Country in a Box:

Romania
Romnia

Peoples Palace (Casa Poporului), Bucharest, Romania

A Teachers Guide
Compiled by the Center for Eurasian, Russian and East European Studies
Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
http://ceres.georgetown.edu
1

Romania in a Box: Table of Contents

Romania: Facts at a Glance

3-5

History of Romania

6-9

Timeline of Major Events in Romanian History

10

Romanian Culture

11-13

Folklore: The Legend of Dracula

14-15

Additional Resources

16

Peles Castle, Brasov, Romania

Romania: Facts at a Glance

_______
Text taken directly from Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Romania. Available
at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html
Country Name: Romania
Background: The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries under the suzerainty
of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their
autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few
years later adopted the new name of Romania.
The country gained recognition of its
independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers
in World War I and acquired new territories most notably Transylvania - following the
conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis
powers and participated in the 1941 German
invasion of the USSR. Three years later, overrun
by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The
post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation
of a Communist "people's republic" in 1947 and
the abdication of the king. The decades-long rule
of dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, who took power in
1965, and his Securitate police state became
increasingly oppressive and draconian through
the 1980s. Ceausescu was overthrown and
executed in late 1989. Former Communists
dominated the government until 1996 when they were swept from
power. Romania joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Capital: Bucharest
Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between
Bulgaria and Ukraine
Area: total: 238,391 sq km (slightly smaller than Oregon)
land: 229,891 sq km
water: 8,500 sq km
Terrain: Central Transylvanian Basin is separated from the Moldavian
Plateau on the east by the Eastern Carpathian Mountains and separated
from the Walachia Plain on the south by the Transylvanian Alps
Elevation extremes: Lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
Highest point: Moldoveanu 2,544 m

Three equal vertical bands

of blue (hoist side), yellow,
and red; the three colors
were used by various
national revolutionary
movements in the 19th
century; the national coat of
arms that used to be
centered in the yellow band
has been removed
note: now similar to the flag
of Chad, whose blue band
is darker; also resembles
the flags of Andorra and
Moldova

Natural resources: Petroleum (reserves declining), timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt,
arable land, hydropower
Natural hazards: Earthquakes, most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and
climate promote landslides
Environmental issues: Soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from
industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands
Population: 21,729,871 (July 2014 est.)
Ethnic groups: Romanian 83.4%, Hungarian 6.1%, Roma 3.1%, Ukrainian 0.3%, German 0.2%,
other 0.7%, unspecified 6.1% (2011 est.)
Religions: Eastern Orthodox (including all sub-denominations) 81.9%,
Protestant (various denominations including Reformed and Pentecostal) 6.4%,
Roman Catholic 4.3%, other (includes Muslim) 0.9%, none or atheist 0.2%,
unspecified 6.3% (2011 est.)

Government type: Republic

Executive Branch: Chief of state: President Klaus Iohannis (since
December 2014); head of government: Prime Minister Victor Ponta
(since May 2012); cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime
minister; elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year
term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 16 November
2014; prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the
Parliament.
(Information
updated
from
BBC:
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30076716)
Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the
Senate or Senat (137 seats; members elected by popular vote in a mixed
electoral system to serve four-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies
or Camera Deputatilor (334 seats; members elected by popular vote in a
mixed electoral system to serve four-year terms)
Judicial Branch: Supreme Court of Justice (comprised of 11 judges
appointed for three-year terms by the president in consultation with the
Superior Council of Magistrates, which is comprised of the minister of
justice, the prosecutor general, two civil society representatives
appointed by the Senate, and 14 judges and prosecutors elected by their
peers); a separate body, the Constitutional Court, validates elections and
makes decisions regarding the constitutionality of laws, treaties,
ordinances, and internal rules of the Parliament; it is comprised of nine
members serving nine-year terms, with three members each appointed
by the president, the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies.

Taken directly from

http://www.bnro.ro/
Monede-sibancnote-incirculatie-724.aspx

Economy Overview: Romania, which joined the EU on 1 January 2007, began the transition
from Communism in 1989 with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited
to the country's needs. The country emerged in 2000 from a punishing three-year recession due
to strong demand in EU export markets. Domestic consumption and investment fueled strong
GDP growth, but led to large current account imbalances. Romania's macroeconomic gains have
only recently started to spur creation of a middle class and to address Romania's widespread
poverty. Corruption and red tape continue to permeate the business environment. As a result of
the global financial crisis, Romania signed on to a $26 billion emergency assistance package
from the IMF, the EU, and other international lenders. GDP contracted from 2009 to 2011. In
March 2011, Romania and the IMF/EU/World Bank signed a 24-month precautionary stand-by
agreement, worth $6.6 billion, to promote fiscal discipline, encourage progress on structural
reforms, and strengthen financial sector stability. In September 2013, the Romanian authorities
and the IMF/EU agreed to a follow-on stand-by agreement, worth $5.4 billion, to continue with
reforms, although Bucharest announced that it does not intend to draw funds under the
agreement. Economic growth accelerated in 2013, driven by strong industrial exports and an
excellent agricultural harvest; in December 2013 inflation dropped to a historical low annual rate
of 1.6%; and the current account deficit was reduced substantially. Yet, progress on structural
reforms is uneven and the economy still is vulnerable to shocks.
GDP (purchasing power parity):

$288.5 billion (2013 est.)

GDP (composition by sector):

Agriculture: 12.2%
Industry: 37.6%
Services: 50.2% (2010 est.)

Labor Force (by occupation):

Agriculture: 29%
Industry: 28.6%
Services: 42.4% (2012)

Industries: Electric machinery and equipment, textiles and footwear, light machinery and auto
assembly, mining, timber, construction materials, metallurgy, chemicals, food processing,
petroleum refining.
Exports (commodities): Machinery and equipment, textiles and footwear, metals and metal
products, machinery and equipment, minerals and fuels, chemicals, agricultural products.
Exports (partners): Germany 18.9%, Italy 12.3%, France 7.1%, Turkey 5.5%, Hungary 5.5%
(2012)
Imports (commodities): Machinery and equipment, fuels and minerals, chemicals, textile and
products, metals, agricultural products.
Imports (partners): Germany 17.5%, Italy 11%, Hungary 9.1%, France 5.7%, Russia 4.4%,
Poland 4.3%, Austria 4.2%, Kazakhstan 4.1% (2012)
Debt (external): $131.6 billion (31 December 2013 est.)
5

History of Romania
_______
Adapted from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508461/Romania
Antiquity
For more than a century and a half the Transylvanian Basin and the plain to the south constituted
the Roman province of Dacia. Roman administration, numerous cities, and the Latin language
brought about intense Romanization and rapid integration into the empire. The Slavs achieved
political and social preeminence in Dacia in the 8th century, but even then they were undergoing
assimilation by the more numerous Daco-Romans. In the 11th century the Hungarians made the
territory north of the Carpathians, which was to become known as Transylvania, a part of
the Hungarian kingdom. To the south a number of small duchies coalesced by 1330 into the
independent Romanian principality of Walachia, and to the east a second principality, Moldavia,
achieved independence in 1359.
The Middle Ages
Nearly four centuries of Ottoman Turkish domination between the 15th and 19th centuries
reinforced the Romanians attachment to the East. The autonomy of the principalities was not
seriously compromised until the beginning of the 18th century, after which the payment of
tribute and the delivery of supplies rose precipitously. Outside the principalities lay
Transylvania, whose government and economy were dominated in the countryside by the
Calvinist and Roman Catholic Hungarian nobility and in the cities by the Lutheran Germanspeaking Saxon upper class. A large Romanian population lived there also, but Romanians were
excluded from public affairs and privileges because they were overwhelmingly peasant and
Orthodox. Their fortunes improved when Transylvania was brought under the Habsburg crown
at the end of the 17th century.
The Growing Role of Russia and Independence
The international crisis caused by the War of Greek Independence had important repercussions
in Moldavia and Walachia. The Treaty of Adrianople of 1829 established a virtual Russian
protectorate over the principalities and reduced Ottoman suzerainty to a few legal formalities.
The Russian protectorate, despite a promising beginning, increased Romanian resentment of
Russia. In Walachia, more-radical forty-eighters established a provisional government to carry
out reform and prevent foreign intervention. In the 1850s forty-eighters led the struggle for the
union of Moldavia and Walachia, which they regarded as an essential preliminary to
independence. The Romanians themselves settled the matter of union by electing the same
man, Alexandru Cuza, as prince in both Moldavia and Walachia in 1859. Cuza asserted the de
facto independence of Romania, as the united principalities were now known. Foes united in

1866 to force his abdication, and he was succeeded by

King Carol I. Formal independence was achieved through
participation in the Russo-Turkish War of 187778.
Greater Romania
In 1916 the country entered World War I on the Allied
side. As a result of the war, Greater Romaniathe
expanded nation-state encompassing the majority of
Romanianscame into being. Through the acquisition of
Transylvania and the Banat from Hungary, Bukovina
from Austria, and Bessarabia from Russia, the countrys
territory was doubled.
The fundamental political issue in interwar Romania was
the struggle between parliamentary government
and authoritarianism. Two events boded ill for the future
of democracy: the accession of Carol II to the throne in
1930 and the world economic depression. Between June
and September 1940 the Soviet Union took Bessarabia
and northern Bukovina, Hungary took northern
Transylvania, and Bulgaria took the southern Dobruja.
King Carols dictatorship could not survive the
catastrophe, and he was forced to abdicate on September
6.
World War II
In September 1940 General Ion Antonescu forced Carol II
to abdicate, and Antonescu and the Iron Guard established
an authoritarian National Legionary State. Antonescu
based his foreign policy on an alliance with Germany,
which he was certain would win the war. After the Battle
of Stalingrad he lost hope that Germany would win the
war. As Antonescu clung desperately to the German
alliance, Iuliu Maniu and King Michael, who had
succeeded his father, Carol II, took the initiative in
overthrowing the dictatorship on August 23 and in
establishing a new government committed to the Allied
war effort. The occupation of Bucharest by the Red
Army a week later marked the beginning of a new era in
Romanian history.
7

Communist Romania
During the three years after the overthrow of Antonescu, a struggle for power took place between
the democratic parties and the Communist Party. The communists came to power in the spring of
1945. The Romanian Peoples Republic was proclaimed on December 30, 1947. From 1948 to
about 1960, communist leaders adopted Stalinist principles: rigid central planning and direction,
as well as emphasis on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods. The party also
established the Securitate, the centerpiece of a vast security network, and undertook the forcible
collectivization of agriculture.
After party leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dejs death in 1965, his successor, Nicolae Ceauescu,
redoubled efforts to lessen the countrys dependence on the Soviet Union. Ceauescu sought to
expand economic relations with the West and skillfully played on the widespread anti-Soviet
sentiments of the population in order to mobilize support for the Romanian party.
Ceauescu brought the period of relaxation to an end in 1971. In the nearly two decades of neoStalinism that followed, Ceauescu promoted a cult of personality that was unprecedented in
Romanian history and that served as the foundation of a dictatorship which knew no limits. His
adherence to the Stalinist economic model had disastrous consequences: both industry and
agriculture fell into disarray, and the standard of living steadily deteriorated.
Collapse of communism
The Romanian revolution of 1989 appears to have been a combination of spontaneous uprising
by the general populace and conspiracy against A loose coalition of groups opposed to
Ceauescu quickly formed the to lead the country through the transition from communism to
democracy. In elections held in May 1990, the National Salvation Front (NSF) won handily and
assumed formal direction of the country with the inauguration of its head, Ion Iliescu, as
president on June 20, 1990.
In November 1992 Iliescus government introduced economic reforms, including price
liberalization, to bring Romania in line with other emerging market economies. The result was
soaring inflation and rising unemployment. In 1996 Iliescu lost the presidency to Emil
Constantinescu, the leader of the Democratic Convention of Romania (CDR). In 1997 the former
monarch Michael, whom the communists had forced to abdicate in 1947, returned to Romania
after 50 years in exile.
Continued economic recession and corruption led to a collapse of support for the CDR. As a
result, Iliescu was returned to power in the elections of 2000. In 2004 the party was ousted from
power by another center-right coalition of parties, including the Democratic Party (PD),
whose Traian Bsescu was elected president.

In the first years of the 21st century, gross domestic product began showing positive growth,
inflation fell, and privatization was accelerated. In March 2004 Romania entered the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and in January 2007 it joined the European Union (EU).
Parliamentary elections in 2008 resulted in a near tie between the leftist PSD and the Democratic
Liberal Party (PDL), Bsescus new centrist party. In a runoff election held in December 2009,
Bsescu won the vote by less than a percentage point. The president asked Emil Boc, who had
been heading the caretaker government, to continue serving as prime minister.
Discontent with the government simmered throughout 2010, as Boc implemented a series of
austerity measures. In January 2012 demonstrations focused on wider issues related to the
governments austerity program, its perceived
corruption, and its apparent disconnect from the
Romanian people. After almost a month of civil unrest,
the Romanian government collapsed. On February 6,
2012, Boc resigned as prime minister, and Bsescu
nominated intelligence chief Mihai Rzvan Ungureanu
to succeed Boc.
Ungureanu continued the budget-cutting policies of his
predecessor, and protesters returned to the streets with
renewed intensity. Opposition lawmakers headed
by Victor Ponta of the Social-Liberal Union (USL)
brought down the two-month-old government in a vote
of no confidence on April 27, 2012. Ponta, who became
prime minister the following month, prompted criticism
from EU officials when he stripped Romanias
Constitutional Court of its oversight function and
orchestrated the impeachment of Bsescu. On August
21, 2012, the Constitutional Court ruled
the impeachment invalid, and Bsescu was reinstated a
week later. Despite widespread criticism from the EU
and declining domestic popularity, Ponta was
reaffirmed in this position when the USL was victorious
in parliamentary elections in December 2012.

Timeline of Major Events in Modern Romanian History

_______
Text taken directly from BBC News. Timeline: Romania. Available at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1058027.stm
1916-18 - Romania fights on Allied side during World War I. As part of the peace settlement at
the end of the war acquires several territories with resident Romanian populations - virtually
doubling in size and population.
1941 Under the dictatorship of Marshall Ion Antonescu Romania fights on the German side
against the Soviet Union.
1944-5 - Antonescu ousted. Romania switches sides as Soviet forces close in. Soviet-backed
government installed.
1947 - Romania regains Transylvania under peace treaty but loses territory to Soviet Union.
King Michael abdicates. Romanian People's Republic proclaimed.
1965 - Nicolae Ceausescu becomes Communist Party leader after death of Gheorghe GheorghiuDej. He pursues foreign policy that runs "independent" of that of Moscow.
1989 December - Demonstrations in city of Timisoara against the harassment of a dissident
ethnic-Hungarian priest, Laszlo Tokes, trigger bloody national uprising. Ceausescu and his wife
Elena try to flee but are caught and then executed on Christmas Day. National Salvation Front
established, headed by Ion Iliescu.
1990 - Elections confirm Iliescu as head of state. New government of Prime Minister Petre
Roman embarks on reform program. Student and opposition protests against the ex-communist
leadership are crushed when 20,000 coal miners are brought in to stage a counter demonstration.
1996 - Centre-right election victory sweeps aside former communists. Emil Constantinescu
elected president, Victor Ciorbea becomes prime minister.
2000 November-December - Ion Iliescu defeats far-right rival Corneliu Vadim Tudor to retake
presidency. Leftist Adrian Nastase becomes prime minister in minority government.
2004 March - Romania admitted to NATO.
2004 November-December - Centrist alliance leader Traian Basescu elected president. His ally
Calin Tariceanu becomes prime minister. Both pledge to speed up EU-oriented reforms.
2007 January - Romania and Bulgaria join the European Union, raising the EU membership to 27.
2009 December - Incumbent President Traian Basescu declared winner of run-off election by
very narrow majority. Emil Boc forms new coalition government.
10

Romanian Culture
_______
Text taken directly from the World InfoZone. Romania Information. Available at:
http://worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Romania&page=2#arts
The earliest evidence of the arts in
Romania dates back to ten thousand
year-old cave paintings in northwest
Transylvania and examples of
Neolithic
pottery.
Over
the
centuries, the typical Romanian style
of pottery has developed and is still
one of the most famous in the region
due to its natural colors and stylized
motifs.
Leading Romanian painters include
the portrait painter Theodor Aman
(1831-91) and the landscape painter
Nicolae Grigorescu (1838-1907).
Constantin Brancusi (1876-1956), Hora de la Aninoasa (Round dance at Aninoasa) Theodor
the famous sculptor, attended the Aman, 1890
Bucharest School of Fine Arts before moving to Paris in 1904.
Well known Romanian writers include the narrative poet and
dramatist Vasile Alecsandri (1821-90), the poet Mihai
Eminescu (1850-1889), the novelist Mihail Sadoveanu (18801961) and the playwright Eugene Ionesco (1912-1994).
Famous Romanian musicians are George Enescu (18811955), the violinist and composer, known for Romanian
rhapsodies, Dinu Lipatti (1917-1950), pianist and composer,
and Angela Gheorghiu, the Romanian soprano.
Romanian Cuisine
The cuisine of Romania is diverse. It has been greatly
influenced by Balkan cuisine as well as of its neighbors, such
as Germans, Serbians, and Hungarians. The Turks have
brought meatballs (perioare in a meatball soup), from the
Greeks there is musaca, from the Bulgarians there are a wide
variety of vegetable dishes like ghiveci and zacusc, from the
Austrians there is the niel and the list could continue.

Mademoiselle Pogany, sculpture

by Constantin Brancusi, 1931

One of the most common dishes is mmliga, a cornmeal mush served on its own or as an
accompaniment. Pork is the preferred meat, but beef, lamb, and fish are also popular.

11

Romanian cuisine also has some traditional

deserts such as cozonac, pasca (a sweet cake with
cheese prepared for Easter, Paste), papanasi or
mucenici.
One of the most popular dishes in Romania is
mititei. They are prepared with ground pork meat,
a bit of baking soda, salt, pepper, coriander,
cumin, garlic mixed and then shaped into little
sausages. Romanians eat mici with mustard inside
a bread roll and it is the favorite dish at outdoors
barbecues.

Cozonac
Traditional Romanian sweet bread

Sport in Romania
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in
Romania, the most internationally known player
being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua
Bucureti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona
(Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others.
In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua
Bucureti became the first Eastern European club
ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red
Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European
Champions Cup title. In 1989, it played the final
again, but lost to AC Milan.
Romania holds a long tradition in artistic
gymnastics, especially in the ladies' competition.
The most famous Romanian gymnast is Nadia
12

Comneci, who was the first gymnast to ever score a perfect 10 at the Olympic Games, during
the 1976 Summer Olympics at the age of fourteen. Top Romanian men's gymnasts include
Marius Urzic and Marian Drgulescu.
Ilie Nstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won
several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked
as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has
also reached the Davis Cup finals three times.
Romanian traditions
Romania has preserved traditions that go back
centuries ago most of them being a blend of preChristian and Christian beliefs. In the winter,
around Christmas people and especially children go
from house to house singing carols, while at New
Year the same tradition is done by young men
making wishes of prosperity to each household that
would receive them.
Spring is announced by the arrival of snow-drops,
the first flower to bloom after winter. As a tradition
Martisor
starting March 1 to March 8 people give each other
mrioare (little March) made up of two thin
threads of white and red string intertwined, symbolizing purity and life. The red and white
"Martisor" is hanged at the gates, at the windows, at the animals' horns, at the sheep's sheds
against evil spirits and invoking life and regenerative power.
At Easter, Romanians celebrate the resurrection
of Christ. Besides eating traditional dishes like
lamb roast, drop (lamb haggis), pasca (traditional
cheese cake), Romanians paint Easter eggs.
From simple red in average households to a
cascade of vivid colors in creative models,
Romanian Easter eggs are famous throughout
the world.

13

Childrens Folklore: The Legend of Dracula

_______
The Legend of Dracula. Available at: http://www.rotravel.com/History/Dracula-Legend-andReality/
Dracula or Vlad the Impaler was the son of Vlad Dracul (1436-1442; 1443-1447) and grandson
of Mircea the Old (1386-1418). Vlad Dracul was dubbed a knight of the Dragon Order by the
Hungarian king. All the members of the order had a dragon on their coat of arms, and that is
what brought him the nickname of Dracul (the Devil). Vlad the Impaler used to sign himself
Draculea or Draculya - the Devil's son -, a name which was distorted into Dracula.
Dracula's renown reached the West through the Saxons from the
Transylvanian towns of Brasov (Kronstadt) and Sibiu
(Hermannstadt), who often gave shelter to those who claimed the
Wallachian throne. In order to escape the peril of losing his
throne, Vlad would punish the Saxons. Sibiu and the neighboring
area were pillaged and burnt down by Vlad, and many Saxons
were impaled. The same happened to the Saxon merchants who
came on business to Trgoviste.
In fact, Vlad was called Tepes (the Impaler) only after his death
(1476). He ruled in Wallachia between 1456-1462 and in 1476.
In 1462, having been defeated by the Turks, Vlad took refuge in
Hungary. In 1476, with the help of the Hungarian king Matia
Corvin and the Moldavian prince Stephen the Great, Vlad took over the Wallachian throne again
for a month. A battle followed, during which Vlad was killed. His body was buried in the church
of the Snagov Monastery, on an island near Bucharest. His body lies in front of the altar. In
1935, a richly dressed but beheaded corpse was exhumed at Snagov, a fate known to have
overtaken Dracula, whose head was supposedly wrapped, perfumed and dispatched as a gift to
the Turkish sultan.
They say that impaling was one of Dracula's favorite punishments, but he was not the only one
who made use of it at the time. Other German and Spanish princes would do the same. He used
the method for boyars, thieves and criminals, Turks, Saxons and those who conspired against
him; more than once it happened that a whole forest of sharp stakes with enemies' heads would
rise around Trgoviste, the capital of Wallachia at the time. Horrified by these atrocities, the
Saxons printed books and pamphlets in which they told about Vlad's cruelty. These booklets also
reached Germany and Western Europe, where Dracula became known as a bloody tyrant.
In 1897, the Irish writer Bram Stoker published Dracula, which made Vlad the Impaler famous
world-wide. Stoker read the stories about Dracula printed in the 15th and 16th centuries and was
struck by his acts of cruelty. He decided to make him his character; he also read several books
about Transylvania (a name of Latin origin, meaning "the country beyond the forests"), and
thought that this "exotic" land would make a proper setting for Dracula's deeds.
In fact, Stoker used Vlad only as a source of inspiration, since in his novel, Dracula is not prince
14

Vlad the Impaler, but a Transylvanian count living in a mysterious castle where he lured his
victims. His story takes place in the Bistritza area, and the castle lies near the Brgau Pass (in the
Carpathian Mountains). As Stoker had never visited Transylvania, most places and happenings
were pure fiction.

Bran Castle (Draculas Castle), near Brasov

15

Select Bibliography of Sources on Romania

Carey, Henry F. 2004. Romania since 1989: politics, economics, and society. Lanham:
Lexington Books.
Cinpoes, Radu. 2010. Nationalism and identity in Romania: a history of extreme politics from
the birth of the state to EU accession. London: Tauris Academic Studies.
Constantinesco, Nicholas. 2004. Romania in harm's way, 1939-1941. Boulder: East European
Monographs.
Deletant, Dennis. 1999. Romania under communist rule. Iasi, Romania: Center for Romanian
Studies in cooperation with the Civic Academy Foundation.
Durandin, Catherine, Zoe Petre, and George F. Jewsbury. 2010. Romania since 1989. Boulder:
East European Monographs.
Gallagher, Tom. 2005. Modern Romania: the end of communism, the failure of democratic
reform, and the theft of a nation. New York: New York University Press.
Ioanid, Radu. 2000. The Holocaust in Romania: the destruction of Jews and Gypsies under the
Antonescu regime, 1940-1944. Chicago, Ill: Ivan R. Dee.
King, Ronald Frederick, and Paul E. Sum. 2011. Romania under Basescu: aspirations,
achievements, and frustrations during his first presidential term. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books.
Light, Duncan, and David Phinnemore. 2001. Post-Communist Romania: coming to terms with
transition. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave.
Lipcsey, Ildiko. 2006. Romania and Transylvania in the 20th century. Buffalo: Corvinus Pub.
Papadimitriou, Dimitris, and David Phinnemore. 2008. Romania and the European Union: from
marginalisation to membership. London: Routledge.
Pop, Ioan Aurel, Ioan Bolovan, and Susana Andea. 2006. History of Romania: compendium.
Cluj-Napoca: Romanian Cultural Institute.
Roper, Steven D. 2000. Romania: the unfinished revolution. Amsterdam, the Netherlands:
Harwood Academic.
Ruegg, Francois, Rudolf Poledna, and Calin Rus. 2006. Interculturalism and discrimination in
Romania: policies, practices, identities and representations. Berlin: Lit.
Stan, Lavinia, and Lucian Turcescu. 2007. Religion and politics in post-communist Romania.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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