw

Pp
oc

*i#A *Aa*

through

PVp

time

through p

AP

1,

force

Describe the circle on

V.

Let

=
t

time through

"~~

P V p, and T the periodic time _ PVpS ~~ QVqS circle +, A

~~"

QqS

ellipse

circle

circle

circle

""

+
.

S K. 2
2
circle

CQ
.

+
=
n*

a e

sin.

a
.

(u

excentric anomaly)

+
n

sin.

..

sin.

sin.

n n

+
:

=-

c s e 2

>

u, &c.
revolves round the Earth in 30 days> the mean distance Earth ^s 240,000 miles. Jupiter's Moon revolves in % day, tJie from mean distance from Jupiter = 240,000 miles. Compare the absolute Jorce* of Jupiter and the 2$arth.

201. 7%^
the

Moon

VOL.

I.

I-

A COMMENTARY ON
T
.%

[SECT, HI.

A*
^If
,

A being the major axis of the ellipse,

ft

A be given,

<*
-,

~ % ..jjhMof Jopiter '_ Mass of the Earth

,

T*

of the Earth's of Jupiter's

T"
is

Moon Moon

30^

14,400
1

J_
42

202.
at its

A Comet at perihelion
distance.

400

times as near to the

Sun as the Earth

mean

Compare

their velocities at those points.

8 Velocity of the Comet 2 Velocity of the Earth

_ F AS~ - F'. 42BS _ j? F = 800

.

'

4 2. 400

_ ~ JF

"

Jl 20 200

1
.

'200
.

V _ ' 2 .^0 - L
'"

^**

...

......

....

.1

^^^

--

nearly iictiiy

of

208. Compare the Masses of the Sun and Earth, having the mean distance the Sun the Earth 400, the distance of the Moon from lheEart/t 9

from
P*.

and Earth's

13. the

Modn's

Pd

Mass of the Sun

sraraa
204
Jff

=
s

400 3

-p- IP =

~w~ =
64,000,000
fs

nA nAA M0 j 400'000 nearly*

.

the force

wAer^
1

x
5

Me
a

distance

from
a*;

the center

Offorce,

it will

be centripetal whilst

>

3, or
1

>
a
9

fAer* wtf/ fe

a print of contrary feature in

token
it* direction*
ac

the orbit

when

^=^
and

or

=s a,

and

<

a, /Ae jfcrce

*#/ J^

repulsive^

the curve change

BOOK IJ

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

ittt

B theforce becomes
the

205. The body revolving in an ellipse, at n times as great. Find

new orbit* and under 'what values qfn it mil be a parabola, ellipse^ or hyperbola. S being one focus since the force
<x
-

distance
in

,, *

the

other focus

must

lie

S B,

H H
n

produced
B,

both

ways,
angles

since

\
A C in
the original ellipse, or

make equal

with

the tangent.

V*

= ^
in the

F. P

== -&

F. 2

F PV
.

new

orbit.

.-.

2AC = n.PV =
(S

n.

2SB.hB
S
.

B +
S

h B'
.

.-.

.-.

AC +hB.AC = 2nAC.hB, AC h B =
8

B+

h B)

AC =

2 n

h B,

If
is

2 n

=
n

0,

or
,

J, the orbit is a
is

parabola

if

> 4, the orbit

BSh

on

ellipse; if

<

the orbit

Let S
.*.

in the original ellipse

S B

whence the

or right angle, and S direction of a a', the new major axis ; also
zzz

H=

an hyperbola. be given = B C,

AC = B
us

h cot
.

a a/

&

cu,nu and o c m on I? jo v
AJ
-Ix
p^r

sh
g

^Bh
B
h,

SB*
g

If the orbit in the parabola a a'

be

parallel to

and

L R =
.

2 S B,

since

right angle.
its

206.
bit to

Suppose a Comet in
impel the

orcir-

Earth from a
the

cular orbit in a direction

making
Earth's

an acute angle with

distance

from
:

the

Sun^

the velo-

impact being to the veloFind V"sT : V"2. city before :

city after

the alteration in the length of the

year.

Since
ellipse.

< ratio

than

1,

.-,

the

new

orbit will

be an

A COMMENTARY ON
.V ~
v

[SECT. IIL

8 a

~ PV ~ 28 P. HP 2 s P AC.2SP
2 S

""

HP
Ac
2

_
/.
,.

AC SP AC

3 A 2 S

C = 4AC P = Aq
ellipse .icircle

P
8 3

Tin
.'

T'm
*/-;
-

2$ S

P**
5

*s-

g pf
the

nearly. J

207.

^ body

revolves in an. ellipse, at

th

any given point the force becomes

diminished by

part.

Find

new
B'

orbit.

.-.

in this case

PV

-^r

>

P V in
But

J
ellipse

""
1

Iri

_n
""

pvinneworbit

n
v
8

in conic section
circle e. d.

.% if

If

- -- .

vHn

_ "

p v 2 S~P

_ n "

1*

PV

2~ST> n

at

HP
1
^

^-,

HP =

AC, thenew orbit isaCircle

C,

Parabola
Ellipse

< 2 A C, > 2 A C,
then

Hyperbola J
ellipse,

_,-.

s- 2, or

= 2,

when

the orbit
is

is

a circle or an

P
;

must be between

B; when

the orbit

a parabola,

must be

at

when

the orbit

is

an hyperbola,

P must be between

B, A.

BbOK -1.3
208.

NEWTON'S PEINCIPIA.

If the curvature and inclination of the tangent to the radius be the same at two points in the curve, the forces at those points are inversely as the
radii 9.

F=

la

8a

8 a*

This applies to the extremities of major axis in an ellipse (or circle) in the center of force in the axis.
209. Required the angular velocity ofg. By 46, 6 being the traced-angle,
tut

= d*
-=

But by Prop.

I.

or Art. 124,

dt:

T::dA:A

2A
or

P X V
(a)

210. Required the Centrifugal Force in any orbit. (<p) the revolving body is at any distance from the center of force, the Centrifugal Force, which arises from its inertia or to persevere tendency

When

in the direction of the tangent (most authors erroneously attribute this force

to the angular motion, see Vince's Flux. p. 283)

is clearly the same as it would be were the body with the same Centripetal Force revolving in a circle whose radius is Moreover, since in a circle the body is always the same distance from the center, the Centrifugal Force must always at
.

be equal to the Centripetal Force.

But
and

in the circle

QT
.*,

= Q R X 2SP

by 137 we have

or

P*

V
g

P and V

belonging to the orbit.

L3

A
Hence
then

pt
Hence
also

v
.

and by 209,
P

'

x -

And

139,

21 L
tangent.

Required the angular

velocity

of the perpendicular upon the

If two consecutive points in the curve be taken tangents, perpendiculars and the circle of curvature be described as in Art 74, it will readily ap;

pear that the incremental angle (d ^) described by by the radius of curvature. It will also be seen that

that described

But from

similar triangles

PV
.%

R
^

j.
:

&

PV

PV

being the chord of curvature.

Hence
d

=
or

p^
V

(d)

_8PX s

x P V

(e)

or
*""

P
Ex.
1.

^1
ss

In the

circle

PV

g;

whence

PxV
E?.
2.

In the other Conic Sections, we have

BOOK,

I.}

NE WTON'S
9lp=slb +
s

BBINCIPIA.

165

<

which gives by taking the logarithms

lf

(2 a If

{)

and (17

a.)

2 d ~~ p

JT
whence

= dj *
,

dg 2^~+

__ ""
f g

2 a d (2 a

g f)

aP X V
212. Required the Paracentric Velocity in an orbit. It readily appears from the fig. that

d
.*.

PI \^

*.

If

u denote the
u
/

velocity towards the center,

we have

(=

P\ D =

ds s at x

X V
p

^g'-P'
e

(125)

or

Also since

213. Tojind where in an orbit the Paracentric Velocity is a maximum. From the equation to the curve substitute in the expression (212. g) for p% then put d u 0, and the resulting value of will give the posi-

tion required. Thus in the ellipse

and

u*

sr

^ , p V X
T 2

/2 a
(

max.

3a

_2._JL
L4

Hi

A COMMENTARY ON

[Sscr, lit

and

b
or the point required
is

Latus-Rectum 2

the extremity of the Latus- Rectum.

OTHERWISE.
Generally, It neither increases nor decreases

when

s= p.

Hence

when u

max.

(see 210)

IP -ii ~
8

'

P-

which

is

also got

from putting

d (u 4)
in the expression 212. h,

214. Tojind where the angular velocity increases fastest.

By Art 209 and

125,

()
But from
similar triangles

(j

QT PT
:

pV
required.

= __^ _2_ = m ax ^ p

V
6

(b)

either of which equations,

by aid of that

to the curve, will give the point

Ex* In the

ellipse

2 a
*.

max.

=m

and

t s Ogivps

B60K

I. J

NlWTON'fi WMNCIPIA.

which gives

;&
>

+~ V o

(49 a

48

b)

for the

maxima or minima

positions.

If the equation
*

1 -f

e cos.

and the

first

form be used, we have

a e

and
sn.
9

~ = max.

m.
finally

Whence and from d

m=

0,

we get

21 5.

ToJlnd

"where the

Linear Velocity increases fastest.

Here

dv = max Tt
But (125)
v "

'

PX V
d
f
.

and

V^_ p
'

Tt

=
=
g

p')

^ riTm

F x
p'df

or

=r

max.

m.

and

m=

will give the point required.

tpor

A
in the ellipse

wmumjAm ON

Thus

=3

max.
5

"'"

djn df

~"

_
t

IQab'g
(2 a

f)V
i
i

6b*g "~ _

which gives
s
i

&

g
positions.
is

whence the maxima and minima

In the case of the parabola, a becomes

indefinitely great

and the equation

4 a*
.-.

- a b*
e
V> 8

=
X

P=o

=T^X ID

Latus-Rectum.

other problems respecting velocities, &c. might be here added. instead of dwelling longer upon such matters, which are rather curious than useful, and at best only calculated to exercise the student, I shall refer him to my Solutions of the Cambridge Problems, where- he

Many

But

will find a great

number of them

as well as of problems of great

and

essential importance.

SECTION

IV.

816. PROP, XVIII.

intersecting in

If the

two points P, p, be given, then

circles

whose

centers are P, p, and radii

ABqpSP, ABqpSp,

might be described

H.

If the positions of two tangents

S T, S
5

T R, t r be given, then perpendiculars must be let fall and doubled, and from V and v with radii each B, circles must be described intersecting in H.
t

Having thus
the ellipse

in either of the three cases determined the other focus

H,

may be

length, fixing its stretch the string.

A in described mechanically, by taking a thread ends in S and H, and running the pen all round so as to

BO?OK LI

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

This proposition may thus be demonstrated analytically* 1st. Let the focus S, the tangent T R, and the point P be given in in length, viz. 2 a. Then the perposition ; and the axis-major be given
( p), and the radius-vector pendicular S But the equation to Conic Sections is

T =

P =
(

?)

are known.

b*|

a?*
whence b
is

found.
c)

Also the distance (2

finding
g

between the

foci is

and therefore c

got by making p

=f

thence

a ip f .

; and the two foci being known, and the axismajor, the curve is easily constructed. 217. 2d. Let two tangents R, t r, and the focus S be given in position.

This gives the other focus

Then making S
are

the origin of coordinates, the equations to the trajectory

, '

8
'
'

(I-

.)

a being the inclination of the axis-major to that of the abscissae. Now calling the angles which the tangents make with the axis of the abscissa?

T and

T',

by 31 we have

tan.T
But

= iZ. d x
=
"~~

x
whence

g cos. 0,

sin.

d d

^ g sin.
g

+
6

g
g

d
d
1

cos. 6

cos. 6

& sin. 6

tan.

...... w
<

tan.

Also from equations

(a)

we

easily get

..... .(!-.) ==il .........

&
)

E*

--M'-->
V

l>

(2)

sin. (<

a e

(2 a j

g*

b*)

and

It*
id putting

A COMMENTARY ON
R=s V
w$ have
U b*
o'

(2
/A

aj
x )

b 8)
tan,
.

...
tan.
, .

(5)
,-.

R
ag

tan. (6 v
g,

+ tan.
,

tan.

&

(6)

which gives

tan. 4 in

terms of a, b,

and

tan. a.

Hence by successive substitutions by means of these several expressions tan. T may be found in terms of a, b, p, tan. a, all of which are given except b and tan. a. Let, therefore,
tan.

T=

(a, p, b, tan. a).

In

like

manner we

also get
tan.

b, tan. a) to the tangent whose inclination to the axis is T. p' belonging From these two equations b and tan. a may be found, which give
(a,

T=f

p,

= Va
218. 3d.

and

a,

of the axis-major; which being

structed.

or the distance between the foci and the position known the Trajectory is easily conin the curve

Let the focus and two points

be given in posi0,

tion,

&c.
the corresponding radii

Then
equations

&

g'9

and traced angles

e
(0
2 )
)

^,

in

the

_
* *

""
1

a(l

e cos.

e cos. (f

a)

are given

and by the formula

cos. (0

a) == cos. 6

cos.

sin. 6 sin.

2 a e 'and a *or the distance between the major may hence be found.
This
is

foci

and the position of the axis-

may

still

than Newton's geometrical method. be useful to students to know both of them.

less concise

much

But

it

219. PROP.
separately.

XIX.

To make

this clearer

we

will state the three cases

be given. Let a point P and tangent the figure in the text being taken, we double the perpendicular S T, describe the circle F G, and draw F I touching the circle in F and But this last step is thus effected. Join P, suppassing through V. it tp cut the circle in (not shown in the fig.), and take pose
Case
1.

TE

Then

VF

ss

x (V P

+ P M).

The

rest is easy.

BOOK!.]
Case. 2. Let two

NEWTON'S PBIWCIPIA. tangents be given. Then V and v being

the directrix.

determined

the locus of them

is

Whence

the rest

is plain.

Case
circles

3.

Let two points (P, p) be given. Describe from P and p the G, f g intersecting in the focus S. Then draw F f a common

tangent to them, &c.

But
circle

this is

FG

7
,

S p, a done by describing from P with a radius = S P from p the tangent p F' as in the other case (or by drawing

in F') by as to intersect F' by describing a semicircle upon P p, so F f parallel to F7 p. producing P F' to F, and drawing See my Solutions of the Cambridge Problems, vol. I. Geometry, where

treated. tangencies are fully

A ^tJOMMfiNTAftt ON
solution

[fiw* IV.

may easily be deduced analytically from the general above ; or in the same way may more simply be done at otice,
,

from the equations

p*
220. PROP.
_ar" in the 5th
*

ft

t
1.

cos

a)

XX.

Case
is

Given in

species}

means the same

as

" simi-

LEMMA.
given in species, &c.]

Since the Trajectory the ratio of the axes 2

From

p,

a,

2 b
2

is

given in similar

ellipses,

36 it seems that and thence the

same

is

easily

shown of hyperbolas.
c

Hence, since

a2

b2
foci,
if

2 c being the distance between the

have

m, a given

quantity,

we

which is also given. With the centers B, C, &c.]

The common
Cases
2. 3.

tangent

LK

is

drawn as

in 219.

See Jesuits' Notes.

OTHERWISE.
221. Case

J.

Let the two points B,

and the focus S be given*

Then
*
,

e cos.

(6

a) {

a )-^ e cos - (^ * being the inclination of the axis of abscissae to the axis major. But since the trajectory is given in species
*

a(3
1

e*)

(1)

a
;

is

known,
given.

and in equations (1), & & ^, ?, are Hence, therefore, by the form
cos. (d

a)

cos. t? cos.

sin.

sin. *,

a and a, or the *emi-axis~major and its position are found ; a e is known; also c

which gives the construction.

BOOK L]
Case
2.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPI^,
By
proceeding as in 220, in which expressions a e, and a may be found.

lift
(e) will

be

known, both a, Case 3. In this case

will give a.

Hence

=
1

a e

is

known and

a(l

e)
(0
)

e cos.

gives a.

Case

4.

one whose a7 and

Since the trajectory to be described must be similar to a given c' are given,

is

known
Also
g

(217).

and

belonging to the given point are known.

Hence we have
1

e cos.

(Q

a)

And by means
equation involving will give a and a.

of the condition of touching the given line, another a, a may be found (see 217) which with the former

222.

SCHOLIUM TO PROP. XXI.

to construct
it.
t*r

Given three points in the Trajectory and the focus

ANOTHER SOLUTION.
Let. the coordinates to the three points be

g,

0;

g',

tf\

g", 0",

and a the

angle between the major axis and that of the abscissae.

Then

_
1

+ a.(l
4-

e)
(0

e cos.

a)

-.
1

a(l

e*)
a)

+ +
e
.

e cos. (/
e cos.

(A)

1
1 (

(V

a) ^

and eliminating
g
g

+a
'

*)

we get
(ff
f

g ss e

cos.

=:e.cos.

(tf

a)

ecos.

(0 *

*)

%Htt Which eliminating

<

Hence by the formula cos, (P Q) ss cos.

_ __ _
e, there results

r-Y
)

"~

*-y
a)
;

COS. (^

COS. (9

a)

(" cos. (*"

COS. (0

a)

cos.

Q+

sin.

sin.

sn.

which gives

a.

Hence by means of equations (B)

tution in eq. (A), a
is

e will be

known

and then by

substi-

known.

SECTION
The

V.

preliminary LEMMAS of this section are rendered sufficiently intelligible by the Commentary of the Jesuits P.P. Le Seur, &c.

Moreover we

shall

be brief in our comments upon

it

(as

we have been

upon the former section) for the reason that at Cambridge, the focus of mathematical learning, the students scarcely even touch upon these subjects, but pass at once

from the third

to the sixth section.

223.

PROP. XXII.

This proposition

may be
viz.

analytically resolved as follows

is

The

general equation to a conic section

that of two dimensions (see

Wood's Alg. Part IV.)

in which
if

A, B, C, D,

E were
;

Now

since five points are given

,/$;
1

given the curve could be constructed. by the question, let their coordinates be
,

,/3;
1

>#5
3
8

These being

substituted for x, y, in the above equation will give us five

simple equations, involving the five unknown quantities A, B, C, D, E, which may therefore be easily determined ; and then the trajectory is
easily

constructed

by the ordinary

rules (see

Wood's

Alg. Lacroix's Diff.

Cal. &c.)

224.

Pnop. XXIII.
is

The

analytical determination of the trajectory

from these conditions

also easy.

,,0j
1

,/3; a,/3; a,
I

33

BOOK t/J

HEWTbN*S

IPftlNCIPlA.
let

fS%

be the coordinates of the given point Also tion be determinable from the equation
in which

the tangent given in posi-

m, n afe given.
first

Then

substituting the above given values of the coordinates in

y*

+ Axy + Bx* +

Cy+Dx+E =

(b)

we

get four simple equations involving the five unknown quantities A, B, C, D, E ; and secondly since the inclination of the curve to the axis of abscissae is the same at the point of contact as that of the tangent,

dy_dy' ""
cTx

9 x'

**

= X' X4-D "" Ay+ 2Bx + D _

X

2y+Ax+C

_m
}

and substituting

in this

and the general equation = mx + n y'

n)
n)

for

its

value

we have

A(mx +

2(mx+
and
from the former of which

+2Bx + D __ m ~ + Ax+ C

_
and from the
latter

A + mC+ D

+ V {(n A + m C + D + 2 m n)

(n

+nC+
we
s

E) (m

+ m A + B)}
8

and equating these and reducing the

result

get

4m
and

= (nA + mC + D+ 2mn)
reduces to

(n

+nC + E)(m +m A+B)

8mn*A n m* =
8

this again

+ 2mCD nBC + 3nm C + 4mnD

8

mAE BE+ nB E
tti

which is a

fifth

equation involving A, B, C,

From

these, five equations let the five

D, E. unknown quantities be determined,

and then construct

eq. (b)

by the customary methods.

*

178
225. PROP.

.^.COMMENTARY ON
XXIV.
OTHERWISE.
Let

[SECT, V.

*, 0; a', 0'; a", 0" be the coordinates of the three given points, and

y'

m x' -f

ii

y" = m'x" + n' the equations to the two tangents. Then substituting in the general three equation for Conic Sections these pairs of values of x, y, we
simple equations involving the from the conditions of contact,

unknown
viz.

coefficients

A,

13,

get C, D, E; and

y
X'

'

= y" = X"

also have two other equations (see 224) involving the same five unknowns, whence by the usual methods they may be found, and then the
trajectory constructed.

We

226. PROP.

XXV.
as in the last

two articles, we shall get two simple equations Proceeding and three quadratics involving A, B, C, D, E, from whence to find them and construct the trajectory.
227. PROP.

XXVI.
we
shall
to

have one simple equation and four quadratics find A, B, C, D, E, with, and wherewith to describe the orbit.
In
this case

228. PROP.

XXVII.
of the
five

In the
construct.

last case

tangents

we

shall

have

five quadratics,

wherewith to determine the

coefficients of the general equation,

and

to

BooKl.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

179

SECTION
229. PROP.

VI.

XXX.
OTHERWISE.

After a body has moved t"

its

fiom

the vertex

of the parabola^

let it

be

c-

position. quired tojind be the area described in that time by the radius vector, and P, V If the perpendicular or the tangent and velocity at any point, 124 and

by

125 we have

A =
and by 157,

c
-

P V

~x

"
L
being the
latus-

rectum.

But

A
where
r

S P

= A S, &c.

= A O P S O Pzz I A O x = fxy-A.(x_r)y
=z

Ox

(see 21)
2

and x

y = 12 r t V g ^ r by the resolution of which y may be found and therefore the position

3
.-.

12

of]'.

OTHERWISE.
230.

By 46 and

125,
i

__ ""

__ ~~

pd
C

s
'

Also
d
s

=c

?d

180

A COMMENTARY ON
...d
t

[SECT. VI.

which

is an expression of general use in determining the time in terms of the radius vector, &c. In the parabola

P
whence

dt
and integrating by parts
t

= Vr
c

~ X

d
r)

*/(<>

r V_

k_ r

2
)

V
2

r -,

/d? V
r)

(g

r)

,f\
j-

-3 (g

But
(229)
"

t=

^7p

X( ' +2r)( '"~ r)

*
*

'

(b)

which gives

whence we have

and the point required.

By

the last Article the value of

is

M
X

in

Newton's Assumption

is

easily

obtained, and

M
231. COR.
1.

""

^
Tr

""
4~

V/K**

2~r*

This readily appears upon drawing S

its

the semi-latus-

rectum and by drawing through

point of bisection a perpendicular to

GH.
232. COR.
the Jesuits,
2.

This proportion can

easily

be obtained as

in the note of

by
;

at the vertex

taking the ratio of the increments of or the absolute value of the velocity of

GH

and of the curve

is

directly got

thus.
"~

d.GH ~ 3dM dt dt
curve
is

3
~~

,'cfi

4^

2r*

Also the velocity

in the

given by (see 140)

BOOK
and

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
g

181

at the vertex

r,

.-.

v;

8.

233. COR. 3.
the point

Either

P, or S

H and therefore

being bisected, &c.

will

determine

234.

LEMMA XXVIII.

That an oval cannot be squared

See Vince's Fluxions,

is

differently

demonstrated by several authors.

p.

356;

also

Waring. 235. PROP,

XXXI.

This

is

rendered somewhat easier by the follow:

ing arrangement of the proportions is taken so that If

OG OA
:

OA O
:

or

nr = A 00 OS
and

GK
or

2*

OG

T
t

GK =
Then, &c. &c.

2crX OA" X (J3

.......

(a)

For

ASP = ASQ
=
=

x-

X(OQA

OQS)
SR)

(Qx AQ OQ X
sin. A Q OA O G
:

But

S
:

11
:

.-.

c b

w - AQsin.AQ K_ J^T-

p-^

O OA AQ FG
:
:

and

AQ

SR =

x(FG
M3

sin.AQ)

182

A COMMENTARY ON = ~x(FG-sin.AQ)
...

SECT. VI.

S P

~
is

X (F

sin.

Q)

(see the Jesuits' note q.)

t

which

identical with (a), since

_A ~
<TT

S P

Ellipse

ASP
a b

OTHERWISE.
236.

By 230 we have
rl t

But

in the ellipse

P^
'""

*__
t

f\

__

dt

=
c

(2af

b2

and putting
a
it

becomes

dt=
2 a e being
tlie

b
c

'

(a
(a

+ U)dU
2

u 2)

excentricity.

Hence
t =:

b a p

du

b r

udu

a e

Let

t r= 0,

when u

ae
__

then
if

P ~ ^
and we get
t

b a
"c

-r-

+ bin.

a e/

BOOK L]
which
scissa,
is

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
known form of the
equation to the Trochoid,
construction
t

183
being the ab-

the

&c.

Hence by approximation or by

u and

therefore

may be

found, which will give the place of the body in the trajectory. It need hardly be observed that (157)

OTHERWISE.

237.

but in the ellipse

a
*

___
1 -+-

__
t)

c cos.

,
i

~~"~

~~

b4 a* c

^
(

aa
-

-f-

e cos.

0)

and

(see Hirsch's Tables, or art 110)

x
(

V(l

e 2)

cos -i
' *

*l

+ ecos.tf

-f e cos. <?j

which

also indicates the Trochoid.

To

simplify this expression let

.

cos.then

1 -

-f-

~ cos.

6
A

-f e cos.

=
=

e
1

-f-j-

cos.

<

cos. u

e cos.

and
e
cos.
-

cos. u
1

e cos. u

Hence
sin. 6 =. 1
-

e cos.

and
e sin.
1

__ ""

e sin.

u
e^)

-f-

e 03sT0
.\ t

v^Jl

{u

e sin. u\

But (157)

184

A COMMENTARY ON
3

[SECT. VI.

/. t

a2 ~-^=^

(u

e sin. u)

g/x

Let

-4L=1. n V
g
(*

Then
n
Again,
t

=1

e sin. u
u,

1 )

may

be better expressed in terms of

~~

thus
"~

2
.-.

+
,

"~"

cos.

T^~e
tan. --

X
f+~cos7ii

alh
1

^2
(%}

tan.

~ =

1
-,

+
"

Moreover

g is

expressible in terms of u, for

5 $

i^ e cos. = +
.

^ (

c cos. u) '

.....
,

' (3) ^

In these three equations, n

is

called

the

Mean Anomaly

u the

Excentric Anomaly, (because it == the angle at the center of the ellipse subtended by the ordinate of the circle described upon the axis-majot corresponding to that of the ellipse) ; and 6 the True Anomaly.
238.

SCHOLIUM.
is

Newton
The area

APSa AQ
A P
S P

" the says that approximation

founded on the Theorem that

let fall

SF,

SF being the perpendicular

from

S upon

Q."] First we have

11

= AQ
=
S

11

x
x

~
~

11

QR

But

Q = AOQ = } A Q
=
=

Q
J

AO

S F X
F).

AOx
X (A X

OQ

(AQ
S F)

.-.

S P

^
-~

(a u'

a e sin. u')

.....

(1)

u'

being the

^ A

Q.

BOOK

I.]
is

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
suggested
this easy

185
1.

(Hence

determination of eq.
i

237.

For
t

_
ir

X
^

-01

ASp _2ra* T
~
~
:

Ellipse

-^

ft

aesm.uj -- <rab (an

*-

V
n'

__ X
gf*

(u

e sin. u).
u, let

Again, supposing

u'

an approximate value of

+ |
s\ SO
^, X
-

Then, by the Theorem, we have 2 A 8 p A & L = A q 1 b

-- -

sin.

A A

= AQ + Q
to radius
1.

+
A

O x

sin.

(A

Q+Q

q)

But
with

AQ

being an approximate value of O, and we have

sin.
(

q,

is

small compared

A Q + Q q) =
2- A 8 P
(

A Q cos. Q q + cos. A Q sin. Q q = sin. A Q + Q q cos. A Q nearly.

sin.
1

.-.

Qq =

AQ+

O sin. A Q)

-p^- ----

nearly

which points out the use of these assumptions 2 t XT/ = 2 A S p T , ir =: N X area ol the Ellipse rp

S
S
-

F=
:uul

O O
.

~^
sin.

D'
L' L

= -

AQ =

B'

sin.

A Q

so

Then

in

which

it is

easily seen B',

N D
x ,

L'

arc identical with

B, N, D, L.

Hence

186

A COMMENTARY ON
arc

[SECT. VII.

Having augmented or diminished the assumed

peat the process, and thus find successively

AQ

by E, then

re-

G, I, &c. For a developement of the other mode of approximation in this Scholium, see the Jesuits' note 386. Also see Woodhouse's Plane Astro-

nomy

for other methods.

SECTION

VII.

239. PROP.

XXXII. F

<*

1
.

-o " f distance

Determine the spaces which a L

body descending from

in a straight line towards the center of force describes in a given time. If the body did not fall in a straight line to the center, it would describe some conic section round the center of force, as focus
ellipse
"1

> parabola J-

if

the velocity at any point were to

{ellipse ) hyperbol yperbola

the velocity in the circle, the same distance and force, in

2
(I)

1.)

Let the Conic Section be an Ellipse A II P B. Describe a circle on Major Axis A B, draw

C PD
cular to

through the place of the body perpendi-

B.

The
area

time of describing

AP

ex

area

S P a

S D, whatever may be the

excentricity

of the

ellipse.

Let the Axis Minor of the ellipse be diminished sine Kmite and the ellipse becomes a straight
line ultimately,
.

A B being constant, and since = (Minor Axis) = 0, and A S finite A S SB /. S B = 0, or B ultimately comes to S, and if A D B be taken proportional to time, area A D B. time d A C C is found by the ordinate D C. (T A C a area ADBaADO + ODBaarcAD + CD take + sin. proportional to time, and D and C are determined.)
2
.

ex

.'.

.*.

&

BOOK L]
Hence

NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA.
* *
1
1

187

he time down

AO

4- 1

TTcTB
N. B.

_^=^=_
qf
ft

-=.
1
I

=
4)
,G

nearly)

The

time in this case

is

the time

from the beginning of the fall, or the time from A. (II) Let the conic section be the hyperbola

B F

P.

Major Axis

Describe a rectangular hyperbola on A B.

or

a area 8 B F P

area

B E

D.

Let the Minor Axis be diminished sine

limite,
line,

and the hyperbola becomes a straight and T a area B D E.

in this case
is

N. The time

the time from

the end of motion or time to S.

Let the conic section be the parabola B

Describe any fixed parabola

P.

T
and

area

Let L. R.

B E D. 8 B F P a area S B E IX of B F P be diminished sine

becomes a
E.
straight line,

limite the parabola

a area

N. The time
Objection
straight line
to

in this case is the

time from

the end of motion, or time to S.

Newton's
the

method.

If

be considered as an evanescent

conic section,

when
it

body comes
it

to perii.

helion
point,

i.

e. to

the center
will

ought to return to aphelion

e.

to the original

whereas

go through the center

to the distance

below the

center

the original point.

240.

We shall find by Prop. XXXIX, that the distance from a center from
A
force, to acquire the velocity such describe an ellipse =. B (finite distance), for the hyperbola a B, for the parabola Case 1. v d v d x, f force distance 1,
fall,
it

which the body must

as to
rr

acted on by a

blc

make

x2
/a
,

.(

-------

x\
)

ax

if

a be the original point

dt

dx
v

188

A COMMENTARY ON
a

[SECT. VII.

dx
.

2/*'

Vax

x'

C when
?

0,

a,

if

the circle be described on

BA =
v ,

a,

~
'V

/"^'4(CD.O_B + AD.O_l)v V'T^Ti. 2 u'V 2 >~

Sg//,
I

Case

2.

2g

//<

if

be an original point.

t '* -

V
d
,

2 gA 6V

xdx

Vax +
,
,

2 '

for

in this case

is

the time to the center, not the time from the original
^ t

point,
.-.

d x v

or d

=
we

d x
.

v
describe the rectangular

Now

if

with the Major Axis

AB =

a,

hyperbola,

we have

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

189

.,

from

B =

2 g

-.BED,

for they begin or

end together

at

B.

Case

3.

k}

gp
d
,

if

a be

x.

..

-=
(1

V
?

x
==-

__x
(1

benm
x

tune to

^
15,

V
distance
...

lcn

0,

0,

.-.

C =
R.

0.

2 g

/x

Describe a parabola on the line of

a,
i

fall,

vertex B,

any fixed

-___.

2V Vx.x =
in
.

.,

_
t

V2 ___
ag
curvili-

Hence

in general,

Newton Prop. XXXII,

of the figure described.
.
.

V2 = -2_.=..
2
.

near area, a being

T In
,

11.

tlie

f ,. L evanescent conic sections, T

B = li.

2 (Ax. Mi.,.) A

if "

A Xj ^

Min. be

indefinitely small, L.

R.

will

Ax. Min. The chord of curvature at the A P 2 S

mately
finite, for

be indefinitely small with respect to the finite distance from A to B is ulti;

PV =

^^
AB 2

but at

A or

B,

PV =

L,

in-

finitesimal of the second order.

Hence S

is

also ultimately of the second

order, for at B,

B =

L.

AS
*

PROP.

XXXIII.

Force a
-

_Y.?tC
v

(distance)

...

in the circle distance

= r JL^ V SA

in the ellipse

and hyperbola.

190

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VII.
.

V
v

.-..-

VHP .

Maj. Ax. 2

VAC when the conic section becomes a straight r =^=^ lu

.
.

V 2~~
NEWTON
S

SA

line

x
j

METHOD.

V
AD. C
C P
2

V _ ~
2
2

Y _ L ~
2

2'S'P

&

'

J5J>_
Z S~Y~

ST7
3

AO
/Min.

2A

AO
'
'

L _ A ""
2
2 2

O.CP

V
"'

__ ""

A CTCTT A O^CP^.SP A C.C B.SY

2 '

but

CO _ B O BO "" TO'
CO
"*'

B~O

" CB
__

comp.
'

in the ellipse

B~T

div. in the hyperbola,

-

AS: - c T div in the elli P se ^. c p ~ BT ~ B (5 BQ comp. in the hyperbola AC _ C^P ''AOT BQ~ BQ .A C _ AO.CP "" AO AC V - BQ .A C.SP _
.

*'

'

'

'

2
2

'"'

AO.B
,

C.S Y

'

but ultimately

B
.-.

Q =
,
.

S Y, S P

ultimately J

-^
2

= B
-^

C,

in a straight line
2

? v

in the circle

A - = AO

-1-7^,

'"

V -" _
"^

/AC
<V

A O'
proof that

COR.

1.

It

appeared

in the

AC
AO

CT
BT'

BOOK

I.]

.-.

ultimately

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. AC = CT u
. .

191

-^-^

g-^

(This

will
2.

COR.
.-.

be used to prove next Prop.) Let C come to O, then A C =

AO

and

V =
a

v,

the velocity in the circle

the velocity acquired by falling externally

through distance

rad. towards the center of the force

212. Find actual Velocity at C.

v
2

__

at_C_ in the circle distance

..

_-_-.

-1,
.-.

V_

__

B C

= A_C B A'
"~

--g^f--

if

&

the force at distance

V = V

V~~2~ S/J

'L~J^ a x
.

if

B A =

a,

B C =

x.

If

is

given,

space V a -^^^L^V space to be

TT

described -_==. described

In descents from different points,

V V
In descents from

space described

space to be described X initial height different points to different centers,

V
~

space described X absolute force space to be described X initial height

243. Otherwise, v d v
.. v
2

=
,

~
<T
[Jj

d x
a

2 g p. *~^-^
* jl

= =
V
2

2 g ^

-J-

when

is

positive, as in the ellipse

x ~, when a
is

is

negative as in the hyperbola

as in parabola

2 g

/*.

-7 A.

when a

in the circle radius

(when x = 0, v is infinite) x (in the ellipse and hyperbola)

2 a

x. "-- in

the ellipse,

x
"'

192

A COMMENTARY ON
Z_

[SECT. VII.

"*"

x
i

n the hyperbola,

=
=
g
A*
$.

in the circle radius

x
w

x
"77
<w

(in the

parabola)

2 g Z~ X

.*.

^=

in the parabola.

244. In the hyperbola not evanescent

Velocity at the infinite distance __ "~~
velocity at
finite

8~Y

R., but when

S

the hyperbola van-

ishes,

SY = sc jry ~r~p
A
S
C, and b

ultimately
>

Min. Ax. for

an d ultimately 8
C,
.-.

6*
=.

its'

C = A

ultimately
first

SY = Ab =

CB,

/.

ultimately

Y S A
__ ~"~

__ infinitesimal

of the

order order

of the 2d
velocity at

A
Velocity
at

velocity at

a distance

245. PROP.

XXXIV.

C
S C
2

_!.
1

velocity in the circle, distance

the parabola.

For the
ever be

velocity in the parabola at

.

P=
1

velocity in the circle

what-

L R

of the parabola.

246. PROP.

XXXV.

Force

oc
2

'

(distance)

The same
radius

things being assumed, the area swept out by the indefinite

in fig.

D E

area of a circular sector (rad.

"-

of

fig.)

uniformly
falling

described

about the

center

in

the

same

time.

Whilst the

body describes

c indefinitely small, let

K
~
tit

k be the

arc described by the body uniformly revolving in the circle.

Case

].

If

D E S be an ellipse or

rectangular hyperbola,

=
<

Cc _ CT Dd ~ DT

CD
S

_ ~

DT
T
S

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S
'

PRINCIPIA.

193

EfdTSY
(Cor. Prop.

D = C T = AC TS AO
V~K C V A~O
r

XXXIII.)

But
velocity at C v in the circle rad.

v in the circle rad.

C S C

__ ""

v in the circle rad. S

/

K
\

**

S K S C

""

AO

S C
__ ~"

velocity at C \v in the circle rad.

.-.

S K/
XI.

_ _ C c __ / Aj5 Kk V "S"C

AC

CD

Cc.CD-Kk.AC
Kv
JV

r^ V_^

'"

.-.

.*.

the

D"d".~sY AO Kk area S K k
.

.M.

o V^
1

AO' = D d S Y, = the area S D

.

d,

.*.

.*.

the nascent areas traced out by S the sums of these areas are equal.
If

and S

are equal

Case

2.

DE

S be

a parabola

K =

^^

As above

Cc. C

D _ C_T __ ^ ~ Y T S
1
r

a so

c __

_^

velocity at __ velocity in th~e~cIrcle"L

.

C_

velocity in the circle

""

___

velocity in the circle

__
.

L R
2

~1T~
""

V ~S~C
~2~
.-.

""

CD
2
2
.

C D =
.

.-.

K K = Dd
Force

8 S Y.
.

247. PROP.

XXXVI.
A S

oc

__!
(distance)

To determine
s. finite) altitude
t

the times of descent

of a body Jailing from the given (and

and an equal circle round the center S. point of descent C erect the ordinate C D, join S D. Make the body the area S the sector about the center S will fall from A to C in the time of describing
describe a circle

On A S

From any

K =

ADS(OK=AD
OK
N

+ DC)

VOL.

I.

194

A COMMENTARY ON
the
force
-^

[SECT.

VIL

uniformly,

^.

Also S

being given, the period

in the circle

may be found, (P
circumference
.

<x

),

o
the time through

and the time through

the time

OK =
through
248.

P.

OK
,.

.*.

O K is known.

.*.

AC
Find

is

known.

the time in which

a Planet would Jail from any point

in its

orbit to the Sun.

Time

of

fall

time of describing

OK

H, S

O =

~,
O
__ ~~

period in the circle period in the ellipse

OK

__ "~

period in the circle rad. S period in the circle rad.

3

S
A

O*
r;

AC

the time of

fall

P. (V-p)

P = period of the planet.

If the orbit

be considered a

circle

AC
and the time of fall
4

* * r> = r y = p --s p--8-

nearly-

nearly.

BOOK
249.

I.]

NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA.
time

105

The

down

A C
if

Hence, having given the place of a body at a given time, we can determine the
place at another given time.

D), a C L, cloid be described on A S.

= AD + C

a (arc the cy-

..
time
d.

AC

Draw
mine

the ordinate

c will deter-

c the place of the body.

250. PROP.

XXXVII. To
off
2

determine the times of ascent and descent of a

Lody projected upwards or downwards from a given point,

Fa
N

--

Let the body move

V atG
2
.

T-. 2

in the circle

-,

= m-~.
1

from the point

...
.

with a given velocity.

.'.

Let

e. d.

(V and v known, v

known). '

To

determine the point A, take

GA

__

"S"A

GA 2 GA+G S G A = .J!OS ~ 2 m the parabola must be desif m = 2, G A + andx >cribecl on the G A -f and fin. the circle if m < 2, the rectangular hyperbola ) axib S A. and fin. if m > 2, G A is With the center S and rad. = - of the conic section, describe the circle k K H, and erecting the ordinates G I, C D, c d, from any places of the body, the body will describe G C, G c, in times of describing the areas S K k, S K k', which are respectively = S I D, S I d.
*
'

'''

'

.-.

is

.'.

-\

is

.-.

.'.

251. PROP. Let a body

XXXVIII.
fall

Force
to

distance.

from
arc

A
A

any point C,
.

by a
ed a

force

tending to S,

distance.

Time a
D.

and cx g as the D, and V acquir-

C
..

evanescent

Conceive a body to fall in an ellipse about S as the center.

the time

down

AP

or

aASPcxASDa
a

AC AD. A2 S
i.

AD

for the

same descent,

e.

when

A is

given.

196

A COMMENTARY ON
velocity at

[SECT. VII.

The

any point
2

a
QC

V F PV
.
/'

S P.

C.
^

Ca

ultimately.

a
COR.
1.

CD,
T. from

to

= = =

\
J-

period in an evanescent

ellipse.

period in the circle T. through E.

AD

E.

COR.

2.

T. from different altitudes to

S a time of describing different quadrants about S as the center a 1. N. In the common cycloid A C S it is
proved
in

Mechanics that
circle

ifSca = SCA
.

and the
and
and
if

be described on 2
fallen

c a,

space then the time through

ac

= A C, the

through,
arc a d,

AC

a
is

acquired a

c d,

which

analogous
in the

to Newton's Prop.

Newton's Prop, might be proved

same way

that the properties of the cycloid

VL-

are proved.

OTHERWISE.

252.

vdv = v =
.-.

g^x.dx,
2 g
2

IL

(a
.

x 2 ),

if

.-.

v=
__ ~~

x2

= =

the height fallen from

r.

CD.
x
5

dx__ ~
arc

dx

_
A

'Orr//,

/cos. /cos. \rad.

Va = x> =xx = a/

D.
whose versed
sine

.*.

velocity

cc

sine of the arc

space,

and the arc

time, (rad.

original distance.)
is

253. The velocity

If the velocity

velocity from ajinite altitude.

infinity,
it

had been that from

would have been

infinite

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
.-.

197

and constant

=
~
y'

d x
v
,

and

=
a.

:=
g p

C, when

0,

ir

IL
'

x = a, /.cis
Similarly

finite, ..

t= C =

if

the velocity

g p had been

>

velocity

from

infinity,

it

would

have been

infinite.

Force a (distance)*, or any function of distance. of the centripetal force, and also that quadratures of Assuming any Reall curves can be determined (i. e. that all fluents can be taken)
254. PROP.
<x n .
;

XXXIX.

quired the velocity of a body,

larly, at different points,

when ascending or descending perpendicuin

and the time

which a body

will

arrive at

any

point.

to
oc

(The proof of the Prop, is inverse. Newton assumes the area A B F D V * and A D to space described, whence he shows that the force

D F V
2

the ordinate.

Conversely, he concludes,
%

if

F,

ABFD

.)

a/v
By
2
7

ocy

F d
.

s.

Let

D E be

a small given increment of space, and I a corresponding

increment of velocity.

hypothesis
2 a

V A B F D ~" V_ " _ _ v V + 2V AB G E
2

n?But

r7rr+
2

=
1.

i^ *"*
.

.-.

A B F I) oc V .% D F G E 2 V D E D F ultimately, oc 2 V I
.
.
.

2_v._i a ij_v

But

in motions

where the
5

forces are constant if I

be the velocity gene-

rated in T,

F a

-7p

(F

\\
= T

and

if

S be the space described with uni-

form velocity
blc
,

in

T, ^~

(d

Also when the force

I
* .

is

cx

the same
S.
/.

V
,

holds for nascent spaces.

.*.

..

and

DE

re-

presents

DF

represents F.

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VII.

DL
D a .-.

,-.

DL

M E ultimately = D L D E
.

D E ultimately. Increment of the area A T V M E increment of the time down A D.

-

time through

<*

.-.

A TV

ME

oc

T.

(Since
curve.
finite, ..

And

A B F D vanishes at A, A T is an asymptote to the time since E M becomes indefinitely small when A B F D is inA E is also an asymptote.)
.-.

255. COR.

1.

Let a body

fall

from P, and be acted on by a constant

the velocity of a body falling by the If the velocity at force given. action of a ble force, then A, the point of fall, will be found by making

D =

ABFD

PQRD.

For

BFD
II

JV

21

DFGE
D
if
i

DF

I
i

ULi DR

be the increment of the velocity generated through

DE

by a constant

force.

DRSE
JL

prrrrr-n J \et Jtt

= V
1

(V

i)

\7l V
'

= 2v V

ultimately.

'*

AB FD _ "

PQRD

l^

256. COR. 2. If a body be projected up or down in a straight line from the center of force with a given velocity, and the law of force given Find the velocity at any other point E x Take E' g' for the force at E'.
;
.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
=
if

199

velocity at E'

velocity at

---JL

~ &-

-7

v^ it JD

if

pro-

jected down,

projected up.

B
257. COR. 3. Find the time through

IT.

inversely proportional to the velocity at E'). to

Take E'

V~P~Q~RT)

+ D F g'

E' (or

T.PD - v PD "" _ T7FE VTE

D
.

_ ^D + D V(P
2 2

E)
,-

DE

T P I) ~ _ '"'T.DE
also

PD _ 2 P D D L DE ~ DLME
.

T.DE by T D W by
.

btc

force

d^

_ ~ DL
.

ME
a blc
force since the velo-

but

T.D E

by a constant force
t

TTLmE" = T D E by

cities at

are equal (d

TJ_PJD _ 2I^D. DL 'T.DE'"" D L in" E'"

258.
It is

'

taken for granted in Prop.

XXXIX,
if

that

Fa,--

d v
(46),

and that v and v d v

=
=

-,

whence
s.
.-.

it

follows that

F = -r~

d v

F d
.

t,

F d
.

Newton represents/ F d
always

= 2c/Fd s by the area A B F

^
s

D, whose ordinate

F.

V
r

""

^TTcT/TTs'
d
s

c/F

N4

200

A COMMENTARY ON
represents

Newton
dinate

--

[SECT, VII.

by the area

ABTU

M E,

whose or-

D L always =

-^-

V
In COR.
1.

If F' be a

A B F D/ constant force V =
2g.
2
2

__

2 g F'

P D,

by Mechanics

but

And F. P

D or

V = 2c./Fds P Q R D is proved =/F

.'.

or

A BF

D,

and
v
2

1C

at
'

E'

velocity at

= 2 g./F d s. _ A//dTs"when ~~
V/lTd
s

s s

when

= AE = A D

In COR. 3.

= timc through D E

^/

-f--

"'

9 P D P P n T = time through P D = ^-K = = ---H-^--* VatD \/2g. PQRD = a P D. D L T "" 2P I^JDJL _

t

D Lm
n
.

'

E'

259.

The
.'.

force

a x

v d v

i*

x n d x,

//,

the force distance

1.

if

a be the original height.

Let n be

positive.

V from a finite distance to the center is finite") V from x to a finite distance is infinite. /
Let n be negative but less than 1. V from a finite distance to the center
is finite

V
Let

from
1

QD to

finite

distance

is infinite.

n=

the above Integral

fails,

because x disappears, which

cannot be.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
, v u v

201

dx
g
//,

.*.

V from a finite distance to the center is infinite V from x to a finite distance is infinite. /
"I

But the log. of an infinite quantity

x
is infinite

is

x ^ less than the

quantity itself

when
x.

Diff.

and

it

* becomes x

-L

JL

dx
Let n be negative and greater than 1. V from a finite distance to the center is V from GD to a finite distance is finite.
260. If the force be constant, the velocity-curve to the line of fall, as in Prop.
is

infinite 1

/
a straight line parallel

QR

XXXIX.

DEDUCTIONS.

261.

To

find

istance will be infinite or finite,

f

under what laws of force the velocity from <x to a finite and from a finite distance to the center

ill

be

finite

or infinite.
If (1)
(2)

F a

2
,

at

x
l

(3)

Va ~x V~V x" V a
3 3

(4)

J_

A x
J^

/a-

"x 2
(6).
Jl_

~V~1T

X
1

(7).

xn
all

^
cases

In the former cases, or in

x n-i where F oo some

a n-l

direct

power of

distance, the velocity acquired in falling from <x> to a finite distance or to the center will be infinite, and from a finite distance to the center will be
finite.

202

A COMMENTARY ON
oo

[SECT.

VII

In the 4th case, the velocity from

tance to the center will be infinite.

to a finite,

and from a

finite dis-

In the following
distance,

cases,

when the
oo
1 1

force

a
1

as

some inverse power of

will

the velocity from

to a finite distance
/
*~~

be

finite,

for

a"'\^

x"- _
1

when a
will

is infinite.

And
/^
a

'^ x n ~~ the velocity from a finite distance

* 1
A

xn

to the center

be

infinite, for
n ""

11

when x
262.

=
On

V
0.

11

-^"-

l\

the Velocity

and Time-Curves.

B A
F
(2)

H
(1)

F a D, the area which represents V becomes a A. For D F a D C. D F a D C and V-curvc is a parabola. (2) Let F a V D, .% and V-curve is a parabola Let F ex D 2 /. D F ex D C (3)
Let
2

the

axis parallel to
(4)

B.
,

Let

ex

.-.

DF
C H.

ex

-pr-^

.'.

V-curve

is

an hyperbola referred

to the asymptotes ex D, (5) If F

C,

and be

repulsive,

ex

DC.DF
ex

ex

DC
,

2
,

..V a
..

C,
is

.*.

the ordinate of the time curve

a
-v^<

^
,

T-curve
(6) If a

an hyperbola between asymptotes.

fall

body

from

co

distance,

and
.-.

ex

-, V
is
,

ex

-yy

.*.

the ordinate of the time-curve

(7)

D,
and

T-curve

a straight
ex
,

line.

If a

body

fall

from

o>

F a
.*.

jp

V
is

.-.

the ordinate of T-curve

(8)

VD
ex

C,

T-curve

a parabola.
ex
2 jy,

If a

body

fall

from x, and

F
/.

ex

^p,
is

.-.

the ordinate of T-curve

DC

2
,

T-curve

a parabola as in case

3.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL
FALLS.

203

263. Find the external fall in the

ellipse, the force in thefociis.

Let x

be the space required to acquire the velocity in the curve at P.

V down P
2

x
8

"

in the circle distance

Px S x
2

in the circle distance

S P

in the ellipse at

V
V
3

'"'

down P x ___

in the ellipse at
.
'

__ ~~

Aa 27TTP Aa Px S x H P
. .

"

P_? S x

~~

H
A

P
a

P
'"
.-.

S P Px

_ "

S P
ib

= HP
the circle on 2

.-.

S x

z=

a,

and the locus of x

a,

the center S. 264. Find the internal fall in the

ellipse, the force in the focus.

V'down

Px
8 x

Px
SJ>
2
__ ~

in the circle

V V

*
2

in the circle

S~ x

o SJP
j.

in the circk~S~P

Sx

'

f torce

"

distance1

_
I

j.204

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VII.

in the circle

Aa

Describe a

circle

from

H with
F
S.

the radius

a.

Produce

to the

circumference in F.
265. Generally.

Join

Draw

H x parallel to

S.

For external

falls.

V
V
2

down P x
8
in the circle

in the circleTdistance

P S P _

__ "~

2 g area
.

AB F D

Newton's

fig.

g FT S~P
2

F = force at distance S P

in the curve at

S^P

"P V"
4.

V
V
.-.

down

in the curve
. .

A BF F P V
.

D
= F \ = space J
~
S P,

ABFD = F PV
.

,-,..,
1

md

the area in general

f ordinate

abscissa

In the general expression make the distance from the center

and a the

original height,
falls.

S x

will

be found.

266. For internal

FD

Newton's fig. "F = force at P

"'

V
if

in the curve at

""

F PV
.

.-.

the velocities are equal, 4

ABFD = F P
.

V.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
falls.

205

267. Ex. For internal and external

In the

to the center. ellipse tlic force -tending

In this case,
,\

or

D
-h
a,

S.

Take

DF
A
8

is

the force at

D, and the

A B for the force at AD area A B F D =

.-.

A.

Join

S.

(A

B + D

F)

=r

1)

tance

1.

Let S

AB A =

D F. Let & equal the absolute D = x, A B = a D F = x^

t*

force at the dis-

.-.

AB FD=
A B

a
,

x a
.

-f

FD =

F. P V,

= C
or

P.
2

CD
C P
.

2
.

in the ellipse,

= CD C P =CD make x = C P, then a = Cx, and C x For the external or Cx = C P + CD = AC + BC = AB C x = A B. For the internal fall, make a = C P, then x = C x', and Cx" = C D CP
a

2
,

fall,

.-.

or

.-.

Cx' = C P 2 C x' = V C P
2

CD
2

2
,

2
.

268. Similarly, in all cases where the velocity in the curve is quadrable, without the Integral Calculus we may find internal and external falls.

But generally the process must be by that method.

206

A COMMENTARY ON
in the

[SECT. VII.

Thus

above Ex.

vdv = v =
.-.

g/4X.dx
2

gt& (a

2
269.

as above, &c.

And

in general,

),

if

the force

a x

k .

Also

.,_And

_x
fall,

to find the external

make x

= =

g,

and from the equation

find a,

the distance required. And to find the internal the distance required.

fall

make

r,

and from the equation find x,

270. Find the external fall in the hyperbola, the force

oc

^from

the focus.

V down
2

OP: V
S P
:

in the circle rad.

in the circle

in the hyperbola at

OP AC

SO
:

BOOK L]
.-.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

207

V
.-.

down

OP: V
.-.

in the hyperbola

C.

O P SO H P
:

2AC.OP
2

2AC.SO
what

SO.HP 2AC.SP*: 8O.HP

=
A C.
8 P
hyperbola.

To

find

this denotes, find the actual velocity in the

Let the force

/3,

at a distance

r,

.*.

the force at the distance

Also

in the circle

r __ /3. ~~

2
'

x
2"

__ """
r

/3

2~g

"xT^"

"2"
"

in the

hyperbola

a __ (2 ""

+
a
.

x)

j3

2 g

2 x

But

y
^

when
g

the body has been projected from

x =
.

-r
2

h 77-7 ^

projection from

y
,

..

^ *"

of projection from

...
2

x =
oo

r
c

o
2

=:

down 2 a,
r

being constant and

,\

=9r -r^

om V

from

to O',

when 8

O ~2 A

C.

V in the hyperbola is such os would be acquired by the body ascendfrom the distance x to GO by the action of force considered as repuling sive, and then being projected from CD back to O , 8 O being = 2 A C.
r

la the opposite hyperbola the velocity is found 2 11 C S P force repulsive, p externally = 1, u Jri 1 5 A i^
'
, .

in the

same way, the

271. Internal fall

V down P O
s

V
V V
V

in the circle rad. in the circle

O
P
:

P O
S

V
V

in the circle

in the circle
.-.

8 S

O
P

8 P

O
P

in the hyperbola at
in the

AC
.

down P

O
2

hyperbola *

A C P O M2^1L?
:

or

AC.PO = SO. HP 2AC(SP SO) = SO.HP 2AC.SP " bU ~ 2XC HP' +

.:

208

A COMMENTARY ON
and

[SECT. VII.

P0

Hence make S E, and draw H O parallel to S E. Hence the external and internal falls are found, by making V acquired down a certain space p with a ble force equal tlut down P V by o constant force, P V being known from the curve.
.

= sp - S0 = H E = 2 A C, join

ic'+Hr-

272. Find how far the body must fall externally to the cirin the circle, F distance towards the cumference to acquire

<

center of the circle.

Let

OC =

p,

OB =
A =
d x,

x,

OA =
.*.

a,

being the point re-

quired from which a body

tails.

Let the force

v d v

at

1,

die force at

B =

x
a
Q--

= ~

(for the velocity increases as

x decreases)

U* G a

d x
2

O
SL. x a
p,
2

.-.

+ C

and when v

0,

and when x

a,

v*at
But
v
the force at
2

A =

*.

(p'

).

atA = 2g.~-

being constant, and a _ P

~2

~T
2
,

'

a p 273. Find how far

.-.

= ga = a

.'.

2 a 2,

.-.

= V

a.

the body must fall internally from the circumference to

acquire

in the circle^

F a

distance towards the center of the circle.

fall,

Let

be the point to which the body must

x,

OA =

a,

O P = p,

OQ =

at

A =

1,

.-.

the force at

Q =

*
.

&

BOOK

1.1

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
.-.
i v d v

209

j .

cl

and when v

0,

=: a,

.-.C

= -. a

and when x

p,

=r

~-

(a

?
)

from a

blc

force

and
v
.-.

=
0,

a,

a%

.-.

=
r

.*.

the

from the constant force 1 at A. body falls from the circumference

to the center.

27

1.

Similarly, J
()

when F *
distance

C, or p externally

=
=

V
*
.

e, (e

base of hyp. log.)

and

O
275.

P, or p internally

When F

r distance

p externally
11

p internally
27(5.

=2a =2a
= =
.
1

When F

oc

-rr

--

-..

distance

p externally
p internally
277.

x
.!

When F

ex

~
distance
i)
1

^
n

externally J

= =

~
a
. / *t 2

n 2
-

internally

/ ~

^J

If the force be repulsive, the velocity increases as the distance increases,

.*.

v d v =r g F. d
()

Voi.

T.

210

COMMENTARY ON
F a
--,

fSEcr. VII.

278. Find how far a body must full externally to any point

in the

parabola, to acquire v in the curve.

towards the focus.

PV =

4 S
'

P =

c,

Q =

p,

_- x,

P =

a,

force at

P =

1,

FntB =
..vdv =

?--,,

^
^-7
IJ

- g ^.dx
x
'
tt
,

when v
.

= 0, c-s ..Cv'

.-.

2 g a &

Vx

-) =
p/

2 g a2

\u

-\
p
/

at P.

buf
v
a

= 2g.~ = 2ga,

279. Similarly, internally, p

280. In the

ellipse,

F a
(.'.

yyi

towards a focus

p externally ==.!? H + P S.

describe a circle with the center S, rad. =: 2

A C)

internally

=- PH.P

S (Hence

at

P = V

in the circle e. d.)

281. In the hyperbola,

pexternally=:

F a yp
(Hence

towards focus
at

internally

A C

= V

in the circle e. d.)

''

P
^-JJ (Hence
oc

V at P = V in the circle e.cL, p. 190)

282. In the ellipse

F
2 2

from the center

pexternally=

V A C + B C*, (= A B)] (Hence construction) D + C P1 or (Hence also V at P = \ in the circle radius C P, when C D = C p internally = V~C P
(= V~C
)
2

Cm

P)

BOOK

1.]
if

(Hence
(If

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. C P = C D, p = 0, and V at P = V

211
in the circle e.

d, as

was deduced before)

to

C P C D, p impossible, .-. the body cannot and thus acquire the V in the curve) 283. In the ellipse, F a D from the center.

<

fall

from any distance

External fall

The
since

velocity-curve 0, \\hen

is

b,

or

C P = 0, V C O b at C O, O
from

straight

line,

(.since

D
line

F a C
comes
to

13,

also as

this

straight

C,

being the point fallen from, to acquire

at P.
.-.

O
.*.

to

V
.

from
x,

to
if

OC

PC
1

Also since v d v
the force at x
ing, v
.; v
ex
2

=
x
'

=
*
2

g F
v d v
J

and

the force at the distance

x, '

1,

x.

=
=

# x d D

and integrating and correctO O

g (p
p

),

where p
if

the distance fallen from.

x 2 , and

a circle be described, with center C, rad.

CO

P N
.-.

(the right sine of the arc

whose versed

P O
:

is

the space fallen

through).

from

to

P
:

from

to

P N
:

(C

M =) O C
:

and

V
(for if

from

in

P to C V in the circle rad. C P = C d P) and i P C, v d C P the circle C P V in the ellipse

: :
:

D.

Compounding V down O P
.-.

the

4-

ratios,

in the ellipse

C D

Take P

N=C
.-.

D, and

V down O P C O

= V in the ellipse, = C N = V TTP

TCD

'.

212
Internal
fall.

COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. II.

M
D

.-.

.-.

V in the ellipse V in the circle V clown C P V in the ellipse Take O N = C D,

:

V in the circle rad. C P C D C P V clown C P V down P O ON (C M =) C P V down P O C D O N and V in the curve = V down P O, and C O
:
: :

= V

C P

C
tlic

284. Find

point in the
c. d.

ellipse, the force in the

miter* ivhere

V =

the

velocity in the circle,

In

this case

CP

= C D,
circle

whence the construction.

on
it,

Join

A
2

B, describe

bisect the circumference in D', join

A D'. From C with A D' cut tlie ellipse in P. 2AD' (=2PC = AB =AC + BC'(=CP + CIV) 2 C P = C P + CD
I)',
2

.-.

(C P will pas? through E.) in F, then B in E, B construction is to bisect simpler and from the triangles C E B, the diameter to the ordinate B,
2
.

C P

I)

C P is C F B,

CF

is

parallel to

A B,

.-.

C D'

is

a conjugate to
"1

C P

and

C
13
2

P.

285. In the hyperbola, force repulsive, oc D, from the center

p externally (to rise from P,)=V

which body must

+ C

P2
2

internally (to

which body must

rise from the center)

= VCP-CD

(Hence
rise

if

the hyperbola be rectangular p internally

= 0, or the body must

through

P.)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S
F
a.
rr-r-jn

P11INCIP1A.

213

286. In ami curve,

find P

p=
where a
zz

S P,

c zz

V. 2
a,

287. If the curve be a logarithmic spiral, c

a

J-\ n
,

also

F a -A-,)

a (

..=?")
288.
///

1-l )

--

'

any cm

re,

V y

,.

l9 Jind
\
J

p internally.
1
'
'

_ ~

/
ft

a
!

_ ~

4 a * a n

n -f

i^

289.

If

the curve be a logarithmic spiral, c zz 2

a,

zz 2,

290. If the curve be a circle,

..

F
a

in the
*

p extcrnallv "
1

\a

circumference, c zz

a,

and n

zz 4,

"\"
\
)

z=

x
a
-T
.

a/
~
*

-+ (a11

ZZ

li;

V
O

291. In

///<-

ellipse,

F a

fiom font*.

E.iteinalfall.

P
\

A
V
8

T
P V
:

"~fc

H
S

down
2

OP V
:

in the circle radius

9

P
P

OP -^
:

Sect.

VII.

in the circle

in the ellipse at O3

A C

II P,

214

A COMMENTARY ON
.-.

[SECT. VII.

down

OP
.-.

V*

in the ellipse

AC OP
.

SO.
:

HP

a 2

A 0.0 P =

SO.H
2

.-.

2AC.OP s o = HP
2

A C.SO
2

HP

A C.S P

A C

A U C

Internal fall.

\
i

P
\

A
\
I

i|

V down P O V
2
:

in the circle radius

P O
: :

S P
:

in the circle in the circle

V
.-.

'

S S

O V
:

in the circle

S P

S P

P V
:

in the ellipse at

V
.-.

down P

O V
:

in the ellipse

P O A C
. .

HP I lP ~-^
A C
:

.-.

28

P.

AC
H

O AC = SO HP 2SO.AC = SO.HP
P
.

A C.S P A C + H P

Hence, make

E=

C, join S E, and draw

\

HO

parallel to

S.

292. External fall in the parabola,

J^

F a y^

from
:

focus.
2

V
::

OP V

in the circle radius

S P

OP:

~,
1
:

Sect. VII.
2
:

;o
in

V * in the circle S P V
atP::
2,

the parabola

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA.
.-.V
.-.

215
:
:

clown O P V O P = S O,
:

in the

parabola
ex

O P

.-.

O =
S

Internal fall.

down

V
V
2

in the

O P V in the circle 8 O V in
2
:

circle

O P
: :
:

in the circle
2

the circle S P P V" in the parabola at P:

2
:
:

8
1
:

S
2
:

O
C),

.-.

V down OP: V
.-.

in the

parabola

OP =

S O,

,*<>=-'.
V = V down V
4

- V down

P = V down E P = V of a body
.

describ,

lorce at P. ing the parabola by a constant vertical force 293. Ft ml the external Jail so that the velocity* acn' quired v d v

velocity in the curve ,

Fax
1

11
.

=
=r

IL

n
.

d
l

x, (^

=
*
)

force distance

I),

.-.

^~. (a" +
=
g
fjt
.

x
*
*

11

a =r original height,
. .

*'-\

i-

in the

curve

v d
'^

,a

c, if c

2 n d
-Jj

e
,

/y

Make x
x,

rz

8 P
7
.

=
fall,

P,

and from
a =:

tlie

equation

we get

a,

which

x.
,jzet

For the internal

make

8 P

g,

and from the equation we

which
291-.

S x

Find

the external Jail in a

LWSlSdATA.
a polar

a rectangular ecjuation Let L. S P 0,

whence we must get

tf,

one

y
4
.-.

^
'

= = =

sin.
"
.

x
2

=
2

g
tJ

cos.

i>,

e
?

'

(cos.

bin.

t)))

(x zr a "^

+
<J

y
.

')

cos.

2 ^

.. ^

zz a

c
.

cos.

216

A COMMENTARY ON
d
*

[SECT. VII.

*'

do

but in general

4
...

dtf

dd'p =

'.p

l
,

in this case

o "

2 d p

6 a
.

.-.

force to

Sa
S
_"

v d v

tl

x,

Also

PV =
/.

dp
7

= =

2 p.

~"8g

'

a'
,

'3
'-I

v*

-.-g-

6~ -p
g,

Make x

in the formula
1

above
1

.-.

s= 0, /. ' n z Q

is infinite.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
2

217

295. Find the force and external fall in an EPICYCLOID

CY = CP
2

YP*=CP
&

CA YB CB~
2
.

Let

CY =

p,

C P =

C B =

c,

C A =

b,

.%

c2

b2

c'

b*

~
p*
c

c
2

(e
2

b2 b 2 )'
b
2

_ 2_d p
P
.-.

~"

cl

force

(as in the Involute of the circle

which

is

an Epicycloid, when the radiuu

of the rota becomes

infinite.)

Having got

<* n

of force,

we can

easily get the external (or internal)

fall.

290. Fnid in what cases we can integrate for the Velocity and Time. Ca^e 1. Let force a x n ,
.. v

d v

g p
2

x
"<

x,

_/* ~J
Now
in general
ni

clx
**
o2o

IL
'

'J
Q
l

V(a n +
\

1 :

we can
.

integrate
,

x m d x
1
,

iswnoJeor

-in

(a
,

+
,

b x

when

p -*-

f-

whole.

.-.

in this case,

we can

integrate,

when

or

is

whole.

'

Let

p any whole number

l_

P
/.

P *~
,

(p being positive), (a)

218
Let

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VII.

'

u+TT-i-P' _
1

_ P+ -~~
1

.-.

these formulae admit only

.'.

and

for integer positive values of n,

and
1.

D positive fractional values.

we can integrate when

F a

x, or

Fa

297. Case

2.

Let force
...

oc -~u

1 v d v

=
n

dx
g
i*
,

'

'*

__ "~

dx_ ""
'

n
f

L.U

'\

L' (L

in

which case we can integrate, when

^~

>

or

-_-j

whole.

Let

--n1

p,

any whole positive

No

_|

+ _J_ =p
1
'

2 p 2

of n, in which the numerator exthese formulae admit any values which the numerator and denominatoi 1, or in ceeds the denominator
.-.

2 p

are any two successive

..

by odd numbers, the numerator being the

we can

integrate,

when r a

lllj^ol
'
' '

greater.

^~*' x~l

x~4

x~^

1111

&c

BOOK L]
298. Case 3.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
The formula
(a') (/3') 5

219
positive, cannot be-

in

which p
(/3)

is

come

negative.

But the formulae

oc

(a)

and
,

may.

From which we can

integrate,

when F
when F

_ X
2

3"

_ X
,
t

&c.

X 3T

or 299.

oc

__
Find
.-.

_
n.

x'x}'xf'x7j
IVJien the force

&c

a x n /w/ a

of times from different altitudes

6

to the center

of force.

the same, force a

x
x
.

F a x ",

v
.

d
V

v
2

=
=
X
n

t*
6
,

x,
1

JL8J

+
r

(a^
v

x +

.-.

-^ v

a
v7
t

^__ZL!L -_^-~ which x "+ an+

!

is

of

-;,

- dimensions,

.-.

will

n be of -------

and when x

=
at

0, t will

a
a

a"1

dimensions.

r 1

,,1
1'

"
;

+
-'

'.

x
,

, n>

.-. t

a-"-'
+
'

's.

\\

f J V*

_=,. >*
+

_
a *-+
'

1.3
'

^:"^:' "

4.><

2
\\licn t

11

2 a"-'

a.

0,
f

= +
.

a,
*

r = c

+
,

1.3 aTi-

fiTTa

.'.

when x

a
0,
t

oc

cl

--qp, -

a
a

_, -"

220
,

A COMMENTARY ON
when n
is

negative

oc

1
1,

[SECT. VII.
5-+-1

f 1

COR. If n be positive and greater than

less the

the greater the altitude, the

time to the center.

300.

body

is

projected up

PA
n

with the velocity

V from the given

po*nt A, force in

<*

],Jind the height to which the body will rise.

v d v

g p x

x,

for the velocity decreases as

...

x
i

increases,

- ^JL^.xn + + C n+ 1 when v r= V, x = a,

^ar: V
Let v

0,
2

Ai?.^_

(x

= V

...

/."
V

2gP
tlie

COR. Let n
stant,

2,

and

V =

velocity

down

force at

con-

velocity in the circle distance

S A.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

221

SECTION VIIL

301. PROP.
into

XLI.

Resolving the centripetal force

I

or

DE
T

(F)

the tangential one

T
.

(F')

and the perpendicular one

N, we

have (16)
l I IM

'
.

l I

T 1
d

F 1
:
:

F
i
t

'

'

d
.

V/
,

d
I

d
d
t'

/.

d v

v'

T.

Hut

since (46)

and by hypothesis
.-.

d
d

t'

d
I

5,

d
:

s'

.-.

v'

K x

N T

v',

&c. &c.

OTHJ:RWISF.

302.

By

4<>, \\c

v d v
s
s

have generally = gFds

being the direction of the force F. the trajectory, &c. \\e have
v d v =. g
v'

Hence

if s

be the straight line and

F d

s
7

...

= g Fds V' ~ 2g/F d s v" v'*_ v /s = 2g/Fd

d
v
7

r
.-

and being the given values of v and v' at given distances by which the integrals are corrected. Now since the central body is the same at the same distance the central

force

must be the same

in

both curve and

line.

Therefore, resolving

222

A COMMENTARY ON
at the distance s into the

[SECT.

VIIL
we

when
have

tangential and perpendicular forces,

IT Fx nj = Fx I N rK
= F
.-.

x
s

\ a

Fd
if
all

s'

= Fd

and

which shows that

they are equal at

the velocities be the same at any two equal distances, i. e. if equal distances

V =
then
v
303. COR.
2.

v'.

By

Prop.

XXXIX, v a A B G
2

K.

But

in the

curve y y d x
OC oc

.-.

An~ A " d A
(X
11
1

Therefore (1J2)

A B G E = /y

d x

cc

+C

P
oc

_A
n

Hence
v
'

(X

"

_A

".

OTHLKWISE.
304. Generally (46)
v d v

g F d

and
then

if

But when v

0,

let s

= P then = l-^(
;
.

and

C = Pn

HOOK

J.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
n

223

in

which

s is

any quantity whatever and

may

therefore be the radius vector

of the Trajectory

thai

is
'

v
in

~^ (P

An

or

2 g j"

(D

n
)

more convenient
N. B.

notation.

formula may be found the spaces through which a must fall externally to acquire the velocity in the curve (286, &c.) body Given the centripetal force to construct the Trajec305. PROP. XLI.
this

From

tory

',

and tojind

the time

of describing any portion of it.

By Prop.

XXXIX, v =

VTK
T

V A B FD =
-

(46)

=
Time

But
d
,

,, C Tr x K

Time
4 Area

N C X k XT x
T .

2 Area

=
tangent \shrn the velocity V? v

----

p
ii>

^
at
v/

(P being the perpendicular upon the

See 125, &c.)
7
t

V.

Moreover,

if

be the velocity

V, by Prop.

XXXIX,

V = V
Whence
/ v/

2 g.

"ATJTTV.

-T-iTT-n A B t D

p v A K L v ~ x

KN
_ jQ

.*.

putting

r
v\c luive

v A
A
Z
'
:

L v

_ p x v ~ A V~*s\'
v '
:

'

'

'

A B F D
.-.

I I

K N

li

Z-

K
: :

K N-

KN

ami

XlTFlJ^Z'
. . .

=
^

K N

A X

_ \xKNJV iM

X -1 N (A B r D

_z
C

('>) (~)

,j

Also hince similar triangles arc to one another in the duplicate

tlieir

ratio 01

homologous

sides

Y X x X C = A x K N x

224

COMMENTARY ON
~~

[SECT.
I

VIJL
. '

Q
A V
2
,

X C

N
Z
'
'

(A B F D

2
)

()
(

and putting
y

_^ ~n
_ n _ u

_ ~ -

Q
2
<

(A B F

Z
2

and
/

Q
2

CX
'

A ^

(A B F

_z
'

,j

Then
Area Area

V C X =/y
fc

VC I=/ydx = VDbal
7

d x

= VD
2

'

"

c a

H) J

Now

(124)

""

P x V
_

VCI " _

V D ba P x V
_

or

"
the time of describing
Also,
if L.

2V D JLJL_ ^"S'g". P X V A~B

L V

'

'

'

/s\ (J;

V
0,

I.

VC

we have

_ 2VDca "
P2
and
(6) in terms

which gives the Trajectory.

306.

To

express equations (5)

of % and

<),

(*

A).

First

and

P x v

P X V
2

...ABFD-Z^^--^^-

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Hence

225

P X Vg
v
2

P' V*)
3

_
P V
2

and
J
~~

P
2
g

xV
8

V
-

(g

2 )

.-.

V Dba =

2
J

y^/ ^2 v 2_pt v)

and

_P
'

/-

V (g

_
P V
v

dg

-)

But by Prop. XL.

V = 2/gFdg
=
0,

the integral being taken from v

or Iron)

~D, D

being the same us

in

30 k

P x Vdg

2g/gFdg
t

___ V
"

_r

PYd

P"8

)'

307.

Tojind

a;^/

t)

/rr;;?5

/*^ a??r/ p.

Since (125)

t 1

f -J v

./>g j

v~

and

=
But previous
1

to using these forms

2
2
1

we must

find the equation to the tra-

jectory, thus (139)

P \7 n L. x -,-- = F = g P'df
f

f( ? )

denoting the law of force.

p v
s

27Voi.
I.

(p-.-

226
or

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.

p
308.
1st.

=
Then

pa

v :.

-_

(11)
:

To
Let

these different methods the following are examples

oc

(see

304)

and

if

and

belong to an apse or when

1

/*

Let

D- = 2

11. u.

T^lion we Then ^vo

nncilir rrof

easily get

2t

and making

=
=

at

an apse or when

= P

we

find

C*
""

rt
i 1 .

D2
^--

sm.-"

sin.

'

Also

and assuming

P2 we get

HOOK

I.]

and making

= C =
&

0,

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. when = P we find

|-.

227

sin.-'lz:

Also

V = V~^. V

(D

P2

which gives

_
b
1

cos.

20=2
cos.^
J

cos.

p^_ (2 p*_ D
g
2

a
)

.......
its

Now

the equation to the ellipse,

and

being referred to

center,

is

e* cos.
in its

Therefore the trajectory is an ellipse the center of force being center, and we have its semiaxes from
l>2

=D

P
2

b8

2P

VIZ.

= V(D

and

)^ V

(3)

az=P
which
latter value

j
time.

was already assumed.

that

To find the Periodic From (3) it appears

when

t=-,or=
and substituting
in (1)

-|,j

brr

V(D>

P')

we have

T _
*

r
1

5_, 2

-p*

->

).in<

___JL(
2

2v"i7
2

y
*

pa _ii!
^

g/i

P2

228
But
sin.

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII

-'(!)= --. -Z_ _JL ~

\

i \

fl"

2 Vg/u.

and
(40

which

To

lias already been found otherwise (see 147). apply (9) and (10) of 307 to this example we must

first

integrate

(11) where f %

= ftg;
~

that

is

since

^.

P *

2_ Ipa 2

we have

But

V2 =

g/^(D

P2

which also indicates an

generally

ellipse referred to its center,

the equation bein

_ ~

Hence

P'^D 2

')

the same as before.

With regard to 6, the axes of the ellipse being the polar equation, viz.
e
cos.
.

known from

(5)

we have

309. Ex.

2.

Let

F = -^ t

Then

(304)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.

229

and

and

V belonging
.-.

to

an apse.
^
*J~~

TTgT
D
s
,

_
V(D f

g*

DP + P

2
)

which, adding and subtracting

transforms to

and making

^ =

(tec 86).

Let

0,

when

P.

Then

D
But assuming

P
tlic

-u=vx(P-

^ +u

above becomes rationalized, and we readily find r3

230

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.

,-.

_
=
P, or

and making

= 0,

when

when u

=P

we

get

Hence, since moreover

_^.., ('-2^ (*-?)+ .C,_ D,

or

sm.

'

D
}

2 /

sin.

4.

_JL)>

= l)=
^
)

cos.

P2

PD

D
But
the equation to the ellipse referred to
___

(2)

its

focus

is

b
a

2 v>

1
1

e cos.

'

bj
a

_ 2P(D D

P)

and

BOOK L]
fc*

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
_ 1? _ 1Z! = _ b
2

231

x (D

P)

T
'

D
^

2_

_ Aa ""D 5
and
,

1 ^
P)> (D Time let Q
;

v (3)

= VP X
(1) gives

To

find the Periodic

T.

Then

= 2a

P=D

P,

and equation

see 159.

OTHERWISE.
2
2

First find the Trajectory

in

by formula

(11.

307)

then substitute for

p 5

9 and 10, &c.

310. Itequ, 10. Required the Time and Trajectory when

F=

By

304,

(D- a

e"

if

and

P
'

D V = IP X P2
v

belong to an apse we have 2 P2 ga

P'V^x JD

2 e

D +P
2

P2

A COMMENTARY ON

USKCT. V1I1.

and taking

at

an apse or when

P,

0,

t=
v-ih
also
-

VTZLT2

p v
But
/

= y -I /* v
1
2

D^

y-g-

v r x y

d
-

*
2

(P

^)

____ dJ___ 2
t

(P and

1 +P

X xii
I

'

^( p8 -*') + p + L \ c 'J
.

and making

^)

=
1^ ~
2

at the apse or

where

P,

C ^ "
. , ,

_
^

~"

^
!
'

(P

^)

'"e V
which gives

__
("D"

_
^

P)~
2

e e

1+

311. Required the Trajectory and circumstances of motion when

or for any inverse law of the distance.

The
g

readiest

method

is

this;

By
(P

(11) 307,
is

if r,

and

be the values of

and p

for the given velocity

no longer an apsidal distance)

the equation to the Trajectory. Also since

v

d v

g F d

BOOK: L]

NEWTON'S
.

PIIINCIPIA.
^
r
1

233
tO

2
7 /

7*r

1 ^

n n

(from v

(X)

Hence

and

if

we put

V
in

2
:

1U

&

t*
4

(n

1) r'
1

which

may be

>=
-i

or

<

we

easily get

=
P = -unn
r
o~~

yo" i+ ^n
,
,

//

r"-

n-l -gg

m=
.

1
.

(2)

=
tf

T<9 j^//eZ

ou

this hypothesis.

We

have (307)
r

p d

which gives by substitution

dd

+i-

m N/-~
r

m-

f 1

P x

m
dt)

"a"4. L-^ m

m>
=

+-

in

= +r

"

XP:

i d

the positive or negative sign being used according as the body ascends or descends.

Ex. If n

2,

we

get

-,

P X

m>

234

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.

P= r 2 nC'*

............

m=

the equations to the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola respectively.

Also we have correspondingly

v d4

4-r
l

JL

m
which are
easily integrated.

Ex.

2.

Let n

3.

Then we

get

-_ X
f

P X

-8

m>

p=

.............
m

m =

= +
first
2

.-^
.

Xr PX

--s
.

r-a---

m<
r 2.

312. In the
(1).

of these values of
r2

i,

mP

may be

> = or <

Let

mP >

Then

(see 86)
1

and

at

an apse or when r
6

= P

-+ ^r
-

!5_1

x P X

sec.-

1^ A

la)

BOOK
for

1.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
/
/

235

(2)

V m ~P*_r ~ P Then we Let m P = r

^_
__
.

in

1
*"""'
.

Ol*

'

have

+ snn)

g- + V

r2

v /"- ?
])

(m

*J f

V
which
(3)

in

(c)
1
s

indicates the Reciprocal or Hyperbolic Spiral.

Let

mP

be

<r

2
.

Then

./

r2

mP-\

i!

mF-

-4-rP - u
at

V/
=

-raP X

yi''

V(m-l.r + r-mP)-V(^-mP')

Vnqr

~F)

(r

-mP

'

'

2 )

'

an apse

P; and then

Thus

the

first

of the values of

has been

split into three,

and integrat-

ing the other two

we

also get

236

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT; VIII.

and

if 6 is

V m FZTg _ V measured from an apse or r = P reduces to

'

mP
.

fUnT.
*)

*)

(r

mP

2 )

it

m
313.

Hence

recapitulating

we have

these pairs of equations,

viz.

or
r

sec.

P'

Zb

construct the Trajectory,

put
S

let

= 0, then = P = S A; = OD, then

and

4. i

/ V5T=1

and taking A S B, A S B' for these values of and S B, S B7 for those of p and drawing B Z, B r 71 at right angles we have two asymptotes S
<),

ting

&

being found by put-

*.

Thus
all its

arid

by the rules in (35, 36, 37, 38.) the curve

may

be traced in
2.

ramifications.

(m

1)

Vv
1)

and

(m

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
;

237

This equation becomes more simple when we make & originate from g := cc for then
it is

- V

(m

X
1}

and following the above hinted method the

curve, viz. the Reciprocal Spiral, may easily be described as in the annexed diagram.

m
and
a

w
Z

+rP
is

v x

.-

and when

measured from an apse or when P'

=
g

= +p
Whence may
easily

m
" .

/
1

' B

r (

+
^

be traced

this figure.*

4.

--

and

PO r V(r From which may be described

K
-

-*-

the Logarithmic Spiral.\

_ x - p

In

Vnr i
r
2

v x
s

~=rp^y

m m

P-

'

mJP^ (m r
.

'

j^_._^)_

(r

m P)
")

?}-^(r

mP

238
or
A Q~
-i-f-

A COMMENTARY ON
/
/

[SECT. VIII

m
1

>/

m
when

P =

r.

Whence
These
because he was the
Trajectories.
first

this spiral.
9

several spirals are called Cotes Spirals,

to construct

them

as

4. Then the Trajectory, &c. are had by the following equations, viz.

314. If n

= = rp / m ^m

315. If n

=
1

5.

Then

= PVm

(m

_l.

+r 4)
4

V (e
which
as well as the

P2 * l

+m

former expression

is

not integrable by the usual

methods.

When
f4
is

-m-l*
when
r
4

ni

T^O
5

in
2

1<4

a perfect square, or

m
then

_
P

m P
2

4(m

I)

we have

Therefore (87)

4- rl r

mP
2 (m
1)

2 (m

VV

2(m

I)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

239

(m
and these being constructed
will

1)

+PVm

be as subjoined.

316. COR.

1.

OTHERWISE.

To find

the apses

of an

orbit ^lierc

--

Let

=
-----111
.

Then

m =
and
in
.

m<

which being resolved all the possible values of will be discovered in each as well as the case, and thence by substituting in 0, we get the position

number
Ex.

of apses.

1.

Let n

2.

Then
r
'

mP
m

L
r

240
which give

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.

_ ~
*

__
2 (m
(1

r
1)

r'

**

4 4

mP
(in

*
.

(m
*

_l)

1)

L =T

and
*

^ ___r__ -2

/r

m)

4 m_P^.(l 4 (1 m)
.

Wlience
focus)
;

in

und hyperbola there are two apses the former lying on different sides of the focus
in the ellipse

(force in the
in the latter

both lying on the same side of the focus, as is seen by substituting the Also there is but one in the parabola. values of % in those of 0.

Ex.
(1)

2.

Let n =;

3.

Then

eq.
'

(A) become
.

which indicate two apses in the same straight line, and on diffeient sides of the center, whose position will be given by hence finding Q
;

(2)

=
r is

p
because

>

P,

whence there

is

no

apse.
-'

m
317. Con.
2.

=
2

^r
>m
0.

which gives two apses, r being and their position is found from
This
is

because

is

<

and

<

done
.

also

sin. p,

by the equation P = ~~ or sin.

9

p being the L. required. Ex. When n = 3, and

m =
*

1,

we have

(4.

313)

P= T
.-.

sin.

P = -y
known property of the
logarithmic spiral.
or ^
C

.-.

is

constant, a

318.

To find when

the body reaches the center of force.

g
;

Put
Ex.

in the equations to the Trajectory involving p,

s
1.

=
=

o.
it is

When

3, in all the five cases

found that

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
and
6

g-H

x.

Ex.
latter

2.

When

5 in the particular case of 315, the former value of

becomes impossible, being the logarithm of a negative quantity, and the

is

GO

319.

To fold

whe?i the Trajectory has

If at an apse for

CD

an asymptotic circle. the velocity be the same as that in a circle at

if

the

same distance (166), or

and

when
co

=
P
\ve also

have

P
then
it is

d_P d

clear there

320.

Examples are in To find the number of revolutions from an apse to g oo a when g = p or at an apse, and Let tf be the value of d
00
.

an asymptotic circle. hypothesis of 315.

is

d" \\hen

Then
2 T

the

number of revolutions

required.

Ex.

By 313,

\\e

have

~
in
1 i

'

^
1

*
let

Vm
/

-S be an hyperbola whose equation, x being

321. COR. 3. First measured from C, is

V R

Then
X
But

_/ydx
8

/y dx =
~"

/ dx
a
A/ T

(x

a
5

2 )

TZ
Q

(x*

Voi,

I.

242

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.
9 2

= b V (x -x
/
/

o 2

a2 ) '
2

b rj -- /dx V (x
/
/

a*

a2 ) '

9\

=
and

b
a

/9 xWx
,
v

o, 2
) '

abl.

x 4-V

(x
*

b /*

a
2

/ J -77-5 i\
a
) -

d x

V(x?

a2 )

sr

V /V b VCR = ^h l.^-^
q

4-

\/

U
}

2\

(1)

Again
subtangent

- ^,X (29)
X we have

=
and substituting
for

X
(

in

1)

' v (2)

being a constant quantity. 322. Hence conversely

and

differentiating (17)

we get

d u

"

"" __*__.
tf

and again

differentiating (d

being constant)

^1 v ~
H
<l
tf

U
4
.\

Hence (139)

ps V 2
322.
in

would appear that the body must proceed from i. e. that V is an a direction perpendicular to C V apse.

By

the text

it

From

(1) 322,

we

easily get

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
2~

243

and since generally

22tU
4

a a

.-.
^iT'T^T'* <'-*')
which
is

(1)

another equation to the trajectory involving the perpendicular

upon the tangent.

Now

at

an apse

and substituting
which shows

in equation (1)

we

get easily

=
V
to

be an apse.

OTHERWISE.

Put d
324.

0, for

is

then

==

max. or min.

The
from

With a proper velocity."] velocity with which the body must be projected from
v d v

is

found

g F d

325. Descend to the

s

center'].

When
323) and

0,

326. Secondly,
center

let

= VR

(1.

oo

(2. 321).

S be an

ellipse,

whose equation referred

to the

is

Then

VCR=
and
as above, integrating
,
,

+/_ydx

/dx V (a_x) =
.
oN

-4-by parts, x V (a*

x a)
-'

a5

f T/V(a

dx
,

Q2

844

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIII.

("IZ^L!)
2

+ ^f sin +2 V sm

-, *
-

-X

2V

Also

dy
and
/ = N. V C R = a b N ( 1 54*L.
.'.

_ sin.-

)..

sin.

i l

a
p

cr

2
a ib
/
(

2
sm.

a
"

2
2
a f b
=r

\
t N/
)

cos.

N
(2)

arid

s c.

^
F

..........
in 139,

Conversely by the expression for

we have

327.
or put

To Jin d when
d

the body is at

an

apse, either proceed as in 323,

0.

By
17

/r.^ i (27) d. sec. ' v

sin.

=
=

^ x

sin.
5 ^

cos.

cos.

or

0=
that
is

the point

is

an apse.
velocity of projection
is

328.
in 324.

The proper

easily

found as indicated

329. Will ascend perpetually and go off to

infinity."}

From

(2) 327,

we

learn that

when

&

aTTN
also that

__ "~

* 2
;

pis co

can never

0.

BOOK L]
330.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
the force
is

245
to
centrifugal, the

When

changed from centripetal

sign of its expression (139) must be changed. 331. PROP. XLII. The preceding comments together with the Jesuits' notes will render this proposition easily intelligible.

The

expression (139)

or rather (307)

p
iii

"

*~

_P

which P and are given, will lead to a more direct and convenient resolution of the problem. It must, however, be remarked, that the difference between the first
part of Prop.

XL1. and

this, is that ilie

force itself
is, if for

is

and only
in
latter,

law of force the former p is given,

the

in the latter.

That

given in the former n "~ ! instance F A* g ,

in the latter not.

But

since

is

given in the

we have

i*

from 304.

SECTION

IX.

332. PROP. XLIII.

ike

same orbit quiescent] that is, To adjust the angular velocity of the orbit, and centripetal force so that the body may be at any time at the same point in the revolving
center of force
',

in

To make a body move ilic same way as in

in

an

01 bit

revolving about

the

orbit as in the orbit at rest,

and tend

to the

same

center.

may tend to the same center (see Prop. II), the area of the new orbit in a fixed plane (V C p) must a time a area in the given orbit (V C P); and since these areas begin together their increments must also
That
it

be proportional, that

is

(see fig.

next Prop.)

CPxKRcxCpxkr
But
k r = C k x and C K = C k
.-.

^-

and

C P = C p,

L
L.

and the angles

VC
.-.

P,

KCP a kCp V C p begin together

ex

VCP

L.

V C p.
Q3

*4<3
*

A COMMENTARY ON
in order that the centripetal force in the

[SECT. IX.

Hence
it is

new

orbit

may

tend to

C,

necessary that

.VCp ocz_VCP.
Again, taking always

CP= Cp
: :
:

and

VCp VCP

G F
:

being an invariable ratio, the equation to the locus of p or the orbit in fixed space can be determined; and thence (by 137, 139, or by Cor. 1, 2, 3 of Prop. VI) may be found the centripetal force in that locus.
:

G F

333. Tojlnd the orbit in fixed space or the locus Let the equation to the given orbit V C P be

<2/'p.

where

= C P, and = V C
&

P, and f means any function

then that of

the locus

is

which

will give the orbit required.

OTHERWISE.

Let

p'

be the perpendicular upon the tangent in the given

;

orbit,

and p

that in the locus

then

it is

and similar triangles

(see fig.
:

the incremental figures easily got by drawing that Prop. XLIV)

: : :

KR

F G k r kr pr :: p V pr :PR:: 1 1 PR :KR: V (g
: : :

(g

p
a
:

p'

p
/8

whence
1:
1

::F.p Vfe

):Gp Vfe

p)

and

334. Ex.
its

1.

Let the given Trajectory be the

ellipse with the force

focus

then
'

b2

=a.(l
2
)

2
)

and therefore

n2 P

_ __blG'J*rt)_el "b^G P' + F*(2af

2

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
_

247

and
g

a.(l-c') __
C COb.
f ,,-

+
is
2

7F~T <M
x

'

Hence

since the force

(139)

P V
2

tn* +
2

/d'u

")

and here we have

a
( 1

e cos.

-~

2 = Q H--T^TTi F a G (1
2

~x

c-)
g

G
g

f-^-o 2

and again

differentiating, See.

we have
"

But

+ + u _ "d"^ Ga(l e) if 2 R = latus-rectum we have

d
2

G7

F" X

'

..

the force in the

PV "

new

orbit
2

is

(F ~
let
(0')

R G'
=

RF

) '

335. Ex. 2.

Generally
=. f

the equations to the given trajectory be

and
Tlien since

^ >

ar +
,

d'u

= F d*u + G^inr*
2

^ F x G
2

/d 2 u

\3T*

+
named

and

if

the centri}Detal forces in the given trajectory and locus be

,

X,

by 139 we have

gX' "" F* _ G2 P V%
?

gX
1
J/ 2

G-F'
x f

1
*

Q-l

248

A COMMENTARY ON
X' ..^
.

[SECT. IX.

P V
2

/F X
2

fT

_F
o
if

4, T-

1
3

Also from

(2.
1

333) we have

_ -

FJ X 1_ T? 2

T~
G*
X
g
j

,.

.-.

by 139

gX' _Ffg_X p/ y p y
2
a
>

,
T"

G'-F
Q
<

1
j

the same as before.

This second general example includes the

&c. of the text.
836.

first,

as well as Prop.

XLIV,
diall

Another determination of the force tending

to

and which

make

the body describe the locus of p.

First, as before,

to C, the ratio

L.

VCP

we must show that in order to make the force L V C p must be constant or = F G.

: :

tend

Nextj since they begin together the corresponding angular velocities

w,
ta>'

of

P,

Cp

are in th-n

same
:

ratio
;

i.

e.

&/

*.

G.

Now

from the angular motion of the

in order to exactly counteract the centrifugal force which arises orbit, we must add the same quantity to
f

the centripetal force. Hence if p, given orbit and the locus, we have

<p

denote the centrifugal forces in the

X'

=X+

<?'

being the force in the given orbit.

But (210)
p

= P V
2

-5
e

and
cr

when

is g

given.
...

?>

?
2

a/

^=
rj

t
2

p y

r p2

G- = P
5
-

V -- x G' x ^ ^
8

A x-L
TT
1

.....

(1)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
P V
2
2

219

or
/
.

u
2

P V
2

2
-

\f

g
837. PROP.
also

XLI V. Take

p, u

k similar and equal

:

to

VP

and

VK

k r u V C p V C P. C P = p c, we have Then p r = P R. Then Resolve the motions P K, p k into P R, R K and p r, r k. R K (= r k) r m ^ V C P L. V C p when the centripetal forces P R, p r are equal, the body and therefore
r
: : :

since always

would be

at in.

But

if

p
and

C
n

p*C k
k

V C

V C P

C
Hence

= C

the body will really be in n.

the difference of the forces
___ ~"~

is

in

k X

m
p

rn s __ (in r """
t

r)

(m

r)

in t

But

since the triangles

C
r

k,

n are given,

K
..

cc

m
TS

cc

T^

Cp
1

m
P

oc

9 2

m
k

Again

since

Ck:pCn:fPCK:pCn::VCP:VCp
:
:

by construction
in ultimately

:*p

p C

.*.

C
t

=
2

Cm
Consequently

and

n ultimately passes through the center.

in

=
oc

C
1

p ultimately

and

j^

250

A COMMENTARY ON
OTHERWISE.

[SECT IX.

338.

By

336,

X'

X=

<ff

P V --

~
n.

F*

339.

To

trace the variations

of sign

qfm

If the orbit

move

in consequentia, that is in the

same direction

as

P,

the
that

new
is

centrifugal force

would throw the body farther from the

center,

or

Cmis>CnorCk m n positive.
is

Again, when

the orbit

than twice that of

Therefore

projected in antecedcntia with a velocity the velocity of C p is less than that of C P. P,

is

<

C m is
or

<Cn
negative.
is

mn
C

is

Again, when
twice that of
velocity of

the orbit

projected in antecedentia with a velocity P, the angular velocity of the orbit just counteracts the

P, and

mn =
when

0.
is

And

finally,

the orbit

>

vel.

of

P, the velocity of

Cp

projected in antecedentia with a velocity is C n, or is vel. of C P or C

>

>

mn

is

positive.

OTHERWISE.

By

338,
in

oc

p'

f>

a
But
/

*/

'

w2

W being
+
or

W
2
co

the angular velocity of the orbit.

.-.

11

+ 2 wW+ W a+ 2 + W

being used according as

is

in consequentia or antecedentia.

BOOK
Hence

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
is
;

251

m n is positive or negative according as W positive, and nega&c. &c. That or negative and < 2 u. tive and > 2 w and = 2 w, m = 0. Therefore, &c. Also when W negative Let D be the difference of the forces in the orbit and in 340. COR. the locus, and f the force in the circle K R, we have mn zr D: f mk X ms rk mT 2 kc r k (rn r + r k) (m r " r k)
is,

is

1.

"

2k

m "

c
:

2kc

::

mr G
2 '

k
:

r
2
.

341. COR.

2.

In the

ellipse with the force in thefocus^

-i-

*voe

have

v/ X
For (C

A~2

being put

+ = T)
:

KG
Do.

RF

2
*

A1
in circle
:

Force

at

V
in Ellipse
:

V /2

p
2
2

-pry/

"

'

'

2
: :

It
:

T
F
2

Also

in Circle

m n at V m n at p at V
:

T R F G
2
:
-

7=^.J

A
A 2
:

FA
Hence

at

XT

IT in ellipse
*

at

TF A
4.

Al>

RG
V-

~
^~g

At A

R F

2
,

we have

in ellipse at

V =

^
!

F*

and
,

= RG

RF

'

and

X = X + mn
x

F*
see 834.

RG

RF

252

A COMMENTARY ON
OTHERWISE.

[SECT. IX.

342.

By

336,

X'
But

= X + ?1Xg

~-^=^ x
1"

4
3

and
2

L L = ~A* =
2

II

M (157)
g

~ X'~
/

x
2

-n
3

34^3.

COR.

3.

Jw ^Ae

ellipse with the force in the center.

F A

RG

RF

For here

and the force generally a p-^- (140)

/-Force in ellipse at
-B

Force

in circle at

)F

in circle

n
n

at

V
p p

T R G
:

\m
/.

at

m
ni

at

~,-3

-^-3
,

1^

in ellipse at V

FO
at
: :

"
.

T) K
:

~i

n -

(jr

li
-r-

"I?

17 r

'

^^

..

assuming

in ellipse at

P =

F A
2

-TJ^-

>

we have

F
and

in ellipse at

V = ?^ x T
2

.*.

m n = RG

RF
^
3

/.

X +m

n a

&c.

OTHERWISE.

Q .. 344.

Y X =

&

55

and

P V2
2

4 (Area of Ellipse) -~

g
2

^ g( Period)
rn
;

g^Penotl)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
X'

353

Therefore by 336

ft t

ft

a* b'
*e
'

G '~
b*

F2

4
F
2

x (G
2

TF"
315. COR.
4.

*
let

l^T"

RG

RF

Generally

fo?

the force at P,

V
TJT-,

V,

R the

radius of curvature in V,

V =

T, &c. Mew

X'ax+ V^G:-^RJJ
For
in orbit at

in circle at
at

T
F
2

V {F n at V in
..

mn
in

::
: :

G
T
2
'

2
3

F2

n
n

3
:

in orbit at

in

yF
:
:

-^,7

V R.

/.

since

by the assumption

in orbit at

V V n ~r. F

...mn
and

L = Vll(G

F
2

OTHERWISE.
after 336, where it must be observed the indeterminate quantity V in this corollary. the same as The equation to the new orbit is (333) 346. COR. 5.

This may better be clone

is

not

+
p'

(G

_
2

F )p /2

belonging to the given orbit.

Ex.

Let the given

orbit be a

common parabola.

Then

and the new force

is

obtained from 336.

254
Ex.
2.
is

A COMMENTARY ON
Let the given
orbit be

[SECT. IX.
1

any one of Cotes

Spirals, whose general

equation

Then

the equation of 333 becomes

a2

which being of the same form as the former shows the locus
in

to

be similar

each case to the given

spiral.

This
(see

is

also evident from the law of force being in each case the
viz.

same

336)

_
oc

I*

P 2 V*
8

F
G*

_i

!*

Ex.

3.
4.

Ex.

If the given orbit be a circle, the new one Let the given trajectory be a straight line.

is atao.

Here

p' is constant.

Therefore

2
'"
,

G*
F~
2

,.

the equation to the elliptic spiral, &c. &c.

Ex.

5.

Let the given

orbit be

circle

with the force in

its

circumference.

Here

and we have from 333

p
Ex.
6.

""

4r 2 F

__
+
(G
2

'

)^

Let the given orbit be an

ellipse with force in the focus.

Here

p"
and
this gives

=
~

2 a

G
F*g(2a

g*

~e)

b 2 (G

F4

)'

BOOK
347.

I.]

NEWTON'S PUINCIPIA.
the points of contrary flexure, in the locus put

255

To find

dp =
e

0;
2 2

and

this gives in the case of the ellipse

'

-k F ~G - a F1

OTHERWISE.
In passing from convex to concave towards the center, the force in the locus must have changed signs. That is, at the point of contrary flexure, the force equals nothing or in this same case

F A
'

RG A = * x
-f
~~

RF =
2

(F
2

G)
G
2
8

^!
a

F
'

And

generally by (336)

we have

in the case of a contrary flexure

which
348.

\vili

give

all

the points of that nature in the locus.

To Jind

the jwints where the locus

and given Trajectory

intersect

one another.
It is clear that at
g

such points

=
0'

',

and
/~i

tf

W being any

WT+
6

integer whatever.

But
Q

~
r*

= m

This
349.

is

To Jin d

independent of either the Trajectory or Locus. the number of such intersections during an entire revolution
Since
is

of

P.

W
Or
the
is

cannot be

>

2 T

< in +
.-.

2
is

and
is

also

<m

< 2 m.
m
or

number required

the greatest integer in 2

G
.

-^-

This

also independent of either Trajectory or Locus.

250
350.

A COMMENTARY ON
To Jtnd
the

[SECT. IX.

number and position of the double points of the Locus,

it

e.

of those points where

cuts or touches itself.

its
;

Having obtained the equation to the Locus find whether double, triple, &c. by the usual methods

singular points or more simply,

consider the double points which are owing to apses and pairs of equal values of C P, one on one side of C and the other on the other, thus

given Trajectory being symmetrical on either side of V W, let be the point in the locus correspondand produce ing to W. Join C

The

W
V

it

Then it is indefinitely both ways. clear that is an also that the apse ;

angle subtended

by

v'

x'

is

*r

=ww+

/L

VC

y',

w
f*

being
a'\
(this

the greatest whole

number

in

-^

supposes the motion to be in consequentia). Hence it appears that wherethere is a double point or an apse, and ever the Locus cuts the line C

also that there are

y^

-f

such points.
e. let

Ex.

1.

Let

-=7
jb

i.

the orbit

move

in co?isc-

Then L. the velocity of C P. quentia with a velocity C y' 0, y' coincides with V, and the double points

are y' V, x' and The course of the Locus the figures
1, 2, 3, 4.

W.

is

indicated by the order of

Ex.

2.

Let

~ =

3.

Then
4, 5, 6.

the Locus resembles this figure, J, 2, 3, which showing the course of the curve in

V,

x',

A,
3.

are double points and also apses.

Ex.

Let

~ = r

/'i

4.

Then
Its five

this figure sufficiently traces the

double points,

viz.

V,
r*\

x',

A, B,

Locus.
are

also apses.

Higher

will give the Locus integer values of -p

BOOK 10
still

NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA.
If
-j,

257

more complicated.

be not integer, the

the figure will be as in the first of this article,

double points lying out of the line

1^1

V.

More-

over

if

^ r

be

less

than

1,

or

if

the orbit

move

in

antecedentia

this

varied, but not greatly.

sities

method must be somewhat These and other curio-

hence deducible, we leave to the student. 351. To investigate the motion of (p) when the
force being in the focus, moves in antewith a velocity velocity of C IP in

ellipse, the

cedent ia

consequent in.

Since in this case

=
.-.

(333) also

p
or the Locus
is

=
C
V.

the straight line

Also (312)

=
Hen re
v d v
,

At

II

v a A

d
i

a
,

r
la

R
s

d
r~

.-.

v*

oc

r
.

r
,
.

(where

axis major ^

--

;)

and the body

stops

when

or

when
g

c.

Hence then
3
to

tlie

body moves

in a straight line

V, the force increasing

it

of the latus-rectum from the center,

when

max.

Then

it

decreases until the distance

vails,

<^

or R.

Here the

centrifugal force pretill

but the velocity being then

VOL.
T

max. the body goes forward

the

258
distance

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. IX.
it
is

the least distance

when v

and afterwards

repelled

and so on
352.

in infinitum.

ToJin d when the velocity in the Locus Since in either case

max. or min.

d.v
and

=z2vdv =

v d v
.-.

X'

= =
""

X'

tl

.-.

(336)

p y
2

Q.
P\
'

2
~

_F
Y^ F
o 2

1
^>

-A- *J"

g
Ex. In the
2

~~~

ellipse with the force in the focus,

we have

KG

RG

..-

RF _ .
2

__

b2
,

F2
v^

G.

If

G =
F =

0, v ==

max. when

&

or

when P

is

at the extre-

mity of the latus-rectum.

If
lat.

2 G, v

max. when

= R
///^?

*
.

^Ts

= | R =
or

-J-

rectum.

353.

To ^^^

tu/^w
0,

/7/e

force X' /w

Locus

=
F2

?wa^r.

Put d

X =
7

which gives
d
,

(see 336)

v ^L =

P V
2

2
rrr,
1<

1
-i

g
Ex. In the
ellipse

X=
and (157)

f
_//-

P y2 __
g
..

zr

2 __ F

3RG
3R

d?

RF

de

which gives

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

259

Hence when

G = v = A
When
$

max. when
0.

=
~ in
2

R
.

ti

R, and

G =

X A ~ R
When F = 2 G, then city of C p
;

"

Then T* F
R~
3

or the ellipse

moves

consequentia with \ the velo-

X =
?

max. when
3

_ ~~

R
'

4
~

G^
~~4

JCV
2

__ ~~ J)

351. COR.
offoicc

6.

not in

//,

Since the given trajectory is a straight line and the center this force cannot act at all upon the body, or (336)

X =
Hence
in this

0.

case

_ X - P'V
where

-- x
is

G*-F
T?^

?
V
P.

the given uniform velocity along In this case the Locus is found as in 34?6.
If the

P = C V

and

355.
is

given Trajectory

a circle,

it is

clear that the

Locus of p

likewise a circle, the radius-vector being in both cases invariable.

356. PUOP.
the

XLV.

The

orbits

(round the same center offorce) acquire

by which they cue described at equal

same form, if the centripetal

f

01 ces

altitudes be rendered pwportional.'}

Let

and f be two

forces,
f
y

then

if at all

equal altitudes

QC

the orbits are of the

same form. d2
1
1

For (46)
?

FP
1

S
1

P x QT>

*
*"'

dT' d
1

cU
<1

d
<i

<r

and
-

/i

//

360

A COMMENTARY ON
&

[SECT. IX.

But they begin together and therefore

tf

and
!

Hence

it is

clear the orbits have the

same form, and hence

69 0'

is

also sug-

gested the necessity for

making

the angles

proportional.
find

Hence then

7 ,

and

X being given,

we can

such as shall ren-

done approximately by considering the given fixed orbit nearly a circle, and
circle.

der the Trajectory traced by p, very nearly a

This

is

equating as in 336. To Jind the angle between the apsides when 357. Ex. 1. In this case (342)

is

constant.

X'alaiJ.^^+^GlziM!.
Now making
equating,
g

= T
3

x,

where x
2
2

is

indefinitely diminishable,
2
2

and

we have

(T

x)

=F T F =T 3T
3

x x
8

+RG + 3Tx
2

RF
x
a 3

and equating homologous terms

(6)

T =F
3

T+RG
2

RF = F
R

X (T

and

F2 2
"'

3T

F*

RF IT~ T __ T R ~ _ 3 R T R
2
}

- TJ -

T
2

_ JT__ T ""
3

R _

"""

3Jl_
3

_2

=
since

-nearly

= T nearly. Hence when F = 180 = R

is

the angle between the apsides of the Locus in which the force 358. Ex. 2. Let X' a g n 3 . Then as before

is

constant.

(T

x)

=F

(T

x)

+ RG*
2

RF
1

and expanding and equating homologous terms

T =F T+
2

RG

RF

BOOK L]
and

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
F =
2

261

nT
2

1
.

But since

nearly = R T n- = G G - 1 _ F~* "n"

]

'*

and when F

* 7 /

=
1,

0=-, V
we have

T
n

Thus when n

=
*

=
n

V4 =
=
11

cr

<T

lf

=
=
-

When

3 3

=
=

1,
l

2,

and 7
}
4?
,

-^

=
2T

127.

16'.

45*.

When B

} 4
3

=
n
.

and 7

360.

359. Let X'

Kpm a ug
x)

J. ^ . -- Cg
f

Then
x)
n

h.(T

+ c(T
(T

= F*.(T
R)

x)+ B.(G
f

and expanding and equating homologous terms we get R G^ bT m + cT n = F 2

and But

bm T "- +
1

T"- = F%
1

R
b

being nearly

=
1
1

T, we have
1

T
2 a

"-

T"- = G

'""

G ~ _
F
is

b Tmirin

+
1

T"

+~c n

T"""-

\\hieh

more simply expressed by

_ _J>J^!__C T "" mb Tm n cT Tlien we putting T = 1.

!

have

G "" _
2

b+
m
b

c
11

and when

F =

360. COR.

1.

Given the

L.
:

between the apsides to Jind the force.

Let n

360
180

2 7
*r
:

ButifX'oc

p- 3

It

262

A COMMENTARY ON
"
P

[SECT.

IX

=m
OC p

'

n2
J\.

m2

Ex.

1.

If

1,

as in the ellipse about the focus. 2. If n : 363 : 360 : :

X'
3.

xl20v* ~
oc

gUSl)

If

X/

""IT* T
2

And

so on.

Again

if

X'

oc

-1

and the body having reached one apse can never reach another.
p
^
i

V
.*.

= VI

the body never reaches another apse, and since the centrifugal force
3
5

<*

if

the

body depart from an apse and

centrifugal force be

>

centri-

petal force, then centrifugal is always will continue to ascend in infinitum.

>
<

centripetal force

and the body

Again
fugal
is

the centripetal force, the centrian apse the centrifugal be force and the body will descend to the center. centripetal always
if at

<

The same

is

true if

X'

oc

and

in all these cases, if

centrifugal

centripetal

the

body describes a
2.

circle.

361. COR.

First let us

compare the

force -r-2

c A, belonging to

the moon's orbit, with

JL2

A *
,

KG

RF
A
3

Since the moon's apse proceeds, (n m)

is

positive.

BOOK
.'.

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.
A
does not correspond to n

263
does not correspond

and

..

'A-

10

F2
A"'2

Now
1
-;

A A

oc

A
A
_

c
3

A a
4

b A ra --

.-.

X'
...

oc

AT^T"- 3 a A G2- 3
-

__ 2
A
3

_
1
"

RG

RF ~ _
2

4c

A
1

+
an

3 c

R
1

A*
n

F _ " A ~"
2

4 c
~

AT 2
3 c

A^

and
in n

R r-^ A
-

Hence

also

362.

To determine
Let

the angle between the apsides generally.

(A) meaning any function whatever of A. are nearly circular, put

......
Then
for Trajectories
3 2

which

A
.-.

f.

A = F A + R (G A
3

""

or

f.(T
But expanding
f

x)

= F

(T

x)

+ R(G

2 )

(T
u

x)

by Maclaurin's Theorem (32)

x)

(T

=U

+ U''^
,

&c.

IL

Sec.

being the valuer of to

u, -r

d x

d x

-,

fl

&c.

when x

0,

and

therefore

independent

of x.

Hence

comparing

homologous terms (6) we have

*

U = F T + R U' = F
2

(G

R4,

264

A COMMENTARY ON
Also since

[SECT. IX.

R = T nearly U = TG G* _ U
2

F
Hence when F
7

T.U'
T,

"

(1)
is

the angle between the apsides

= U =

U
(2)

N
naking Ex. 1. Let

U'
c

T =

1.

(A)

=
__ ""

Am +
i

An =
n
C

Then
d u
dfx

Hence

since

m A= T
s

m-i

when x

G _
2

Tm +
b b

T"

or

G
F
and
7
as in 359.
s

"~

+ c + n

*Vmb+
b

b+
+

Ex.

2.

Let

fA)
ll

= ""

c
l

A
-t-

+
n
c
/

A +
r
1

&c.

d~x
.-.

bA

m~

V"r

4-

re \ r -

8cc.

U = bT m
G
2

+cT+eT
nc
n

+
r e
r

&c.

and

T
or

X U'

= mbTm +
m

T +

T'

&c.

bT 4-cT +eT +
b ihb

&c.

+c+

+f+

&c.

__

when

T =

sf + &c.

1.

Also
*

b
in

n c

+ +

r c

..... + .....

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPI A.
=
aA

265

1 * 3. Let Ex. o Let --A3"

u.

Here

(17)

j= AaA x (3+ Ala)

Hence

U = T U = T G __ ~~ F T
7

2
3

aT a T

x
(3
1

(3

+ Tla) + T a)
1
1

'

(3

+ T

a)

and when

T =

Hence

if

e the hyperbolic base, since

1,

we have

*=
Ex.
4.

V
=
c A

Let f (A)

u.

Then
d u
IT

.-.

'

and
r

r
'

= T G _
U'
2
*

-'f

Lx.

,.

o.

r Let f(A)

-j^-/

sin.

A A.
3

.-.

= f (A) = A U = T sin. T
u
J

iin.

and
U ! d x
C
.-.

z=
z=

3A
3

sin. sin.

A + A

cos.
cos.

T
*

U'
2

T+T

~
___

3sin.T
/

+ T cos. T sin. T

266*

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

IX

IfT

_*
7

=
"

T
n

363.

To prove

that

Am+ cA

= b.(l x) m + c. (1 x) = b + c (m b + n c) x + &c. \ = b I c (l mb + HC x r &c / + \ b-fc

mb ~
-f-

+
I

c'

=r b +
364.

A
c

mb+
b

n o
'

+r

To Jind
(n

the apsides voltcn the cxccntricity

is uifinitcty

great.

Make
2 q
:

1)
a.
it

velocity in the cinvc

velocity in the circle of ihe

same distance

Then

(306)

easily

appears that when

<*

li

and

gives the equation to the apsides, viz.

whose
a (and

roots are

when n

is

odd) and a positive and negative quantity (and \\hen

quantity).

is

odd another negative Now when q =

two of whose roots are 0, 0, and the roots above-mentioned consequently arise from q, which will be very small when q ib.

Again

since

when q and

are both very small

J

~V

=0

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S
and
g

PRINCIPIA.

267

= +

q.

.*.

the lower apsidal distance nearer approximation is

is

q.

Hence
ILJ
J

V
where
contains q rz a a q). (b
(3 4

q a a (V

-*

d
j

IB)

Q
=
b
to

&c. &c., and this must be integrated from

But since
stant,

in the variation of

fiom b to

c,

Q
l .

may be
e
.

considered con-

we

get
&

= =

sec.

p
l
.

--

a q

+C=
,

sec.

and
T
,

3cr
,

5 *
,

&c. ultimately

the apsidal distances required.

Next

let

F
Then

oc

-L and

f n n

14-

again, make v v in a circle of the

:

same distance

(n

1)

and we get (306)

dJ
and

n-t

,n

qUdg
2
..

for the apsidal distances

which gives (n

>

and

<

3)

Hence

_
""""

cj

^Q'^^^^^rzrTr^a 3 -

11

268
and

A COMMENTARY UN
3
"

SECT. IX.

*
2

3 *

qa
Hence, the orbit being

indefinitely excentric,

when
. .

F
for

oc

we have

= ~
iO

Foe

any number

_ <

number between

"

'

'

'

and 2

T 2

But by the principles of and F a g n finitely small,

7

this

9th Section

when

the excentricity

is iiulc-

^(n +

3)

(see 358), and

when

a
7

r
IF

_ ""
is

Wherefore when n

>

increases as the excentricity from

When F a

is

the

same
q

for all excentricities.

When F a

7 decreases as the excentricity increases from

cr IT

vir=io
which
is

to
2-

also true for

oc

BOOK

l.j

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
1

269

When F

>i <2

7 decreases as the excentricity increases from

v

to

V~(3

n)

iT

When F oc
7

1
=
or.

When F oc

7 increases with the excentricity from

V
If the

to

(3

n)

n'

above concise view of the method of finding the apsides in this of the one hi the text, should prove obscure particular case, the opposite to the original paper from which it is drawn, viz, the student is referred
;

a very able one in the

Part

I,

p. 179, by

Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Vol. L Mr. Whewell.

our remarks upon
this Section

3G5.

We

shall terminate

by a brief dis-

cussion of the general apsidal equations, or rather a recapitulation of rethe details being developed in Leybourne's Mathematical Repository, sults

by Mr. Dawson of Sedburgh. It will have been seen that the equation of the apsides m B=

is

of the form
(1)

x"_Ax

the equation of Limits to which

is

(see
1

nx n-i_ m Ax
and gives
i

Wood's Algeb.) "- =

1

(2)

(m A ) ir
If

\ n

ni

n and

are even and

positive, -shas

two values, and the number

of real roots cannot exceed 4 in that case.

Multiply (1) by n and (2) by x and then we have A xm nB =

(m

n)

which gives
i

and
(1)

this will give two other limits if A, have two real roots they must each

be positive and

even

and

if

=: x.

270
If m,

A COMMENTARY ON
n be even and B,
so and

[SECT. X.

positive, there will

be two pairs of equal roots.

Make them

we
(m

get

/ n x n) " * ----n n-m which will give the number of real roots. (1). If n be even and B positive there are two real roots. (2). If n be even, m odd, and B negative and (M), the

coefficient to

An

negative, there are two ; otherwise none. (3). If n, m, be even, A, B, negative, there are no real roots. (4). If m, n be even, B negative, and positive, and (M) positive there
,

are four real roots

(5).

otherwise none.

If

(6).

m, n be odd, and (M) positive there will be three or one real. If m be even, n odd, and A, B have the same sign, there will be
If

but one.
(7).
differs

from
If

be even, n odd, and A, B have different B's, there will be three or only one.
"

bigns,

and M's sign

(8).

"

+ Anm

13

then

is

positive,

and

it

must be

>

B, and the whole must be positive.

If

x n_Ax m
the result
is

+B=

negative.

SECTION

X.

drawn to a plane For since upon it. Q C S = right 21, any line Q S which subtends it must be > than either of the others in the same triangle, or S C is <C than any other S C.
366.

PROP.

XL VI.

The

shortest line that can be

fall

from a given point

is

the perpendicular let

A
S

familiar application of this proposition

is

this

367. Let
let it

Q be a sling with
S

a body

Q at the end ofit>

2

mid by

the

hand

be whirled so as to describe a right cone whose altitude is S C, base the circle whose radius is C; required the time of a revolution.

and

Let S

C=

h,

Q=

1,

Q Q C = r = VI

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

271

Then

if F denote the resolved in the direction part of the tension S or that part which would cause the body to describe the circle P Q, C,

and gravity be denoted by

1,
:

we have
r
:

But by 134, or Prop. IV,

FXP'=
*
'

XPJ
(
'

'-T7^=
~~
/s/

7T

the time required. If the time of revolution (P) be observed, then h may be hence obtained. If a body were to revolve round a circle in a paraboloidal surface, whose
axis
is

vertical,

then the reaction of the surface in the direction of the

normal
which
is

will

correspond to the tension of the string, and the subnormal, constant, will represent h. Consequently the times of all such
is

constant for every such circle. XLVII. When the excentricity of the ellipse is indefinitely diminished it becomes a straight line in the limit, &c. &c. &c. 369. SCHOLIUM. In these cases it is sufficient to consider the motion
revolutions

368. PROP.

generating curves.] Since the surface is supposed perfectly smooth, whilst the body moves tli rough the generating curve, the surface, always in contact with the

in the

body, may revolve about the axis of the curve with any velocity whatever, without deranging in the least the motion of the body and thus by ad;

justing the angular velocity of the surface, the any proposed path on the surface.
If the surface

body may be made

to trace

body

a tangential velocity,

were not perfectly smooth the friction would give the and thence a centrifugal force, which would

cause a departure from both the curve and surface, unless opposed by their material and even then in consequence of the resolved pressure a rise or fall in the surface.
;

Hence

it is

clear that the time of describing

is

any portion of a path

in a

surface of revolution,

equal to the time of describing the corresponding

portion of the generating curve. Thus when the force is in the center of a sphere, and whilst this force causes the body to describe a fixed great-circle, the sphere itself revolves with a uniform angular velocity, the path described by the body on the
surface of the sphere will be the Spiral of Pappus.

272
870. PROP.

A COMMENTARY ON
XLVIII and XLIX.
s: 2vers.
: :

[SECT. X.

In the Epicycloid and Hypocycloid9

|s'

2 (R

+ r) R
:

where

s is

any arc of the

of
the globe

curve,

the corresponding one of the wheel,

and

the radius the former

and

r that

of

the wheel, the

sign being used for

and

in the Hypocycloid.

(See Jesuits' notes.)

OTHERWISE.
If

p be the perpendicular

let fall

from

upon the tangent

P,

we

have from similar triangles in the Epicycloid and Hypocycloid

PY: CB:: VY: VC

or
2

p
which gives

+ 2r)

(1)

Now

from the incremental figure of a curve we have generally

ds
(2)

But
P
.-.

=
=R
X

and integrating from

s

= =

0,

when

we

get

Vr

+ Rr

which

is

enunciated. easily transformed to the proportion

propositions of this section shall now be headed by a succinct view of the analytical method of treating the same subject. 371. Generally, body being constrained to move along a given curve by

The subsequent

known forces, required its velocity. Let the body P move along the curve

A, referred
into

to the coordinates x,

originating in

and

let

the forces be
shall

resolved

others

which

act

parallel to x,

y and call the respective Besides these we aggregates X, Y. have to consider the reaction (R) of the

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPTA.

273

tions gives (d

curve along the normal P K, which being resolved into the same direcs, being the element of the curve)

Rds
-3

dx
,

T and

~ j R dry d
T>
s

Hence

the whole forces along x and y are (see 46)

~~

~*~

(Ts

Again, eliminating R, we get

and

But

.-.

v'=2/(Xdx + Ydy)
The
velocity
is

......

(1)

Hence
curve.

it

appears that

independent of the reaction of the

x be

372. If the force be constant and in parallel lines, such as gravity, and vertical then
;

x=
and

-g

Y=
and we have
v*

h being
fall.

the value of x,

= 2/_ gdx = 2g(c x) = 2g(h x) and the height from which it begins to when v =
;

373.

To determine the motion

equation to the curve
,

in

a common
is

cycloid^

when theforce

is

gravity.

The

AP

/2r dy = dx N
,

/-^x
circle.

being the radius of the generating

.%

ds
i

s=

^ dx

/2r
x
S

VOL.

I.

274 and
cj,

COMMENTARY ON
~

[SECT. X.

______

ZZT

x)

x
g

r \

u\

being

0,

when x

h.
is

Hence

the whole time of descent to the lowest point

T =
which also gives the time of an 374. Required the time of an

~
a small circular arc.

oscillation.

oscillation in

Here
y
r
,

= V
V

(2rx
circle,

x 2)
and

being the radius of the

d x

(2 r

x
,1

x
o

r.dt

= V 2g V

(h

x)

dx

V2g
to integrate which, put

V[h
/
J(h

x)(2'rx
dhc

x2
x)}

2
)

(2r

dx
'

thy.

and since

= h sin. = 2 r (1 _ -

0,

2
a

r
2

x
2

=
d),

2r
a
2

h sin. 2 ^

sin.

being

put=

~
3 is

/r

.-.

x
is

Now

since the circular arc

small,

is

small

and therefore

so.

And by expanding

the denominator

we

get

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
m

275

and integrating by parts or by the formula

yd d

sin.
it

--

cos. & sin.

m~

5LH

and taking

from

we

get

/d

&

sin.

Jf d
'

sin.

m-2

the accented^ denoting the Definite Integration from

= 0, to 0=

*
.

In like manner

and so on

to

Hence
y;
ra
.

_ (m-I)(m-

3)

and
77 7~~7~5 J '*/ (i 'V 1

sin.

is

the

same

as

V (1_3*

sin.

2
(?)

~~

^
2

from
t)

whence then

and taking the

first

term only as an approximate value

which equals the time down a cycloidal arc whose radius

If

is

~
^

we

take two terms

we have

+ r?
S2

216
375.

A COMMENTARY ON
To

[SECT. X.

determine the velocity and time in a Hypocycloid, the force ex ^ tending to the center of the globe and

By (370) the equation to the Hypocycloid

P2
_

is

AX

-ry

~^
2

~~.
~
I

_*
tit

-r-\ \

V ^

/
V

Pvy
j

1 2

Jtv

_JR ~
by hypothesis.

e
2

R*_D

v ^

n ^

Now

force tending to the center F, calling the

we have

X=

F x

-,Y =
f

F x yI

..........
But by the supposition

(1)

v=
..v

f*e
8
2

= ^(h
t

..........
2

(2)

Hence
d

ds

v~
s

VR

RV^

VU^

)(h

g)}'

To

integrate

it,

put u

=
t

and

VR
2

D
2 )

du

R Vt*

V
.

(h

u 2)

t= V(R- D
Hence making
^

cos -"

Oscill.

~~2~
Isochronous.

= _ ~

D, we have cr /R2
2

376. Since h does not enter the above expression the descents arc

We also have

it

in another form, viz.

!8~

IfJL

V\R/

J^\
K'/J*

BOOK
If

I.]

Rp =

or

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. force of gravity and R be large compared T IT

common
cycloid.

277
with b,

the

same

as in the

377. Required to Jind the value of the reaction R, when a body strained to move along a given curve.

is

con-

As before

(46)
(it
i

; 2

- -^ X

4T"

i dx

Hence
dyd2x _J_
_j

dxd2J y

v = Xdy

Ydx+Rds
T>

.*.

T? 11 ZZ

Xdy
5 d

Ydx
-{

dyd'x ^ dxd*y i
dt* ds

But

if r

be the radius of curvature, we have (74) d yd

2

dx day

Hence

~ Ydx
A n other
expression
is

Xdy
'

d s 2 r d t
v
r
2

"

~ Y

d x
d
s

Xd

'

+
,

= Y dx dl Xdy -+*
<p

(2)

being the centrifugal force. If the body be acted on by gravity only

R=
or

g
d

y
s

^
r

If the

body be moved by a constant force in the origin of v d x xr nxdy " J

x, y,

we have

Ydx
i

vi Xdy=
J

F = F

t
g

0.

278
for

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. X.

xdy
or

ydx =
T? Xl/

d
iT""

els
.

j-

Fd
s

(4)

ds
378,
cycloid.

+
common

the tension of the string in the oscillation of a

Here
u R - g y+ as e ds + rdt
but
1

2 a

d x

x V/li'

2 a

and
r

2 a

\/ (2 a

x)

J V
-

2 a

li

2 a

^ + V
.

^ a

+
au

2 x

2ax)'
li

When

R =
When
x

2 u

V
2 a

(4a

2 ah)

__ ""

V
g

(2 a ~

h)

=
+
li

/,.

When
gravity.

moreover h

a,

the pressure at

the lowest point

is

g.

379. To Jind the tension when the body

oscillates

in a circular arc by

BOOK L]
Here

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.
d v
d
,

279

xs)
c

d x

s =:

V
c

(2

ex

x 2)

d y dx
r

__ c ~~

R =

,, fe

'

=
When x =

S-

+ --

2 h -

3 x

If

it fall

3 g or h = c. the whole semicircle from the highest point through h = 2 c,

and

U =

5 g
is five

or the tension at the lowest point When this tension 0,

times the weight.

=
=

2 h

3 x

0, or

"-

A
that

body moving along a curve whose plane

is

vertical will quit

it

when

R =
is

when
c
A.
-

+
fy

2 h

and then proceed

380.

to describe a parabola.

of a body upon a surface of t evolution, when acted on by forces in a plane passing through the axis. Referring the surface to three rectangular axes x, y, z, one of which (z)
the motion
is

To Jind

the axis of revolution, another

is

also situated in the plane of ibrces,

and

the third perpendicular to the other two.

to the axis of revolution Z,

Let the forces which act in the plane be resolved into two, one parallel and the other F, into the direction of the

radius-vector, projected

upon the plane perpendicular S4

to this axis.

Then,

S80

A COMMENTARY ON R

[SECT, X.

calling this projected radius g, and resolving the reaction (which also takes place in the same plane as the forces) into the same directions, these components are
Jtt

-|-~ s

d d

R*l d
s

supposing d of / is

= V

(d z

+
F

and the whole force

in the direction

** + Rds
x and
y,

and resolving

this again parallel to

we have

d
-

d *y

_ - - (V _ I
V

d
a. R + R

sJ

dz \

y --

and

Hence we

get

xd*y
and

y d

xdy
xdx

dx

dxd

x + dyd2 y+dzd
d F*

z_ ""

~
d
s

ydy

'

-z-.
Which,
since

xdx +

dy =

Again

dt

""

dp'dt
T-~ is

'

and from the nature of the

through the axis and body,

section of the surface

made by
$.

a plane passing

known

in terms of

Let therefore

dz

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
d l!
(ft
2

281

and we have

d_ll

dt
d
2

'

Also

let

the angle corresponding to

be

0,

then

xdy
and d x
2

ydx =
+
d y
2

+
and

2
,

and substituting the equations

(2)

(3)

become

Integrating the

first
2

we have
d
6

h d

h being the arbitrary constant.

or
(4)

The second
is

can be integrated when 2 F d g 2

Z d

integrable.

Now

if for

F, Z, z

we

substitute their values in terms of

&

the expression will become a function of function of Let therefore

.

and

its

integral will be also n

/(F
and we get

d
2

Z d

z)

= Q

dp
which

dt^

d +1 aV- +
P

dp
d
t its

^-;-n-

= c

- 2Q .......

<*>

gives, putting for

value

Hence

also

If the force be always parallel to the axis,

we have

F =
and
if also

be a constant force, or

if

Z = g
we then have
z

= gz

.......

(8)

282

A COMMENTARY ON
.

[SECT. X.

being to be expressed in terms of 381. Tojind under what circumstances a body mil describe a
surface of revolution.

circle

on a

For

this

purpose
;

it

must always move

COS. &

in a plane perpendicular to the

axis of revolution

&

z will be constant; also (Prop.

IV)

=
__ ~~

X
g

d
'*

cos.

&

&

tU 7
v

d!1
P

Also

= ~d d
_ "

d
'*

dT*

~ _

cos, d
g

Hence

as in the last art.

/ v (1)

If the force be gravity acting vertically along z,

we have

Hence may
382.
circle,

be found the time

of revolution of a Conical Pendulum.

(See also 367.)

determine the motion of a body moving so as not to describe a when acted on by gravity.

To

Here
and

Q =
2

2 g

(k

z)

k being an arbitrary quantity. Also

g

r z

being measured from the surface. = (r .-. g d g

z)

and
1

"7~

n2 IJ 1

14. "f
JL
'

-}^ I %

r~5 T! *

T /.

vl

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
(380)
,

283

Hence

lt

_
Vj2g(k

(i

z). (2

p')f_dj z 2) rz

__ hV

In order that
"" U !*-0 dt

the denominator of the above

must be put
z) (2 r z

=
z
2 )

i.

e.
2

2 g (k
or

which has two possible roots; because as the body moves, it will reach one highest and one lowest point, and therefore two places when

Hence
where a

the equation has also a third root.

Suppose these roots

to be

is

the greatest value of

z,

and

/3

the least, which occur during the

body's motion.

Hence
i t

~V (2 g)

{(a

-d
/)

z
"
.

(z

13)

(y

z)

To

integrate which let

Then
<!<,=

i_

Also

a
.-.

13

= = =

/3

(a

/3)

sin.

anil

y
if

y
(7

{(3
13)

+ (a U

j8)

sin.

*
tf|

*sin.*^,

/a

A COMMENTARY ON
...dt=

[SECT. X.

V2g.
which
is

(y

to

be integrated from z

=
/^

ft to z

that

is

from

=
this

to

-^-

expanded

in the

same way

as in

374

gives

t=
v/2g-( r _]3)
t

V2

'

2.4

"""/ 2

which
Also

is

the time of a whole oscillation from the least to the greatest

distance.

~" lijd

""

hdt
2 r z
z.

and

d is

hence known
^4

g*~ in terms of

383.
axis
is

&0&/ acted on by gravity moves on a surface of revolution whose

;

required to find the between the apsides of the path projected in the plane ofx, y. angle
its

vertical

when

path

is

nearly circular ^

it is

In this case

/Zdz =
and
if at

gz = Q
a,

an apse
o

=
=

we have
(C

2gk)a

h
.-.

C =

~+2g

k.

Hence (380)

Let

= - + a
'

d "
,

7.

BOOK

I.J

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

285

It is requisite to

express the right-hand side of this equation in terms

of a

Now

since at an apse

we have

z= 0, z

=
d

k,

and

=
2

we have

generally
Z

=
=

k
i

+ cU
,

+
.

d^T2

&C

the values of the differential coefficients being taken for w (see 32)

And
d
z

d
or,

= =

p d

=
d

2 p

z p g d d w

oj

d u d p

making
d p
d
2

= =

q d
2 (2p + q^)^d^d<x; = (2 p + q $ g d w values which p and q assume when a =
3
.

And
g

if

py and q

be the

0,

a,

we have

for that case,

Z
Also
1

= =

2 p.a ^

(2p

q,a)a

&c.

?
Hence

/I (a

+ W V =1T* + )
1

T +^
a;

becomes
2 g P/ a' (
(2 p,

q/ a) a

3
.

^+
=

h
cScc.)

2
(

^+

).

But when a body moves

h
in this case.
2

in a circle of radius

a,

we have
h2
will

And when
If

the

p g ga'p, body moves nearly

(1

in a circle,

have

nearly this value.

we put h' =
a

+ ajga'R

we

shall finally

have to put

280

A COMMENTARY ON
when
P/

[SECT.

X.

in order to get the ultimate angle

the orbit becomes indefinitely near

circle.

Hence we may put

h2

= ga'

and

becomes

in
*
.

SSga'p,

which the higher powers of u

ga'q,}* may be

11

&c.

da -

(3 p,

+
T
, P,

q, a)

neglected in comparison of u u

_ -

z^(3_P/_+_q, "J^J
"

a 2 for p = p, + A u again omitting powers above Differentiate and divide by 2 d u, and we have
:

&c.

dw
=

suppose; of which the integral 0, when w

is
&j

is

taken so that

=
N.
g>

= C

sin.

w passes from to its greatest value, and consequently passes from the value a. to another maximum or minimum, while the arc 6
passes from
to
r.

And

VN

Hence,

for the angle

cr

between the apsides we have

A V N =
vhere

or

A =

V N

384. Z/^/ the surface be a sphere and let the path described be nearly a circle ; to Jind the horizontal angle between the apsides. Supposing the origin to be at the lowest point of the surface, we have
z

=
__

d z

V ~

(r

~~-

HOOK

I.I

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
_
2

887

_ *_

(r

a 8 )*

.-.

N =

_3a
is

2
,

Hence

the angle between the apsides

~"

3 a

)'

of a point on a spherical surface is manifestly the same as of a simple pendulum or heavy body, suspended by an inexthe motion tensible string from a fixed point ; the body being considered as a point

The motion

and the string without weight. If the pendulum begin to move in a vertical plane, it will go on oscillating in the same plane in the manner alBut if the pendulum have any lateral motion it will ready considered.

go on revolving about the lowest point, and generally alternately approaching to it, and receding from it. By a proper adjustment of the velocity and direction it may describe a circle (134) and if the velocity when it
;

is

moving

parallel to the horizon be nearly equal to the velocity in a cir-

cle, it will

describe a curve

little

differing

from a

circle.

In this case

we

can find the angle between the greatest and mula just deduced.
Since

leabt distances,

by

the for-

A =
(4 r
if

_3a

=
is

0,

A =

the apsides are 90

from each other, which also ap-

pears from observing that

tion

when

scribes ellipses nearly

very small, the force is of which the lowest point

;

the amplitude of the pendulum's revolunearly as the distance and the body de;

is

the center.

If a

= A =

r,

T
is

180
;

this

is

when

the

pendulum

string

horizontal

and requires an

infinite

velocity.

If a

so that thq string

is

inclined

30

to the vertical

A = ~

=
13

99

50'.

298
If a
2

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

r*
;

so that the string

is

inclined

45

to the vertical

A =
If a
2

tf^/f

=
is

113.

56'.

3 r -j

2
;

so that the string

inclined 60

to the vertical

A =

-^

136

nearly.
its

385. Let the surface be an inverted cone, with

the horizontal angle between the apsides

Let

r be the radius of the circle

: to find a circle. nearly and 7 the angle which the slant side

axis vertical
is

when

the orbit

makes with the horizon.

Then
z

p
q
XT
.-.

= = =

tan.

tan.

N =
A =

3 tan. 7 tan. 7. sec.

*

=
7

3 cos.

"

and
cos.

If 7

60

A =
386. Let
the surface be

o
is c.

an inverted paraboloid whose parameter

c z

2
c

& 6a
.-.

2a
C

N=
AT

4 C

'

2 a

If a

or the body revolve at the extremity of the focal ordinate,

N =
and

BOOK
387.

I ]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
inoves
;

281)

When a body
its

ing to the vertex

on a conical surface, acted on by a force tendmotion in the surface will be the same, as if the sur-

face Were unwrapped, and made plane, the force remaining at the vertex. Measuring the radius-vector (^) from the vertex, let the force be F, and the angle which the slant side makes with the base = y; then
/

p
1

= = ~

tan. 7

tan.
sec.

7
"

also

Q =/(F
Hence (380)
L\ $

z)

= /F'
g

>'.

sec. 7

h d

or putting
h' cos. y for

h d
i)

tf

sec.

7 for

and
%'

cos. 7 for

we have
h'

</

Now

d'

face, and

it

the differential of the angle described along the conical surappears that the relation between 0' and / will be the same as
is
is

in a plane,

case

where a body we have

acted upon by a central force F.

For

in that

and integrating

which agrees with the equation just found.

388.
tion R.

When a body moves on a

surface of revolution, to find the reac-

Take
y d
z, g

the three original equations (380) and multiply and the two first become g
;

them by x d

z,

x d

x d "
t
2

~~

F x d
7

_ R dd

z
s

g
"

x
}

8 y d y d

dt
Voi.
1.

_ -

Fy

~
2

d
ll

"dT'T

290 add

A
these, observing that

COMMENTARY ON
+
y"

[SECT. X.

x'
and we have

d
Also the third
P

_
z

_
T5

d
*

z
s

is

a T5
e
P

-z
r/

! a

+ R
,

dp '
f

2
.

d d
z

Subtract

this,

2 observing that d z 2 2 (x d x 4- y ^ y) d z "*

d
g "

=
d
2

2
?

and we have

d
s.

g
=

eft
g

__ ~

(Z d

F' d

z)

R
2

But

x2
x d
2

y d
(d
g

x d x + y d y 2 2 y + d x + d y
dx2

= r = d = d
g
g

g
a

+
z

d
(P

g'

Hence
2

dT
z

d y 2) d z
g

"

TT^

_ ^

(Z d
s
2

F d z)
d
z
2
.

and

Hence

= R "" Z

Fdz
d
s
2

dgd

z
"

dzd'g
t

d
)

+
Now
if r

(d

x2

be the radius of curvature, we have (74)

r "

__
g

+ dy +
d
s
j

d z2 2 d t d s

and

dx + dy +
2
2
<y

=do
d
s
2

being the arc described.

Hence

_ K - Z

d
g
2

F
3-^

d
2

+ ^j^

+
Here
it is

d
2

dj:

^dT
d
s

"51

manifest that
2

HOOK
is

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
da
2

291

the square of the velocity resolved into the generating curve, and that

-'

The two last the square of the velocity resolved perpendicular to g. terms which involve these quantities, form that part of the resistance
is

which

is

due
this

to the centrifugal force

the

first

term

is

that which arises

fiom the resolved part of the forces.

From

expression we
,
,

know
2

the value of
F' d
e

for

we have,

as before

= C _ =
"
" g-

-f

Zd

/).

Also

"

"

"

dt 2

__ ""

dt"

"p"

Hence
d
t
2

= C
'~

2/(Pd,+
*'
^
*

Ci/ Zd/)

l
\

889. To find the tension of a pendulum moving in a *phei icul surface.

_ ~~
_
r

/
z"")

d~7
d_s

V~(2r/
r /

Hence

_
and hence
plane 390.
\\ith
it is

g g_+_2 k
r

S
L

z)

the

same

as that of the

pendulum

oscillating in a vertical

the same velocity at the same distances.

the
Velocity, Reaction,

To Jind

and Motion of a body upon any

surface whatever.

Let
mal to

R
it

be the reaction of the surface, which is in the direction of a norAlso let f, ', " be the angles which this normal at each point.

T2

292

A COMMENTARY ON
y, z respectively
;

[SECT. X.

mdkes with the axes of x,

ing the resolved parts of

we

shall then have, consider-

d2x
-r
-

R among the forces v T> = X 4- It cos.

s

which act on the point

Jp= Z+R.COS.i"
Now
x, y, z
:

the nature of the surface

is

expressed by an equation between

we suppose that we have deduced from this equation d z = pd x + q dy d z dz and q = -, where p = 1 * dx dy p and q being taken on the supposition of y and x being constants respecwe have for the equations to the normal of the points whose cotively
and
if
,

ordinates are
x, y, z
x'
y'
x',
y',
T!

+p y +
P K

(z'

z)

"

<i (

z/

being coordinates to any point in the normal (see Lncroix,

it

No. 143.)

Hence

appears that
its

if

be the normal,

P
x

G,
z,

P
z

II

projections on planes parallel to

respectively.

The

equation of
x'

PG
p
.

is

(z!

z)

0,

and hence

GN+
and

PN=

GN =
Similarly the equation of

p
is

N.

whence

H N+ q.PN = HN=
And
hence,
cos.

N.

cos.

K P h = Ph
2

V (PN

PK GN + NG~+

UN*)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.
P
(

293

+P +
2

q*)

COs.

e'

= _,

COS.

KPg

=p
2

jjj.

HN
V(PN + NO f"HN
2
2

Whence,
cos.
2
6

since
cos.
2
s'

cos.

"

=
z=

cos.

2 *"

1
(

cos.

2
e

cos.

f')

Substituting these values; multiplying by d x, d y, d z respectively? in and observing that the three equations
;

d
we-

p d x
dyd v r^ ^ d t
*

q d y

=
= , dx + X
r
,
f

have
2

d x d

-f:

+
!

^ d

r .

-f

/d
,

and integrating
-

a
and
If
if this

-s
t

a./

xax +

>

,1

,)

we

by

can be integrated, we have the velocity. take the three original equations, and multiply and 1, and then add, we obtain p, (],

them

lespectively

_
But

d X
,

d y -f-

'

'

(1

pX-

qY

4-

R V
d /

+ p'+
+

)-

=r

p d X

({

Hence
d
?

d x
-'

d p d \ -f d q d

Substituting this on the the value of R, we find

first

side of the

above equation, and taking

R -

X+ Y
<l

dpdx

d q dy

If in the three original equations

differential equations, involving the

we eliminate R, we known forces

T
:J

find two second

X, Y, Z

294
and
p, q,

A COMMENTARY ON
which arc also known when the surface
is

[SECT. X.

known, combining

with these the equation to the surface, by which z is known in terms of x, y, we have equations from which we can find the relation between the

time and the three coordinates.

391.

To find

the path which a body will describe upon a given surface,

when acted upon by no force. In this case we must make

X, Y, Z each = 0. we multiply the three equations of the last Then, (q d z + d y), p d z + d x, q d x p dy and add them, we find,
if

art. respectively

by

(q d z

d y) d

+ (p d z + d x) d (q d z + d y) cos. ^ + (p d z + d x) cos. t + (qdx pdy)cos. ")

2

(q d x

p dy d
)

"

*'

or putting for cos.

cos.

?',

cos. e" their values

Hence,

for the curve described in this case,

we have

(p d z

+ d x) d

y = (p d y

q d x) d

qd z

+d y

x.

to the time.
;

This equation expresses a relation between x, y, z, .without any regard Hence, we may suppose x the independent variable, and d2 x = whence \ve have
(p d
z

d x) d y

"

(p

d y

q d x) d

'-

z.

This equation, combined with

d z

pdx

y,
is left

gives the curve described, where the the surface.

body

to itself,

and moves along

The

curve thus described

is

the shortest line which cairbe drawn from

surface.

one of its points to another, upon the

The

velocity

is

constant as appears from the equation

v2

= 2/(Xdx + Ydy +

Zdz).

By methods somewhat similar we might determine the motion of a point upon a given curve of double curvature, or such as lies not in one plane
when acted upon by given forces. 392. Tojind the curve of equal pressure,
nig by thejcn'ce oj'gravity
',

or that on which a body descend-

presses equally at all points.

BOOK L]
Let

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

295

M be the vertical abscissa

=
y
;

x,

M
s,

the hori-

fH

zontal ordinate

the arc of the curve

r,
;

tire

time

t,

and the radius of curvature at P = when the curve is concave to the axis
reaction at P,

r being positive then R being the

R ~^dT + rd~F
But
if

we have by what has preceded. or d d S2 y

(1)

II

be the height due to the velocity at P, h, we have

II

Also,

if

we suppose d

constant,

we have

(71)

d x

and

if

the coiibtant value of

be

k,

equation (1) becomes

s
.

d
x)
is

d x

dx
'

2 V~(\i

~ V
___

ll

day

t)

dx

TS

5~ 2 s

(li

x)

The

right-hand side

obviously the differential of

hence, integrating

K)

^
C_
.

dy _ a
b
:

If

C =

0,

the curve

g becomes a straight

v (h-x)
line inclined
to the

\~>

horizon,

which obviously answers the condition.

In other cases the curve
is

The

k
sine of inclination
(2),
is
.

V
and
If

a (d x

found by equation d y 2 ) for d s

putting

integrating. we differentiate equation (2),

cJT

being constant, we have

Cdx

dsdx
c
And
if

be positive,

r is positive,

and the curve

T4.

is

concave to the axis.

296

A COMMENTARY ON
curve parallel to the axis, as at C, when
^

[SECT. X.

We have the
when
i

0, that is,

'

when
i

(h

x)

When x
is

increases
;

beyond

this,

the curve approaches the axis, and

^
x
is

negative

it

can never become

<

hence

the limit of

found by making k

g
or

C V(h

x)

X
If

h k

+
is

'

g)
it

k be

< g,

as the curve descends towards Z,

approximates perpe-

tually to the inclination, the sine of

which

k
.

g
If

k
is

be> g

there will be a point at which the curve becomes horizontal.

(2), (3), if

known from

we knew

the pressure or the radius of cur-

is convex to the axis. In this case the part the pressure arising from centrifugal force diminishes the part arising of

vature at a given point. If C be negative, the curve

from

gravity,

and k must be

less

than g.

393. To Jind the curve which aits a given assemblage of curves, so as to make them Synchronous, or descriptible by the force of gravity in the same
time.
c. be curves of the Let A P, A P', A P", same kind, referred to a common base A D, and differing only in their parameters, (or the

of a
==

constants in their equations, such as the radius circle, the axes of an ellipse, &c.)

= x, P (horizontal) Let the vertical A x being connected by an equation y ; y and

a.

involving

The

time

down
x

A P

is

/d
x

V~(2~gi)

the integral being taken between

and x

= AM

and

this

must be the same

for all curves,

whatever

(a)

may

be.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PHI NCI PI A.

S97

Hence, we may put

k being a constant quantity, and

variable as well as

in

differentiating,

we must suppose

(a)

x and
d
s

s.

Let
p being a function of x,

pd x and a which

will

beot'O dimensions, because d x

and d

are quantities of the

same dimensions.

Hence

f pdx -k -/V(2gx)~
and differentiating

Now,

since p

is

of

dimensions

in x,

and

...
a, it is easily
7

seen that

J V(2gx)
is

Pdx
in

a function

whose dimensions

x and a are

j,

because the dimensions

of an expression are increased by 1 in integrating. property of homogeneous functions, \\e have

Hence by

known

p
substituting this in equation (2)
it

Vx ""

P
in

dx
if

V(agx)"
which,

" a1

kcla
2 a

_P

cl

becomes x x and

a\/(2g)

........
y,

(3} ^

we put

for (a) its value in

we have an equation

to the

cinve

P' P".

If the given time (k) be that of falling

down

a vertical height (h),

we

have

and hence, ecjuation

(3)

becomes

p (a d x
Ex. Let the curves
coincide with

P,

x d a) + d a V (h x) = P', A P" be all cycloids of which

.
.

1}

the bases

D.
.

be the axis of any one of these cycloids and = 2 -i, being x If C N = x , we shall have a* before the radius of the generating ciicie.

Let

C D

A COMMENTARY ON
and since
x'

[SECT. X.

ds
Hence

= 2a = dx

x
2 a

2a

x*

and equation

(4)

becomes
x
cl

V(2a)(adx
Y

a)

^/(2r^0"~
Let
so that

+d
,

V(hx) =
,
, .

'

'

'

'

X
a

(1

xd

=
=.

du
;

au

and

substituting

a2 -

du V
du

_
x

?7

Ti)+

n daV(l,au) =
,
.
.

da

vers."

2 ^/ ^t a

When
line,

is infinite,

the portion

AP
0,
/.

of the cycloid becomes a vertical

and
x

h,

.'.

C =

0.

Hence
x
a

vers.

2h - ..........
a

_,
(7)

From

this

equation (a) should be eliminated by the equation to die

is
>

cycloid, which

a vers.

-- V (2 a x
(2

")

(8)

and we should have the equation to the curve required. Substituting in (8) from (7), we have
y
,

= V
__ "~

V ah) xda da V h
(2

v'T^a) and eliminating d a by (5) 2 a dy _

""

x 2) + a d x x d""x V '(2~ax~ x ')

ax

(Tx

_V

2^a (

x^oc1

_
)

__ ""

2a
'N

BOOK L]
But

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
we have

299
in the cycloid

differentiating (8) supposing (a) constant,

And hence (31) the curve P P' P" cuts the cycloids all at right angles, the subnormal of the former coinciding with the subtangcnt of the latter,
each being
,

^a

y^
The curve P
time
is

r
will

P'

P"

meet

A D

in the point

B, such that the given

It will

that of describing the whole cycloid in E, so that the body falls line tlnongh

A A E

B.

meet the

vertical

in the

given time.

to

391. If instead of supposing all the cycloids meet in the point A, we suppose them all to
still

pass through any point C, their bases in the same line A I) a curve P P'
;

being
so
all

drawn

that the times

i

down P C,

P' C,

&e. are

qua],

will cut all

the cycloids at right angles.

This may
395.

easily

be demonstrated.

Tojind Tautochrvnous curves or those donn "d/uch to a given Juw a body descending all distance* shall more in tlie same time. pom/ (1) let the force be constant and act in parallel lines.
the lowest point be the fixed point, 1) that P from which the body falls, B vertical, B 1),

Let

j$
f

^
~i

horizontal.

M = x, A P
g.
at

s,

AB

h,

and the
j

constant force

___ ^

/ ' P

Then

the velocit

is

v= V(2g.h-:
and

dt

ds
v

=
will

2 g

(h

x)
this

and the whole time of descent x = h, to x = 0.

be found by integrating

from

Now,
falls,

that

limits,

the body is to be the same, from whatever point whatever be h, the integral just mentioned, taken between the must be independent of h. That is, if we take the integral so a.s
since the time
is

to vanish

when

x = h for x, h will disappear altogether from the result. This and then put must manifestly arisy from its being possible to put the result in a form

800

A COMMENTARY ON
v
x
,

[.SECT.

X.

involving only

as

x ,~

2
,

&c.

that

is

from

its

being of

dimensions in

x and
Let

h.

ds = pdx where p depends only on the curve, and does not involve
have

h.

Then, we

dx

x)}

dx
and from what has been
said,
s>
?

xdx

1.3

it is

evident, that each of the quaniities

/*

/p

d x

x dx

d x

r~

h
mubt be of the form

2n

+
I

X
>

n 4-

'

h~^~
that
is

/'p x
lience

dx

p x

"

dx
,

=
_

2 n
-

--

I
-

iiln
i

d x

2 n

p
if

+ ~
^

c
!

211

~~ +

"

-*

and

which

is

Without expanding,
of

a property of the cycloid. the thing may thus be proved.

in x, 7
-

If

p be a function

is of dimensions: and as the 7? ,. x) (h dimensions of an expression are increased by 1 in integrating

dimensions

pdx
V~(ti
x)

BOOK L]
is

NEWTON'S PKINCIPIA.
1

301

of

m +

dimensions in

x,

and when h

is

sions in h.

But

it

ought

to be independent of

put for x, of h or of

-f \

dimen-

dimensions

Hence

m+ J =
.-.

as before.

distance.

39G. (2) Let the force tend to a ccnlci and vary as any function of the Taulochronous Cio vc. Required

tlic

Let S be the center of

force,
;

the point to

which the body must descend wliich it descends. Let also

D the
,

point from

^/
j>

,/

A=

e,

f,

z=

AP =

being any point whatever. Now we have

^ K*
/

v"=C
rif

2/Fd
,) "

<

Pd

i=s

^1
55

when P the velocity being f. Hence the time of describing I) o

is

*ttalven

from

~
g
f,

to

e.

And

since the time

must be the same what-

ever

is 1),

the integral so taken

?
? e

must be independent off.

Let

=/ ? f-^c = h d s = pd
e

/
f.

p depending on the nature of the curve, and not involving d z r

Then

/P --v/
(\

~}

'

rom
z

to z =:

= yf
And
Hence,
this

(h

1_ _

'

from
f,

to z

h.

z)

must be independent of
is

after taking

die integral the result

and therefore of f f, and of hmust be when z = 0, and

dimen-

independent of h, when h
sions in z

and

h.

But

if

Therefore it must be of put for z. be of n dimensions in z, or if p

c z

dimensions,

03

A
and
A/
fl

COMMENTARY ON
f

lUscr. X.>

n
d

^T

n
,],

dimensions.

Hence, n

0,

=
/

and

C P^T
Therefore

C =
z

^
p'
P

''

P 5

^ N

C
f e

: ; /J

whence the curve

If

is

known.

be the angle

ds 2
and

S O, we have 2 2 dg + P dr-

whence may be found a polar equation to the curve. 397. Ex. 1. Let the force vary as the distance, and be

attractive

Then

/A

_
when
If
^

IL

e,

y-

is infinite

or the curve

is

perpendicular to S

at

A.

S Y, perpendicular upon the tangent 2 2 p2 _ ds dg ~~

J
5

Y, be

called p,

we have

'

ds

4 c^
If e
spiral.

0, or the body descend to the center, this gives the logarithmic

In other cases

let

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

303

and
a8
e
8

the equation to the Hypocyclpid (370)

If

4 c p

=
be

1,

the curve becomes a straight line, to which

is

per-

pendicular at
If
4-

A.

fj.

>

the curve will be concave to the center and go off to

infinity.

398. Ex.

2.

Let the force vary inversely as the square of the distance.

Then

F
and
as before

rz

&

C
!

we

shall find
(g

A body being acted upon bij a force in parallel Inies, in its descent one point to another , tojind the Brachystochron> en- the curve of quickfrom est descent between them.
399.

Let A,
the

be the given points, and

curve.
is

AOPQ B
time

required

Since

the

down
if

AOPQB
we

less

than down any other curve,

take another as

AO

B, which coincides

with the former, except for the arc

shall

OP

Q, we
than

have

Time down A O T. Time down A O + T.

:

and
have

if

the times

O P Q + T. Q B, O p Q + T. Q B down Q B be the same

less

less

on the two suppositions, we

other arc

shall

T.

OPQ

than the time

will

down any

p Q,
if

The
at

times

down

QB

be the same

in the

be the same.

But we know that the

the velocity is the velocity acquired at

two cases

same, whether the body descend

down
p Q. down A O P also a minimum*

AOP
Hence
it

Q, or

AO

appears that if the time

Q B be a minimum,

the

time dow?i any portion

OPQ

is

COMMENTARY ON
QN
be drawn,
it

[SECT. X.

Let a vertical line of abscissas be taken and perpendicular ordinates, O L, P M,

posed that

in the direction of the force;

being sup-

L
Then,
if

taken indefinitely small, \ve may consider them as representing the differential of x On this supposition, P, P Q, will the differentials of the curve, and the velocity may be supposed represent
:

L M,

M N be

M N.
O

constant in

P, and in

Q.

Let
x,

AL =
and
let

L O =

y,

OA =

s,

x,

y,

be the

differentials of the abscissa,

ordinatc,

and

curve at Q, and v the velocity there; and d x', d y', d s', v' be the corwill P Hence the time of describing responding quantities at P. be (16)

which

is

a
is

minimum
that

ferential

which

arises

and consequently its from supposing

differential

0.

This

dif-

to

assume any position

as

p out of the curve O P Q; and as the differentials indicated by d from supposing P to Vary its position along the curve O P Q, we
curve to
prefixed.

arise

shall

use d to indicate the differentiation, on hypothesis of passing from one another, or the variations of the quantities to which it K

We shall
posed
ceed thus,

also suppose

to

be

in the line

M P,

so that

d x

is

not sup-

to vary.

These considerations being introduced, we may pio-

And

v, v'

are the

same whether we take

O P

velocity at

~
and

Q, or

Q;

for the

velocity at P.
d

Hence
7

0, b v

=
_
Q

d
v

d
v'

s'

Now
d
.-.

d x
d y
0).

d y

s d
d

(for

d x d

= =
=

d y,

Similarly
d
s'

s'

y'

d y

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.
6

305
give,

of Substituting the value

s,

which these equations

we have
dy
v
6

dy
s

y'

6
cl

dy
b
7

"~"

__

And

since the points

O, Q, remain fixed during the variation of P's

7

position,

we have
d y -f d y
5

const.
o
o

d y

=
7

y.

Substituting,

and omitting
v

y,
~~

s'

difference

Or, since the two terms belong to the successive points O, P, their \\ill be the differential indicated by d; hence,

dv

const,
b

Which
we may

the property of the cur\e; and v being determine its nature.

is
:

knoun

in

terms of x,

Let the force be gravity

v

then

= V (2\);

d v
d
1

/ V

/o \ (2 g x)
il

y
vx x

~~

d
</

being a constant.
"'

^ y d s

__

'a
is

which

is

property of the cycloid, of \\hich the axis

parallel to x,

and of which the base passes through the point from

falls.

\\liicli

the

body

with

body fall from a given point to another given point, setting ofl the velocity acquired down a given height ; the curve of quickest descent is a cycloid, of v>hich the base coincides vuth the horizontal line,
If the

from which the body acquires

its

velocity.

400. If a body be acted on by gravity 9 the curve of its quickest descent from a given point to a given curve* cuts the latter at right angles. Let A be the given point, and 13 the given curve A B the curve ot
quickest descent cuts
Voi.
I.

M
U

at right angles.

806
*

A
curve

COMMENTARY ON
AB
must be a
cycloid, for
J

[SECT. X.

It is manifest the

otherwise a cycloid might be drawn from A to B, in which the descent would be shorter. If possible, let A be the cycloid of quickest descent, the angle

^
N

Q AQB
let

Q Q p A P' synchronous. Then (39 P P P, / is perpendicular to A Q, and therefore manifestly P is between A and Q, and the time down A P less than the time down A Q; theiefore, this latter not the curve of quickest descent. Hence, if A Q be not not the curve of quickest perpendicular to B M,
so as to
7
1

being acute. Draw another cycloid P' be the curve which cuts A P, A

P, and

x\
\

\
fj

i,

make

the arcs

is

is

it

is

descent.

The

cycloid which

is

perpendicular to

B
if

may be
be the

the cycloid of

longest descent from

to

B M.
and

401. If a body be acted on by gravity, curve of quickest descent from the curve

AB

L
a

AL

to the point

A T,

the tangent

of A

dicnlar to the cui vc

L at A B at

A, B.

is

parallel to

V, a popenA

be not parallel to A T, draw B X parallel to If A T, and falling between B V and A. In the curve A L Let a B be the cycloid of quicktake a point a near to A.

B V

from the point a to the point B; and Bb being taken equal and parallel to a A, let A b be a cycloid equal and similar to a B. Since A B V is a right angle, the
est descent

_,

^>
B

curve
gent.

P, which cuts off

A P

synchronous to

B, has

B V

for a tan-

Also, ultimately

a coincides with

T, and therefore

b with

A b is less And than the time down A P, and therefore, than that down A B. a B (which is the same as that down A b) is less hence the time down than that down A B. Hence, if B V be not parallel to A T, A B is not
B
X.

Hence

is

between

and P.

Hence, the time down

the line of quickest descent from

to B.
to detei

402. Supposing a body

the Brachystochron.

to be acted

on by any forces whatever,

mine

Making

the same notations and suppositions as before,

L,

O,

(see

a preceding figure) being any rectangular coordinates; since, as before, P is a minimum, we have the time down

BOOK

I.]
a

NEWTON'S PRINCIPiA.
d
v
s

307
U

d
v
/

s'

s a

s'

a v'

'

r,

TV

Now

as before

we

also have
d

.1 d

y J - dyad ^ -=

ds
d
a

supposing

d x

0,

and
.

y'

y' "

rU'~

_ =

y'.

dy
'

s'

d v
for v
is

the velocity at

and does not vary by altering the curve. v' = v + d v

d
v'
a

v -f

dv

=
d

v.

lence

dy

d y

y' o

d y

s' o
'

vds"
Also
~~
v'

7~d7

7 v 7

dv "

__
*

+
a

__ ""

d v

_.
v
~
7

'

ior

d v

',

^cc.

must be omitted.

Substituting this in the second term of

the above equation, \ve ha\e d y .ad y

*

y'

d ' y
r

v d

dy dv + ~*~
~
2

d y

s'

3
'

dv
'

~ ~
__

or

~"

/d y

'

\dT
"~

dy dv ds d y\ 1 d *J* v "^"dT'Tv ""v 77

.
,

x
"

a
*

dv

ad y

Now

as before

dy _ d_y
dV
s,

d y

ds

ds
since O, P, are indefinitely near, put
s',

And
if

in the

other terms

we may,
v,

d y, v for d

y',

v'

we do

this,

and multiply by
'

we have
'

~~
a

(Ts

dy

^'

will give the nature of the curve. If the forces which act on the body at O, be equivalent to direction of x, and in the direction of y, we have (371)

which

in the

vdv=Xdx+Ydy
, d v

.*.

= X

d x

+ Y
v

d y

-Yl^y
v

308
because

A COMMENTARY ON
^v

[SECT.

X.

0,

3dx =
affected

0; also

X and Y are

functions of

L, and

L O,

and therefore not

by

d.

Substituting these values in the equation to the curve,

,

we have
vl

Cl

cly
il
|

dy
i\
]

Xdx+Ydy
f

d
A-

s
.

Y
\r

-4-

\i

,
'

dy d s

dx
*

Xdy
"

Y d x __ ~
we have (from
71-)

which w ill give the nature of the curve. If r be the radius of curvature, and d
r

constant,

r r

__

d x
is

being positive

when
a Vl

the curve

dy convex
-

to

d y

d x

and hence
il
r

- Xdy- Y d x "~
d
s

The
i'
i

quantity
i

is

the centrifugal force (210), and therefore that part

arises
L-

or the pressure

which

trom

it.

And
i

d y
.

Ydx

is

the pressure

which
it

from resolving the forces perpendicular to the axis. 1 lence, then in the Brachybtochron lor any given Ibices, the paits of appears the pressure which arise from the given forces and from the centrifugal
arises

force must be equal. 403. If we suppose the force to tend to a center 8,

which may be assumed to be in the to be the whole force; also if

line

A M,
;

and V

S
then

A =

a,

P =

Y=

we have
T \ dx

Xdy
ds

zr force in

P S

resolved parallel to

Y
and

S
v
2

F x

2
also

= C 2/g F d Fdg- Fp g/ ""

r
r

__^ d f ~
dp

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA.
?

309

..C-2g/Fd =
2dp
* "
"

"""""

_
f* v^

^j-i 2Y d
~
tl
s

1)

g V*"O 1 / JL* (.IP

and integrating " !2 p = C' [C g /*F cl ^{ whence the relation of p and g is known. If the body begin to descend from A
t

when
IGt. Ex.
1.

a.

Let the force vary directly as the distance.

Here

gy

I d
*

=1 v

=
,tL

~
//.

g
2

(a

^)

(a

")

which agrees \\ith the e(|uation to the llypocycloul (:UO). 105. Fx. "2. Let the otee ran/ inversely as tJie squat uj the distance

then

F ~

fju

a
v

a
P

by supposition.
f

"

-j-

'"

When
3

a,

()

=
c

();

when
'lili

is perpendicular to the radius as at B. has only one real root. equation

d is

infinite,

and the curve

If

we have

B =

~-

being an apse.

310

A COMMENTARY ON

[SKCT. X.

^,SB = 4. 10 o
Tf r ltc

a
a

-3o>
n
3
I
;

Q R bB _ a -nr O O
ii

Tf 1IC

,,

1>

T>

il

~ *

406.
stochron.

When a body moves on a

x, y, z

givc?i surface^

to dele twine the

Biachyas before

Let
let

be rectangular coordinates, x being

vertical
;

and
let

s,

s'

be two successive elements of the curve d x, d y, d z, d

x',

nnd

y',

z'
;

be the corresponding elements of x, y, z then since the minimum property will be true of the indefinitely small portion of the curve, we have
as before, supposing v, v' the velocities,

s'

d s')
v

(1)

are those which arise, supposing d x, d x' to be equal and constant, and d y, d z, d )/, d // to vary

The

variations indicated by

Now
d
.*.

=
~

dx
dy

+
d

dy

'

+
d

"

s o

(^

d y
r/

z o

z.

Similarly

.s'

s'

d
d

y' o

// 6

z.

Also, the extremities of the arc

+
= =

being fixed, we have d y + d y' .-. c d y + ody

x

const.

d
.-.odz

+ dz + adz' =
x

const.
0.

Hence
1

z
6

zr -T-^/< U

(5

dy
*>

/,

els,

And
may

the surface

is

defined by an equation between x, y,

JL

z,

which we

call

0.

COOK!.]
Let

NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE
d z

3il

this differentiated give

p d x

-f

qdy

Hence, since d

x, p,

q are not affected a d z = q 3 d y

....... by .........
3

(3)

(4)

For the sake of

simplicity,

we

will

only by a force in the direction of x, and will not be affected by the variation of d
t>

suppose the body to be acted on so that v, v' will depend on x alone,

y,

z.

Hence, we have by

(1)

s'

which, by substituting from (2) becomes 6 d y 1 , , f y' f d z' r- \ d y 1 -! ~T , i J v d sj \ v' d s \ v' d s' Therefore we shall have, as before
i

-d.

7 /

--d
v
5

d z
s

0.

d y

yds
.

3d

J y

+d. ^
,

*
s

v d

cd

z=

0;

and by equation

(1), this
i

becomes
d
ib
7.

d v
to the

whence the equation

If \\e
stant,

curve

known.

suppose the body not to be acted on by any force, v \\i\l be conand the path described \\ill manifestly be the shortest line which
\\ill

can be drawn on the gi\en surface, and

1

be determined by

d.^+.j.d/-. d s
*

=0

cl

........
when

(0)

If

we suppose d

to

be constant, we have d y -f (] d / =
-

\\hich agrees with the equation there deduced for the path, body is acted on by no forces.

the

Hence,
it

it

will describe the shortest line

appeals that when a body moves along a surface undisturbed, which can be dra\Mi on that surface, be-

tween any points oi its path. 407. Let P and Q be fn-u bodies, of icfnch the Jirst 7ia?igs from a Ji\red point and the second from th>: Jirst bij means of
incjctcnsible st tings

//
//
//
;

P,

PQ;

// is

required to determine the

small oscillations.

Let

M - x, M
,

P -

A N = x', N Q = / A P = a P Q = a' mass of P = of Q = p! tension of A P =p,ofPQ= jy.

/x,

y,

' \

U4

</*-

B12

A COMMENTARY ON
resolving the forces p, p
7
,

[SECT. X.

Then

we have
y
a
'

^lly-.p'g x!_ny_Pj? 2
d
'

a7

(j,

_
d
t
2

p'g
tu

y
a'

n
l

">

By

7 combining these with the equations in x, x and with the two

we

But when the oscillashould, by eliminating p, p find the motion. tions are small, we may approximate in a more simple manner.
Let
f

/3,

(3

be the

pend on the initial t: and hence we may suppose

p
and
similarly for

Then manifestly, p, p' will devalues of y, y position of the bodies, and on their position at the time
initial
7
.

=
7

M+

P,3

Q/3'

11

y'

&c.

by y, y' y which, since the oscillations are very small arc also very small quantities, Hence their products with (3 will be of the order (viz. of the order /3).
/3
2
,

Now,

in the equations of

motion above,

p, p' are multiplied

and may be neglected, and we may suppose p reduced

is

to

its

first

term M.

the tension of

P,

when
//,

/3,

p &c. are

all

0.

Hence

it is

the

tension

when

P, Q,

hang

at rest

from A, and consequently

///.

Similarly, the first term of p',

which may be put

for

it is

in

7
.

Substi-

tuting these values and dividing by g, equations (1)

become
v7 y

-illy g d t

gdt

_ (^ All' - ? _ / ""^
2

~~

4.

IJJ

IJJ

A*

'\ v 4y )

^
!^'

of
it

Multiply the second of these equations by X and add we have

to the

first,

and

d2y

X d
2

"

gdt
the form

""W^
/JL'

(*_+_!&'

/xa
if

J^\ a7 >/ y

(^
Va
7

t*
'

7 a / *

and manifestly

this

can be solved

the second

member can be put

in

My + *y
that
is, if
i

K.

__

/^'
t

/*
"

"T*

+^
/^a

"""~"

_^

^ a

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA.

313

4-

,u

a
-

A) f

Eliminating A we have

Hence

From
noted by

thib

equation

we obtain two
'k, -k

valuer of k.

Let these be de-

and

let

the corresponding valuer of/, be

>>,-x.

Tlien,

we have

these equations.

and

it is

easily ^een that the integral* of these equations aie

+
4.

'x
'-'X

y
7

y
1

'C,

D,

*C.\

( y being aibitrary constants.

1

= =

T cos.
"C
COS.

t
t

\/

(^
J

g)

l> sin.

k j)

V7

k g) -f

Sill, t

("k g)

But we may suppose

C = K

cos.
sin.

'e

D=
1)
J

'K

'u
J

"C

~ ~'K = K
*

cos.
sin.

-c

By

introducing these values we find

y y

+ +

'Xy'
-X

='Ecos.

jt

('kg)
('-k

'e}
}

y'

= E
2

cos. {t

g)

+-o}

From

these
cos -

we

easily find

IT-

cos. ft

The

arbitrary (juantities

e,

&c. depend on the

initial

position

and

314.

A COMMENTARY ON
If the velocities of P,
2

[SECT. X.
0,

velocity of the points. shall have

Q=

when

0,

we

by taking the Differentials of y, y'. 2 If either of the E be 0, we shall have (supposing the latter case and omitting e)

as appears

% two %
l

e,

each

"x

E
cos
-

iri

'

k g)

Hence
is,

it

appears that the oscillations in

this case are

symmetrical

that

the bodies P,

come

to the vertical line at the

same time, have

similar

and equal motions on the two tances from it at the same time.

sides of
It
is

it,

and reach

their greatest dis-

easy to see that in this case, the motion has the same law of time and velocity as in a cycloidal pendulum
;

and the time of an

oscillation,
cr.

in thib case,
ft, /3'

extends from when

to

when

k g)
shall

Also

if

be the greatest horizontal deviation

of P, Q,

we

have

y
y'

= =

J3.

cos.

t
t

/S'.cos.

V k g) V (k g).
J

In order to find the original relation of

/5,

fi',

(the oscillations will be

the forces which urge P, to the vertical be as P M, N, Hence the condition!* for symmetrical oscillation might as is easily seen. be determined by finding the position of P, that this might oiiginally

symmetrical

if

be the relation of the forces) that the oscillations may be of this kind, the ~ (). original velocities being 0, we must have by equation (5) since '*'E

+
Similarly, if

IB'

= =

0.

we had
/3

'X ff

we should have E
J

0,

and the

oscillations

would be symmetrical, and

would employ a time

When
put

neither of these relations obtains, the oscillations

may be

consi-

dered as compounded
y
omitting c9
that
I

of two in the following manner

Suppose
g)
;
.

that

we
(7)

II cos.

k g)

+ K

cos.
in

2 (

e,

and altering the constants

equation (6)

and suppose

we take

Mp=

H.

cos.

(>kg);

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA.

3J5
a cycloidal pen-

Then p will oscillate about according to the law of dulum (neglecting the vertical motion). Also
p
Hence,
lates

will

= K

cos. t

k g).

oscillates

about

M.

And

about p according to a similar law, while p oscilin the same way, we may have a point q so moved,

that

shall oscillate

about q in a time

V
while q oscillates about

'k g)

in

a time

V
And
motion

'k

g)

hence, the motion of the pendulum

A PQ

is

compounded of the

p q oscillating symmetrically about a vertical line, and of A P as if that v>ere a fixed vertical line. oscillating symmetrically about A p q, When a pendulum oscillates in this manner it will never return exactly

to

its

original position

if

k,

V =

k are incommensurable.

If

k,

k are commensurable so that we have

m V m V

k
will at certain intervals,

and n being whole numbers, the pendulum turn to its original position. For let
t
(

re-

'k

g)

= =

2 n

<r

then
(

'k g)

-T

and by

(7)

y
\\hich
is

=
= =

IT cos. 2 n
II

<z

-f

cos.

K,

the

same

as

when
t

0.

And

similarly, after
t

an interval such that

>k

g)

in ^

(>

T,

&c.

the pendulum will return to its original position, having described in the intermediate times, similar cycles of oscillations.

408. Ex.

Let

///

>L

a'

zr

to

determine the oscillations.

Here equation

1)
2

becomes
2

4 a k
a k

= =
2

and

+ V

2.

A COMMENTARY ON
Also, by equation (3)
a
.-.

[SECT.

k
*x

= =

3
1

+ V
f

2,

^ =

2.

either

Hence, have
13

in

order that the oscillations

may be symmetrical, we must

{3

(1

+.V
2

2)

p=
/3'

0,

whence

=
(

V
2

1)

P
/3.

or

1)

0,

whence

/3'

I)

The two arrangements

sented.

indicated by these equations

are thus repre-

Q'

N
,3'

Q
(

Q'

The

first

corresponds to

+
+

l)/3

or

QN =
oscillation will

(V

1)

P M.

In this case, the pendulum will oscillate into the position A Q', simisituated on the other side of the lint and the time of this complete larly
1

be

{-a
I
/3'

(2

In the other case, corresponding to

_(V 2(V
2
1)

l)/3

is

on the other side of the

vertical line,

and

QN =
The pendulum
ing always

P M.

oscillates into the position

in the vertical line;

g The lengths of simple pendulums which would these times would be

(2

_
V
a

Q', the point

oscillation
is

O remain

and the time of an

+ V

_ V 2)
_

'

oscillate respectively in

and

+ V

BOOK

I ]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
1

317

.707 a and .293

a.

If neither of these

arrangements exist originally,

t is

let ft &'

be the origi(5),

nal values of y, y'

when

0.

Then making

in

equation

we

have

and
2

E =

/3

(v 2

1),3'.
((i).

And
400.

these being

known,

vve

have the motion by equation

points

Any number oj material

P 15

P,,

P3

Q,

hang by means oj a

ktntig without

ice/g/it,

ftom a point

A
|

A;
a

// is

requited to determine their small oscillations in

plane.

PI

'-'ah

re) tieal

Let

A X

be a \ertical abscissa, and P, M., P, M.,

;

&c. hori/ontal oidmates

so that

A M, = P, M, = A P, = tension of A P, mass of P, =
hori/on.
(

x,,
y,,
a,,

A M, =
P,
1>
1

x^,

&c. &c.
&c.

P.

M, =
P,

__

Ai,

= =

-i,<

p,,
.*

of P, l\=r p 8:c. of P> (j.j &c.

,

Hence, ^e have three equations, by resolving the forces

parallel to the

liyi
d

___

f
t

^~

__ p,_g
.a,

'

_y, "
"*"

})^
/x,

g"'

y^
"it.

y,

ai
' "

d
cl

77'
PI
1

7
VM
.

+ 7^'"'
,

a/
a4

l)^
t

tf

yj
a
j

-f-

pvg
-

yrn:

d_

L^

//<

"

'

li

/x u

an
,

And
Hence

as in the last,

oscillations,
if

it \\ill appear that p l9 p 2 &c. may, for these small be considered constant, and the same as in the ^Uitc of rest.

theit

P!

M, p 2

= M

(t l9

p3

^,

/a,,

&c.
in

Also, dividing by g, and arranging, the above equations

this

may be put

form

A COMMENTARY ON
PI

x.

g d

Vi
{JsQ

T
//-!

p-2

y^
a,2

"ai

aj

yi

Pi

Cl L

^2

\^2

*^2

/^2

^3

A^2 '^3
.

(1)

g^^^-c^+^yy+si;
dJy.

PJI^L^I

Ei_y!.

if

The first and last of we observe that

y

these equations

become symmetrical with the

rest

and

Now

if

Pn+l = 0. we multiply these equations

1, x, >/,

respectively

by

A",

&c

and add them, -we have

f
I

__

Pi ^1 a l

a3 /

/^ a, j

As a

-i

/A3

at

and

this will

be integrable,

if

the right-hand bide of the equation be redux y,

cible to this

form

(y,

+
a.

X'

y3

&c.).

That

is, if

=
/^ a a

PL
k
X'

(3)

BOOK L]
If

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
eliminate
x, x', x",

319

we now

&c.

from these n equations, n dimensions in k.

Let

it is

easily seen that

we

shall

have an equation of

'k, =k, <>k

...... n k
is

be the n values of k

then for each of these there

// /// A, A , A
-.

a value of

-\

>

easily dcclucible

from equations
>X, >A', >>.",
S

(3),

which we may represent by

&c.

Y/,

A", =>/", &c.

Hence we have

these equations by taking corresponding values X and k,

&^+J^y-|+^yrh&: =
d
y,

_. k

(yi

yi+ v
,

>,,+

& c .)
.

xa + ----s

y,+ =>." a y+&c. _ ~ -----

gdt'
and so on, making n
v,

K (>> 4- AV>-4- A V-IT V^~^ W-T .JT^

cvC.

) /

c(juations.

Jute-grating each of these equations

we

get, as in the last

problem
1

yi
!

+ +
]

>

y>

'>

y,

+ + v/

'//

y,
y,

+ +

&c.

&c.

= K cos.Jt V = '-E cos. Jt V

1

(kg)
(-k g)

^
2

eJ

/
n

K, "E, &c. e

"e, 8:c.

being arbitrary constants.

From
lor in

these n simple equations,

we

can, without difficulty* obtain the

quantities y h y., 8cc.

And
3

it is

manifest that the icbidts will be of this

y^II^-os.U
y.rz'ILcob.Jt ^c.z^Scc.

V V

(
J

kg) kg)

+ +

c}+ II cos.{tV( kg) e]+^ILcos.UV( kg)

1

+ "cj + + cJ +
2

&c.
&c.

(6)

)
&c. must be deduced from S ly
/3 J5

where
of
yi

'II], !!.,,

&c. the original values

ya

^c.

If the points have

1

no

initial velocities

(i.

e.

when

0)

we

shall

have

rr 0,

rz 0,

&C.
oscillations in the following
all

\Vc may have symmetrical

of the quantities E, 2 E, 'E, &c.
1

manner.
n

If,
;

vanish except one, for instance

we

have

+ 'x y, + y + & c = o y,+=Xy, + Vy + &c. =0 + &c. = yi + ^y, + X'

y>
'x'
s
.

....

(7)

omitting "E.

320

A COMMENTARY ON
the

[SECT. X.
,

From

n
;

of the&e equations,

it

appears that y^, y 3

&c. are in a

given ratio to y!

and hence

is

a given multiple of y! and =r

in yi zr n

m
is

y! suppose.
n
(

Hence, we have

E cos. V
now
t

k g)

or,

omitting the index n, which

in yi

unnecessary,,

Also

if

ya

~ E cos. = c> y,,

=r

(k g).

and

e, cos. t (k g) similarly for y 3 &c. Hence, it appears that in this case the oscillations are
y.2

the points
ly,

come

into the vertical line at the

symmctncaL All same time, and move similarit.

and contemporaneously on the two

sides of

The

relation

among

the original ordinates ft, ft, ft, &c. which nuiot subsist in order that the 1 equations (7), oscillations may be of this kind, is given by the n
ft

ft ft

+ *'& + &* = ft + &c. = +'*& + ^'/3j + &c. = &c. -

+ +

>-ft

&+

*>-'

&c.
n

These give the proportion of

ment.

ft ft,

Sec; the arbitrary constant

E,

in

the remaining equation, gives the actual quantity of the original displacetake any one of the quantities *E, 2 E, E, &c. for that which does not vanish ; and hence obtain, in a different way, such a sys1 equations as has just been described. tem of n Hence, there are 11
J

Also,

we may

different relations
in

so as to oscillate symmetrically. here also find these positions, which give symmetrical oscilmight ( lations, by requiring the force in each of the ordinates Pj MI, P 2 Mo to

which the

among ft ft, &c. points may be placed,

or n different

modes of arrangement,

We

be as the distance;

in

which case the points P],

time.
l

P2

See.

would

all

come

to the vertical at the

same

2 k have one common measure, there will be If the quantities k, a time after which the pendulum will come into its original position. And it will describe similar successive If these quantities cycles of vibrations.

be not commensurable, no portion of

its

motion

will

be similar to any
is

preceding portion.) The time of oscillation in each of these arrangements

the equation

easily

known

y,

= nE

cos.

n
(

k g)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
oscillation

321

shows that an

employs a time

And

hence,

if all

the roots

*k,

%,

'k,

&c. be different, the time

is

dif-

ferent for each different arrangement. If tlie initial arrangement of the points be different from all those thus

obtained, the oscillations of the pendulum compounded of n symmetrical oscillations.

may always be
That
is,

considered as

if

an imaginary pen-

dulum

oscillate

symmetrically about the vertical line in a time

and a second imaginary pendulum

considered as a fixed
line, in

oscillate

about the place of the

first,

the time
'

v
and

c-k

g)
same manner,
in the time

a third about the second, in the

and so on

n th pendulum may always be made to coincide perpetually with the real pendulum, by properly adjusting the amplitudes of This appears by considering the equations the imaginary oscillations.
;

the

(G), viz.

= 'II, cob. V ike. = Sic.

yi
t

('k

g)

'Hi

cos.

k g)

&c.

Thib principle of the coexistence of vibrations

is

where the vibrations are

indefinitely small.

In

all

applicable in all cases such cases each set of

symmetrical vibrations takes place, and the only motion \rhich it experienced.

affects the

system as

if

that were

familiar instance of this principle

is

seen in the

manner

in

which the

produced by dropping stones into still water, spread from their respective centers, and crobs without disfiguring each other. If the oscillations be not all made in one vertical plane, we may take a
circular vibrations,

The oscillations in the direchorizontal ortlinate z perpendicular to y. tion of y will be the same as before, and there will be similar results obtained with respect to the oscillations in the direction of z. have supposed that the motion in the direction of x, the vertical

We

axis,

may be

neglected, which

is

true

when

the

oscillations

are very

small.

410. Ex. Let there be three bodies

distances aj, a 2 , a 3
VOL.
f.

all

equal (each

//,),

anc^ a ^ so

all

equal (each

=
X

a).

332

A COMMENTARY ON
Here
ft,

[SECT. X.

P = 3 f* p 2 = 2 and equations (3) become a k = 5 a X a k X = 2 + 3 X a k X' = X + X'.

9

p3

X'

Eliminating k, we have 5 X gx 2 r=:

5
or
A'
X'

2
X

2 X

X'

=
= =

+ 3X +
X',

X',

2 X2

2X
*

4 X

_2X
.
.

2,

>/

_X
2 X

A/
-j.

...

(2X

2X
3

2)(2X

4)

or
X

3X

--X

0,

which may be solved by Trigonometrical Tables.

values of
X. X'

We

shall find

three

Hence, we have a value of

then by equations (7)
fc
IB

corresponding to each value of X

and

+ 'Xft + V/S^OX + x/3, + V/5 =OJ

2

} }

whence we

find

/325

& in

terms of p lf

We

shall thus find

ft

= =

2.

295

ft

or
ft
].

348/3,

or
ft

.643/3!
X.

according as

we

take the different values of

And

the times of oscillation in each case will be found by taking the

value of

a k
"that value of

2 X

X being taken which is not used time of oscillation will be given by making
t

in

equation (7

).

For the

(k g)
/33

*.

If the values of ft, ft,

have not

this initial relation,

the oscillations

BOOK Ll
will

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
in the

323
example
:

be compounded in a manner similar to that described

for

two bodies only.

411.
to

A flexible cha in>

its initial

of uniform

thidaiess,

hangs from a fixed point

fnd
Let

A M,
a;

form^ that its small oscillations may be symmetrical. the vertical abscissa x; the hori-

MP

zontal ordinate

=
.-.

y;

A P =
a

s,

and the whole length

s.

AC =
And

AP =

as before, the tension at P,

when

the oscillations

are small, will be the weight of P C, and may be represented by a s. This tension will act in the direction of a

tangent at P, and hence the part of

it

in

the direction

will

be
tension

d v -v-^ d s

or

<

>,-!s-

Now,
force at

if

take any portion in the same manner.

we

P
,

Q=
2

h,

we

shall find the horizontal

s

For the point Q, supposing d

d
-r-*

constant

d v d J y -~- becomes
i

i>

+
s

y
7
,,

h
.

-r-

d v ~^~ d s
ti

h -

1.2

&c.

(see 32).

Also, the tension will be a

the direction

h.

Llence the horizontal force

in

Q,

is

Subtracting from this the force in

horizontally.

P M, wo

have the force on

P Q

and the mass of

( V

P
is

being represented by h, the accelerating force

mass

^
/

found.

But

since the different points of L

is

Q
is

move
inde-

with different velocities, this expression

only applicable when h

to

Hence, supposing we have, when h vanishes

accelerating force on D

finitely small.

Q to
P =
X
2

approach

and coincide with 1\

(a v

s) '

\ , u s~

*-

324

A COMMENTARY ON
since the oscillations are indefinitely small,

[SECT. X.

But

coincides with s

and

we have
accelerating force on

P =

(a v

x) -r--* 2

dx

.-

d x

Now,

in order that the oscillations

be in the direction
points of

P M, and
come
,

C, will

may be symmetrical, this force must proportional to P M, in which case all the to the vertical B at once. Hence, we must

have

<"- x >ax=-iix

d2 y

d y

- kt] y
.

(I)

k being some constant quantity to be determined. This equation cannot be integrated in finite terms.
series let

To

obtain a

y
.-.

y
-}~
cl

= ~ =
=

A+
B
1. 2.

B.(a
2

x)
x

+ C (a
x)

x)

&c.
*

C (a
2.

D (a
v

x)

C
.-.

ci

J- ^ x

C+
'

D (a
d y <r (Ix

x)

&c.

Hence
(a v

d2 y x) -.-% d x2
N

+ ky J
2

gives

= 1. 2. C (a x) + 2. 3 D (a + B + 2 C (a x) -f 3 D (a + kA + kB(a x) + k C (a
coefficients
;

x)
2

x)
2

+ +

&c.
&c.

x)

-f 8cc.

Equating

we have
k A, k B

B =
2*

C =

.-.

B =

- k A D "" ~ .3 2 &c. = &c.

2

and

AJl

k(a-x)+|J(a

x)

JLL-.(a

x)

&c.

..(2)

BOOK L]
Here

NEWTON'S PIUNC1P1A.
C, the value of y

325

is

when x
2
2

=
V
3

a.

When
&c
.

=r 0,

...

_ ka + _l
k

___ +
be found.

a3

_o

(3)

From

number which we may

equation has an infinite of dimensions) and hence k will have an infinite number of values,
this equation (k)

may

The

call

>k,%
and thebc give an
infinite

...

k ...

1,

number of
oscillations,

initial

forms, for which the chain

may perform symmetrical The time of oscillation

the distance y, the force to the vertical is

for

each of these forms will be found thus.

:

At

is

k g y
ir

hence by what has preceded, the time

2V (kg)
anil the

time of oscillation

is

^ g)
(The greatest value of k a
torn. viii. p. 43).
is

'

about 1.44 (Euler Com. Acad. Pctrop.

is

And

the time of oscillation for this value

the same as

that of a simple

pendulum, whose length

2
is

-"-a nearly.) o

The
Hence

points where the curve cuts the axis will be found by putting y n taking the value k of k, we have

0.

= _.k(a_x) +
1

"-

->7-^- +
>k a

nk
2

(!l

X)?

;-

&C.

which

will manifestly

be verified, if k (a x) =.

or

"k
or
n

(a

x)

= =

k a k a

k (a

_ x) =
&c.

&c.
(3).

because

'k a,
is if

a,

&c. are roots of equation

That

x
l

or

or

= &c

3 v Supj)ose k, k, k, 8cc. to be the roots in the order of their magnitude *k being the least.

Then

if

for

k,

we take

k, all these values

of x will be negative, and

the curve

will

never cut the vertical axis below A.

826
If for n k,
first
;

A COMMENTARY ON
we
take
*k,
all

[SECT. X.

the values of

will

be negative except the

If

therefore, the curve will cut

AB

In one point.
first,

we

take

k, all

the values will be negative except the in two points ; and so on.

two

and the curve cuts

A B

Hence, the forms

for

which the

oscillations will be

symmetrical, are of the kind thus represented. And there are an infinite number of them, each
cutting the axis in a different

number

of points.

If

we represent equation
y
evident that

(2) in this

manner

= A
1

f (k, x) x)

it is

y
&c.
will

= A f (% = *A v (% = &c.
(1).

x)
as before,

each satisfy equation

if
1

Hence
'A 9
J

if
2

we put

Sec. <p ( x) ( y &c. can be so assumed that this shall represent a give A, *A, initial form of the chain, its oscillations shall be compounded of as many 2 coexisting symmetrical ones, as there are terms *A, A, &c.

k,

+ A
2

k, x)

and

We
tion.

shall

now

The

reader

who

sult

Dynamics, one of the most useful and elegant treatises ever written, the various speculations of Euler in the work above quoted, or rather the comprehensive methods of Lagrange in his Mecanique
well's

W he

terminate this long digression upon constrained mowishes for more complete information may con-

Analytique.

We now proceed
generating circle

to simplify the text of this

II
is

Xth

Section.

412. PROP. L. First,

S Q formed by an entire revolution of die or wheel, whose diameter is O II, upon the globe

SOQ.
413. Secondly, by taking

C A
we have

C O

: :

C O

C R

CA
and therefore
in
if

CO

: :

C A AO

CO

CO

C R

OR
meet the exterior globe

C S

be joined and produced

:

to

D, we have
But

also

AD

SO(:: C A: CO)::

AO: OR.
O R = -~
.

O=

the semi- circumference of the wheel

BOOK L]
.*.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
'

327

AD =
That
is

=^
S
is

the circumference of the wheel whose diameter is

O.

the vertex of the Hypocycloid

S.

S,

and

A
S.

is

per-

pendicular in
fore

to

But

O
S,

is

also perpendicular to

There-

S touches

in S, &c.

414. The similar Jigurcs

A
:

S R.]

By 39
II

it

readily appears that Hypocycloids are similar

when

R
and
or
r

IV

r'

being the radii of the globe and wheel

that

is

when

CA
when

AO
C O
S,

::C

O R
:

CA
/.

CO

C R

are similar

415.
If

are equal to B, V A, be not in the circumference

O R.] A D let C V

meet

it

in B'.

Then

P is the being a tangent at P, and since the element of the curve same as would be generated by the revolution of B' P around B' a^ a
center,

VP
P

and

.*.

B'

P
B,

is

V, therefore
Also
if

perpendicular both to the curve and IV and .-. B, B' coincide. That i*

its

tangent

the wheel

V B = O A. O R describes O V whilst A O
in

angular velocity

B P

and A, they are at have arrived at V and

of each other.

describes A B, the each must be the same, although at first, viz. at Hence when they shall light angles to each other.

their distances

from

C B

must be complements

But
L.

TV
V

W
==

i=

B VP =

~*

P B V

.*.

TV

is

a chord in the wheel

.-.

O R,

and

O R.
OTHER WISE.

See also the

Jesuits' note.

416. Construct the curve S P, to which tlu: radius of curvatuie to every the Locus of is a tangent ; or which is the same, find S point of S

RQ

the Centers of Curvature to

Q.

Hence is suggested the following generalization of die Problem, viz. 417. To make a body oscillate in any given curve. Let S R Q (Newton's fig.) the given curve be symmetrical on both sides

328
of R.

A
Then
a,
j3

COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. X.

R, and

if x, y be the rectangular coordinates referred to the vertex those of the centers of curvature (P) we have

=PT =
2

(y

)8)

(x

Hence, the contact being of the second order (74)

*-+ (y-#ak =
and
d v
2

These two equations by means of that of the given curve, will give us 8 in terms of a, or the equation to the Locus of the centers of curvature. Let S A be the Locus corresponding to S R and A Q the other half.
5

a body from attached to a string whose length is R A, when this string shall be stretched into any position A P T, it is evident that P being the point where the string quits the locus is a tangent to it,

Then suspending

and that
Ex.
1.

T is

Let S

a point in S Q. be tlie common parabola.

RQ
2

Here
y
"

= Sax
~"

"

d x d
d"
2

y
~~
___

a
2
'

d y dx

__ "~

_ ~~

'

2 x y

., substituting

we get

*- + (y-.~
and
1 -L

a
-

2 x

(y

o\

a
.

3}

=:

n
()

2x y

...

_a

+ i(l + y \
GC

JL\
2 x/

?JL?
a

=0=:3X

or

3 X
,

and

But
2

y
.-.
f

n =

2 a x

s2

x
:

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

329

Now when
string

- I = 0, a =
'

-^ =
A
'

()A R

<>

a; which

must equal
a,

menting a by

Also making we have

a.

shows that the length of the the origin of abscissas, that is, aug-

Wi
Q

the equation to the scmicubical parabola S, Q, which may be traced the ordinary rules (35, &c.); and thereby the body be made to oscillate by in the common parabola 8 R.

Ex.

2.

Let $

RQ

be an ellipse.

Then, referring

to its center, instead

of the vertex,

"

and
^
'

d x

d x

These give
d V d x
"~

b _a

'

and

d2 y " d x

""

b^
a
"

'

Hence

and

Hence
we

substituting the values, of y

and x
8

in

a
get

'

x2

the equation to the

Locus of the centers of curvature.

330

A COMMENTARY ON
let

[SECT. X.

In the annexed figure

SC =
C
Then

b,

M=
=

x,

CR = TM =
C N =
S'

a
y.

PN=
And
to construct

ft

a.

by

points, first put

whence by equation
a
the value of

(a)

=
C.

b
a

4-

A
a

Let

then
/S

=
C
or

the value of S'

--"^" C Q'.

make a body oscillate in the semi-ellipse S It Q we must take a pendulum of the length A 11, (part = A P S' flexible, and part = S S' rigid because S S is horizontal, and no string however stretched can be horizontal see WhewelPs Mechanics,) and suspend it at A. Then A P being in contact with the Locus A S', P T will also touch A S in P, &c. c.

Hence

to

Ex.

3.

Let S

It

be

tlic

common
is

cycloid

The

equation to the cycloid

cTx
'*'

=
_ ~"

"

=
y"~

dx*

whence

it is

found that
2

Hence

and
d/3

_ dx""Tx"~ V
_
d y

'

=
'''Alt

"V^i^^y

~N

2r

j8

which

is

also the equation of a cycloid,

of which the generating circle

is

BOOK L]
precisely the

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

331

same as the former, the only difference consisting in a change of sign of the ordinate, and of the origin of the abscissae. The rest of this section is rendered sufficiently intelligible by the
Notes of P. P.
matter

Le Seur and
inserted.

Jacquier

and by the ample supplementary

we have

SECTION

XI.

417.

PHOP. LVII.

Two

bodies attracting one another, describe round

each other and round the center of gravity similar figures.

T
Since the mutual actions
will
^\ill

not affect the center of gravity, the bodies

always

lie

from

will

a straight line passing through C, and their distances always be in the same proportion.
in
.-.

SC
S

TC

PC
P.

QC

and
z-

CT=

QC

.%

the figures described round each other are similar. Also if t be taken S P, the figure which P bceni* to describe

round S

will

be

Q, and

Tt
and
- 1

TQ::
:

S P:

TQ
CQ

CP

T Q = P C Q.
S seems
to

'.%

the figures t Q, P Q, are similar; and the figure which describe round P is similar, and equal to the figure which

seems to

describe round S.

418. PROP. LVIII.

If

S remained

at rest,

scribed by P round S, similar and equal to seem to describe round each other, and by an equal force.

might be dethe figures which P and S

a figure

332

A COMMENTARY ON

i
:

SECT.

XL

Curves are supposed similar and be projected in directions P R, p p with such velocities that

Q
r

R, q

indefinitely small.

Let
R,

P
s

and
p
r)

(making equal angles

C P

v _ ~"
v

V
v

v~s S + P

_ _^T[Q ~ yjcp ~~ V sp \/~p<]

'

Then

si since

p q

PQ

Vpq
=
S
2

V'

But

in the

beginning of the motion f

'

'

F ~~ _
f

QR
'

q r

QR

_ ~

1
'

The same thing takes place if the center of gravity and move uniformly forward in a straight line in fixed space.
419. COR.

the whole system

1. If F oc D, the bodies will describe round the common center of gravity, and round each other, concentric ellipses, for such would be described by P round 8 at rest with the same force.

Conversely,
420. COK.

if

the figures be ellipses concentric,

If

D.

2.

oc

the figures will be conic sections, the foci in

the centers of force, and the converse.

421. COR. 3. Equal areas are described round the center of gravity, and round each other, in equal times.

-_^
422. COR. 3. Otherwise. Since the curves are similar, the areas, bounded

by similar parts of the curves, are similar or proportional.

.-.

spq

CP

sp

2
:

CP

2
:
:

(S+P)

2
:

in a given ratio;

BOOK

U
s
:

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
p q T. through

333
in a given ratio

and T. through and .-.

/.

CP

V S + P: V S,
:

T. through

CP

T. through

CPV::
:

T. through spv: T.through CPV T. through spq T.through spv

s

pq

s
:

p v (by

Sect. II.)

CPQ CPV

the areas described round C are proportional to the times, and the areas described round each other in the same times, which are similar to
.\

the areas round C, are also proportional to the times. The period in the figure described in last Prop. 423. PROP. LIX.
:

arcs

S P V~~S; for the times through similar the period round C P Q, are in that proportion. p q, 42 L PROP. LX. The major axis of an ellipse which P seems to de:

scribe

round S

in

motion

Force

yr-A

'.

major axis of an
;

ellipse

which
f* r&t

would be described by P in the ^amc time round S at rest and S. of two mean proportionals between Let A = major axis of an ellipse described (or seemed

+ P

S+P

to

be described)

round S

in

motion, and which

is

similar

and equal

to the ellipse de-

scribed in Prop.

LVIII.
ellipse

Let x

rest in the

major axis of an same time.

'

which would be described round S

at

.*.

period in ellipse round S in motion *T--r-. r-r; rp period in same ellipse round bat rest

=
^/

V -S
g
j^

/r
-

>

(Prop. L v

LIX)

T \.r\

and by

Sect. Ill,

period in ellipse round $ at rest period in required ellipse round S at rest

period period in
in ellipse

__ ~~

3 c
3

round S in motion required ellipse round Sat rest

"~~

__
,

A V
~

S
i

~p

but these periods are to be equal,

.-.

A
:

x 3 .S~+~P

.'.

S
a

+ P V
:

+ P

first

of two
:

mean
:

proportionals
: :

(for if a,

425.

V a V a r 3 a a r.) r, , be proportionals, At what mean distance from the earth would the moon revolve
a
r

% a r

round the earth

earth in motion ?

at rest, in the

same time

as she

now

revolves round the

This

is

easily resolved.

426. PROP.

LXI.

The

bodies will

move

the center of gravity with the

same

force,

as if acted upon by bodies at and the law of force with re-

334

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

XL

spect to the distances from the center of gravity will be the respect to the distances from each other.

same

as with

For the force is always in the line of the center of gravity, and .. the bodies will be acted upon as if it came from the center of gravity.

And

distance from each other,

the distance from the center of gravity is in a given ratio to the .'. the forces which are the same functions of

these distances will be proportional.

427. PROP.

LXII. Problem of two

bodies with no initial Velocities.

ex

Two

bodies are let

fall

towards each other.

Determine the

motions.
center of gravity will remain at rest, and the bodies will move as acted on by bodies placed at the center of gravity, (and exerting the same force at any given distance that the real bodies exert),
.*.

The

if

the motions

mny be determined by

the 7th Sect.

initial

428. PROP.
cities.

LXIII.

Problem of two bodies with given

Velo-

oc

Two

bodies are projected in given directions, with given

velocities.

Determine the motions.

of the center of gravity is known from the velocities and Subtract the velocity of the center of gravity

The motion

directions of projection.

from each of the given velocities, and the remainders will be the velocities with which the bodies will move in respect of each other, and of the cenHence since they ter of gravity, as if the center of gravity were at rest.
are acted

upon

as if

by bodies

at the center of gravity,

are determined by the equality of the forces), the motions

(whose magnitudes may be deter-

mined by Prop. XVII,

Sect. Ill, (velocities being

if

supposed to be acquired

down

the directions of projection do not tend to the center, or by Prop. XXXVII, Sect. VII, if they tend to or directly from the center. Thus the motions of the bodies with respect to the center of

the finite distance),

be determined, and these motions compounded with the unigravity will form motion of the center of gravity will determine the motions of the
bodies in absolute space. 429. PROP.

LXIV. F

oc

D, determine the motions of any number of

bodies attracting each other.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
L will describe concentric
K_7.
I

and

ellipses round D. i^WW add tl LIJ1X14. JJV^V*^ Now UAIVI a third body S. Attraction of S on T may be

re-

S Q-

presented by the distance

T S, and

on

L
D,

by
1)

L S,
S
;

(attraction at distance

being

parts
ratios

T S, L S, into L D, D S, whereof the T 13, L D, being in given to the whole, T L, L T, will

resolve

only increase the forces with which and act on each other, and

the bodies

and

T
2

will continue to

describe ellipses (as far as respect(for in similar parts

these

new

forces) but with accelerated velocities,

of

similar figures forces S, and

II

Prop. IV. Cor.

and

8.)

The remaining

S, being equal

and

parallel, will not alter the relative

motions of the bodies

and T,

.*.

round D, which
its

will

move towards

they will continue to describe ellipses the line I K, but will be impeded in

approach by making the bodies S and

(D

being

T+

L) describe

concentric ellipses round the center of gravity C, being projected with proper velocities, in opposite and parallel directions. Now add a fourth

body V, and all the previous motions will continue the same, only accelerated, and C and V will describe ellipses round B, being projected with
proper
velocities.

so on, for any number of bodies. Also the periods in all the ellipses will be the same, for the accelerating S force on T = + S. T Drz(T + L +S).

And

L.TL +
a third

TD-(T+L) TD
.

D,

i.

e.

when

body S

is

added,

is

acted on as

if

of the three bodies at the distance

D, and the

accelerating force

by the sum on D

towards

.-.

C = S.SD:=S.CS+S.DCrr(T+L).I3C+S.DC + L + S). 13 C. (T do. on D towards C T D 13 C accelerating force on T towards D .. the absolute accelerating forces on T and D are equal, or T and D
:

round a common center, the absolute force the and varying as the distance from the center, i. e. they describe elsame, lipses, in the same periods. and V, move Similarly when a fourth body V is added, T, L, D, S, C, as if the four bodies were placed at D, C, B, i, e. as if the absolute forces

move

as if they revolved

were the same, and with forces proportional to

from the centers of gravity, and
.*.

their respective distances

in equal periods.

336

A COMMENTARY ON
so on, for any

[SECT,

XL

And
430.

number

of bodies.

PROP. LXVI. S and P

revolve round T, 8 in the exterior orbit,

P in

the interior,

s t-xr

oc
,

find

when

will describe

round

an orbit nearest to the

ellipse,

and areas most nearly proportional to the times. (1st.) Let S, P 5 revolve round the greatest body T in the same plane. Take K S for the force of S on P at the mean distance S K,

and

LS = L

|^y
L
S

force at

resolve

into

T, and .'. tends to the center T, tinue to describe areas round T proportional to the times,
is

L M,

M $,
.'.

parallel to

will

conacted

as

when

on only by

T, but since
<*

M does not a
M

rp

2 5

the

sum of

M
will

and
be

T will
oc

not

--T^,

'.

the form of the elliptic orbit

P A B P

disturbed by this force,

L M,

S neither tends from

to the center

T, nor

'

p-ppi

from the force

elliptic

M S both

the proportionality of areas

to times,
elliptic

and the

form of the

orbit, will

be disturbed, and the

to C,

form on two accounts, because

does not

M S does not tend

and be-

cause

it

ir>T^
be most proportional to the times, when the force elliptic form will be most complete, when the forces
least.

.. the areas will

is least,

MS M S, L M, but particularly L M, are

and the

Now let

the force of

M S being

T = N S, then this first part of the force common to P and T will not affect their mutual motions, /. the
S on

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA

3S7

disturbing forces will be least

ing,

when

MN
N

is least,

i.

e.

when L M, N, are least, or L when the forces of S on P and T

M remainare nearly

equal, or

nearly

S K.

(2dly) Let

S and P

revolve round

Then
But

M will act as before.

in different planes.

M N acting parallel to T S, when S not in the line of the Nodes, M N does not pass through T), will cause a disturbance not only (and
is

in the longitude as before, but also in the latitude,

by deflecting

from
is

the plane of its orbit. And this disturbance will be least, or S S K. least, nearly 431. COR. 1. If more bodies revolve round the greatest motion of the inmost body P will be least disturbed when

when

MN

body T, the

is

attracted

by the others
each other.
432. COR.
third be as

equally, according to the distances, as they are attracted

by

2.

In the system of T,

if

the attractions of any two

on the

jy^

will describe areas

round

with greater velocity near

conjunction and opposition, than near the quadratures. 433. To prove this, the following investigation is necessary.

Take

to represent the attraction of

n S

S on P, T,

Then

the disturbing forces are

(parallel to

P T)

and

m n.

Now

n* R
.

--O-M 2 II

r cos.

s, A+

*' r*

= ST,r = PT)A = ASTP

Sm

z=

S
1.

T
(R
2

S.R
2Rrcos.

7^i\

A
/

li'

2Rrcos. A-f

r*

S.R

_K "
,

2rcos

R~

r*x

2
l

r co cos.

R*)+J

Vor.. I.

BOOK
three

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

339

first, namely, attraction of T, addititious force, and central ablatitious force, do not disturb the equable description of areas, but the fourth

from to B, or tangential ablatitious force does, and this is from to D, from to A. .*. the velocity is accelerated from from C to C,

B A
a

to

B, and retarded from

at

to C,

.*.

it is

maximum
436.

D.

And

it is

minimum

at

greatest at B. Similarly it and C. This is Cor. 3.

is

To

otherwise calculate the central

and tangential

ablititious forces.

On

account of the great distance of S, S

M, P L may be
S T.
n m.

considered

parallel,

and
.-.

P T = L M,

and S
3

P=
sin.
it

K =

.-.

the ablatitious force

T.
2

=
P

3 P K.
n,

Take P

=:

m rr 3 P K, and resolve P m sin. = 3 P T. sin.

.

into

zz central ablatitious force

o __ JI

_
n

pT I.

cos.

2
.

m n Pm

co&

T.

sin. & cos.

3
--

P T.

sin.

&

= tangential
fig.

ablatitious force.

The same

conclusions

may be

got in terms of

from the

in

Art

433, which would be better. 437. Find the distntbing force on

in the direction
1

T.

This

(addititious +
f\

central ablatitious) force

cos.

m +

31

in

sin.

= lm

3lm(
1

2
cos.

0'

2
438.

To find

the

in the direction

mean disturbing force of S during a mhole

revolution

T.

Let

P T

at

the

mean

distance

=
V
2

'

m, then

in

BOOK
three

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

339

first, namely, attraction of T, addititious force, and central ablatitious force, do not disturb the equable description of areas, but the foui th

from to B, or tangential ablatitious force does, and this is from to D, from to A. .*. the velocity is accelerated from from C to C,

B A
a

to

B, and retarded from

at

to C,

.*.

it is

maximum
436.

D.

And

it is

minimum

at

greatest at B. Similarly it and C. This is Cor. 3.

is

To

otherwise calculate the central

and tangential

ablititious forces.

On

account of the great distance of S, S

M, P L may be

considered

parallel,

and
.-.

P T = L M,

and
3

SP=SK
T.
sin. C

ST.

.-.

the ablatitious force

ni

3 P K.

Take P

sin.

K, and resolve it into P n, n m. = 3 P T. sin. 2 d =. central abtatitious force

m = Pm

co&.

T.

sin. & cos. &

P T. sin.

= tangential
fig.

ablatitious force.

The same

conclusions

may be
<-/

got in terms of

from the

in

Ait

433, which would be better.

437. Find the disturbing force on O

hi the direction
1

T.
3
1

This

(addititious +
f\

central ablatitious) force

cos.

= m +

sin.

= lm

31m(
1

2
cos.

2
438.

To find

the

mean

in the direction

disturbing force of

S during a

\shole revolution

T.

Let

P T

at the

mean

distance

=
2

m, then

in

340

A COMMENTARY ON
1

[SECT.

XL

=
lution.

tn

..

m.

since cos.

is

destroyed during a whole revo-

11-

11

439.

The

disturbing forces on

are

(1) addititious (2) ablatitious

=
=

^
3
.

=
.

A.

sin.
'

which

is

(1) tangential ablatitious force

2
3

cos.

2
cos.

and

(2) central ablatitious force

I
.

.'.

whole disturbing force in the direction

P T= A

3 ----A

--

A
.

cos.

But
in a

.~
itself,

whole revolution

cos.

will

destroy

.:

the whole disis

turbing force in the direction and \ addititious force.

P T

in a complete revolution

ablatitious

The whole

force in the direction

PT =

-^J-V

(1

sin.

0)

(Art. 433)

=
multiply this by
d.0,

^-(1
r /
3

-|-(l-co,
3
-

2(
,))

and the integral

\t

&

3
.

sin.

<A

= sum of the

disturbing forces; and this

K,

when OZZK becomes

'

*
-

This must be divided by

ing on
440.

and

it

gives the

mean
J -^"

disturbing force acta

.

in the direction of radius vector

will

The 2d COR.

appear from Art. 433 and 434.

For the

tangential ablatitious force

3 =~

sin

addititious force,

.. this force will accelerate the description

of the areas from the quadra-

tures to the syzygies and retard since in the former case sin. 2 6 is

it

from the syzygies to the quadratures, +, and in the latter

.

441.

Con. 3

is

contained in COR.

2.

(Hence the Variation

in as-

tronomy.)

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

311

442.

PV
is

is

equivalent to

P T, T V,
curve
is

and accelerates the motion

of greater curvature
in

equivalent to
4.

T T V,
5

and retards the motion.

the quadra-

443. Cou.

Coct. par., the

tures than in the sy/ygies.

For

since the velocity

is

greatest in the syzygies, (and the central abla-

titious force

being the greatest, the remaining force of Pto T is the least) the body will be less deflected from a right line, and the orbit will be less
curved.

The

contrary takes place in the quadratures.

the direction

414.

The whole force from S in

and the foice from

T=

'

[ (1

sin.

*)

(bee 433)

T in

the direction

PT=

T
.

/\
\T

.*.

the whole force in the direction

P T =
r
---,-

"

and

at

A B
C

this

becomes

at

at

atD
(for

though
it

sin.

270

is

Thus

appears that

the major axis

quadratures than in A C.

is +). , yet its syzygy on two accounts the orbit is more curved in the the syzygies, and assumes the form of an ellipse at

342

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. XI.

.-. the body is at a greater distance from the center in the quadratures than in the syzygies, which is Cor. 5. 445. COR. 5. Hence the body P, cset. par., will recede farther from in the quadratures than in the for since the orbit is less syzygies

curved in the syzygies than in the quadratures, it is evident that the body must be farther from the center in the quadratures than in the syzygies. 446. COR. 6. The addititious central force is greater than the ablatitious

to Qf,

from Q' to P, and from P' to Q, but less from P to P', and from .. on the whole, the central attraction is diminished. But it
said, that the areas are accelerated

may be

towards

and D, and

/.

the

time through P P' may not exceed the time through P' Q, or the time Q' exceed that through Q' P. But in all the corollories, since through the errors are very small, when we are seeking the quantity of an error,

and have ascertained it without taking into account some other error, there will be an error in our error, but this error in the error will be an
be neglected. The attraction of P to T being diminished in the course of a revolution, the absolute force towards T is diminished, (being diminished by the
error of the second order, and

may

.*.

mean

disturbing force

S
1?

r
,

11

439,)

.*.

the period which

r ^
oc

_
5

\/ f

increased, supposing r constant.

But
lower)

as

T
is

approaches S (which

it

will

do from

its

higher apse to the

diminished, the disturbing force (which involves

^\

will

be

increased, and the gravity of

P to T

be increased;

.*.

the period will (Thus the period of the

on both accounts be increased.

more diminished, and .*. r will diminution of f and increase of r) (the

still

moon round
Annual

the earth

is

shorter in

summer

than in winter.

Hence

the

equation in astronomy.)

When T

recedes from S,
r

R
.'.

is

minished and

diminished.

parison with the period round son with what the period was before, from the actual disturbance.)

increased, and the disturbing force dithe period will be diminished (not in comif there were no body 8, but in compari-

447. COR.

6.

The whole

force of

P to T in

the quadratures
,
.

rp r

^
'

+- AX

31

the syzygies
.

=T
r2

2St

on the whole the attraction of P to T is diminished in a revolution. For the ablatitious force in the syzygies equals twice the addititious force
.

in the quadratures.

BOOK L]
At a

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
=
the addititious
;

313

certain point the ablatitious force

1

when

sin.

or

and

A = 55,
f

Sec.

the whole force being then

Up to this point from the quadratures die addititious force is greater than the ablatitious force, and from this point to one equally distant from the syzygies on the other side, the ablatitious is greater than the addititious
;

.*.

whole revolution P's gravity to T is diminished. Again since T alternately approaches to and recedes from
in a
is

S, the radius

PT

increased

when

T approaches

S,

and the period

oc

absolute force

and since

f is diminished, and .*. r increased, .. the periodic time is increased on both accounts, (for f is diminished by the increase of the dis-

turbing forces which involve

-rr.)

If the distance of

S be diminished, the

absolute force of S on P will be increased.

.*.

the disturbing forces which

otyr-j

from S are increased, and P's gra\ity to

time
is

diminished, and
'

.'.the periodic

increased in a greater ratio than

r L

(because of the diminution of

is

fin the expression

r*
^

x
J

and when the distance of S

increased, the dis-

will be turbing force will be diminished, (but still the attraction of P to diminished by the disturbance of S) and r will be decreased, .. the

period will be diminished in a less ratio than r

*.

4A&. Con. 7. To find the effect of the disturbing force on the motion of the apsides of P's orbit during one whole revolution.

Whole

force in the direction

PT =
-^(l
180
i.

^., *"

"yf J J.V

(1

3 cos.
'"

"

A)
'

=T + T
.-.

r,

(if

= =

-3 cos.' A) = T + J/
7^-,-, by C
J.

*,

the
less

t_

between the apsides

the

IXth

Sect,

which

^l*

is

than 180

when

is

positive,

e.
i

from Q'

to

and from P' to P,

344
(fig.

A COMMENTARY ON
(446,))

[SECT. XI.
i.

and greater than 180 when c

to Q',

is

negative,

e.

from

to P'

and from
.'.

upon the whole the apsides are progressive, tures and progressive in the syzygies)
;

(regressive in the quadra-

force

=T 7-3

3Sr = rrT"
3.Sr'
=^-3

f rce i

conjunction

T
-^2

=
,

f iorce in opposition

Now

R T
3

3Sr
2

R T
3
; 2

3Sr /3
-, , x z

j|

ancl

r'^Rs

differ

most from
r

and

which

is
.

the

when r is least with respect to r', case when the Apsides are in the syzygies.

But

R
differ least

T+
r
2

Sr 3
s

R^T +
r is

Sr /3
1

r^R

from
7.

and

when

most nearly equal

to i y ?

449. COR.

Ex. Find the angle from the quadratures, when the apses

are stationary.

C
~-,

K
T

Draw P
resolve

m parallel to T S, and = 3 P K, m n perpendicular to T P, P m into P n, n m, whereof n m neither increases nor diminishes

the accelerating force of P to T, but P n lessens that force, .-. when P u P T, the accelerating force of P is neither increased nor diminished,

and the apses are quiescent,

by the
.*.

triangles

PT

P K

in the required position 3

P M = 3 P K P K = P T
2

= PT

or

PK

PT.sin.

f,

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

345

or

=
The
addititious force

35
is

26'.

PT
P K
3
:

Pn
:

maximum
:

in quadratures.

F
..

or

PT

3
2
> '

P K

P
is

n
a

^jSK=
0, '

PT

Pn = PT
is

P K n~rrrPT

which

maximum when P

or the body

in

syzygy.

Since the progression or regression of the Apsides de2 from pends on the decrement of the force in a greater or less ratio than , the lower apse to the upper, and on a similar increment from the upper
8.

450. COR.

to the lower, (by the IXtli Sect.), and is .*. greatest when the proportion of the force in the upper apse to that in the lower, recedes the most from the

inverse square of D, the ablatitious force,

in conjunction

it is

when they
.

manifest that the Apsides progress the fastest from are in the syzygies, (because the whole forces
i.

and opposition,
.

e.
.

at the
_

upper and lower apses being

T _
at the

2 8

_
r

\vheii the apsides are in the syzygies

and when

r is greatest

T
upper apse,
being
least,

and the negative part of the expression

is

2 8 r
.>

j-

being greatest, the whole expression

.. least,

and when

is least,

at the

lower apse, -^ being greatest, and the negative part

least,

.*.

the

whole expression is greatest, and /. the disproportion between the forces at the upper and lower apse is greatest), and that they regress the slowebt
in that case

from the addititious

T
force, (for
-f

r
,

which

is

the whole

force in the quadratures,

both before and

differs least

after conjunction, r

being the

semi minor axis in each case,

fore,

from the inverse square); theic-

on the whole the progression

in the course, of a revolution is greatest

apsides are in the syzygies. Similarly the regression is greatest when the apsides are in the quadratures, but still it is not equal to the progression in the course of the revolution.

when the

451. COR. 8.
at

Let the apsides be

apse
:

in

the syzygies,
:

and
:

let

the force

the

upper

that

at

the

lower,

D E

B,

A'

346

A COMMENTARY ON

as the distance

being the curve whose ordinate is inversely 2 from C, .*. these forces being

diminished, the force

D E at the
2
r

upper apse
the force

by the greatest

S quantity --j- > and

AB
2
r7
rc 3

at the

lower apse by the

least quantity

S ~
;

the curve a

d which

is

the

new

force
in

curve

has

its

ordinates

decreasing

greater ratio than ,y-2

Let the apsides be

in the quadratures,
,,

then the force

ED

will

be increased

by the

greatest quantity
*

and the force

is

AB
force

by the
curve

least quantity

r'
,

rr-j-

die

curve

a'

d which

the

new
.

will

have

its

ordinates decreasing in a less ratio than

^-

451. Con. 9. Suppose the line of apsides to be in quadratures, then while the body moves from a higher to a lower apse, it is acted on by a force which

does not increase so

fast as

ci

U or

/r

tlle

r force

= U

T+Sr
,,-.. J

.'.

the

numerator decreases

as the

denominator increases),

.*.

the orbit will be

exterior to the elliptic orbit and the excentricity will be decreased.

Also as
less this

S
the descent
is

caused by the foice

(1

3 cos.

A), the

force

is

with respect to - 2

the less will the excentricity be diminished.

Now
force

while the line of the apsides moves from the line of quadratures, the
*
"1

(1

3 cos.

A)

is

diminished, and

when

it is

inclined at

L.

35

16' the disturbing force

is

=
it

0,

and

.. at

unaltered.

After

this,

may be shown

those four points the excentricity in the same manner that the

coinexcentricity will be continually increased until the line of apsides disturbHere it is a maximum, since the cides with the line of syzygies. Afterwards it will decrease as before it increased force is negative. ing
until the line of apsides again coincides with the quadrature,

and then the

excentricity

maximum.
in Astron.)

(Hence Evection

BOOK L]
452.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

347
is

LEMMA. To

calculate that part of the ablatitious force which

employed in drawing P from the plane of its orbit. Let A = angular distance from syzygy. Q = angular distance of nodes from syzygy.
I

inclination of orbit to orbit of

S and T.

Then

the force required

-u~j-

cos.

sin.

sin.

(not quite

accurately.)

When P is in quadratures, this When nodes are in syzygy,

mum,
since sin.

---quadratures, this force

force vanishes, since cos.

since sin.
(cact.

A =

0.

Q = 0, par.) = maxiall

Q
is

zz sin.

90

rad.

453. COR. 12.

greater

The

effects

produced by the disturbing forces are

than when in opposition.
11
is

when P

in conjunction
,,
J.V

For they involve

.-.

when

least,

they are greatest.

volve round
as before,

re451. Cou. 13. Let S be supposed so great that the system P and S fixed. Then the disturbing forces will be of the same kind

w hen we supposed S

to revolve

round

at rest.

only difference will be in the magnitude of these forces, be increased in the same ratio as S is increased.

The

which

will

455. Con. 14. If we suppose the different systems in \\hich S and S but P and P and remain the same, and the period (p) of P round ,

remains the same,

itb

all

the errors

oc
3 -^-

,V-7

if

=z

density of S,

and d

diameter,
oc

o \ if

given,

and

= apparent diam.

also
"p JL
n *

JLv

i? 3

^ round
the errors
oc
-

S,

.-.

These are the

since

linear errors,

and angular errors

oc

in the

same

ratio,

PT

is

456. Cou.

given. 15. If

S and

T
:

be varied in the same

ratio,

Accelerating force of 8
.*.

that of

S
: :

T
:

y,

the

same

ratio as before.

the disturbances remain the

same

as before.

(The same
.-.

will

hold

if

arid r

be also varied proportionally.)

oc
<*,

the linear errors described in P's orbit

if

T,

(since they involve r),

P T

the rest remaining constant.

3 18

A COMMENTARY ON
P
as seen

[SECT. XI.

also the angular errors of

from

Ta
oc

],

and are

.*.

the

same

in the

two systems.
oc

The

similar

linear

errors

f.

PT
-Tp-j9

but f

accelerating force of

T P T ~ T on P oc P T
2
,

f.

(p

T and f = period of
2
,

round T,)
.-.
,
>

oc
_,

(for

p-

7-4 o

___,_
r
11',

p and .-. oc P S A 3 ^ P T3 ^ *3 T -**

o\ .)

COR.

14.

In the systems
S,

T, P, Radii R,

Periods P, p

S',T,

F,p.
1
:

Linear errors dato

angular errors in the period of

t.

in 1st.

do. in second

p>"!

..

P
B, r11', r'-

COR.

15.

In the systems S, T, P,
S',

P,P
F,
r r
r

T',

P
S'

p'

so that ~-

T'
nr-

R'

and
It

=r --

'F-p'Linear errors
in

a revolution of

in

st.

do. in second
1.

angular errors o Con. 16. In the systems

S Oj
5

T P
Jl

JL

T?

r JLtj 1
13

P 1
T)
Jt
:

i^
j

ST A

p
,./

T^
,

It,

-J

Linear errors in a revolution of

angular errors in a revolution To compare the systems
(1) S,

P of P
R,

in 1st.

do

in

second

p-

r'p'

T,

P
5

P,

p
,

(2) S',

P'

x R', r

p'.

Assume

the system
(3)

S T,
,

P
PS
:

R', r

P p
r
,
:

..

by

(14) angular errors in

revolution in (1)
in (2)
:

in (3)

by (16) angular errors in

(3)

therefore errors in (1)

in (2)

p P *

2
:

p P

/2

Ts

^57^.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
the system (3)
so that
-g.
fl

349

Or assume

2,

T,

g,

n, p

T r = T Q =~ p, jp
: :

.-.

the errors in

1)

errors in (3)
(2)

jj:

^
1

_S
S'
3

-|

?/

(3)

::

J3_S'. 2 <S' R'31

:

R/ 3
3

T
*~T

7
''

3 3
*

r'

3 3

~'*

R'

::

R T
3

^L

3
. :

J8 !

R"- T

;:

P!

'*

1
2

457. Cou. 10.

In the different systems the

mean angular

errors of
(or errors

oc

p2

wliether

we consider the motion of apses or of nodes

in latitude

and longitude.)
suppose every thing in the two different systems to be the same .*. p will vary. Divide the whole times p, p', into the same

For
except

first,

T,

number of indefinitely
the position of

P
oc

small portions proportional to the wholes. be given, the disturbing forces all oc each other
f.

Then
oc

if

P T;

and the space

..

2
,

.*.

the linear errors generated in any two corre-

sponding portions of time

.

oc

PT

2
.

the angular errors generated in these portions, as seen from T, oc p 2 cc p'^. .-. Cornp the periodic angular errors as seen from Now by Cor. 14, if in two different systems P and .*. p be the same,

every thing else varying, the angular errors

P>

generated in a given

tirne 3 as in

"pi.*.

neutris datis, in different systems the angular errors generated in the

time p

aP W^
D /, P
.

Now
i//

P!

JB.

2 >

.-.

the angular errors generated in 1" (or the

mean angular

errors)

or

J^.

Hence

the

mean motion of
cc
-

the nodes as seen from

cc

mean motion

of the apses, for each

458. COR. 17.

Mean
For

addititious force

mean

force of P on

T
:

2
:

2
.

mean

addititious force

force of

S on

PT

S T,

350

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. XI.

force of

S on

mean

force of

T on P:
/

S T 5 2 P
-

PT
:

,-

P"
-

rad.\
J

(force
.-.
: :

oc

mean addititious force mean force of T on P: p 2 P 2 me?n force of T on P: 3 cos. 6 p .% ablatitious force
:

2
*.

P.

Similarly, the tangential and central ablatitious be found in terms of the mean force of on P.

and

all

the forces

may

459. PROP. LXVII. Things being as in Prop. LXVI, the areas more nearly proportional to the times, and the orbit cal round the center of gravity of P and than round T.

S describes more ellipti-

For the

forces

on S are

P
p gk

.*.

the direction of the

compound
P, and
.%

force lies between

S P, S T; and

attracts
..

S more than P.
nearer

it lies

T than
C

nearer

the center of gravity of

to the times,

and P.
.*.

the areas round

are

more proportional

than

when

round T. Also as S

remains the same

increases or decreases, S C increases or decreases, but S .*. the ; compound force is more nearly proportional to
also the orbit round C C than of S T; C in the focus) than the orbit round T.
.-.

the inverse square of S

is

more

nearly elliptic (having

SECOND COMMENTARY
ON

SECTION

XI.

460.

To

at rest

Let

find the axis major of an ellipse, whose periodic time round would equal the periodic time of P round S in motion. equal the axis major of an ellipse described round P at rest

v. equal the axis major of P Let x equal the axis major required,

P. T. of

round S

in

motion

p S

at rest

V
x

+ P
3

P. T. of p in the elliptic axis

.-.

A
:

P. T. in the elliptic axis

el.ax.
:
:

P. T. of

round S

in

motion P.T. in the

3

A2 x2 V A^S Vx^+P).
x
:
:

By

hyp. the 1st term equals the 2d,

.-.

x3

+ P
*.

.-.

A:x::(S + P)i: S

Having given the velocity, places, and directions of two bodies attracted to their common center of gravity, the forces vary2 ing inversely as the distance , to determine the actual motions of bodies in

461. PROP. LXI1I.

fixed space. Since the

initial

motions of the bodies are given, the motions of the center

of gravity are given. And the bodies describe the same moveable curve round the center of gravity as if the center were at rest, while the center moves uniformly in a right line.
*
i.

Take

therefore the motion of the center proportional to the time,

e.

proportional to the area described in moveable orbits.

* Since a body describes

some curve in

fixed space,

it

describes areas in proportion to the times

in this curve, and since the center

movca uniformly forward, the spaco

described by

it is

pro-

portion to the time, therefore, &c.

852

A COMMENTARY ON
:
: :

[SECT. XI.

462. Ex. 1. Let the body P describe a circle round C, while the center C v of C v of P, and with the moves uniformly forward. Take C G C P
:

R
R'
II

center

and

rad.

CG
then

describe a circle

GC
G G

round along
.*.
.*.

H,

will describe the trochoid

N, and suppose it to move P L T, and when P

has described the semicircle

B, P will be at the summit of the trochoid F will have touched H, every point of the semicircumference F N, equals the semicircumference

PA

GH

.-.

v of

v of

C
*

P A B semicircumference C CP CG
: :

F N semicircle
Q.
e.

d,

463. Ex. 2.

Let the moveable curve

be a parabola, and let the center of gravity move in the direction of its primitive
axis.

When

the

body

is

at the vertex

A', let S' be the position of the center

of gravity, and while S' has described have described the uniformly S' S, let
arc of the parabola

Let A!
scissa

N =

x,

A A P. NP=

y,

be the ab- A'

S'

and ordinate of the curve

AP

in fixed space.

Let 4 p equal the parameter of the parabola y -.-. A N = A' S = S' S = x , 4p 4p

A _

P.
-

4p
p'

N = AN Area A S P= A N P
S

AS
S

AN
'

p 1

~;

4 n

=
24 p

N P= A N X N P
P
4p
;

By

Prop. S'

co

4 p

therefore they are in

some given
4 p

ratio.

24 p
If
If

C G C P C P "> C G

------

the curve in fixed space becomes the

-

common

cycloid.

the oWongated trochoid.

BOOK

I.]
.-.

...

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. y 4 12p y = 4pax ay 4 pax = y3 + ay + 12 p y

3

353

0.

Equation to the curve in fixed space. 464- Ex. 3. * Let B B' be the orbit of the enrth round the sun,

MA

that of the

moon round

the earth, then the

moon will,

during a revolution,

greater the sun will consist of twelve epicycloids, and the sun. For

has a trace out a contracted or protracted epicycloid according as or less circumference than M, and the orbit of the moon round

AL

it

will

be always concave to
r

F of the earth

to the

sun

F of the moon to

the earth

TJ^

F'
1
2
'

400

'(365)
in a greater ratio than

(27)
is

2:1.
of the

But the force of the earth

to the sun

the deflection to the sun will always be within the tangential or the curve is always concave towards the sun. 405. PROP. LXYI. If three bodies attract each other with forces
.-.

nearly equal to the earth,

to the force

moon

to the sun,

.*.

the force of the

moon

varying inversely as the square of the distance, but the two least revolve To determine the nature of the curve described by the moon with to the sun.
respect

VOL.

I.

354

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

XL

about the greatest, the innermost pf the two will more nearly describe the areas proportional to the time, and a figure more nearly similar to an ellipse, if the greatest body be attracted by the others, than if it were at rest,
or than
if it

were attracted
:

much more

or

much

less

than the other bodies.

(L
.-.

M LM
,

P;r
oc

S
3
'

S P,

FT
S
:

.'.

SP PT x SL _ g-p K* SP* SL
:
:

K
P).

x PT
j

Let

and S revolve

in the

P
of

describe the orbit

from

S,

and

let
:

PAD, S K represent
K
:
:

same plane about the greatest body T, and and S, E S E. Take S K the mean distance
the attraction of
:

to

at that dis-

tance.

Take S L S attraction of S on P at

S
P.

2
,

and S

L
it

will

represent the

the distance

Resolve

into t\vo

S M, and

LM
S M.

parallel to

P T,

and

will

be acted upon by three forces

T,

L M,

tends to T', and varies inversely as the dis2 P ought by this force to describe an ellipse, whose focus is T. tance , .'. The second, M, being parallel to P may be made to coincide with it
first

The

force

PT

the body P will still, being acted upon by a centriforce to T, describe areas proportional to the time. But since petal does not vary inversely as P T, it will make P describe a curve different
in this direction,

and

.*.

from an

ellipse,

and

.*.

the longer

is

will the curves differ

from an

ellipse.

The

compared with P T, the more third force 8 M, being neither

in the direction

T, nor varying

in the inverse square of the distance, will

body no longer describe areas in proportion to the times, and the curve differ more from the form of an ellipse. The body P will .. describe areas most nearly proportional to the times, when this third force is a minimum, and P A B will approach nearest to the form of an ellipse, when both second and third forces are minima. Now let S N represent the were equal, P and attraction of S on T towards S, and if S N and S

make

the

being equally attracted in parallel directions would have relatively the be greater or less then 8 M, their difference same situation, and if S

MN

is

the disturbing force, and the body

will

the equable description of areas, and P is either when nothing or a minimum.

AB

to the

approach most nearly form of an ellipse,

MN
2.

Case

If the bodies

P and S

revolve about

in different planes,

LM

being parallel to

P S

will

have the same

effect

as before, and

will not

BOOK

I.]

tend to

move

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. P from its plane. But N M acting

P
out of
its
"

355
in a different plane,

will tend to

draw

&c. and cription of areas, is a minimum, or when

the equable desplane, besides disturbing as before this disturbing force is a minimum,

nearly S K. the disturbing forces on P, when 466. To estimate the magnitude of moves in a circular orbit, and in the same plane with S and T.

MN

when S

N =

Let the angle from the quadratures

PCT =

0,

T=
T

d,

PT =

r,

FonPzz^j^,
.-.

at the distance (a)

= M,
S P

From P

in the direction

S P

.-.

in the direction

M PT = ^-i

2
2

PT PT

T,

But S
/.

d2

2 d

r sin.

0,

in the direction

PT =

Ma
r* 2

r
sin. 6) |

dr
<

-Ma'rJ - J3 \i~ ,r
=
1VI

2d

r sin.

a
*

= A

nearly, since
all

d being

indefinitely great

compared with
First
,

in the expansion,

the terms

may be
,

neglected except two.

vanishes

when compared with

*

-y-3

..

the addititious force in the direction

T = A. By proportion as before, force in the direction Ma d - Ma ~ 8 P* ST _ d SP "" 2 d r sin. (1 +T7

*
5-

3 r
.

2 d r
g

sin.

2 2

a
8

Ma
O
,1

"d

3
"

Ma
f

2
\

r sin.
3
'

856
.*.

A COMMENTARY ON
r ^i v force in the direction

[SECT.
2

XL

<-.

m = Ma I
-,-^

2
|

3Ma
p

sin. 6 nearly, since

1
-,-4-

vanishes

when compared with

r

.1
-.

and the force of S on

T = Ma -r^r
2

.. ablatitious

= =

Ma
^
3

2
|-

3
sin.
0.

Ma
p

r
.

sin. &

Ma
--j

If
for

P T equal

the addititious force, then the ablatitious force equals 3

:

P K,

P K: PT:

sin. *
.-.

(1 = P K =
:

r),

P T
:

sin.

&

=
:

A
6,

sin.

6.

To
.-.

resolve the ablatitious force.

Take
: :

Pm P
:

PT TK

cos.

= P

in

cos.

A X

sin.

cos.

=
A
.

sin.

m
1.

= Pm X
..

PK

= 3A. sin.
=

lm

-?--,

The

the disturbing forces of a2 r addititious force .3

=M

S on P
A.

are

2.

The
.

ablatitious

force

which

is

resolved into the tangential part

=
.

sin.

0,

and that

in the direction

TP =
PT
J^
=:

whole disturbing force

in the direction

A
2

3
0,

=A

~+
4!

--

_ g - Qg

A
'

cos.

A.

+ 23

cos.

and

in the

whole

revolution the positive cosine destroys the negative, therefore the whole disturbing force in a complete revolution is ablatitious, and equal to one
half of the

mean

addititious force.

467.

To compare N M and L M. L M P T (S L = --*)

: :

S P,

.-.

,'

x P

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

35T

MN =
= SK S K
3 S
O C
3 3

xST
J

ST =
3

CJ

pS

ST

(SK KP) x slv

ST

SK +
2

SR* x
,_

KP
.

S P3

ST nearly
3

X P
x p

K
T
L

c X S

I nearly

= 3SK X P .. K --y-

sin 1

^
:

.-.

MN

sin.

6.

468. Next

let

S and

revolve about

in different planes,

and

let

N' be P's orbit, N N' the line of the nodes. Take T K in T S = Pass a plane through T K and turn it round till it is perbin. 0. Let T e be the intersection of it with P's orbit. to P's orbit. pendicular

N P 3 A

F is perpendicular E and draw F perpendicular to it, .*. the plane of P's orbit, and therefore perpendicular to every line ineetto II perpendicular in the plane of S's orbit ; draw in<r it in that orbit, the inclination of the then F F, to N' equals ; join
Produce

produced

HK

For planes of the two orbits.

KT
FT
F

2 2
2

Kp + H
*.-.
.*.

K H T, K F T, K F Ii being all right angles, = K II + HT = K F + F II + H T = F II + II T

2
2

II

is

perpendicular to II T,

Since
*

PT =
aiigks

A,
II

TK =A

sin.

Let the
z.

= T,

II

TK

c= p

angular dihtanco of

tlie

line of the nod-.

from S y

Z3

358

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

XL

.'.

TK TK KH KH KF PT KF
:
:

PT

1
1 1 1

sin.

sin. sin.

T,
.

3
3

sin. 6

sin.

sin.

T,
f

.. ablatitious force

3
2d.

PT X
Hence

perpendicular to P's orbit

sin.

= KF
X
sin.

sin. 6. sin.
it

f>

T=
C

A X

sin. 0. sin.

T.

appears that there are four forces acting

on P.

1.

Attraction of
Addititious
Ablatitious

P to T a

2.

in the direction
in the direction

3.

Ma ~ ~d r 3 M PT =
2

sin.
2

0.

4.

Tangential part of the ablatitious force

Ma
|
.

sin.

, 0.

Of these the three first acting in the direction of the radius-vector do not disturb the equable description of areas, the fourth acting in the direction of a tangent at P does interrupt it.
Since the tangential part of
sin. 6 at

F is formed by the

revolution of

P Mn3 A X

C,

&

=
C

0, therefore

Pm =
in

F =

from

to

A,

is

and consequently the tangential consequentia, and therefore accelerates

0,

is in antecedentia, the body P at A, it again equals 0, and from to and therefore retards P; from to B it accelerates; from B to C it re-

tards.

Therefore the velocity of P is greatest at A and B, because these are the points at which the accelerations cease and retardations begin, and
the velocity
is

least at

and C.

To

find the velocity gained

by the

ac-

tion of the tangential force.*

dZ = Fdx = iA.
PT
is

sin.

&

in the direction
Is 0,

maximum

at the quadrature, because the ablatitious

in the

iualrature

and at every other point

it is

something.

BOOK IJ
sin.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
&

359

20'
.-.

(cos.

0)',

=
t>

Cor.

I A.
0,

cos.

6.

But wlien
.-.

cos.
.'.

.-.

= 0, the tangential F = = R = 1, r~ J- = 4 (1 cos. 2 0) = 2 g v = 3 g A, sin. v = V 3 g A. sin.

2
6
v /

and no velocity

is

produced,

A. 2

sin.

0, ?

6,

.*.
.'.

0,

(bin. 0)',

..

whole f on the moon

at the

mean

distance

of S on

p
and the force of S on
..

, *

-n--; '~

add. fat the

mean
:

distance (m) / \

-~
t|
*

c|

-r=, o

whole f at the mean distance

2 p and L-2 x whole

&c.

= m.
mean

Now

on the moon

at

any distance j
f

(r) v /

-x 2

--2J-p, and d
J

at the

distance (1)

= m 3

)2f
2 p
2

=
and therefore nearly

p
*

p
y

f
'

2 p

)
'

pi {p
469.

T"

To compare
XXV.)
add. f
:

the ablatitious and addititious forces

upon the moon,

III.

with the force of gravity upon the earth's surface.

(Newton, Vol.
:

Prop.

f of

Son

T
on the moon

::

PT
S
-

T
$-

of

S on

f of the earth

T
:

PV
: :

p2

= PT
2

.*.

add. f

f of the earth

on the moon

p
1
.

2
:

f of the earth on the

.% add. f
:

moon

force of gravity
:
:

GO 2,
(I)

force of gravity
addititious force addititious force

p
3

2
:

P
.

2
.

GO 2

Also
.-.

ablat. f ablat. f
2.

P K P K

P
2

T,
:

fiO

2
.

T.
oc

'
.

(2)

470. COR.

In a system of three bodies S, P, T, force

the

4.

360

A COMMENTARY ON
P
will describe greater areas in a

[SECT. XI.

body

given time at the syzygies than at

sin.

the quadrature.

The

tangent ablatitious

PT

therefore this force will

accelerate the description of areas from quadratures to syzygies and retard it from syzygies to quadratures, since in the former case sin. 2 & is positive,

and

in the latter negative. 3. is

first

COR.

contained in Cor. 2.

The
in the

quadrant

d.

sin.

being

positive

the

velocity

increases,

second
a

d, sin. negative the velocity decreases,

&c. for the 1st Cor.

2d Cor. &c.
Also v
is

471. COR.
in the
s

4.

maximum when sin. d is The curvature of Fs

maximum,
is

i.

e.

at

and B.

orbit

greater in quadratures than

s

TM whole F on 1 he ITT-

P=

Ma

2
,

-\

Ma'r 3Ma --p----.

r ,_ (1

cos.

,,

0)

w X

/3

Ma
2

sin.

<

In quadratures
'

sin.

r *

And

in syz. 2
.-.

-Ma + -jr= 180, sin. 20 = 0,

2
_

20=0,

Ma
~7p
cos.

r
'

2
_

Q
.

3Ma*r
.'.

3Ma
3

*u

i Tthe whole L on
i

r>

m^ the

syz.

= Ma

Ma
,

is

greater in the quadratures than in the syzygies; and the velocity greater in the syzygies than in the quadratures.
.'.

is

But the curvature a p-^.

least in the syzygies.

cc

2 ,

.-.

is

greatest in the quadratures

and

greatest in the quadrature and least in the syzygy, the circular orbit must assume the form of an axis is C and minor A 1J. ellipse whose major

472. COR. 5

Since the curvature of P's orbit

is

.*.

recedes farther from

0.
.

T
..

in the quadrature than in the syzygy.

473. COR.

T1 The whole F on P
,
,

_.

in the line

^^ = Ma H Ma1 P T -7^-2
,

-r

3Ma*r j
a

sin.

t l

&

in quail.

Ma + M a 52
,

-,

BOOK L]
and
let

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
in syz.

361

= Ma r
2
r

Ma
d
3

the ablatitious force on

Ma

Ma
1

equal the addititious, and

2

r
:

sn.

.. sin. &

sin.

35.

16.

Therefore up to this point from quadrature the ablatitious force is less than the addititious, and from this to one equally distant from the other point of quadrature, the ablatitious is greater than the addititious, therefore
in a

whole revolution the gravity of

if

P
if

to

is

diminutive from what

act,

it

would be

the orbit were circular or

is

S did not

and

P a

R
V

7----=-.
nbl.

and since the action of S

cc

from what

it

alternately increased or diminished, therefore would be were P constant, both on account of the

variation,

and of the absolute

7.
,

force.

474. Cou.

* Let

P
2

revolve round

in

an

,,

in the quad.

= Ma
2

elliptic orbit,

the force on

Ma'r

'.

G+
is

180
<\

I ~

+4c

and since the number

.-.

is

creator than the de&

nomination
effect

is

less

than 180.

produced
i.

as long as the addititious force

16'.

the apsides are regressive if the same ablais gi eater than the
2

titious,
rp,

c.

through 35.

llic lorce

on

r>

in the ?y/. rr J

Ma ---Y

I\I

a
3

r
,

b
r
2

__.
--

d^
is

<->

r i v^

Since

Pa
\/

____________ and
dbiatitioiis lorce

in

wintir the MJH

nearer the rarth than in summer,

11 is increa^iMl in winter,

and

is

diminished, therefore the lunar months are shoitei in \\intrr

than in summer.

362

A COMMENTARY ON
LHL_?_?

[SECT. XI.

>

180

.% in the syz. the apsides arc progressive,

and

since

^J *
is

^-^

will

be

an improper fraction as long as the ablatitious force

addititious,

greater than the

G=
9th.)

progressive they are on the whole progressive. To find the effect produced by the tangential ablatitious force, on the Assume u velocity of P in its orbit. velocity of a body at the mean

n forces are equal, 180, i. e. the line of apsides is at rest (or it lies in since they are regressive through 141. 4' and ,*.

and when the disturbing

me = c, therefore V C produced

218. 56'

distance

1,

then

velocity at

any other distance

r nearly,

the orbit

being nearly circular. Let v be the true velocity of

at

any distance

= =
3

16

For the tangent

26.tf9
2

ablatitious f

vdv = gFdx P T 2 and x' = r

(r),
.

C,

P T.mr.sin.
.'.

=
'

PTm

r cos.

C,

and

..

appears that the velocity is greatest in syzygy and least in since in the former case, cos. 2 Q is greatest and negative, nnd quadrature,
it

Hence

in the latter, greatest

and

positive.

find the increment of the moon's velocity while she moves from quadrature to syzygy.

To

by the tangential force

2

but

(v)

the

= = increment C = = .. v
v2
.-.

3
0,

P T
&

when
.

m r = 0,
.
.

cos.

C,

3 3

PT m PT m
.

r,

r (1

cos.
2

0)

and when

6 90, or the body is in syzygy v is twice as Since the gravity of P to 475. Con. 6.
6

= 6 P T. m. r. sin. P T in r.
.

0,

much

diminished

in syzygy by the action of the disturbing force S, the gravity of P to during a whole revolution is diminished. Now the disturbing forces depend on the proportion between P and S becomes greater S, and therefore they become less or greater as

as it is increased in quadrature,

BOOK IJ
or
less.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
If therefore

363

approach

S, the gravity of
will

to

T will be
T
is

still

more diminished, and

therefore

PT
;

be the increment

Now P.T
minished, 11
is

R*
oc

:-

since, therefore,

when S

di-

absolute

force

solute force to

increased and the absolute force diminished (for the abis diminished by the increase of the disturbing force) the

is increased the P T is In the same way when S is increased or diminished diminished, therefore P. according as 8 T Hence per. t of the moon is shorter in winter is diminished or increased.

P T
.

is

increased.

than in summer.

OTHERWISE.

476. COR. 7.

To

find the effect of the disturbing force

on the motion
f

of the apsides of P's orbit during a whole revolution.

Let
of

gravity of

to

T
r.

at the

mean

distance (1), then

= =

gravity

at

any other distance

in quadrature the

Now

whole force of

to

T=

f
,

f
;

add. f

+r
.,t

=
which

T
r
3

a nd with this force the distance of the apsides L

less

=
P

180

\/

+4
the

is

than 180, therefore the apsides are regressive

when
-

body

is

in quadrature.

Now

in syz. the

whole force of

to

T = =

f r

2 _^

4
9

therefore the distance between the apsides

180

T-

which
the

is

greater than

180,

therefore the apsides are progressive

when

body

is

in syzygy.

But

as the force (2 r)
(r)

which causes the progression

in

syzygy

is

double

the force

which causes the regression

in quadrature, the progressive

motion in syzygy is greater than the regressive motion in the quadrature. Hence, upon the whole, the motion of the apsides will be progressive during a whole revolution.

At any other

point, the motion of the apsides will be progressive or

retrograde, according as the whole central force

is

PT
5
h

~P T
3
\

cos 2

negative or positive.

364
477. COR.
centric.
8.

A COMMENTARY ON
To
calculate the disturbing force

[SECT.

XL
ex-

when

P's orbit

is

The whole

central disturbing force

.

=
add.
2

PT
f).

T
1

cos.

&

=1

m
=
by

mr
^ 2
e
2

H
div. 1
3
,

cos.

(m
2

is

the

mean
e
2
.

Now

r zz

e cos. u

+
1

e. cos. u
C

+
=

cos.

u,

&c. neglecting terms in1

.

volving e

&c.

&

e. cos. u

e
*O

cos.

2 u; therefore the

whole central disturbing force

ni e'

m
me.

cos.

me

cos.

2 u -

4
| in e \

+
,

3 in e T mco8.2-~T.

'

cos.

& -f- />_

cos. u

cos.

co.s.

2 u
It

cos.

&.

has been shown that the apsides are progressive in in consequence of the ablatitious force, and that tlu-y are regressyzygy sive in quadrature from the effect of the ablatitious force, and also, that
478. Cou. 8.

upon the whole progressive. It follows, therefore, that the the excess of the ablatitious over the addititious force, the more \\ill greater Now in any the apsides be progressive in the course of a revolution.
they
are
position

m M of the
=
2

conjunction B. Again, the excess of the addititious above the ablatitious force 2

A T

line of the apsides, the excess of the ablatitious in in opposition B, therefore the whole excess

in quadrature

= C
if

D.

be retrograde
greater than excess of 2

AB AB

be

Therefore the apsides in a whole revolution will less than C D, and progressive if 2 A B be

D.

AB

Also their progression will be greater, the greater the m is above C but the excess is the greatest when ;

in syzygy, for then

is in

is

greatest

and

the least.

Also,

when

in

tion with S,

syzygy the apsides being progressive are moving in the same direcand therefore will remain for some length of time in syzygy. = m, P p, and C when the apsides are in quadrature A B Again,

BOOK
but
the
if

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
A

365

B is greater than C ; therefore the orbit be nearly circular, 2 are still in a whole revolution progressive, though not so apsides
as in the former case.
it

much

In orbits nearly circular

that
if

follows from

G =

when F
r

cc

Ap

3
,

the force vary in a greater ratio than the inverse square, the If therefore in the inverse square they are staare progressive. apsides Now from quadrature to if in a less ratio they are regressive. tionary, a force which <x the distance is added to one varying inversely as 35
the square, therefore the compound varies in a less ratio than the inverse At this point square, therefore the apsides are regressive up to this point.

oc

distance'

-i

therefore they arc stationary. J J

From

this to

35

from

another

Q a quantity varying as the distance is subtracted from one varying inversely as the square, therefore the resulting quantity varies in a greater ratio than the inverse square, therefore the apsides arc
progressive through

218.
OTHERWISE.

has been sho\\n that the apsides are progressive HI syzygy in consequence of the ablatitious force, and that they are regressive in the quadratures on account of the addititious force, and they are on the
8.

479. COR.

It

whole progressive, because the ablatitious force

than the addititious.
.-.

is on the whole greater the greater the excess of the ablatitious force above the addititious the more will be the apsides progressive. In any position of the line B in conjunction the excess of the ablatitious force above the addititious is 2 P T, in opposition 2 p t. .-. the whole

In the quadratures at C the ablatitious excess in the syzygies := 2 P p. of the addititious force vanishes. .'. the excess additions C T.

.'.

the whole addititious in the quadratures the apsides will, in the whole revolution, be progressive or regressive, according as 2 P p is greater or less than C D, and then the progres-

= C D.

Now

sion will be greatest in that position of the line of the apses when 2 P p is in the is the greatest, i. e. when syzygy, for then 2 P p n: 2 r ordinate =. B, the greatest line in the ellipse, and C

AB

D = R

least

is a maximum. Also when through the focus. .*. 2 P p B is in the syzygy, the line of apsides being progressive, will move the same way as S. .'. it will remain in the syzygy longer, and on this account

CD

the apsides will be

more

progressive.

quadratures S P
circular,

= Rr

and

C
B.

D=A
.*.

r nearly equals

But when the apsides are in the B, and the orbit being nearly 2 P p C D is positive, and the

366

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

XL

apsides are progressive on the whole, though not so much as in the last case ; and the apsides being regressive in the quadratures move in the opposite direction to S, .. are sooner out of the quadratures, .'. the regression in the quadrature is less than the progression in the syzygy.

480, COB. 9.

LEMMA.
oc

If from a quantity which

oc

-^-5

J\

any quantity

be subtracted which

the remainder will vary in a higher ratio than

if to

the inverse square of A, but

a quantity varying as -r-s another be A.

added which
I

oc

A, the sum

will vary in
j

an wer ratio a lower rao than

2
.

If

A
1

be diminished

CA =
.*.

_ A -c
7-5 2

^
c

If

increases

decreases,
.

and

-r-^ increases.
.*.

the quantity decreases,

A
.*.

increases

and

-T-r increases.

increases from both these accounts.

.

the whole

1
.

quantity varies in a higher ratio than

If

CA

be added

A -^1

-j-$

4- c

2
,

as

is

increased the numerator increases,

-

and -- decreases.

.'.

the quantity does not decrease so fast as

2 ,

and
the

if

be diminished
is

is

diminished, and

-^
Q.

increased.
e. d.

/.

quantity

not increased as

fast as

-~
2

.*.

&c.

OTHERWISE.
481. COR.
tricity
9.

To

find the effect of the disturbing force

If

on the exccnthe excentricity

of P's orbit.

were acted on by a force

oc

-^

of

its

orbit

would not be

altered.

But

since

is

acted on by a force vary-

ing partly as r2 and partly as the distance, the excentricity will continually vary.

Suppose the line of the apsides to coincide with the quadrature, then while the body moves from the higher to the lower apse, it is acted upon

by a

force

which does not increase so

f
a

fast as

-p

>

for the force at the

quad-

rature

+ m

r,

and

.*.

the

body

will describe

an orbit exterior to the

.

elliptic

which would be described by the force

-y^

Hence

the body

BOOK L]
will

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
at the

367

be farther from the focus

it

had
avS

moved

in

an

elliptic orbit,
is

the decrease in excentricity

f
is

lower apse than it would have been or the excentricity is diminished. Also caused by the force (m r), the less this

force

with respect to

the less will be the diminution of excentricity.

while the line of apsides moves from the line of quadratures, the force (m r) is diminished, and when it is inclined at an angle of 35 16' the disturbing force is nothing, and .*. at those four points the excentricity

Now

remains unaltered.

After this

it

may be shown

in the

same manner

that

the excentricity will be continually increased, until the line of apsides coincides with the syzygics. Hence it is a maximum, since the disturbing force in these is negative. Afterwards it will decrease as before it increased, until the line of apsides again coincides with the line of quadrature, and the excentricity is a minimum,

COR. Ik Let
1,

P T =
S ou
.
.

r,

T =
ut the

d, f

=
,

force of

on

at the distance

g
3

=
~
<*

ibrce^ of
d
>

distance,
r

then the ablatitious force

r sin.

..

"

tnc position of

^ P

be given, and d varies, the

,,

ablati-

,,.

tious force

oc

-p
;
:

But when the position of

.*.

is

given, the ablatitious

oc

addititious

in a given ratio,

addititious force

j-

or the disoc

turbing force cs

oc

d
i

^.
-

Hence
i

if

the absolute force of

S should

the dis-

turbing force
.'.

ex

-y j
"

Let

P =

the periodical time of

d

about S,

pj-

oc

-j--/

Let A
3
,

density,

diameter of the sun, then the

oc
,-

absolute force

x A
3

then the disturbing force

yj^

GC

(ap-

parent diameter) of the sun.

as the angular errors
oc

Or

since

PT

is

constant, the linear as well

483. Con. 15.

same If the bodies S and

in the

ratio.

T either

remain unchanged, or their

absolute forces are changed in any given ratio, and the magnitude of the orbits described by S and P be so changed that they remain similar to

what they were before, and

crating force
<3 ->p 2
5

their inclination be unaltered, since the accelT

cn.rr, of P to I

accelerating force ot

,.

re-

absolute force of
:

T
:

an d the numerators and denominators of the

ratio, the accelerating forces
oc

last

terms are changed in the same given

in

remain

the same ratio as before, and the linear or angular errors

as before,

368
i.

A COMMENTARY ON
the diameter of the orbits, and the times of those errors
oc

XL
T's

e. as

of the bodies.

COR. 16. Hence if the forms and inclinations of the orbits remain, and the magnitude of the forces and the distances of the bodies be changed ; to find the variation of the errors and the times of the errors. In Cor. 14-.
it

was shown, how that when

let
ac

remained constant, the errors

oc

p-2

of

Now P

P T also a P T, and in

then since the addititious force in a given position

a given position of

the addititious

ablatitious in

a given ratio. COK. If a body in an ellipse be acted upon bv a force which varies in a ratio greater than the inverse

square of the distance,

it

will in de-

scending from the higher apse B to the lower apse A, be drawn nearer to the
center.
tricity
is

/. as

is

fixed, the excen-

increased, and from

will

A to B

the excen tricity

also,

be increased

because the force decreases the faster the distance 2 increases.

orbit remaining fixed.

is

484. (CoR. 10.) Let the plane of P's orbit be inclined to the plane of T's Then the addititious force being parallel to P T,
in the

same plane with it, and .'. docs not alter the inclination of the But the ablatitious force acting from P to S may be resolved into plane* The two, one parallel, and one perpendicular to the plane of P's orbit.
force perpendicular to P's orbit when perpendicular distance of

=
P

A X

sin.

&

sin.

from the quadratures,

Q X sin. T Q m angular
inclination of
.. bin.

distance of the line of the nodes from the syzygy,

T=
6

first

the planes.

Hence when
/.

the line of the nodes

is

in the

syzygy,

=2 0,

no and the

force acts perpendicular to the plane,

inclination
is

not changed.
is

When
per-

the line of the nodes

in the quadratures,
.. force

90,

.'.

sin. is

maximum,
sin.
6

pendicular produces in the inclination, and

tive

the greatest

change

being posi-

from

to

D,

the force to change the

continually acts from C to to C. Sin. & the plane down from pulling before was posi. force which is negative,
inclination

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

3G9

live pulling down to the plane of S's orbit (or to the plane of the paper) now is negative, and .. pulls up to the plane of the paper. But P's orbit is now below the plane of the paper, /. force still acts to change the inclination.

Now

since the force from

plane of S's orbit,

If the

P will

to continually draws P towards the arrive at that plane before it gets to D.

nodes be

in the octants past the quadrature,

&

that

is

between

and A.

Then from

minished, and from

N to D, sin. being positive, the inclination is diD to N' increased, .. inclination is diminished through
.-.

270, and increased through 90, more diminished than increased.

in this, as in the former case,

it

is

When

the nodes are in the octants be-

fore the quadratures, i. e. in to C, H, inclination is decreased from diminished from C to N, (and at the body having got to the highest to D, diminished from D' to N', and increased point) increased from

from 2 N'

to II,
.-.

.*.

inclination

is

increased through

270, and diminished

increased upon the whole. Now the inclination of through 90, orbit is a maximum when the force perpendicular to it is a minimum, P's
it is

when (by expression) the line of the nodes is in the syzygies. the quadratures, and the body is in the syzygies, the least it is increased when the apsides move from the syzygies to the quadratures it is dimini.

e.

When

is

ished and again increased as they return to the syzygies.

485. (Con. 11.)

being of S's orbit

in the

While P moves from the quadrature in C, the nodes quadrature it is draun towards S, and .. comes to the plane at a point nearer S than N or D, i. e. cuts the plane before it
.*.

arrives at the node.

in this case the line of the

nodes

is

regressive.

In

the syzygies the nodes rest, and in the points between the syzygies and quadratures, they are sometimes progressive and sometimes regressive,

but on the whole regressive; .. they are either retrograde or stationary.

486. (CoR. 12.) All the errors mentioned in the preceding corollaries are because the disturbing greater in the syzygies than in any other points, force is greater at the conjunction and opposition.

And since in deducing the preceding corollaries, no rewas had to the magnitude of S, the principles are true if S be so gard great that P and T revolve about it, and since S is increased, the disturbing were before. .'. force is increased irregularities will be greater than they
487. (CoR. 13.)
;

488. (CoR. 14.)

M
if

=
P

^fW = N N
1

1VT n

,.

Q
=?

TV/I

r
sin.
*,
.-.

^-,
N

in

a given position of P,
VOL.
I.

T remain
A

unaltered, the forces

a

M and L M

370

A COMMENTARY ON
X
absolute force
=c

[SECT. XI.

ce

-^
3

-p-^-

of

T for
S

(sect.

P'

oc

whether the absolute force vary or be constant.

Let

D =

density of S,
oc

and

attractive force of

oc

magnitude

diameter of S, or quantity of

matter

d,

.-.

forces

M and N M

oc

^
d3
3

But

r-

apparent diameter of S,
oc

.*.

forces

(apparent diameter)

another expression.

similar to the orbit of

similar to that of

489. (CoR. 15.) Let another body as P' revolve round T' in an orbit P round T, while T' is carried round S 7 in an orbit

round

S,

and

let

that of T' with the orbit

of S, T, A',

a',

of

S',

P T, P

to that of T.

the orbit of P' be equally inclined to Let A, a, be the absolute forces

accelerating force of

by S

that of

P by

A
:

-^-p-g

a p~^r

* >

and the

orbits being similar

:

accelerating force of P' by S'

.*.

that of P'

by T'

*
:
:

^~p>-2

p/ T/

8 >

if

A'

of

a,

and the orbits being

:

similar,

PT

*
: :

S'

P P T',
:

accelerating force of P' by S' that of P' by : : force on P' by T', force on P by S
: :

and the errors due

to the disturbing forces in the case of

f

are us

>~ x

r>

m ^e

case

A'
an(l S' are as
:

RT^v

x ^>
: :

.. linear errors in the first case

Angular errors

-^
first

that in the second

R.

sin. errors
3

angular errors in the

case

that in the second

1.

Now

Cor.

2.

Lem. X.

linear errors
A V^
Q

angular errors __
angular errors,

X T> J^

.*.

oc
:

.-.

angular errors
.-.

360

T =

2
:

P\

T .. T

cc

cc

P P

angular errors,
angular errors.

for

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.

371

to vary in any man490. (Con. 16.) Suppose the forces of S, P T, it is required to compare the angular errors that P describes in siminer,
lar,

ST

and similarly situated

.'.

orbits.

constant,
orbits
.-.

addititious force

=
S).

evanescent arcs.

Suppose the force of S and T to be T, .% if two bodies describe in similar Linear errors x p 2 X P T.

x P

angular errors

x p2

(p

per. time of

round T,

P =

that of

round

But by Cor.

14. if

T be given,

the absolute force of

and

STx.
Angular errors
.-.

x p-

if

T, S

and the absolute force alternately vary,

angular errors

-i

P =
p

per. time of *

P round Tl

zz per.

time of

\.

iQV(2(3

round S

Ma
d
J

r
*

angular ^ I4 ^ tj
,.
<

^
^

linear errors

radius

.*.

1m.

2 si

.-.

angular errors

rP
2

PS
.

^oc

~MU
Now
.*.

the errors d

X p

whole angular errors

-~-

error d

x
j

>8

thence the

mean motion

of the apbides

x mean motion

of the nodes, ior each

-A-j

for each error is

formed by forces varying as

proof of the preceding corollaries, both the disturbing forces, and .-. the Let P describe an errors produced by them in a given time will x P T.
indefinite small angle about

T
x

(in a

errors generated in that time

given position of P), then the linear P time 2 , but the time of describforce

ing

angles about
2

T x

whole periodic time

(p),

/.

linear errors

p , and as the same is true for every small portion, similar; the 2 linear errors during a whole revolution x P T p Angular errors
.

PT
cc

linea

er
y
:

...

rau.

a p

...

w hen S T, P T, and
absolute

the absolute force vary, the the absolute force

i

angular errors

fi

w-^

p*

P f ,i a ^ >r i (when

ii^p

is

A COMMENTARY ON
given.)

[SECT.

XL
the the

Now

the error in any given time xp varies the whole errors during

a revolution

|~

..

the errors in any given time

<x

~-2

Hence

mean motion

of the apsides of P's orbit varies the

mean motion of

nodes, and each will

the excentricities and inclination being small

and remaining the same.

491. (Con. 17.)

To
of

compare the disturbing

forces with the force of

PtoT.
F
of

S on

on

T
. ' . '

absolute

F
'
.

ST
A
s
:

TP
P
*

absolute
cc

F
3

axis major

S S S
.

T
'

aT
TP
.

"

"

TP
p
t
:

r
.

-p

p
2
: :

p
r
:

r
.

mean
.-.

add. r
add.

jj

T^
:

-n

ot

ro on b
on

T, 1

Ma*r
:
:

Ma
r-g
.

=-j~.

mean
492.

F P

2
:

Let from the body round which they revolve.

To compare the densities of different planets. P and P' be the periodic times of A and B, r and

r'

their distances

of

to

of

to

S
m *

~ ^
:

quantity of matter in 2 distance

do. in
t

B
8

of A X density
distance
2

m *

distance

D^Bx density distance

*

D Xd D /3 xd
3

_/

r where S and S represent the apparent diameters of the two planets. 493. In what part of the moon's orbit is her gravity towards the earth

unaffected

Ma F=
and when

Ma _-+_
2

by the action of the sun.

2

3Ma*r d

^1
.

cos.

^+ 3

^_a_
=

M a*r

8in .
2

it is

acted upon only by the force of gravity

effect.

Ma

for the

other forces then have no

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
3

873
2

Ma
1
.

cos. 2*0

2
1

3 2

Ma
= =

_3

cos.

20,2. +
20+!
sin.
2

sin.

20
20
-

| +

cos.

sin.

-|
1

sin.

20

=
x
cos.
d

| sin.

X 2
*

sin.

0^

V
An
equation from which x

0.

may be

found.
in position,

494.

LEMMA.

If a

body moving towards a plane given

be

acted upon by a force perpendicular to its motion tending towards that plane, the inclination of the orbit to the plane will be increased. Again, if the body

be moving from the plane, and the force acts from the plane, the inclinaBut if the body be moving towards the plane, and tion is also increased.
the force tends from the plane, or if the body be moving from the plane, and the force tends towards the plane, the inclination of the orbit to the

plane

is

diminished.

495.

To

employed

in

calculate that part of the ablatitious tangential force which drawing P from the plane of its oibit.

is

Let the dotted

which
lies

line
it.

upon the ecliptic

Let

NA F N

be that part of P's orbit

above

C
;

be the intersection of a plane drawn perperpendicular to this plane, and there-

pendicular to the ecliptic

P K

a 3

374

A COMMENTARY ON
Take

[SECT.
;

XL
will

fore paraiiei 10 uie ecliptic.

TF =

P K

join
i

P F

and

it

represent the disturbing force of the sun. F i perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.

a tangent to, and the rectangle i m, Complete

Draw P

and
then

P F may be

resolved into

P m, P

i,

of which

Pm

is

the effective force

to alter the inclination.

Draw

the plane

FG

i
i

FG sume P T

is perpendicular to Then tabular rad.

N'.

Also

F G
:

perpendicular to is a right angle.

3

N'

As-

PT: TF::
T F FG
:
: :

FG
g
s
i

Pm::
/_

R:3g-j.-. II s > ''* R: i J

:
.

PT Pm R _ PT.3g. p m ""
:
:

g.

s. i

s. i

= =
=:

= sin. L dist. from quad. dist. of nodes from sin. f = sinsyz. = sin. F G =r sin. inclination sin. F T
sin. 6
i

of orbit to

ecliptic.

Hence

the force to draw

from

its

orbit

~3

when

is

in

When the nodes Since g vanishes this force vanishes. the quadratures. are in the syzygies s vanishes, and when in the quadratures this force is a
maximum.
496.
Since
s

rad. cotan- parte.

To

Let S

T =

calculate the quantity of the forces. d, r, the mean distance

PT =

from

T =

1.

The

force

1VF

of

on

at the
g.

mean

distance

f ; the force of

S on P

at the

mean

distance

Then
,\ force

the force S

T = |

2 ,

and the force S

PT

r,

PT

= ^,

hence the add.

&-;

ablat. f

= =

~-^-

sin. 69

the

mean

add. force at distance

-?,,

the central ablat.

-^-

sin.

6,

the

tangential ablat. f

sin.

0.

jr-yj-

BOOK LI
The whole
mean
tion.

NEWTON'S

PRINCIPIA.

375
-

disturbing force of S on

-~

&

K
Cl

J-

3
<&

cos.

the

(1

disturbing f

** -

(since cos. 2

vanishes)

by supposi-

Hence we have the whole gravitation of P

r

to

T=
*

pn
vanishes).

"t"

p x

cos.

0,

and the mean

-3 r

on
(\

(si nce

cos

PROBLEM.
497. Required the whole effect, and also the diminish the lunar gravity; and show that if
times

mean

effect

of the sun to

P and p

be the periodic

of the

earth

and moon, f the

r

earth's

attraction at the
;

mean

distance of the
tious force will

moon,

the radius-vector of the moon's orbit

\
*

the additi^**

be nearly represented by the formula

sin.*
0,

--

oHP*)

P = 3 P T.
11

and

P T

sin.

52

^~ + ~ P T

x
di-

cos. 2

= whole diminution of gravity of the minution = 9"'?j by supposition.

&
-{

moon, and the mean

Again,

P
ab. f

a d
d

seq.

498.

To

find the central

and

ablatitious tangential forces.

Take Then

Pm = 3PK = SPT.
P
n n
.

sin. 6
.

=
*

ablatitious force.
d
.

m
To
find

= P m sin. = 3 P T sin. = central force = P m cos. = 3 P T sin. cos. = f P T sin. 20= tangential ablatitious force.
&
.

what

is

the disturbing force of

S on P.

a l

376

A COMMENTARY ON
disturbing force

[SECT. XI.

The

=PT
T.
cos.

PT

sin.

'

1+
("~

PT =
To
Let

^
&
r
l~ 1

-) X

+4 P
mean

t.

find the

mean

disturbing force of
distance

S during a whole

revolution.
.

PT
"D

at the

=
is

m, then

P T
J-

3 &

P T

cos.

=
499.

since cos. 2

destroyed during a whole revolution.

To

find the disturbing force in syzygy.

SAT
To
In

AT =

AT

=r

disturbing force in syzygy;

the force in quadrature is wholly effective and equal P 2 P : .-. force in quadrature : f in syzygy :
:

P
:

T,
:

2.

find that point in P's orbit

when

the force of

to

is

neither

increased nor diminished by the force of

this point
.*.

to
s

T.

Pn = P T
sin.

or 3

P T

sin.

= P

T,

=
6

V
35
3
2

and

=
=

16'.
is

To

find

when
.-.

the central ablatitious force

maximum.
d

P n
d
,

P T
or 2
.

sin. sin.

=
.

maximum,
6

(sin.
.*.

0)

cos.
0,

0,

sin. d

cos.

or
sin.
.

V
and

sin.

=
=
C P
x
3

0,

sin.

1,

or the body

is

in opposition.

Then
and

(Prop. LVIII,

LIX
:

)
: :
:

T
T A

2
:

2
:

S P

2
:

2
: :

3
:

3
:

::

S+

S
S
*.

and

A
500. PROB.

::

(S+ P)*

Hence

to correct for the axis

major of the moon's

t

orbit.

Let S be the earth, P the moon, and let per. secondary at the earth's surface be found, and

of a body moving in a

also the periodic time oi

HOOK L]
the moon.

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Then we may
find the axis major of the

377
moon's orbit round
the corrected axis

the earth supposed at rest

x,

by supposition.
:

Then
(S
( ^
.

or axis major round the earth in motion

.*.

+
S
-4-

P)
P) '
1

axis major round the earth in motion

to

y.

Hence

compare the quantity of matter

y
..
3
:

in the earth

and moon,

V
:

x3

S x3

+ P
:
:

V
S.

S
Let S

501.

To

define the addititious and ablatitious forces.

repre-

the attractive force of

to S.

Take

and S

will represent the attractive force

of

to S.

Resolve

this into

S M, and
is

then

L M,

that part of the force in the direction

called the addititious force,

and

IS

T = N

is

the ablatitious

force.

502.

To compare

these forces.
:

Since S

S T'

S P8

/.

L =
S

to

in the direction

P, and

S P

T
S

|-I-^ o 1 S T3
:

=
:

attractive force of

-q-p^

frjn

T =
4

attractive

force of

to
==

P K
.-.

M nearly, 3 P K = T M =
attractive force of

S S

in the direction

T
^

=
3

T
T
3

(S

P K)
3

"

=
6.

P L =

ablatitious force

PT

sin.

P T

to
:

in the direction
: :

Hence

the addititious force

:

ablatitious force
sin.
9.

L M = P T nearly. P T: 3 PT. sin. &

Q.

e. d.

BOOK

III.

1. PROP. I. All secondaries are found to describe areas round the primary proportional to the time, and these periodic times to be to each other in the sesquiplicate ratio of their radii. Therefore the center of

force
2.

is

in the

primary, and the force

In the same way,
it

QC

~^-t

PROP.

II.

may be

proved, that the sun

is

the

center of force to the r primaries, and that the forces

~r?

dist.

Also the

Aphelion points arc nearly at rest, which would not be the case if the force varied in a greater or less ratio than the inverse square of the distance,
3.

by

principles of the 9th Section,

Book

1st.

PROP. III.
is

moon's apogee
will cc
,.

The motion of the foregoing applies to the moon. slow about 3 3' in a revolution, whence the force very The
It

oj^

was proved

in the 9th Section, that if the ablatitious

force of the sun were to the centripetal force of the earth : : 1 : 357.45, that the motion of the moon's apogee would be <j the real motion.
..

the ablatitious force of the sun

centripetal force

2
1

357.45 178 |g.

This being very small may be neglected, the remainder

4.

x ^p

COR.

The mean

force of the earth on the 177 29 17Q 29 . .

m
1
:

moon
:

force of attraction

-5$

no

^fl.

The
5.

centripetal force at the distance of the

moon

centripetal force at

the earth

*.

PROP. IV. By the best observations, the distance of the moon from If the earth equals about 60 semidiameters of the earth in syzygies. the moon or any heavy body at the same distance were deprived of motion in
the space of one minute,
it

would

fall

through a space == 16

*.

feet.

For the

380

A COMMENTARY ON

[BOOK

III.

deflexion from the tangent in the same time 16 space fallen through at the surface of the earth in

V=

T^

feet.

Therefore the
feet.

16 TV

For 60"
G0//

1,

thence the
like

moon

is

retained in

its

orbit

by the force of the

earth's gravitv

heavy bodies on the earth's surface. 6. PROP. XIX. By the figure of the earth,

the force of gravity

nt

the pole force of gravity at the equator a spheroid revolving, the lesser diameter
:

289

288.

Suppose
q c

ABQq
ditto

P Q,

and

A CQ

q c a a canal

filled

with water.

a c

288

289.

Then the weight of the arm The centrifugal force at the

of
1

equator, therefore
101.

suppose

g^Tj

of the weight.
:

Again, supposing the ratio of the diameters to be 100

By com-

attraction to a sphere whose putation, the attraction to the earth at C : : 126 : 125. And the attraction to a sphere whose raradius
:

dius

=Q A C attraction
:

of a spheroid at
:

formed by the revolution of an

proportional between the at-

major axis : : 126 ellipse The attraction to the earth at

about
its

125.

is

mean

C, and the oblong spheroid, since the attraction varies as the quantity of matter, and the quantity of matter in the oblate spheroid is a mean to the quantities of matter in the
tractions to the sphere

whose radius

= A

oblong spheroid and the circumscribing sphere. Hence the attraction to the sphere whose radius
the earth at

= AC

attraction to

A
:

: :

126

125

J.
;

.% attraction to the earth at

the pole

attraction to the earth at the equa-

tor

: :

501

500.
oc

Now

the weights in the canals

whole weights

oc

magnitudes

gra-

BOOK
vity,

III.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
arm
100
:

381
weight of the polar

therefore the weight of the equatorial

: :

500 X 101 505

501
501.

Therefore the centrifugal force at the equator supports

equilibrium.

^^

to

make an

But the centrifugal force of the earth supports

'

505
iadius.

2!T

100

i=

the eXCGSS

f the

"I*
:

ovpr the PI"-

Hence

the equatorial radius

polar

+
:

-^

230

229.

Again, since when the times of rotation and density are different the
difference of the diameter
tion

V
cc
-.

2
,

and that the time of the

dens.

earth's rota-

23h. 56'.

9h. 56'. time of Jupiter's rotation ratio of the squares of the velocity are as 29 of the earth density of Jupiter 400 94.5.
: : :
:

The The

5,

and the density

1 -^-rr

d the difference of Jupiter's diameter 1

29
is

as

5
777-7: MJ, ri 94.5

400
prr-,,

94.5
:

X
29

229

.'.

Jupiter's least diameter L

~
<! 5

X "

X W+4 " ~^ 229

X 80
:

94.5

X 229

2320

232
1

21640 2164
9J
10J

The

polar diameter

equatorial diameter

9J

ON THE
7.

TIDES.
TIDES.
is

THE PHENOMENA OF THE

1.

The

interval

between two succeeding high waters

12 hours 25

minutes.

The

diminution varies nearly as the squares of the times from

high water.

The Twenty- four hours 50 minutes may be called the lunar day. two complete tides, the tide day. The first may be callinterval between
2.

382

A COMMENTARY ON
inferior,

[BOOK
new moon,

III.

ed the superior, the other morning and evening,

.

and

at the time of

the

is when the moon is in S.W. to us. The highest tide a day and a half after full or The third full sea after change. the high water at the full moon is the highest ; the third after quadrature is the lowest or neap tide.

The

high water

3rest

is

4.

Also the highest spring tide

is

spring tide is the lowest, since the

5.

when the moon is in moon is nearly in the

perigee, the next

In winter the spring

tides are greater

apogee. than in summer, and from thu

same reasoning the neap

6.

tides are lower.

In north latitude, when the moon's declination is north, that tide in which the moon is above the horizon is greater than the other of the same

day in which the moon

place
south.
7.
if

is

below the horizon.

The

contrary will take

either the observer be in south latitude or the moon's declination

PROP.

I.

Suppose

to

be any

particle attracted towards a center E, and let the gravity of to S be repre-

sented by
cular to

E
S,

S.

E Draw B A
will

perpendi-

which

therefore re-

present the diameter of the plane of ilP perpendicuDraw lumination. P lar to A, perpendicular to E C.

Then

P N, and join P J, the disturbing force P I will represent P I may be resolved into the of P.
take

I =r

P E, P Q, of which P E is counterbalanced by an equal and opposite force,

two

acts in the direction

P.

Hence if the whole body be supposed P to be fluid, the fluid in the canal

will lose its equilibrium, and therefore cannot remain at rest. Now, the equi-

librium

may be

restored

by adding a

small portion

to

the canal, or by

round supposing the water to subside the circle B A, and to be collected towards
roid,

whose

and C, so that the earth may put on the form of a prolate spheaxis is in the line O C, and poles in O and C, which may be

BOOK

III.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A.
a N
:

383
P, or the distance

from

the case since the forces which are superadded B A, so that this mass may acquire such a

that the force at

protuberancy at

and C,

shall

be to the force

at

E A E C;
:

and by the

above formula

x
r
8.

_ 5C "~ ~~ = 4
g

EC

EA

EA

PROP.

II.

Let

W
;

gravitation to the sun

F the

equal the terrestrial gravitation of C; equal its and disturbing force of a particle acting at

S and

E
.

the quantities of matter in the sun

and

earth.

W
2
:

3 S
.

CS* X

CG'C
-^
oust.

SL 3 E
m *

Since the gravitation to the sun

2
: :

/.

C S ES ES: C G C G X C S = E S
2 3
.

..

W w
:

3 ^
.

E g3 c E
:

?,

and

E S E C:ES:

338343

23668

.-.

W
:

C E E C
:

E
: :

A.
1

Attraction to the pole

attraction to the equator

:

-:

55
j"
:

Quantity of matter at the pole

do. at equator

d.

Weight of the

polar

arm weight of the equatorial arm

:

--~

-- ^

Excess of the polar 4 d 1 mean, weight o

.-.

attractive

force

weight of the equator or

'

F
'

4W
a

9.

PROP.

III.

Let

A E

be the spheroid,

BE

the inscribed

381
sphere,

A COMMENTARY ON

[BOOK

III.

A G a g the

circumscribed sphere, and

D F d f the

sphere equal

(in capacity) to the spheroid.

since spheres and spheroids are equal to f of their circumscribing F d f. and that the spheroid sphere cylinder,

Then

CF CE

x
:

CD
s

=
:

C F

CE CD
: :
:

x C A
A,

and make
.-.C
.-.

CE C F E C F
:

2
: :

C F C x C E Cx

CD:CA::CE:Cx
C

.-.

D C E
:

C A

Cx

but

.-.

CD = C E C A = C x.

nearly

Also

.-.

Ex = AD=
C F
a

E F nearly E F.*
x,

Let

C E

a,

= +

=2x

=a
nearly.

-|-

2 x nearly

BOOK

III.]

NEWTON'S
By
I

PRINCIPIA.

385

PROP. IV.

the triangles p
I
2
:

L,
2

C
2

N,

A B:
.-.

L::r L = A B x

(cos.)

^TC A
C A =
S x
*

(cos.)

L. I

(cos.)

(if

= AB

and x
:

angular distance from the sun's place.)

:

Again,
.

G E K I KI = S X
1

f
:

(sin.)
2

z-

TCA

(sin.)

L.

K.

COR.
ocean

1.

The
1

elevation of a spheroid above the level of the undisturbed

=
2.

m =

S X

(cos.)

\-

=
2

S X

(cos.)

x
(sin.)

i.
2

The
COR.

depression of the same

=
-^-

S X

(sin.)

= =

S X

*.

The

spheroid cuts the sphere equal in capacity

z

to itself in

point where

S X

(cos.)
.-.

= = =

0, or (cos.)

cos.

.57734, &c.
cos.

54.

44'.

The unequal gravitation of the earth to the moon is times greater than towards the sun. (4000) at the pole of Let equal the elevation above the inscribed sphere the spheroid, y equal the angular distance from the pole.
10.

PROP. V.
3

.'.

the elevation above the equally capacious sphere

the depression Hence the effect of the joint action of the sun and sum or difference of their separate actions.
/.

-----S

= Mx (cos.) = M X (sin.)
moon
is

'~'y
'

J
jj.

equal

to the

the elevation at any place

= Sx (cos.)

x + Mx(cos.)

1.

the depression Suppose the sun

X (sin.) y =Sx(sin.) x and moon in the same place in the heavens.

+M

Then

the elevation at the pole

the depression at the equator S g S .'. the elevation above the inscribed S sphere 2. the moon to be in the quadratures. Suppose

= =

+ M + M
S

S~T~M~

+ +

M
M.
S

= =

I
i

$~+ M> and

k

^v ^'

The

elevation at

the depression at S f S the elevation at S above the inscribed sphere

= =

the elevation at

M (by the
it is

+ M = + M = = same reasoning) =
S
J
it

M.

M,

M,
S.

moon high water under the when it is in the quadratures, also that the depression at S is below the natural level of the ocean; hence is more than twice S, and although
But (by observation)
found that
is

M
13

VOL.

I.

386

COMMENTARY ON

[BooK

III.

the high water is never directly under the sun or moon, when the moon is in the quadratures high water is always 6 hours after the high water at full or change.

Suppose the moon

to

be in neither of the former positions.

Then

the place of high water is where the elevation or when 8 X cos. * X cos. * y

= =

maximum, maximum,

and since
cos.
f

x
y

+ +

cos. 2 x,

and
cos.

cos. 2 y,
cos.

elevation

maximum, when S X
let

2 x

+ M

cos.

2 y

max-

imum.
Therefore,

AB

S and M,
zenith).

(those places on

its

be a great circle of the earth passing through surface which have the sun and moon in the

Join

S d

da::

C M, cutting the circle described on S in (m). Make force of the moon : force of the sun (which force is suj posed

BOOK
ocean.

III.]

known).

Join
Join

ma,

H
m

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. m d, and let H be any point on

m

387
the surface of the

h d

h',

and draw

S in (h) ; draw the diameter cutting the circle C t, a x perpendicular to h h', and a y parallel to it.

Then

M=
and

Sd,
y, /.

S=
S

ad

^MCH =
.-.

^mdh =

H = x, 2L. M H = 2y
C C
X
y
cos.

and

.\

Z-adx=r/iSdH = 2x. x = S t = M X cos. 2 y, d elevation = maximum when x = a

.-.

x,

maximum,
m, hence

or

when a y

=r a

m,

i.

e.

when h

h' is parallel to a

CONSTRUCTION.

Make
S d
and join
:

da

S,

m a,

draw h
7

h' parallel to a
in

the surface of the ocean

which

Again, through h draw L C h', For let the points of low water.

cutting the point of high water. meeting the circle in L, L'; these are
is

m, and from

draw

LCS
2 z

cos. L, a

dx

= u,LCM=.z. = cos. ^ S d h' = cos.

h'

cos.

2 u

d x

and
cos.
.-.

cos.

L C

M=
cos.

d t
2
z

S X
d
f

cos.

2 u

+M

max.

be diawn perpendicular to a m, a m represents the whole difference between high and low water, a f equals the point effected by the

COR.

If

sun,

f that

by the moon.

For

..

elevation

= cos. = cos. sin. y + depression = S X

sin.
2

x,
x.
:

cos.

x
*

+M

cos.

= =

S X S X

cos.

cos.

2 x

+ M
*

+ + +
X

M
M

X cos. S X cos. x
:

y
f

X 2cos. v y
:

cos.

2 y

and
'

= d x =
d
t

cos.
cos.

2 y
2 x.
b 2

S X

A
12.

COMMENTARY ON

[BOOK

III.

Conclusions deduced from the above (supposing that both the sun
in the equator.)

and moon are

1.

At new and
in this case

C When the moon is in the quadrature at 15, the also at B under the moon, when the moon is on the perpendicular to C S, (m) coincides with C, (a m)
For
2.

moon, high water will be at noon and midnight. M, a m, C S, d h, C H, all coincide.

full

place of high water

is
is

meridian, for

CM

with (a C), d h with

d C.
3. While the moon passes from the syzygy to the quadrature the place of high water follows the moon's place, and is to the westward of it, overtakes the moon at the quadratures, and is again overtaken at the next

Hence in the first and third quadrants high water is after noon syzygy. or midnight, but before the moon's southing, and in second and fourth vice
rcrsd.

4.

L.

MCH=

max. when S
a

H=
=

45. S d

h'

90". and m' a

perpendicular to

S C, and

m' d

max., and a m' d

m' d h'~ 2

y'.

BOOK

III.J

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.
motion of the high water
;

389

Hence
motion
;

in the octants, the

it is

moon's easterly
it is

in syzygy

slower

in quadratures faster.

Therefore the tide

less

day

in the octants

24h. 50'

the lunar day; in syzygy

21-h.

35'; in

quadratures

25h. 25'.
i

For take any point (u) near (m), draw u a, u d, and d and with the center (a) and radius a u, describe an arc (u
;

parallel to a u
v)

which may

be considered as a straight line perpendicular to a m u in and i h are and H, and by triangles u m v, respectively equal to the motions of

M
:

ni

f.

f.

Therefore the synodic motion of the moon's place m a m f. high water

:

synodic motion ot

Cou.
at the

I.

At new or

lull

moon,

ma

coincides with Sa, and in f with

Sd

quadratures, the retardation of the tides at

Hires
:
:

m
:

a coincides with

C
full

a,

and

m
:

f with

therefore

new or
:

moon

S
2.

M +

M
is

retardation at quadin-

S.
a,

COR.

In the octants,

perpendicular to S

therefore

a,

i'

coincide.

'Therefore the synodic motion of high water equals the synodic motion of the moon.

COR.
(in a)
;

3.

The

variation of the tide during a lunation

is

at S,

a, at

C = C
:

represented by
S.
is

a.
:
:

Therefore the spring tide

neap

tide

COR.

4%

The

sun contributes to the elevation,

f) is

till

the high water

in

the octants, after which (a

elevation.

e,

therefore the sun diminishes the

COR.

5.

Let

the difference between the tides

u be a given arc of the moon's synodic motion, a, u a corresponding to it.

is

m
u

Therefore by the triangles

m
: :

v,

m
:

d
d

f.

m
and since

.*.

mv md mv df
cc

f.

m
13.

sin.

sin.

d h

sin.

m
when
the proportion

a
S

sin.

2 arc

M
d a

II.

PROP. VI. In the triangle

is

in d a, md, d a and L> m d a are knov,n known and the moon's elongation.

Let the angle and make

m
:

a,

M+

S tan. B b3
:

tan,

890
then

A COMMENTARY ON
_^a __
__

[BOOK

III.

b
9

y
4

__

+
._

b
m

For

M + S:M

S::md + da:md in a d + a m tan.

:
:

da
d
:

mad
tan.

<w

5 A

tan.

2x + 2y ~
.

2 x
:

tan.

2 y -~

tan.

x
:

+
:

y
:

tan.

tan. a

tan. b,

.-.

+
X

y
b,

b,

.-.

2 x
"'

= _ ""
=

a
a

~2~
a

+ +

2 y

b,

and
b y
14.

-2~'

PROP. VII.

To

of the

moon and

sun.

find the proportion between the accelerating forces 1st. By comparing the tide day at new and full

moon

with the tide day at quadratures.

35
...

85
nyr

M
35

S,

M M
:

+
-|

85
:

85

85
:
:

r 5

2&.

in the triangle

Also, at the time of the greatest separation of high water from the m' d a, sin. 2 y r d d a S,

moon

S jj
at the octants

sin.

y,

is

found
...

M
:

.5

=12 = sin.
S
: :

30',

25,
2} nearly.
at the

.-.

Hence

taking this as the

(if

mean proportion

mean

distances of the

moon and sun

COR.
1.

the earth

=1)

the

moon

low water

at quadratures, but there

all

If the disturbing forces were equal there would be no high or would be an elevation above the in-

scribed spheroid

round the

circle,

passing through the sun and

moon

BOOK

111.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

391

Con. The gravitation of the sun produces an elevauon 01 x* inches, the gravitation of the moon produces an elevation of 58 inches. .. the spring tide = 82 inches, and the neap tide = 33| inches.
15.
to

COR.

3.

Though

2, this ratio varies

nearly from (6

2)

2, for supposing the sun

and moon's distance each

1000.

moon

In January, the distance of the sun 915.

983, perigee distance of the

In July, the distance of the sun =r 1017, apogee distance of the 1055.
Disturbing force
oc

moon

,y.,;

hence

The o general

expression L

is

M=

S x
%

TV. 3 Jj

X
o

^ 3

To

find the general expression above.

Disturbing force of different bodies (See Newton, Sect, llth,

Cor. M.)
.*.

p. G6,

jL

disturbing force

disturbing force

disturbing force at disturbing force at

mean mean

distance distance

D
d

3
:

A
<3

3
:

3
,

M
''
'

5
:
:

cP_

D"J: A-'

M
'*

5
""

A*

d'
'

.-.

~x

S x

x
^

(or supposing that the absolute force of the sun

16.
tor,

and moon are the same).

PROP. V11L Let

its

N QS E

be the earth,

NS

its

axis,

its

equa,

O
The

center

let

the

moon be

in the direction

having the de-

clination
*

Q.
may
be neglected, but the variation of the moon's distance, and proportionon the time's, and a inuth greater on the heights

solar force

ally the variation of its action, produces an effect

of the

tides,
13

'1

A COMMENTARY ON
Let

[BOOK

III.

latitude,

ND

be any point on the surface of the earth, C L its parallel of S its meridian and let B' F b' f be the elliptical spheroid
;

of the ocean, having

its

poles in

M, and

its

equator

f.

the point 1) is carried along its parallel of latitude, it will pass through all the states of the tide, having high water at C and L, and low

As

water when

it

comes

to (d) the intersection of

its

parallel of latitude with

the equator of the watery spheroid. Draw the meridian N d Then cutting the terrestrial equator in G. the arc into lunar hours) will give the duration of the (converted

QG

ebb of the superior tide, N. B., the whole tide G

GQ
at C,

is

more than four

G E in the same way the flood of the inferior. Q C', consisting of the ebb Q G, and the flood times G O greater than the inferior tide.

in F and f, C C' is the height L' the height at L, hence if L' q be a concentric circle C' q will be the difference of superior and inferior tides.

COR. If the spheroid touch the sphere

CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM PROP.

VIII.

1.

If the

moon
is

perior tides
2.

has no declination, the duration of the inferior and suequal for one day over all the earth.

moon has declination, the duration of the superior will be or shorter than the duration of the inferior according as the longer moon's declination and the latitude of the place are of the same or differIf the

ent denominations.
3.

When

the moon's declination equals the colatitude or exceeds

it,

BOOK

III.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
same day,
f.)

393
(the paral-

there will only be a superior or inferior tide in the lel of latitude and passing through f or between

4.

The
For

sin.

of arc

GO =
cot.

tan. of latitude

X
:

tan. declination.

rad.
.-.

OG

tan.

G
X

sin.

sin.

G O

=r cot.

OG
C

tan.

G O, Gd
tan. latitude.

=
17.

tan. declination

PROP. IX.

With

the center

and radius

(representing the

whole elevation of the lunar tide) describe a circle which may represent the terrestrial meridian of any place, whose poles are P, p, and equator let describe a circle P B C ; Q. Bisect P C in O, and round

be the place on the earth's surface which has the moon in its zenith, Z the place of the observer. C m, cutting the small circle in A, Draw

and

Z C N
D,

cutting the small circle in

draw the diameter

BOD

and

I parallel to

join I

E Q, draw A F, G H, I K perpendicular to B D, and A B, A D, and through I draw C M' cutting the meridian in
after

M'.

Then

a diurnal

revolution

the

moon

will

come

into the

situation

M', and the angle

M
B.

CN =
(

the nadir distance)

supplement

the angle I Also the

C B = ^

.ADB=rBCA=r

zenith distance of the

moon.

394

A COMMENTARY ON

[BooK

III.

Hence

D F, D K

a
oc

cos.

of the zenith and nadir distances to rad.

D B.

elevation of the superior

and

inferior tides.

CONCLUSIONS FROM PROP.

1.

IX.

The

greatest tides are

when

the

moon

is

in the zenith or nadir of the

A and I move towards D, B, and F coincides with B ; but in this case, the medium tide which is represented by K, F) is di(an arithmetic mean to
observer.

For

in this case

(when M approaches to Z)

DH

minished.
If

approach to

M,

and

separate

and hence, the superior and

inferior
2.

and the medium

tides all increase.

If the

moon be

X (cos) 2 equal, and equal i C, and F and K with (1)

latitude.
3.

in the equator, the inferior

latitude.

For

since
2

and superior tides are A and I coincide with

D = DB

(cos.)

BDC =

(cos.)

If the observer be in the equator, the superior and inferior tides are X (cos.) 2 of the declination of the moon. equal every where, and P .C X cos. 2 of For B coincides with C, and F and with P ;

G =

the moon's declination

4.

the

x (cos.) The superior tides are greater or less than the inferior, according moon and place of the observer are on the same or different sides

of the moon's declination.

as

of

the equator. 5. If the colatitude of the place equal the moon's declination or is le^s than it, there will be no superior or inferior tide, according as the latitude

and the declination have the same or different denominations. For when coincides with I, and if it be less than P Z = Q, Q, D falls between

Z will not pass through the equator of the watery spheroid. the pole there are no diurnal tides, but a rise and subsidence of the water twice in the month, owing to the moon's declining to both
I

and C, so that
6.

At

sides of the equator.

18.

PROP. X.

To

find the value of the

mean

tide.

AG =
and

sin.

2 declination 2 declination
2 declination

(to rad.
(to the

= O

C.)

OG =
..OH = .-.DH =

cos. cos.

same
2
lat.

radius).

cos.

X -<p

OD
M
IVI

+
1

OH
+
cos.
*

lat.
-

cos.
"

2 declination
~

III.]

NEWTON'S PRtNCIPIA.
2

395

moon's declination never exceeds 30, the cos. 2 declination v , and never greater than ; if the latitude be less than 45, is always v e. the cos. 2 lat. is + v e, after which it becomes
as J;he

Now

Hence 1. The mean

the moon.
2. If

tide is equally affected

by north and south declination of

the latitude

45,
than

the

3. If the lat.

be

less

mean tide M. 45, the mean tide

decreases as the declina-

tion increases.
4. If the latitude

be greater than

45,
.,

the

mean
1

tide decreases as the

declination diminishes.
T/,
.

-,

5.

If the latitude

0,

the

mean

tide

r M
*

cos.

2 declination

BOOK
SECTION

I.

XII.

503. PROP.

LXX.

To

find the attraction

.

on a particle placed within

a spherical surface, force L

a*. v distance

Let P be a particle, and through P draw II P K, P L making a very small angle, and let them revolve and generate conical surfaces I P H, H L P K. Now since the angles at P are equal
I

and L are also equal (for and the angles at both are on the same segment of the circle), I P, P L K, are similar. therefore the triangles

H
:

.-.

K L

P L
cc
5

Now
.*.

since the surface of a cone

(slant side)

surface intercepted by revolution of I

PH

that of

LPK LP K

PI
II
I
1

P L
1

KL"
pi;
I
:

and attractions of each particle

in I

that of

HI
:

__!_
2

H1 KL
L*
;

but the whole attraction of

each,
.-.

oc

the

number of

particles

attraction of

the whole attraction on

from

from

KL

HP K
:

KL
1
;

and the same may be proved of any other part of the spherical surface
.-.

is

at rest

504. PROP.

LXXL To

find the attraction

t
.

on a

particle placed without

a spherical surface, force

1

GC B - -rr

398
Let

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. XII.
let

B, a b, be two equal spherical surfaces, and

P, p be two

particles at

any distances

S,

from

their centers;

draw

K,

P I L very near each other, and S F D, S E perpendicular upon them, and from (p) draw p h k, p i 1, so that h k, i 1 may equal K, I L respectivef d, s e, i r perpendiculars upon them may equal S F D, S E, s ly, and F then ultimately P E = P F = p e = p f, and 1 11 respectively

f.

Draw

Q,

q perpendicular upon

S,

s.

and

Now PI: PF::IR:DF-)

V.-.

PI

PF

p p Again
and
.

f:

d f

)
F~)

PI: PS:: IQ: S

V .-.
2
i

P
.

p
.

p
:

P S
I

Q
:

q
.

ps:pi::sf:iqj
.

P1

2
.

p f p
.

P F PS
:

h
q

circumfer. of circle rad. I

QXIH
..

circumfer. of circle rad

X h
i

annulus described by revolution of 1

.

Q
.

that

by

revolution of

q.

Now
..

attraction on 1st annulus

..
:

attraction

on 2d

1st
: :

annulus

distance"

v
.

2d annulus
:

T.

distance'
8
.

r
4

PP.pf.ps

(pi)
:

PF. PS
*

P
:>

(p

i)

f.

ps

:PF. PS.
:
:

And
attraction

on the annulus

attraction in the direction

P S

::
.. attraction in direction

PS:

PF
.

PS =
att

p
n.

f.

s.

r3

o
:

.-.

whole alt", of P to S whole

:

of (p) to

PF PS
.

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
all

399

and the same may be proved of

the annul! of which the surfaces are

composed, and therefore the attraction of 1

the center.

cc

^ PS

cc

distance

T.

; 2

from

particles within the surface attraction of the particles without the surface.

COR. The attraction of the

on

equals the

For

KL
.'.

P L
::

LN

Q.

annulus described by

H
2

annulus described by

KL
KL

IQ.IH: K
PI
2

L.

LN
,

2
:

P L2

.-.

attraction

on the annulus

H PL
I

attraction
,

on the annulus

and so on for every other annulus, and one set of annuli equals the part within the surface, and the other set equals the part without.
506. PROP.

LXXII.

To
oc g -

find the attraction

-p
,

on a particle placed rn'M-

out a solid sphere, force 1

distance
to

Let the sphere be supposed

be made up of spherical surfaces, and

the attraction of these surfaces upon 1

will

-r-.

distance

~ z ,

and therefore

the whole attractions

CC

number of surfaces p g2
, ,
.

GC

content of sphere

diameter
<*

p-gT-

p-gT-

and

if

P S
.

the whole attraction on

bear a given ratio to the diameter, then _ diameter 3

oc

-p

diameter

9 2

oc

diameter.

,.

507. PROP.
wit /i in.

LXXIII.
;

To

find the attraction

on the particle placed

Let

P be

the particle

with rad- S
;

describe

then by Prop. LXX. the interior sphere P the sphere to be made of spherical (considering

surfaces,) the attraction of all the particles con-

tained between the circumferences of the two

be nothing, inasmuch as they are equal on each side of P, and the attraction
circles

on

will

of the other part by the last Prop.

PS
GC

p-~j

oc

P S.

400
508.

A COMMENTARY ON
PROP.
r

[SECT. XII.

LXXIV.

Tf the attractions of the particles of a sphere

attract each other, then the spheres *

distance 8

7:

r, '

and two similar spheres r

GC* as

will attract

with a force

-~~
distance

of their centers.

For the

attraction of each particle r

^ distance

from the center of the

attracting sphere (A),

the attracting sphere

in its center-

is

and therefore with respect to the attracted particle the same as if all its particles were concentrated
the attraction of each particle in (A)
,

Hence
will

upon the

whole of v ' (B)

-,-=

distance 2

of each L particle in

from the center of P,

and if all the particles in B were concentrated in the center, the attraction would be the same; and hence the attractions of A and B upon each other will be the same as if each of them were concentrated in its center, and
1

therefore

oc

"

distance 2

509. PROP. LXXVI. Let the spheres attract each other, and let them not be homogeneous, but let them be homogeneous at corresponding distances from the center, then they attract each other with forces o
1

a*.
distance

"

H
and E F, I K and L M, &c. to Suppose any number of spheres C be concentric with the spheres A B, G H, respectively; and let C and I K, E F and L be homogeneous respectively ; then each of these

spheres will attract each other with forces

the original spheres to be
similar

1
<x g . -p
.

-.

distance*

Now

suppose lt

made up by the addition and subtraction of and homogeneous spheres, each of these spheres attracting each

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
oc*. -jr

401

other with a force

distance
ratio.

Q 8

then the

sum or

differences will attract

each other in the same

510. PIIOP.

LXXVII.

Let the force

oc

distance, to find the attraction

it.

of a sphere on a particle placed without or within

distant from

E F, e f, equally F, then the attraction on P a of P, and therefore the attraction in the direction S P oc P G, and the attraction of the sum of the particles in E F on P towards S oc circle E F P G, and the attraction of the sum of the particles in
Let

be the

particle,
let

the center, draw two planes

H be a particle in the

plane

H
.

(e f)

on

P
f,

towards S

oc

circle e f

g, therefore the
circle

whole attraction of

F, e

circle

EF(PG+Pg)a
oc
.

EF
S.

S, therefore the

whole attraction of the sphere

When P
wards S
oc

sphere within the sphere, the attraction of the circle E F on P tocircle E F P G, and the attraction of the circle (e f ) towards
is

X P

g, and the difference of these attractions on the whole attraction to S a circle E F (P g P G) cc circle E F 2 P S. Therefore the whole attraction of the sphere on P cc sphere X P S.
oc circle

e f.

511.

LEMMA XXIX.

If any arc be described with the center S, rad.

S B, and with
VOL.
I.

the center P, two circles be described very near each other C c

402
cutting,
first,

A COMMENTARY ON
the circle in E,
e,

[SECT. XII.

and

PS
S.

in F, f ;

and

D,

e d, be

drawn

perpendicular to

P
d

S, then ultimately,
:

D
For

PE P
:

D
and

DT ET
:

DE E
:

E'e:
.-.

Ff
F
f

e r

SG
S

DE

P E

S.

612. PROP.

evanescent lamina
the solid

LXXIX. Let a solid be generated by the revolutions of au E F f e round the axis P S, then the force with which attracts Pa D E F f X" force of each particle.
8
.

e d perpendiculars upon P S; let e d intersect E F in r; n perpendicular upon E D. Then E r n r P E ED, .*. E r. E D = n r P S = D d P E, .*. the annular surface generated by the revolution of E r oc E r E D oc D d P E, and (P E remaining the But the attraction of this annular surface on P <x D d same) oc D d.

Draw E D,
r

draw

E, and the attraction

in the direction

P E

the attraction in the direc-

tion
.*.

PS

P E P D,
:

the attraction in the direction

attraction

P
oc

^-~

.Dd.PEocPD.Dd
E F a sum
of

and the whole

on

of the surface described by

thePD.Dd.
Let
.-.
.

PE = PD =

r,

DF=
x,

x,

PD.Dd =

rdx

xdx,
2 xdx =oc
2

.-.

sumofPD.DdS =/rdx

x 2

~ DE' a 2

DE

2
,

and therefore the attraction of lamina

D E F f X force of each
.

particle.

BOOK

I.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
LXXX.
Take

403

513. PROP.

DN
P

proportional to

D
^/

X
let

force

of each particle at the distance

E, or if^ represent that force,

DN
to

D E PS
2
*

then the area trace out by traced

DN

will

be proportional

the whole attraction of the sphere.

For the attraction of lamina

cle
OC

EFfeocDE
.

2
.

F fx force

of each partiparticle,

(LEMMA XXIII)
2
' .

DE
.

P S

D E PS D V
ir

PE
A NB
To

d x force of each

or

IL

d, ..

DN D

d a attraction of lamina
will represent the

EF

f e, arid the

sum

of these areas or area

whole attraction of

the sphere on P. 514. PROP.

LXXXL

find the area

AN

B.

Draw
in

the tangent

and

H
C

perpendicular on

S,

and

bisect

then
c 2

401

A COMMENTARY ON

[Seer. XII.

PE=PS
But

+ SE + 2PS.SD
8

SE* =
2
.-.

SH = PS.S
2 2

I,

PE = PS + PS.S1 + 2PS.SD = PSJPS + SI + 2SDJ = P S |(P I + I S) + S I + 2 S Dl

DE = SE=
4 2

= SE = 2LD.LS LD (LS+ SE)(LS = 2LD.LS LD LB.LA, DE PS 8 DN PK.V V2SD.PS.V

2 2
2

SD = SE (LD LS) LD LS + 2LD.LS

2

S E)

*-

LD PS
2
.

V
and hence
if

L D Pr S V
.
.

LB.LA. PS 2 L D P S V
. .

V be

given,

D N may be represented
a
.-.

in

terms of

and

known

quantities.
1.

515. Ex.
Since

Let the force

-,.

cc

~distance
T

distance

to find the area

AN

B.

a JL

V a P

E,

r>N ...UJNOC

2LS.LD.PS
2L1)<ps
^

LD*. PS 2LD.PS

AL.LB.PS 2 L D P S
.

LD

AL.LB
2~LD~'

.-.

area

AND between the values of L A and L B

LB LA AL.LB -- --- J

= T e /T n TAN LS.(LB-LA)
Now

,LB
Ij-j.

LA' = (LB + LA).(LB LA) = LS + AS + LS A"S )AB = 2LS.AB, ...nreaAND=LS.AB- 2LS4 AB - AL 2 LB lLB ;
(
-

LB

LA

_ LS.AB
2

AL.LB ,LB
1

E~A'

BOOK LJ

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
1,

405

516. To construct this area. To the points L, A, B erect L

perpendiculars, and let A a = = L A, through the points scribe an hyperbola to which

A a, B b,
Bb
deare
j
ft

L
L

B, and
(b),

(a),
1,

LB

asymptotes.
perbola,
.-.

Then by property

.-.

AL.Aa = LD.DF, D F = AL.Aa_AL.LB L D ~~ LD AL L B Dd DF.Dd =

. .

of the hy-

>

L~D

'

A
.

.-.

D =/D F D d = A L L B/L -L B hyperbolic area AafbB= AL.LB J ^ fL A The area AaBb = Bb. A B + A B a n Bb.AB T 2 Bb A B an + Bb .AJJ =
.-.

area

D,

' *

n B

.-.

area a f b a

=
=:

area

A
1

area

a fb

LS.AB
oc

L.LB/~.
AN
B.

517. Ex. 2. Let the force

distance

3 ;

to find the area

Let
.

V = PE

DN

2LS.LD.PS_LD PE.V

.PS

AL LB PS
.

PE.V

PE.V

but

.-.

DN=
S
I
.

/D N.x' =
.-.

SJ /L

^+ ^

AL LB
-

SI

LD

area between the values of

-

LA
V

and
2

LB

= si

LA
Cc3

AL.SK

406

A COMMENTARY ON
construct this area.
1

[SECT.

XI f.

To

Dd

Take S

=S

s,

1,

LB

are asymptotes

and describe a hyperbola passing through a, s, b, to which then as in the former case, the area A a n b B
;

.-.

the area

AN B -

L
I

S/-J
S

SLAB.
P

518. PROP.
the

LXXXIL
S
:

Let

be a particle within the sphere, and

same

particle without the sphere,

and take

P SA

I,

then will the attracting power of the sphere on

attracting

po^r

of the

sphere on
:

P
:

I.

force on I

P~.

force on~P.

D N force on

the point

P
:

D' N'
~

force on the point I

:

p E^PJJ
.

::

PE V PS. I E.V':

P_EI_I_S
I

V'

P E

V.

Let

7
:
:

P En

En

BOOK L]
then

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

407

DN
but

D' N'
S

P S
S

E
S

P E P E
.

P
and the angle
..
.-.

S
is

I,

.-.

common, triangles P S E, 18 E are similar, P E I E P S S E S E S I, N D' N' P S 8 E I E PS S S I P En S E I En

at
:

P E ",

VS P.I E n
\/SP
:

VS I.PE"
v'S

::

I a

I.PS*.
segment of u sphere

519. PROP.

LXXXIII. To

find the attraction of a

upon a corpuscle placed within its centre. with the Draw the circle F E

center P, let 11

13

8 be the segment of
the attraction of the

the sphere, and

let

spherical lamina

E F G
oc

upon

be

proportional to
scribed by
the

F N

N, then the area dewhole attraction of

segment

to P.

Now the surface of the segment E F G a P F D F, and the content

of the lamina whose thickness
is

()

r.

PF

F
F

O.
I

Let

oc

~
cc
(

distance

and the
Prop.

attraction

on

P
:

of the particle in that

spherical lamina,

LXXIII.)

p
2

,.,

(2
QC

P F
F

FD
PF F
1

FD O
)

DO PF'-

.-.

if

FN
F N

be taken proportional
will

D O PF" 2 F D to
8
'

^-p^

>

the area traced

out by

be the whole attraction on P.

the attraction

520. PROP.

LXXXIV. To find

when

the body

is

placed

in the axis of the segment, but not in the center of the spheie.

408
Describe a

A COMMENTARY ON
circle with the radius

[SECT. XIII.

revolution of this circle

EFK

E, and the segment cut off by the round P B, will have P in its center, and

the attraction on

P of this part may be found by the preceding Proposiand of the other part by PROP. LXXXI. and the sum of these attion, tractions will be the whole attraction on P.

SECTION
521. PROP.

XI1J.

If the attraction of a body on a particle placed be much greater than if the particle were removed at in contact with it, the force of the attraction of the parany the least distance from contact,
ticles

LXXXV.

a
if

in a

of higher ratio than that di&tance

For

the force

^ 5 -p distance

and the
oc

particle

be placed at any distance

from the sphere, then the attraction

sphere, and
.-.

from the ccnter of lhe

distancc

is

not sensibly increased by being placed in contact with

less

the sphere, and

it is still

increased

when

the force

in a less ratio

than that of

distance

j, ~

and

it is

indifferent

whether the sphere be homo-

or whether the if it be homogeneous at equal distances, geneous or not ; in or without the sphere, the attraction still varying body be placed within from the point of orbit remote the same ratio, or whether any parts of this and be supplied by other parts, whether attractive contact be taken away, or not,
.-.

so far as attraction

is

of this concerned, the attracting power

;

other body will not sensibly differ sphere, and of any

.-.

if

the pheno-

BOOK L]
mena
ratio

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

409
must vary in a higher

stated in the Proposition be observed, the force

than that of

distance 2

-rr-

522. PROP.
ratio

LXXXVI.
,

If the attraction of the particles

-p5
,

oc

in a higher

than
-p

or

oc

then the attraction of a body placed

any body, is much greater than if they were separated even by an evanescent distance. For if the force of each particle of the sphere x in a higher ratio than
in contact with

that of 1 distance

3 ,

the attraction of the sphere on the particle i r

is

indefinitely

increased by their being placed in contact, and the same is the case for any meniscus of a sphere ; and by the addition and subtraction of attractive particles
.*.

to a sphere, the body may assume any given figure, and the increase or decrease of the attraction of this body will not be sensiif

bly different from the attraction of a sphere,

tact with
it.

the body be placed in con-

523. PROP.

LXXXVII.
be placed

equally attractive,

Let two similar bodies, composed of particles at proportional distances from two particles

which are also proportional to the bodies themselves, then the accelerating attractions of corpuscles to the attracting bodies will be proportional to the whole bodies of which they are a part, and in which they are similarly situated.

For body
of
all

if

the bodies be supposed to consist of particles which are propor-

tional to the bodies themselves, then the attraction of each particle in

:

one

the attraction the attraction of each particle in the other body, of all the particles in the particles in the first body : the attraction
:
:

the second body, which

is

the Proposition.
oc

Con. Let the

particle in a

attracting forces
side
is

^r
:

then the attraction of a

body whose

B
'

distance

from

distance

from

A An
3

IP
:

Bn
1

if

the distances

oc

as

and B.

410
524. PROP.
force

A COMMENTARY ON
LXXXVIIL
If the particles of any
will

[SECT.

XJU.

body

attract with a

distance, then the

it,

whole body
as if all

without

in the

same manner

be acted upon by a particle the particles of which the body is

composed, were concentrated in its center of gravity, Let R S T V be the body, Z the partide without it, let A and B be any two particles of the body, G their center of gravity, then and then the forces of
cles
oc

A AG=B B
Z
Z,

G,

of these parti-

A A

Z,

B B

and these

A AG + may A G Z, B B G + B G Z, and A A G being = B B G and acting in opposite

forces

be resolved into

directions, they will destroy each other,

and

.*.

force of

proportional to

and

+ B) Z G, .'. particles A be equally acted upon by Z, whether they be at A and B, or And if there be three bodies A, B, collected in their center of gravity. C, the same may be proved of the center of gravity of A and B (G) and
B
will
.'.

Z upon A and B will be A Z G + B Z G, or to (A

C, and

body

Is

of A, B, and C, and so on for composed, or for the body itself.

all

the particles of which the

any number of bodies body being the same as if it acting upon were collected in its center of gravity, and the force of the whole system of bodies being the same as if the several centers of gravity were collected
525. PROP.

LXXXIX. The

same applies

to

a particle, the force of each

in the

common

center of the whole.

526. PROP.

XC. Let

of a given lar area upon the body.

circle

a body be placed in a perpendicular to the plane drawn from its center to find the attraction of the circu;

With

the center A, radius

= A

D,

let

a circle be supposed to be described, to

whose plane

A P

is

perpendicular.
circle

From

P E, in any point take P F = P E, and P A or it produced draw F K perpendicular to P F, and let F K cc attracting force at E on P. Let

in this

draw

K L be the curve described by the point K, and let I K L meet A D in L, take = P D, and draw I perpendicular P
1

BOOK L]
to
oc

NEWTON'S
meeting
this

PRINCIPIA.

411

curve in
I

I,

then the attraction on

of the circle

AP

the area

L.

e an evanescent part of e C P pendicular upon P E, .-.

For take

D, and
:

join
.-.

e,
.

draw

per-

E
.

E
.

E A E,

Ee AE = E C x

A E, and the attraction of that annuhis in P-A the dirdction P A oc E C P E x force of each particle at E oc E C X P A X force of each particle at E, but E C = F F K F fa E C x
PE x
annulus described by
f,
.-.
.

the force of each particle at E, .-. attraction of the annulus in the direction a P F f F K, and .-.PA x sum of the areas F F f or P A

PA

the area

is

proportional to the attraction of the

scribed by the revolution of

E.
particle
oc
-,

527. COR.
let

1.

Let the force of each

distance

whole part de-

at

PF=

x,

force at the distance aa

.*.

F K

the force at the distance

~Y

attraction

= PA.FK.Ff=PA Jf-- a-^ X

PA
and

and between the values of

II, the attraction

.

PA

528. COR.

2.

Let the force

oc

-..

distance
.-.

then

ft

TK =
x

x
, l

u n

attraction

= P A J -~d x oc f x"
PA
and
r

X ------" ~

Cor.,

and between the values of

attraction

P H,

= PA
1

^,^ i
'

H uinfinite,

1 P A P A"- ""!^!"-

529. COR. 3.
oc

Let the diameter of a

cc

circle

become

or

oo,

then the attraction

u __

530. PROP.
axis

XCI. To

find the attraction

solid.

on a

in the particle placed

produced of a regular

412

A COMMENTARY ON
R

[SECT. XIII.

E C G, by be a body situated in the axis A B of the curve Let any circle R F S of which the solid is generated. the revolution in the semidiameter F S of perpendicular to the axis, cut the solid, and
Let

the solid, take

K Ff
.

cc

attraction of the solid

K proportional to the attraction whose base =

be the curve traced out by

of the circle on P, then

circle

= F

f,

let I

KL

K,

.-.

R F S, and depth A L K F a at,r

2
.

traction of the solid.

COR.

1.

Let the

solid

be a cylinder, the force varying as

Then

the attraction of the circle

oc

RF

S, or

FK

which

is

proportional

to that attraction

~~
b,

Let

PF=
.

x,

FR =
1 1

x
T? f

K" OC IV rr

4/~3

t"

K2>

.-.

area

oc

Vx Y +

b*.

BOOK L]

Now

if

PA =
.-.

x,

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. attraction = 0,

P A, = PB

413

Cor.

= PD

.-.

whole attraction

=
Let

AB

PE + PD PE + PD.

PA

A B =
.*.

cc

atraction

= P E = P D, = A B.

53 L COR. 3. Let the body P be placed within a spheroid, let a spheroidical shell be included between the two similar
spheroids

DOG, K N

I,

and

let

the

spheroid be described round S which will pass through P, and which is similar to the original spheroid,

draw

FP

= = CL.

G, very near each B E, P F = C G,

V.

other.

P II

D P E, Now P D = B I, P K

K = L

G, and

DH=
shell

and the parts of the spheroidical

lines, are

E, which are intercepted between these

of equal thickness, as also the conical frustums intercepted by the revolution of these lines, and
.. attraction

on

P by

the part
in

DK
t '

number of particles
: :

DK
1?

...

FTP

"FcP

'

FD

'

'

FIT

'

'

/.

and the same may be proved of every other part of a spheroidical shell, and body is not at all attracted by it; and the same maybe proved of all the
other spheroidical shells which are included between the spheroids, and C P M, and .-. P is not affected by the parts external to C P

A O G,
M, and

.-.

(Prop.

LXXIL),
attraction

on

attraction

on

PS

S.

532. PROP.

XCII1. To

find the attraction of a

body placed without an

y:
,

infinite solid, the force

of each particle varying as

where n

is

greater than 3.

Let
at

be the body, and

several
infinite

the

M, O, &c. be the attractions L, of which a solid is composed on the planes

let

414

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT XIII.

body C; then the area

on C.

GLOK

attraction of a solid equals the whole

Now
Then

if

the force

distance

l7

11

HM
.-.

*
oc

n C

H
1

"

~, x (Cor.
-

3.

Prop, L

XC
Cor.

' )

/H M
C =

dx a

f-^~o J V " "~ ^

oc

"

^+
"~*

a
and
if

C Gn-a

~C H
oc

1
11

-3

'

oo

then the area

GLOK

n j:

Case

2.

Let a body be placed within the

solid.

Let
fore

the solid
it is

be the place of the body, and take C K = C G ; the part of between G and K will have no effect on the body C, and thereattracted to remain as
if it

were placed without

1

it

at the distance

CK.
1
.. attraction
oc

BOOK

I.J

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

415

SECTION XIV.

534. PROP. XCIV. Let a body rtiove through a similar medium, terminated by parallel plane surfaces, and let the body, in its passage through this medium, be attracted by a force varying according to any law of its distance from the plane of incidence. Then will the sine of inclination be
to the sine of refraction in a given ratio.

be Let a, B b be the planes which terminate the medium, and the direction of the body's incidence, and I II that of its emergence. Case 1. Let the force to the plane A a be constant, then the body will
describe a parabola, the force acting parallel to I R, which will be a diameter will be a tangent to the parabola, and if of the parabola described. I will also be a tangent to the parabola at I. Let I b produced I

GH

HM

produced meet

GM
R

in

with the center L, and distance

I describe

in N, and draw a circle cutting I I =. I property of the parabola

.-.
.-.

LO
v,

M M L = H L, M O = O R, and M N = The angle L M = the angle of incidence, and the angle M K supplemental angle of emergence. plement of M
.-.

perpendicular to I R.

Now
I
I

by a

R.

L=

sup-

n=

Now
L.

MI =

MH

ML*

416
but

A COMMENTARY ON

MN.MI=MI.IR=MQ.MP=ML+LQ.ML LQ
5
.-.

__
[SECT.

XIV.

LQ

R
2

ML ML
2
:

L Q*

but

and

R are given
.-.4
.-.

ML a ML LQ ML aLQ a "LI
2
2

.%

ML

a L

I or sin. refraction

sin. inclination in

a given ratio.

Case 2. Let the force vary according to any law of distance from A a. Divide the medium by parallel planes A a, B b, C c, d, &c. and let the planes be at evanescent distances from each other, and

A
^~~ c~~
^>

let

the force in passing from

a to

b,

from

to

c,

from

c to

D d,

&c. be

uniform.

/. sin. I

R at H a b sin. R at K sin. R or I at I c d sin. R at R e and so on. sin. R or I at K at H sin. RatR::a.c.e:b.d.f and in a constant
.. sin. I at

sin.

f,

pro-

portion.

535. PROP.
after

XCV. The
:

velocity of a particle before incidence

:

velocity

emergence

sin.

emergence

sin.

incidence.

K
G, d K perpendicular upon A a, D d, Let the meeting the directions of incidence and emergence in G, K. motion of the body be resolved into the two G A, A H, Id, d k, the ve-

Take

H =

I d>

and draw

BOOK L]
therefore the

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
A
a cannot alter the motion in the direction

417

locity perpendicular to

body

will describe

H,

IK

in the

same time

A H, I d are described, that is, it will describe before the incidence and after the emergence.
Velocity before incidence
:

as the spaces

G
A

H,

K
:

in equal times

velocity after

emergence
II
sin.

G
" :

II

Id.
bin. sin.

incidence

emergence
incidence.

sin.

emergence

the velocity before incidence be greater than the velocity after of the inciemergence, then, by inclining the direction dent particle perpetually, the will be refracted back again in a similar ray curve, and the angle of reflection will equal the angle of incidence.

530. PROP.

XCVI. Let

Let the medium be separated by parallel planes &c. and since the velocity before incidence e,
.*.

A
is

a,

b,

c,

d,

greater than the

sin.

velocity after emergence. .*. cidence. P, P Q?

sin.

of emergence
it

is

greater than

of in-

R? &c.

will continually

make
it

a less angle with

n,
it

b,

c,

R
H.

d, Sec.

till

at last

coincides \\ith

as at

and

after

this

will

be reflected back again and describe the curve

II G, and the angle of emergence at

q p h g simi-

lar to

RQP

will equal the angle

of incidence at
537. PROP.
tio,

XCVI I.

Let

sin.

incidence

sin. refraction in

a given ra-

and

medium

the rays diverge from a given point ; to find the surface of so that they may be refracted to another given point.
let

JN

Let
VOL.

A
I.

be the focus of incident,

it is

B
d

of refracted rays, and

let

DE

be the surface which

required

to determine.

Take

DEa

small arc,

418

and draw F, then ; F, are the sines of incidence and refraction; or increment of : decrement of B : sin. incidence sin. refraction. Take ,. a point C in the axis which the curve ought to pass, and let C C sin. incithrough

A COMMENTARY ON E G perpendiculars upon A D and D B

:

[SECT.

XIV.

DG

D
:

AD

dence

sin. refraction,

and points where the

circles described with radii

A M, B N

intersect each other will trace out the curve.

1.

538. COR.

If

and
all

be either of them at an

infinite distance or at

any assigned
situations of

situation,

and

the curves, which are the loci of with respect to C, will be traced

in different

out

by

t'ns

process.

539. COR.

2.

Describe
;

circles with radii

:
:
:

AC
C.

and
:

B D in P and Q then P D D Q P D, D Q are the increments of B C

B, meeting

D,

sin.

incidence

sin. refraction, since

and

BOOK
SECTION

II.

I.

1.

PROP.

I.

Suppose the resistance

oc

velocity,

and supposing the whole

time to be divided into equal portions, the motion lost will oc velocity, and oc space described. Therefore by composition, the whole decrement of the
velocity
cc

space described.
:

COR. Hence the whole velocity at the beginning of motion that part which is lost the whole space which the velocity can describe space
:

already described.
2.

PROP.
1.

Case
at the

Suppose the resistance oc velocity. Suppose the whole time to be divided into equal portions, and
II.

beginning of each portion, the force of resistance to make a single impuUc which will oc velocity, and the decrement of the velocity
oc

resistance

in a

given time,

velocity.

Therefore the velocities

at

the beginning of the respective poitions of time will be in a conNow suppose the portions of time to be diminished tinued progression.

sine limitC)

and then the number increased ad

itifinitum^

then the force of

resistance will act constantly, and the velocity at the beginning of equal successive portions of time will be in geometric progression.

Case
oc

2.

The

spaces described will be as the decrements of the velocity

velocity.
3.

COR. 1. Hence if the time be represented by any line and be divided into equal portions, and ordmates be drawn perpendicular to this
line in geometric progression, the ordinates will represent the velocities, and the area of the curve which is the logarithmic curve, will be as the

spaces described.

Dd2

420
Suppose

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

L
Z.

to be the logarithmic curve to the asymptote S the velocity of the body at the beginning of the motion. L,

K Z

The

uniform

space described in the time AIT with the first velocity continued space described in the resisting medium, in the same time
:
: : :

H
S,
4.

PL

area

AL
S,

Also since II

A L X P L rcct. A L X P S P L P S (if A L = subtan. of the curve). K T representing the velocities in the times A H, A K
S II
:

rcct.

Q T are
COR.
1.

the velocities lost, and therefore

oc

spaces described.

Suppose the resistance

as well as the velocity at the bogiu-

ning of the motion to be represented by the line C A, and after any time by will be as the time, and A The area A B as the the line C D.

GD

space described.
increase in arithmetical progression the areas being B For if the hyperbolic logarithms of the abscissas, the abscissa will decrease in will increase in the same geometrical progression, and therefore

GD

A D

proportion.
5.

PROP.

III.

Let the force of gravity be represented by the rectangle

*
.-.

Let the subtungent

the area

= M. Then the whole area of the curve = M X A L. ALSH = MXAL MXHS=MXl S=ALXPS.
>

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

BACH, and the force of resistance at the beginning

the rectangle

BAD

of the motion by

E on

the other side of

B.

IJ

Ali
G D
1)

Describe the hyperbola

between the asymptotes

A C

and

and g. E, d e, in cutting the perpendiculars Then if the body ascend in the time represented by the area g d, the body will describe a space proportional to the area g e, and the

DG

E G

whole space through which

it

can ascend

will

be proportional to the area

E G

B.

if the

body descend in the time A B K !, the area dcsciibed is B F K. II to be diFor suppose the whole area o( the parallelogram

BAG

vided into portions, which shall be as the increments of the velocity

in

m, An, c. will oc velocity, and therek, Al, equal times, therefore fore GC resistances at the beginning of the respective times. Let C force of gravity resistance at the beginning of the C H, &c. second portion of time, then the parallelograms C H, k

A K

BA

will represent the absolute forces

trical progression.

on the body, and

will decrease in

geome-

Hence

if

the lines

k,

1,

&c. be produced to meet

d 3

422
the curve in q,
sent the times,
r,

A COMMENTARY ON
and
:

[SECT.

I.

&c. these hyperbolic areas being all equal will reprealso the force of gravity which is constant. But the

area

BAK
:

area

Bqk::Kq:ikq::AC:AK::
middle of the
first

force of

gravity

resistance in the

portion of time.

In the same way, the areas q r, r s, &c. are to the areas s, &c. as the force of gravity to the force of resistance in the midq k 1 r, r 1 And since the first term is dle of the second, third, &c. portions of time.

KL

constant and proportional to the third, the second is proportional to the fourth, similarly as to the velocities, and therefore to the spaces described.
.'..by

composition
e. d.

q,

1,

B s m,

&c. will be as the whole spaces

described, Q.

The same may be proved

6.

of the ascent of the body in the same way.

:

Con.

1.

The

in city acquired

the velogreatest velocity which the body can acquire time force of gravity force of resistance any given
:
:

at the
7.
8.

end of the given time.

2.

COR.
COR.

The

times are logarithms of the velocities.

The space described by the body is the difference of the space the time, and the area representing the velocity, which at the representing beginning of the motion are mutually equal to each other.
4.

Suppose the resistance to a

/. c
2
:

velocity.

2
:
:

= retarding force corresponding with the velocity (v)

v

.-.

dv
,

=
c
2

g X

r v
a

X d

x,

.-.

.-.

dx = x =
x
1

dv
v
1

b X b X
__
1

C,

/.

__d x

bdv
5

.-.

T"- ""T "' ~+ = b X

J
V
I

Cor.

~~

J
V

1^

.*.

will

the times being in geometiical progression, the velocities C, d, E, &c. be in the same inverse geometrical progression.
will

Also the spaces

be

in arithmetical progression.

BOOK
9.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

423
projectile,

PROP. IV. Let

DP

be the direction of the

and

let it

represent the initial velocity;

draw

C P

perpendicular to

D, and

D A A C resistance gravity. Also D P C P resistance D A X D P C P X C A R G. Between D C, C P degravity, scribe a hyperbola cutting D G and A B perpendicular to D C in G and B, from R draw R V perpendicular cutting D P in V and the hypeibola in T, complete the parallelogram G K C D and make N Q B C D C P.
let
:

.-.

Take

v V
for s'ince

T = G XT
N
:

or

R
:
:

GT = --- x E
-,
: :
:

N Q B CD C P RV = DR x QB
and

1)

V,

GTE __

_ D R x QB

in the time represented

est altitude

GT = Rr ^ by D R T G the body
t

will

be at

(r),

and the great-

a,

and the velocity

L.

For the motion may be resolved

lateral

motion

is

represented by

into two, ascending and lateral. R, and the motion in ascent by

The

r,

which

aDRxQB
or

G
.

Tt,

Da XA B D G

RT
Dd

424
or

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT.

II.

DRxAB_. DRxAQ
DR R
:

N AB
:

Q, or

QB

D C P,
:

lateral

motion

ascending motion at the beginning,

(r) will

be the place of the body required.

SECTION

II.

PROP. V. Suppose the resistance to vary as the velocity 2 Then as before, the decrement of velocity cc resistance a velocity
10.
.

A KLM

'!'

Let the whole time

tions,

AD

and draw the ordinates

be divided into a great number of equal porA B, k, L 1, m, &c. to the hyperbola

described between the two rectangular asymptotes, property of the hyperbola,

C H, C D;

then by the

.-.

A B Kk AB K
:

C K C
:
:

A,

A K C A A B X A K
:

AB X C

A.

.-.

A B

k a

A B

k.

In the same way

Kk
or

LI a K
k
2
,

k 8, &c.

A B\ K

\ &c.

are proportional to their differences. .*. velocities will decrease in the same Also the spaces deproportion. scribed are represented by the areas described by the ordinates hence in
;

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCiPIA.

425

the time

M the

M m B.
Now

space described

may be

represented by the whole area

suppose the lines

A,

K, &c, and

similarly

K,

L, &c. in

geometrical progression, then the ordinates will decrease in the inverse geometrical progression, and the spaces will be all equal to each other.

Q.
11. Coil. 1.

e. d.

space described in the resisting medium the space described with the first velocity continued uniform for the time the
:

The

AD::

hyperbolic area
12.

1)

G B

rectangle

A B X AD.
would

COR.

3.

The

first

resistance equals the centripetal force which

C, for if the tangent generate the first velocity in the time to the hyperbola at B, since the hyperbola is rectangular with the first resistance continued uniform for the time
velocity
locity
first

B T be drawn A T = A C, and A C the whole

would be destroyed, which is the time in which the same vewould be generated by a force equal the first resistance. For the
is

AB

decrement

AB

K k, and

in equal times there

would be equal de-

crements of velocity.

The first resistance force of gravity COR. the force equal the first resibtance in the time C by the force of gravity in the same time. by
13.
4.
: :

velocity generated

velocity generated

14.

Con.

5.

Vice versa,

if this

ratio

is

else given, every thing

may be

found.

C
15.

^,_J K A LL p L
( >

PROP. VIII. Let

.*.

tance,

C
L,

scend)
city
;

C represent the force of gravity, A K the resisrepresents the absolute force at any time (if the body deP, a mean proportional to A C and K, represents the velo-

are contemporaneous increments of the resistance and

the velocity.

Then

since
2

AP a A

K,

KL

A P x

PQ

x A P X K

C,

426

A COMMENTARY ON
oc

[SECT. II.
given,

the increment of velocity

.-.

force

when

the time

is

K N <x A P X K C the .-.ultimately K LO N (equal

KL

oc

A P a

velocity,

oc

the sura of
.-.

all the L proportional into equal .-. If the whole hyperbolic area be divided space described. in geometrical proare portions the absolute force C A, C I, C K, &c.

N, increment of the hyperbolic area) area = space described, and the whole hyperbolic to the velocity, and Ns which are O

Q. gression. 16. COR. 1.

e. d.

Hence

if

bolic area, the force of gravity, velocity, and resistance, sented by lines which are in continued proportion.
17.

the space described be represented by a hypermay be repre-

COR,

18.

C. greatest velocity COR. 3. If the resistance is known for a given velocity, the greatest
2.
:

The

= A

velocity
19.

given velocity

V force

PROP. IX. Let

A C represent

of gravity given resistance. be perthe greatest velocity, and A

:

With the center pendicular and equal to it. and the hyperbola t E V Z. the quadrant

and radius

A D

describe
I) p.

Draw

the radii

D P,

Then
Case 1. If the body ascend and the triangle are small,
;

draw

D v q near to D p,
:

.*.

since the sectoi

.-.

Dv Dv

Dp q: D a Dqp
Dp
2
,

2
:

Dp*

BOOK.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRIN6IPIA. i A D X p q AD' + A D x A K

oc

427

* p q

CK
till

increment of the time.

.-.

by composition, the whole sector

0."

whole time

the whole

V=

Case

2.

If the

body descend

as before
2

D VT: D PQ::DT": D P DX D A': T X

2
2
: :
:

2
:

A P*

::
: :

DX TX DA AD AD AD X
2 !
:

Al" AK

AD C
:

K.
2

13y the property of the hyperbola,

.-.

TX = DX DA D A = DX TX DI>Q PQ nVT DVr

* 2

AD

CTJ^ CT

oc
.-.

increment of the time.

till

by composition, the whole time of descent the whole hyperbolic sector 13 A T. greatest V
20.

the

body acquire

its

COR.

1.

If

A B =

C.
:

space which the descending body describes in any time space which it would describe in a non-resisting medium to acquire the greatest area A B N K A A T D, which represents the time. For velocity
:

The

since

A C A P
:

AP A K K L P Q
:
: .'

A P

AC

and

K N
.-.

AC
:

A B CK
:

KLON
Hence

13

TV

A P AC
vel.

of the body at any time

oc

the increments of the areas

velocity
:

oc

the greatest vel. spaces described.

:

.'.

by composition the whole

:

A BN K

sector

ATD

space described

to acquire any velocity the same time.

space described in a non-resisting

medium

far

21.
till

Con.

2.

In the same way,

the velocity

= A

body ascend, the space described move space through which a body would
if

the

AB

n k

AD

t.

COR. 3. Also, the velocity of a body falling for the time A T in the velocity which a body would acquire in a non-resisting medium A A D P sector T D A for since the force is constant, same time
22.
:

428

A COMMENTARY ON
medium
oc

[SECT.

II.

the velocity in a non-resisting

time,

and the force

in a resist-

ing

medium
COR.
4.

ocAPccAADP.
: : :

a
:

In the same way, the velocity in the ascent velocity with which A A p 1) body should move, to lose its whole motion in the same time
23.

sector

be any other velocity acquired in the same time with A P.

.-.

For

A D let A Y
t

arc

t.

in

a non -resisting

medium

AP AC
:

A PD
:

this area

and

A P A C
:

A PD A C

D.

Therefore the area which represents the time of acquiring the greatest
velocity in a non-resisting

medium

= AC

D.

the
/.

In the same way, let Ay be velocity lost in a non-resisting same time as A p in a resisting medium.

medium

in

A
.'.

velocity

Ay A p.

area which represents the time of losing the

time of losing the velocity

= AA

p D.

24*.

COR.

5.
:

Hence
time in
:

velocity

A P

the greatest velocity

body would acquire the which, in a non-resisting medium, it would acquire A C A D. sector A D T
the time in which a falling
:

Also the time

in a

in

which

it

would
it

lose the velocity

time in which,
:

non-resisting

medium,

would

lose the

same

velocity

arc

tangent
25.

p.

A D C given AD A P is known or A p. fore the- velocity Then the area A B N K or A B n k A D T

the time being given, the space described in ascent or descent may be known, for the greatest velocity which the body can in which a body fulling in a nonacquire is constant, therefore the time Then the is also known. resisting medium, would acquire that velocity time : time just found; theret sector or A

COR.

6.

Hence

ADT

or

1)

space sought
its

for

space which the

body would describe uniformly with

greatest

velocity,

26.

COR.

7.

Hence

vice versa, if the space

be given, the time

will

be

known.

BOOK
21.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Let

429

PROP. X.

P F

Q be the

curve meeting the plane

P Q.

Let

\
L
G

M
R

J5

D E

Q
let

G,

II,

I,

be the points in the curve, draw the ordinates;

BC

z=

CD

=
in

1)

K, &c.

Draw

tangents at II and G, meeting the ordinates produced and N, complete the parallelogram C INI D. Then the times

UN, G L
and
t

a
oc
;

V LH
let

V N =

I,

and the

velocities

cr.

H GH
oc

and
,p

I,

and the times

,

and

times,

and the

velocities

and

therefore

the decrement of the velocity arising from the retardation of resistance and
i the acceleration or gravity
i

Gil
cc
-

HT

r ,,

. , r also the accelerating force of

-

gravity would cause a body to describe 2

the increment of the velocity from

I N in the same 2N I G = again the

,

time, therefore

arc
,

is

increased
.

by the space
-

=
.

111
.

HN =
,

= M

x
y-j

N
I

I
,

therefore the ue-

. the resistance alone crement from f

H = Grp-- H

x- N

G
resistance
:

II

gravity

T
be
o

Again,

let

A
and

B,

C D, C E, &c. C II = P

+ o, 2o, 3o,
3

&c.

MI = Qo-f
.-.

Ro* + So +
&c.

&c.

DI = P K K = P B G = P +

Qo+ 2 Q o Qo+

4
&c.

&c.

430

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. 3
3

II.

(BG

CH) + BC*( = GH') = o* + Q' o' + GH = 1+Q x o +3QRo

.-. !

Q llo + &c.

,GH=v-TTTPxo +
and

-^
1

r;

HT=
Subtract from
will

+ Q'+

+ Q

2 C the sum G B and and R o 2 I, and R o be the remainder, equal to the sagittac of the arcs, and which are proportional to L II and I, and therefore, in the subtracted num-

3 S o3

ber of the times,

t
.

T* V

>f

3 S o

R +
2

f
11

S o

*
x

3 8 o

. .

^-H-2U _

Q V o */i

+ o* + ^

VTTQ
Z

QU-.'5
3

^ TT 52 R +
g

-2TI77

QR
,

3So Vl + Q

3So

QH

^ ^ Q I x NI _ RoxQo + Ro + 8cc. " HI Ro o. V r+ Q Q

A
g z 2

.. resistance

G
:

II
,-p

gravity

2
H

x N

I
:

.-y-j

2
:
:

3 S

+ Q1
.

2
.

The
and the
Ai

velocity

is

equal to that in the parabola whose diameter rr II C\

lat. rect.

-^TXT-

or

"t

The

resistance
4- (J*
,.

oc

density

x \

*,

therefore the density

directly J

.11R V
I.

resistance

3 S

V
4

I
li

directly

oc

R _ il.

+ Q

28. Ex.

Let
2

it

be a circular
8

arc,

II

CD =
.-.

e,

AQ =
o
2

n,

A C =

a,

DP = n

o,

(a+o)

Sao

2ao

o 1,

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
'

431

-p.

o a \j
S

n* \j o*
11

u u o a n* \j j

^e1

"

2^^

'

and therefore

_ p _
1
.-.

p t,

Q _
"

- R Q -, K-^p, S=
2 3

" a ir
5 ,

density

K
a

a
sn. cos.
'

aji_
5

2_e
*

e
'

-a
a

a
e

oc
4
:
:

n e

3 a n
File

resistance
2.

gravity

& e

f}

n
:

n
e

3 a

n.

29.

Ex.

Of the

hyperbola.

P
.-.

put
a
.

X b P C
o
T%
i

= PD

',

..

= a, C D = = ac a
5

o,

P =

c,

2ao + co
2a

_ ~
S

ft

+
b

o2

*""b'

and since there

is

no fourth term,

30.

PROP. XIII.

draw y Suppose the

..

= =

0,
0.

resistance to

oc

V+V

2
.

Case

1.

Suppose the body

to

ascend

with the center

D and

rad.

D B,

432
describe the quadrant
to

A COMMENTARY ON
BT
F; draw

[SECT. II.
line

BP

B
.-.

F. Let D, and parallel to near P. A, and draw D

AP

perpendicular P, represent the velocity ; join

an indefinite

resistance

<*AP +
z

2BAxAP, suppose gravity D A

oc

8
,

decrement of V

<x

gravity

+
:

resistance

oc
oc

A D +A P +2 B Ax AP.
2 2
2

.-.

D P Q (oc P Q) D T V DTV DT
oc
2

DP DP DT
2
:

2
,

1,

therefore the whole sector

ET

D,

is

proportional to the time.

Case
than

2.
2
,

DA

Suppose the force of gravity proportional to a less quantity draw B D perpendicular to B P, and let the force of

gravity

D F parallel to P B and = 1) B and with the = axis-minor = D B, describe a hyperbola center D axis-major from the vertex F, cutting A D produced in E, and D P, D Q in T, V.
oc

AB

BD

Draw

Now

since the

body

is

supposed to ascend.

BD

The decrement a B P2
3

of the velocity

BD

(B
:
:

Also,

DTV DPQ
:

ocAP + 2ABxAP + AB P = A P + A B + 2 A B x B P). D T D P (by similar triangles) T G B D (T G perpendicular to G)

2

F2

PB

DB
P B
2

2
.

Now
.'.

DPQ DTV a DF

GC
2

decrement of velocity a

DB

2
,

a increment

of the time, since the time flows uni-

formly.

HOOK

II.]
3.

Case

If the

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. a B D body descend let gravity

;

4-83
f

AB

'.

D and vertex B, describe the rectangular hyperbola B T V, D Q produced in E, T, V. cutting the lines D A, D P, SABxAP A P AB BD The increment of V B P* a BD (A 13 + AP)'oc BD DT V:DPQ( PQ)::DT*:D P
With
center
2 2

GT BP
2
:

f
:
:

GD

.-.

DTV

.-.

the whole

31.
to

COR. With the center

T.

'::GD BD :: BD oc BD'cc l, sector E D T oc time. C and distance D A describe

C
2

BD BD
2

2
:

BP*

BP',

an arc similar

P the velocity which in the time the velocity A would lose or acquire in a non-resisting medium
Then
t.
:

E D t a body D A P sector
:

AD

For

in a non-resisting

medium a

time.

32. In the case of the ascent,

Let the force of gravity

.'.

ex
J

I.

Resistance

oc

2 a v

dvoc

2 a v

time.

.-.

by Demoivre's

first
f.

formula,

or time

when
d
f.

v
-

2a

cir. arc.

rad.

g and

tangent =: v
Voi.
I.

434

A COMMENTARY ON
time
.'.

[SECT.
racl.

III.

The whole

when

=
=

-.

cir.

arc

=
=

<*

S
and tangent
.-.

O.
arc rad.

coi

f
.

time

=
o
a.

cir.

arc

rail.

g and tangent v

4- a

cir.

= g and
..

tangent

the time of ascent == sector

DT
v
*

*.

33.

In the case of descent,

dvxl
let

Sav
a

v
.*.

-}-

d v
a
2

.. v

+
1

2 a v

-|-

/.

=dx =x =
2

'

2 a

Time
.-.

r: 0,

0,

a,

.-.

Coi 1 time
.

X C*

,rr -ft5

t5

34-

PROP. XIV. Take

AC

proportional to gravity, and

A K

to the

resistance

on contrary sides if the body ascend, and vies tw.sv/. Between the asymptotes describe a hyperbola, &c- &c.

Draw
The

b perpendicular

C A, and Ab:D13::l)B*:4BA X A
to

C.
it

area

NK

increases or decreases in arithmetic progression

the forces be taken in geometric progression.

Now

AK
Let

oc

resistance

a 2B A P

+A

P*.

.'.

vr 2BA KL=

PQ+2APX PQ
>

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA.

435

\
B_
J^v\ D^

N
KQ P

L"

K L
.r
.-.

R P
=z

Q
T

L N K T O XT A

2
=.

BP x PQ -----r, ---- x

T.

,,

O.

Now
h
:

()

DB A
:

C K C A t B A x C A
:

1)

"

_ -TO- 4BAxCK
alB
x P(^
to ascend,
2

Case

1.

Suppose the body

?
,

gravity

cc

A D A n, + B n = B

AB +BD ^
2

486

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. IV.

_ AIS._
.

AP' +

2BAP
z

= CKx Z. ..DT':DP'::DB':CKx Z
.-.DP
and
in the other

two cases the same result

will obtain.

Make

DTV = DBx
.'.

m.
:
:

DB

i
:

DB

X P

DB CK
1
:

X Z

.-.

BD'xPQ = 2BDxmxCKxZ.
AB AP

.-.

N K-DTV = ^-=^.^L^J^1

velocity.

..it will represent the spare.

SECTION

IV.

35.

PROP.

XV. LEMMA. The L- O P Q = a rectangle

S P

L.

OQR
S

and
L.
.-.

Q =
S

zz.

of the spiral

= ^

QR

L.

OP

OQ

S.

.'.

the circle which passes through the points P, S, O, also passes

through Q,

Also when

Q coincides with
z-

P, this

touches the spiral.

*.

P SO

in a

whose diameter

= P

O.

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA.

487

AlbO

.-.

Q PQ 2P PQ = 2 PS x TO
:

TQ

8.

which also follows from the general property of every curve.

'

PQ = P V x OP ^W QK:= PQ2
2

QR.

36.

Hence

the resistance

37. Density J

distance

-,.

to

density

square of the velocity.

centripetal force *

density J

a -pr distance

; 2

Then produce S

so that

=:

S P, and

let

PQ

be an arc

described in a small time, P R described in twice that time, .'. the decrements of the arcs from what would be described in a non-resisting me-

dium
.-.

oc

*.

decrement of the arc

decrement of the arc
let

.-.

P P

Q= Q=

decrement of the arc

r (if

area

For

q, q v be

arcs*

described (in the same time as

P R P S Q). P Q, Q R)

in

non-renting medium, P S P S q
.-.

Q =Q
=
r

S q

= =
X

q S v
r

8 v

Q Q

8 S

r
(j

Q
X
2

S q

S
t

.*.

if

T
S

ultimately rr

S
-i

be the perpendicular on the tangents

t

T
.-.

Qq Qq
R
v

= =

S
v

r v

.'.

= Q = R
4,

q.

r.

Hence
Resistance
:

centripetal force

/,

Q,
II.)

Also

TQ
.-.

PQ

X S P 2 a time 2 (Newt. Sect. x S P a time 2 .-. time a P Q x vHST

,
.

Q - P^
P"Q x v^s P

V s_P
-

also

488

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. IV.

PQ: QR:
:

Q V
:

S
at

Q
P

X S P
and

PQ:Qr::8Q:SP
since the areas are equal,
.-.

PQ

and the angles r S Q S

:
:

P V

Q arc equal. Q X SP

Q
S P

For

SQ = SP
.-.

VQ
VQ x
J

Qx

S P

S P'

.-.

Q~X~S P~= S P
S P

VQ

JQ o O
a
oc

&c.

.-.

V Q ultimately =
^ ^ Resistance a
.

V
2

S P x S

Q
Rr
a

decrement of

^-5 time

P
P

Q
Q

x S P
K

V O

x S

x S P

iVQ:PQ::,JOS:PO
and

S
.-.

Q=

S P

S
2

ex

OP

x S P
cc

density

()

square of the velocity

ex

resistance
,
.

S -

7y-jy

OS
ex

...

density

p x s p

and

O
.-.

S
^

in the logarithmic spiral ^r-p

cc

constant

density

^-p

c. d.

38.

COR.

1.

in spiral

= V
:

in the circle in a

non -resisting medium

at

he same distance.
39. COR. 3. Resistance
centripetal force
:
:

Rr TQ
:

"
:
:

[vQx PQ *PQJ
'

SQ
:

'

SP

::
.. the ratio

i V Q P Q JOS: OP.
is

of resistance to the ccntiipetal force

known

if

the spiral he

given, and

vice versa.
J

40. COR. 4. If the resistance exceed

cannot move

in this spiral.

For

if

the resistance equal

the centripetal force, the body i the centripetal

BOOK
foice,
line

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. = O
P,
.% the

139
in

O
S.

body

will

descend to the center

a straight
of de-

of descent in a straight line

: :

V
1
:

in a non-resisting

medium

scent in an evanescent parabola circle at the same distance, V

i

the spiral == V in the in the parabola =r V in the circle at

2; for

in

distance.

Hence

since time

*7

time of descent
11.

in the 1st case

that in

2d

1.

COR.

5.

in the spiral

11

= V
:
:

in the line

P S

at

the

sa-.iv.

distance.

Also

PQ U
.-.

P S

in a
11
:

given ratio
that of

time of descending

Q
: :

PS PT PS:: O P O *V
:
:

OP OS
:

Length of the spiral

a
:

T P
1)

sector of the
.

/.

T
:

S.

c
:

e
cl

a
.-.

+
-r-

c c

a -f b

+ +

&c.
c.
:

b
a
:

+
:

c
:

&c.

a"^b.

6. If with the center S and any two given radii, UNO be described, the number of revolutions which the body makes circles between the two circumferences in the different spirals cc tangent oS the

42.

COR.

angle

ol the spiral

-i

P S
cc

-rye
:

The
ladii
:

time down the difference of the time of describing the revolution of the revolution : that difference. length
oc

2d
/.

4th,

time

length of the revolution

ac

secant of the angle of the spiral

OP

I>

'1

'

rtw.-.-'^;

!X

,,

'

'

"'

'

2V

r*

440
43. Con. 7.

A COMMENTARY ON
Suppose a body
to revolve as in the proposition,

[SECT.

IV

and

to cut

the radius in tie points A, B, C, D, the intersections by the nature of the spiral are in continued proportion.
,.

1 lines or

revolution

a
oc

perimeters described 1

and velocity

V distance
A
S*,

oc

S*,

C
:

S*,
:

.*.

the whole time

time of one revolution

AS

S
S

&c.

A S?: A x
o
1

BS*.
,

44. PROP.

XVI. Suppose

the centripetal force

~*~

time

a P
ce

x SP
-

and velocity

S P

PQ:QR::SQ':SPft Qr:PQ::SP SQ
:

.-.

Qr Qr

Q 11 Rr

Q^-

P^-

::

SQ^S

1 :

SQ^-i
1

P*-'

::

^.V.VQ.

For

SP=SQ+VQ,

BOOK
.-.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
1 1

441

SP*- = SQ*- +

1.

VQ

SQ*-+&c.

Then

as before

it

may be

proved,

if

the spiral be given, that the density

Ap.
15.

Q.
1.

e. d.

COR.

Resistance
for the resistance

centripetal force
:

,}

n
:

centiipetal force

II r

O TQ
.

P,

-")

VQ
:

PQ PQ

V Q
"
:
:

PQ
O P.

1
<<w

4(>.

COR.

2. If
.'.

+
I

resistance

= =

3,
0.

~=
<d

0,

Cou.

3.

Ifn

be greater than

3,

the resistance

is

propelling.

SECTION
47. PROP.

VI.

distances of any bodies' centers of oscillation from the axis of motion being the same, the quantities of matter GD weight

XXIV. The

squares of the times of oscillation in

racito.

Lor the velocity generated J

force
. .

time
.

,. rorce on bodies

,,

at

quantities

ot

matter

equal distances from the lowest points x weights, times of describing corresponding parts of the motion oc whole time of oscillation,
.

.,

..

quantities or matter J

force

time of
,

oscil.

-..-

velocities

x
since the velocities generated &
18.
oo

weights
-:

squares of the times,

times

for equal spaces. l l

COR.

1.

Hence

the times being the same, the quantities of matter

weights.

Con.

2.

If the \\eights be the same, the quantities of matter

the quantities of matter be the same, the weights ' rt 1

time*.
^. -

COR.

3. If

lime

442

A COMMENTARY ON
oc
^.
2
,

[SECT.

49. Coit, 4. Generally the accelerating force '

arid

-- ~ of matter.
'

quantities

L
L

oo

TT

,. T

_ _ x WxT
Q
t^t

2
,

.-.

Q
oo

WxT"
T
2
.

.. if

W and Q be given L
T and Q
AB
be given
r

If

L
oc

oo

W.
,
-.

50.

COR.

5.

generally the quantity ot matter

lf

A,

weiffhtxtime 5 of oscillation
.

51 PROP.

XXV.

Let

be the arc which a body would describe

in a

non-resisting

medium
;

in

any time.
represent

Then
it,

the accelerating force at any

cc

point
it

oo

CD

let

CD

and since the resistance

time,

may be represented by the arc

..

o.

the accelerating force in a resisting

medium

of any body d, -

od.

Take
o d
:

B.

Therefore
this ratio,
ratio,
/.

beginning of motion, the accelerating force will be in the initial velocities and spaces described will be in the same the spaces to be described will also be in the same ratio, and
at the
/.
.*.

vanish together,

the bodies will arrive at the same time at the points

and

o.
it

In the same way when the bodies ascend,

will arrive at their highest points at the

may be proved
/. If

that they
:

same time.

A B

in

the ratio

C B

o B, the oscillations
tj. e. d.

in a

non-resisting and

resisting

me-

dium

will

be isochronous,

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.

443

COR. The greatest velocity in a resisting medium is at the point o. The expression for the time of an oscillation in vacuo, or time of descent down to the lowest point oc quadrant whose radius = 1. Now

suppose the body to move

:

in

resisting

medium when
gd
:

the resistance

force of gravity

].

Then

v d v

d x
if

+
-'

x
z
:

+
:

g
:

d
:
:

z.

Now
:

by

a propei ty of the cycloid,

be the axis, d x

a,

d x ~"

- Zd/
a
'

.. v

d v

=
=

d z

+
g

~
-^-

7=
2

+
+

r /,

.-.

2 g

r z

C.

Now
-' X d
"

.-.

=z

T1

d"

"z

x ^ cl

2 a

+
"

2 a "r z

2
,

2a

2 a

r /

'

Assume
z
...

a r a
s

_2a
.-.

r z

+
r z

2 a 2 a

r z

z
z

2 a r d

= = = =

y,
2

y
a
2

y
a
i

(d

)'

(b

'.)

444
and

A COMMENTARY ON
d z

[SKCT. VI.

d y
a

.*.

=:

f
"

circular arc, radius =:

1,

and
cos.

a r

+ C

and

C =

o.

.*.

the whole time of descent to the lowest point

ar
-.

\vhosecos. =i

ci

a r

.\

time

in

vacuo

tune

....
in

= Jf

X circular
g

arc

resisting iricdium

quadrant arc whose cos. = -: 1

:

a r
is

COR.

1.

Time

for in that case z

.-.

of descent to the point of greatest acceleration a r,

constant,

.-.

v d v

= = f = 0,
d
z

-i**

quadrant, for d v

0,

.*.

g
/.
.*.

+
r,
:

g
1

a r z

0,

z
:

=
r
:

a
:

COR.
v
..

2.

To

find the excess of arc in descent

above that

in ascent.

d
i

v zz

d v
v
*

=
___

g e

T
a
2

d x

g
g

z,

/ d z
r

m
&-

2
.-.

a
2

rt

= =

(d

a
)

(z

d)

2 a

&a

(d
v

2 a

r d) x

(2 a v

) '

which when the body arrives to the highest point z 2 a r z = 0, 2 a r d d2 z

.-.

0,

z
z

.-.

+ =

= =

d
r, r,

i,

d
z

2 a
2 a

...

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE
XXVI.
Since

445

52. PROP.
.*.

Va

arc,

and

resistance

a V,

resistance

arc.

Accelerating force in the resisting medium oc arcs. Also the increments or decrements of a accelerating force.

always beginning of the motion, the forces which CD arcs velocities which are proportional to the arcs to be described.

..

the

will

arc.

But

in the

will
.-.

generate
the velo-

cities will
.*.

always

GO

aics to be described.

the times of oscillation will be constant.

53. PROP.
in the ascent.

XXVIII. Let C B be

the arc described in the descent,

D
.-.

the difference
at

(if

A C = C
: :

B)

Force of gravity

resistance

D C
:

O.

C A = C B Oa = OB
...

C A
.'.
.*.

A CO =
a or

a
i-

CO = C B

O B = CO
:

a
at

Force of gravity

resistance

D
a

.'.

At

the

beginning of the motion, Force of gravity resistance

:

'

C B

2 length of pendulum

a.

54.

PROB.

To

find the resistance

on

a thread of a sensible thickness.

Resistance
.'.

of suspended globe. whole thread resistance on the globe lesistance on the

co
:

V X D
*

446

A COMMENTARY ON
::2a 3 b 2
::
2
.

[SECT. VI.
3
,

(a
(a

b)
f

c
r
2

r'c
2

2
.

(a
2

2 b)
r
*

=
,

r.

f
.

b)
8

3 a

c
c

bab

::

a'b

(a

b)

3ar
3

ba b
:

+ + 4b
c*

4b
r

3
8

c%
3

/.

resistance

on the thread
b)
:

whole resistance
(3 a
2

::a

b. (a

2
.

b ab

4b

).

COR.
3a2
.*.

If the thickness (b) be small

when compared with

3 b
*

the length (a)

3. (a
2

bab4 4b = 3a
8
: :

bab-h
:

Resistance on the whole thread

a
3

(nearly) resistance on the globe

b)

and
Resistance on the thread
: :

whole resistance
r
2

to the

pendulum

a3b

b -f 3

*.

Suppose, instead of a globe, a cylinder he suspended whose ax.

=
:

r.

Now

by

differentials

the resistance

on the circumference

resistance

on the base

3.

By

composition the resistance to the cylinder 2 3.

:

resistance on the square

Resistance
/. resistance

oc
GC

x',

x \ or x .-. resistance to the whole thread 2 b) 3 if 2 b = Resistance on A E ex (a

'.

D.
2
.

..

Resistance on the thread

:

resistance of the globe

16. a 3 b

2
.

(a

b)

3 p. a

(a

sfbp Xr

(a

i)

55.

PROP.

XXIX. B

is

the whole arc of oscillation.

if

In the line

OQ

take four points S, P, Q, R, so that

K, S T, PI,

QE

be erected

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA.
O
Q,

447

perpendiculars to

asymptotes

OK

O Q

in

meeting a rectangular hyperbola between the T, I, G, E, and through I, K F be drawn

rR(J

parallel to

O
I

be

area

Q, meeting 8 T C B
: :

QE
:

a.

produced in F. Also I E F
:

The
I

area
: :

P
li

I
:

E Q may

LT

8.

Draw

P L

M N perpendicular to O Q
N
may
be proportional to
:

meeting the hyperbola in N, so that

Z, and

li to

C D.
:

Then

the resistance
since the force
.-.

gravity

^^ v/ \^

T E
r

GH P N
I

M.
hyper-

Now
Now

oc

distance, the arcs

and forces are

a^ the

bolic areas.

is

proportional to

g.

by taking the
h
l

differentials the

increment of

oTE
:

F
:

G H)

= G
1 1

II

rX

GR
I

HG
\)

GR

II

G
X

E Z x
^J~Q
I

P x P
I

(O

HG=OR
::

HR

P x P
I

= P

II

11= P
x

RG + IGH)
GH,

RG +

IGII

E F:

[J-^

OP

PL
I

NowifY=
Let
force.

JgXlEF

the increment
.*.

Y a PIG R

Y.

V =
.*.

the whole from gravity.

11

=
oc

As the
, ,

resistance cc
.

Increment of the velocity a 11 X V 2 the increment of resistance

,
,
,
.

nctnal accelerating

increment of the time.

V X
.

increment of
T c Increment or
if

the velocity, and the velocity J J

resistance

increment of the space -. c increment ot the time

.
-.

.*.

if the space be given, GO P I a area which represents the resistance e. Since the increment PI oc Y, and

GR
the

Z,

be the

R GR

increment of

448

A COMMENTARY ON
Z.

[SECT. VIII.

ooPIGR
Now

begin at remain equal, and vanish at the same time.

be equal at the beginning of the motion and the same time by the addition of equal increments, they will still

IfY and Z

both

Z and Y

begin and end when resistance

0,

i.

e.

when

-5
or

IEF
x
I

IGH
I

=
0.

~O
.-.

OR
EF

G H =

II

GH = Z
I

OR
Resistance
:

gravity

E F

GH PMN
:

I.

SECTION
56. PROP.

VIII.

XLIV. The

friction

not being considered, suppose the

mean

K
E

R
P
altitude of the water in the

Q
vessel to be

two arms of the

A B, C D.

when

the water in the

arm

KL

has ascended to

M N will descend to G

F, the water in the

Then arm

excess of the water in one

H, and the moving force of the water equals the arm above the water in the other, equals twice A E F B. Let V P be a pendulum, R S a cycloid = length of the The accelerating force of the water whole canal, and P Q = A E.
:

weight

AE

or

PQ P
:

R.

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S
P

PRINCIPIA.
through the arc

449

Also, the accelerating force of

whole weight

of
<x

P R;

the weights. the vibration of the water in the canal will be similar and cotemporaneous with the oscillations of P in the cycloid.

therefore the accelerating force of the water and P Therefore if P equal the weight of the water in the canal,

COR. Con.

1.

Hence
If

the vibrations of the water are isochronous.

2.

the

pendulum which
in seconds.

oscillates in seconds; the vibrations will also

length of the canal equal twice the length of the be performed

COR.

3.

The

time of a vibration will

oc

L.

Let the length

a, L, then the accelerating force

.-.

AE =

whole weight

2 a

L,

acceleratin

force

~
;

.-.

\\he.i the surface

i*

at 0, the accelerating force

2 \
1
,

Put

E A
r torce

.-.

accelerating

,-

= = =

x,

x,

2 a -

2 x

X 2
.-.

a x

: ,

/ -jS-

V
L

2 a x

\"
a d

x
x"'

N
/. t
; 2

2 g a2
cir.

2 a x
a,

cor

n
.

and cor

11

v
.-.

=^ / -T a X W 2g = 0, = 0, x = 0,

arc rad.

and

vevs,

if

3.

14159,
\

c.
/

...

a \|

/75_ x

P-

.*.

time of one entire vibration

p X ./ -5-^

time of one entire vi-

bration of a
VOTI*

pendulum whose length

=
F
f

450
57.>*CoR.
1.

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT. VIIT.

not enter into the expression. the value of E.

Since the distance (a) above the quiescent surface does The time will be the same, whatever be

5$.

COR.

2.

The greatest velocity is

at

A=

tf

-f>

a,

/ Vl

59.

PROP.

XLVIL

Let E, F,
;

be three physical points in the line

s
-r"n

C, which are equally distant E e, F f, g the spaces through which they move during the time of one vibration. Let t, p, y

be their place at any time. Make P S E e, and bisect it in O, and with center

= O

and radius

OP= O

S, describe a circle.
circle repre-

Let the circumference of this

the time

sent the time of one vibration, so that in or P S h, if L or h 1

be drawn perpendicular to P S and E e be taken = P L or P ], E s may be found in

suppose

this the nature

of the medium.
the arcs

Take in the circumference P H S h,

HI, IK,
same

hi,
I

k which may bear the

ratio to the circumference of the circle as

E F
.

or

to

C.

Draw
or

M,
i

K N or
will

PI,

HS

k n perpendiculai to P S. represent the motion of F and

i

in,

Hence

PHSkthatof G.E*, P m, P n respectively.

Hence
sion at
.*.
c

F<p,

Gy = PL, P
E
i

M, P

P K or or P
1,

gyorEG+Gy
;

GE
:
: : :

LN

expan:

or

= EG+
: :

n.

GE LN EG E G + In E G In returning, Now join I O, and draw K r perpendicular to H L, II K r, I O M are similar triangles, since the ^KHr = }KOk=: = L. I O P and ^ at r and M = 90, I O L N K H I M I O or O P, and by supposition K II EG:: circumference PSLP:BC::OP:V = radius of the circle whose circumference = B C. G E I M V. .% by composition L N
in going,

expansion

mean expansion

.-.

..

expansion

mean expansion

V,

BOOK
.-.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
:

451

elasticity

mean

elasticity

y_ JM
be
:

^
:

In the same way, for the

points

and G, the
:

ratio will

excess

1 a y _*H L y of elasticity of E mean elasticity

11

^
1
:

-^

''

II

HL

Lx V KN
V

L KN K NxV+HLxKN

~V

V.

Now
cc 1.
GC
.*.

the excess of E's elasticity II r II P,

:

HL
cc

K O
M,

N, and since II

K N

.-.

O HL
:

K N

..

excess of E's elasticity

a O M.

exert themselves in opposite directions by the arc's tento dilate, this excess is the accelerating force of t y, .-. dency accelerating M.* force QD

Since

and

UN THE HARMONIC CURVE.

Since the ordinates in the harmonic curve drawn perpendicular to the axis are in a constant ratio, the subtenses of the angle of contact will be
in the

same given

ratio.

Now

the subtenses

oc

-7-1rail* or
f

cuiv.

>

and when

the curve performs very small vibrations, the arcs are nearly equal.

Now

the curv.

oc

.-

rad.

.*.

subtense

oc

curvature,
cc

Ilence the accelerating force on any point of the string

that point.

curvature nt

Now

bisect
.
.

M=

f in

(?,

ii <p

For

OM=Or
oc

PM:=nF -Fp=fl0
distance

i.

e.

the accelerating force

fiom n the middle

point.

Q.

c.

d.

452

A COMMENTARY ON
find the equation to the

[SECT. VIII.

To

harmonic curve.

B
nft

Let A draw B
cular to

be the axis of the harmonic curve

CB

A,

the middle point,

D
B

perpendiperpendicular cutting the curve in B; draw P cutting the curve in P, and cutting the quadrant described

with the center

D and radius D B in
a,

N. Draw

P S perpendicular to A

O-

Put

.-.

BD = DM=
r

M
x

= y, B = P S.
,. r (if

M
.

x,

.'.

rad. of curv.

= =
:

rad. of curv. at B,

BP =

z,
.

d z d x d2y

A be constant).

Now

BD P
or
a

curvature at

curvature at
:

rad. of cur. at

rad. at

X.
d
*

d _

z d in _

x
'**>

.. r a
.. r

y a d z d x
:

x d x d
^

0,

d y

a d z x

-f

C.

Now
x

=
,

0,

d y

x,

A \rady + axde
i

x<2cU ^

r a

z.

Put

.\ r
.-.

dy

ra

b2 d

z,
2
)

a'dy*=

(ra

X dx

'

dy

2r

bd y +
'

b4 d y

BOOK
.-.

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
Xdx = a dx l =
2

453

(ra
.-.

b*)
r*

a b <dy
2

4 cl

*,

2 r a b

d y

if (b)

be small compared to
.

(a),

ad x*

r
.-.

z=

circular arc

whose rad.

n,

and

vers.

n C, and cor

=
arc

0,

because when y
.-.

= =

0,

0,

0.

.-.

D =

J^ X quadrant B N E,

and therefore

/r
a

_ CD ~ B N E' = DN x j BNE
Put

y
60. PROP.

XLIX.

A=

attraction of a

homogeneous atmosphere

when

the weight and density equal the weight and density of the medium is supposed to vibrate. Then every through which the physical line E

thing remaining as in be performed in the

length
law,
since

Prop.

XLVIL

the vibration of the line

EG

will

same times

as the vibrations in a cycloid,

whose

= P
oc

S, since in each case they

and through the same space. Also,

would move according to the same if A be the length of a pendulum,

V"L
:

The
i

time of a vibration
::

time of oscillation of a pendulum

A
:

V~FO:

V~A.

Also (Puop. XLVII.), the accelerating force of

celerating force in cycloid
:
:

EG

in

medium

ac-

since

HK GE
:

Ax PO

HK V
: :

x
.

EG;

V.

::

PO

X A

V
F

454

A COMMENTARY ON

[SECT VIIT.

Now

T
/.

GC

pp-

when
:

is

given.

the time of vibration

:

time of oscillation of the pendulum

A
A.

A
:

BC

circumference of a circle rad.

Now B C space described in the time of one vibration, therefore the circumference of the circle of radius space described in the time of the oscillation of a pendulum whose length A.

A =

Since the time of vibration

ference of the circle whose rad.

circumtime of describing a space B C : that circumference. A ::

COR.
A.

1.

The

velocity equals that acquired

down

half the altitude of

For

in the
;

same

time, with this velocity uniform, the

body would de: :

scribe

and since the time down half

time of an oscillation

circumference.

In the time of an oscillation the body would describe the

<x

circumference.

COR.

2.

Since the comparative force or weight

density

attraction
oo

of a homogeneous atmosphere, ' *

A oo -^

r-

' ,

and the velocity J

V A.

density

elastic force

density

SCHOLIUM.
61.

PROP.

XLIX. Sound

is

produced by the pulses of

air,

which

theory
2d.

is confirmed, 1st, from the vibrations of solid bodies opposed to it. from the coincidence of theory with experiment, with respect to the

velocity of sound.

The

specific gravity of air

-

that of
,

mercury

11890.
:

Now since the alt. a

altitude of the

.*.

11890

30 inches

29725

feet

sp. gr.

length

homogeneous atmosphere. Hence a pendulum whose 29725, will perform an oscillation in 190", in which time by Prop. XLIX, sound will move over 186768 feet, therefore in 1" sound will describe 979 feet. This computation does not take into considera-

tion the solidity of the

of air, through which sound is prosuppose the particles of air to have the same disdensity as the particles of water, then the diameter of each particle
particles

pagated instantly.

Now

BOOK L]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
:
: :

455

tance between their centers 1 two cubes of air and water equal
ticles,

10 nearly. 9, or (For if there are to each other, 1) the diameter of the par1
:

S the
.

interval

between them, S

+D =

the side of the cube, and if

N = N. N
jo

+ N D = N.
if

Also,

M be the
in the

N.
: :

of the cube, in the cube of water,

in the side

N.

in the

cube

cube and the

N.

cube

oc

M
3
:

M D the side of the

3
.

Put

M
N,

3
,

.-.

M=

A*

By

Proposition

+ ND =
.-.

MD

= N A^
1,

D,

S
...

= D x A*
S:
:

D:: A^
: :

I,

.-.

+ D D

A*

1 if
1 if

or 10

A = A =

870
1000).
:
:

Now
/.

the space described by sound

space which the air occupies

11,

space to be added

979 -^-

108 or the velocity of sound

is

1088

fc'et

per

1 '.

Again, also the elasticity of air

tlie

is

increased by vapours.

Hence

since

velocity y

oc

-^

JL

if

the density remain the J

same the

velocity

density
if

oc

elasticity.
1

Hence

the air be supposed to consist of 11

feet,

10 of
:

of vapour, the elasticity will be increased in the ratio of 11 air, therefore the velocity will be increased in the ratio of 11-J 10 or 21

and

10,

20,

therefore the velocity of sound will altogether be 1142 feet per 1", which is the same as found by experiment.

the air being more elastic than in winter, sound will be with a greater velocity than in winter. The above calculation propagated relates to the mean elasticity of the air which is in spring and autumn.

In

summer

Hence may be found

the intervals of pulses of the

air.

experiment, a tube whose length is five Paris feet, was observed to the same sound as a chord which vibrated 100 times in 1", and in give the same time sound moves through 1070 feet, therefore the interval of

By

the pulses of air =r 10.7 or about twice the length of the pipe.

456
62.

A COMMENTARY ON
On
force with

[SECT; VJIT.

The

the vibrations of a harmonic string. which a string tends to the center of the curve
: :

force

which stretches the string

length

radius of curvature.

Let

p be a

small portion of the string,

the center of the curve; join

P,

O p, and

P t, gram P t
draw
the string,

p p

tangents at P and p meeting in t, complete the paralleloJoin t r, then P t, p t represent the stretching force of which may be resolved into P x, t x and p x, t x of which
t,

r.

p x destroy each tends to the center O.

x,

other,

and 2
the

t t

Now
:

^
i.

P
:

= force with which the string = J P O p, z. P x = .

.'.

PO
:

p,

.".

t r

Pp O

P,

e.

the force with which any particle

force

moves towards the center of the curve

radius.

which stretches

it

length

63.

To

find the times of vibration of a

harmonic

string.

Let

w =

weight of the string.

:

L =

length.

D
.'.

weight

Dd

weight of

w = Dd X

BOOK

II.]

NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA.
~
j

457

Also

D
.-.

rad. of curve

the moving force of

Dd P
:

the

moving

force of

Dd = P

J X ap<
P'

T Lw

.'.

accelerating force &

PxD J
T . L*

Xn

Dd
,

X w

_ P X ap ""
Lw.
if

DO =
.*.

x,

DC=

a,

OC=

x,

the accelerating force at

v

O =
x d x

...

d
v

=
=

g
| JLj
fo

W
r

P X

d x

...

Lw
/
or

X
t

2 a x

Pn V= V L^~ X
.-.

and
*

=
__ VM

0,

d x
\T

__
"

Lw
re c

Cl

v
'

N
.

^J/

11 \* P

f \\ *

d x

2a x
'

=
=
x
a
,

cin arc ra

and
vers. sine

when x
t

= a, = 0. Lw
f5 5g P p
*

quadrant l

=
""

Lw X P ^
.

Pp
/

r-

Ay
7

^
j^
2

g F

.*.

time of a vibration

=
=

.*.

number of

vibrations in 1"

V Lw

& p ^/-r

COR, Time of vibration

length

=.

time of the oscillation of a pendulum whose

458
For
64.
this

A COMMENTARY,
time

&c.

[SECT. IX.

= V/
.

fixed axis in

PROP. LI. Let A F be a cylinder moving in a fluid round a S3 and suppose the fluid divided into a great number of solid

orbs of the same thickness.

parts

surfaces.

Now

Then the disturbing force a translation of o .*. Translathe disturbing forces are constant.
oc
-T-.
.

tion of parts, from the defect of lubricity J

r i T ence ot the angular motions
,

distance
1
cc

Now
.
1

the differi

translation
oc

distance
*

p-

-r-5 d. stance'

~ A ^ On A Q draw

A
oc

a^

b,

c,

&c.

-p distance

, '

then the

sum

of the differences will

*

hyperbolic area.
1

1
-.

"
.

r
oc

..

periodic time
J

oc

-.

oc

r-

-.

angular motion
*.

In the same way, if would vary as the distance

hyperbolic area were globes or spheres, the periodic time they

distance.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME