240000 1185000

255000

270000

285000 1185000

Legend Kebele Boundary Study Kebeles Town 1170000

Koki Markuma Waz engis Wog ereb

Da fm Sha mbla Sab adir Abana Web o Legese ma Shin di T own Diend Sh indi Bo lade n Bu re afe r Arabag el Danp Be lima Kal o

Ye rg in Wege dad Jamb i Yayshal He re t Ag amim a

Chira r Kentef in Mar Wole d Galab ed

1155000

Al eze b Desert

Weynm a Ases

Koli Mabel

N W S E

1140000

240000
ERI TREA

255000

270000

285000

ETHIOPIA
Legend
O U TI

TIGRAY

SUDAN
AMHARA

AF AR

W EST GOJJAM
BENISHANGUL GUMz

JI

Amhara Region West G ojjam Zonal Boundary

Womberma
DIRE DAWA ADDIS ABEBA HARARI

Womberam W oreda
SOMALIA

GAMBELLA

SOUTHERN NATION NATION AL ITIES AND PEOPLES

SOMALI ORO MIA

SUDAN

SOMALIA

200
KEN YA KEN YA

200

400 Kilometers

1140000

8 Kilometers

1155000

Gome r Dond

1170000

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Statement of the problem
Eucalyptus is an exotic species of tree that was introduced to Ethiopia from Australia in 1895. The main reason was to overcome a fuel wood shortage and construction demand around newly established capital city (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990b). The expansion of Eucalyptus in Amhara region (North western Ethiopia) has been observed in the last 50 years where aforestation and re-aforestation have been undertaken to a significant extent in the rural areas (Poschen - Eiche, 1987). Eucalyptus is a fast growing species which can be harvested within 4-5 years. It satisfies the need of construction and fuel wood demand within the available capital and labor of poor farmers (Jagger and John, 2000; Raintree 1991; Hubby 1990, Nair, 1980). Currently Eucalyptus is becoming a dominant tree species with in the existing agro-forestry system of Womberma woreda. Some farmers are planting eucalyptus to the extent of replacing Cereal crops (Amare, 2001). The overall expansion of eucalyptus in the food crop producing area of Womberma woreda has occurred without the active involvement of extension programmes or government institutions. However, this species has been a major issue for debate nowadays. Even some regional states, like the Tigray region have placed a ban for planting eucalyptus in farm lands (Jagger and John 2000). This is due to the notion that eucalyptus takes up a high amount of water and nutrients and it exerts possible competitive effect on the adjacent crops (Jagger and John, 2000). Much of the criticism for eucalyptus is as a result of the inappropriate selection of species to match specific site conditions. The only obvious impact of eucalyptus planting could be in occupying the proportion of land that would have been allocated to food crops like maize, teff, etc, which are in short of supply. In fact, the reasons for planting eucalyptus or not in the agro-forestry system under study differ among farmers. It may depend on socio-economic factors such as availability of land, cultural perceptions and the social status of farmers (Saxena, 1994).

Most of the past studies conducted on eucalyptus in Ethiopia focused mainly on its financial and ecological implications (Amare, 1999; Sexena, 1992; Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1988; Ahmed, 1989). Limited attention was paid to the socio economic aspects. Thus there is a lack of information with respect to why so many farmers prefer eucalyptus more than indigenous species. The perception of extension workers and farmers also has not been adequately studied. Moreover the socio economic factors that encourage eucalyptus planting, the specific niche where eucalyptus is planted and its relative abundance in the farm holdings in relation to social status have not been sufficiently studied. Therefore, this study is intended to fill this gap of socio economic information by investigating in to the socio-economic factors related to eucalyptus planting, the perception of farmers and extension workers about eucalyptus planting and its relative abundance in the farmers holding. This study aims at providing information for extension agents, policy makers and other institutions responsible for planning forest development strategies.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to investigate how farmers plant and use eucalyptus in the food crop based agricultural system as practiced in womberma woreda in a context of which no external actor or institution support of eucalyptus planting. Hence in this study an attempt is made what socioeconomic factors favor or disfavor some farmers to plant eucalyptus while others do not. The study has four specific objectives 1. To describe the historical development of eucalyptus planting in Ethiopia with particular reference to Womberma woreda 2. To investigate the main socio-economic factors that relate to eucalyptus planting 3. To identify the specific niche of eucalyptus planting within the farm holding and its relative abundance. 4. To investigate farmers perception about eucalyptus and to link these to the perception of extension workers.

1.3. Research Questions

From the above objectives four research questions are developed. 1. When, how and why did the farmers in Womberma woreda start planting eucalyptus. 2. What are the main socio-economic factors that influence the farmers decision to grow eucalyptus or not. 3. How perennial bio-diversity is related to eucalyptus planting in Womberma woreda 4. Do extension workers in the study area give technical advice and seedlings to the farmers during eucalyptus planting?

1.4. Significance of the study

The fact that no comprehensive study has so far been made the socio-economic aspects of farmers in eucalyptus planting practices of the study area has provoked this study. Thus it can be useful for planners, extension workers and other concerned bodies in providing relevant information in order to design appropriate strategies and programs to enhance development of farmers in the woreda.

1.5

Methods and Materials

Preliminary Survey

1.5.1

An initial discussion was held with Kebele Peasant Adminstration (KPA) leaders to explain the purpose of the study and to get permission to conduct the study in the area. A meeting with village elders and development agents was also held. Then farmers and key informants were selected based on their long stay in the study area and their specific knowledge of the area, which is better than other residents. After the introductory meetings and the identification of the key informant, an explanatory survey was made with in the key informants throughout the study area. This helped to get an overview. There was also informal interviewing, with key informants to develop formal questionnaires and to test the validity of pre formulated, semi-structured and structured questionnaires and to check whether it would be appropriately focused on the area with respect to the topic of the study.

1.5.2 Selection of Interviewers

For household interviews, research assistants were selected on the basis of their education and duration of stay in the study area. They were 10 th grade graduates and some were diploma holders.

1.5.3 Wealth Ranking System

In each Kebele Peasant Administration sample households are classified based on income category that is rich, medium and poor household. This classification is based on the size of the farm land and relative to the economic status of the local people in terms of live stock type and number. According to the key informants of the small holders of the area. The criteria for rating or classifying farmers in different wealth status are described below. 1. the rich households are those who have more than a pair of farming oxen, 5 cows, 5 to 6 sheep, 4 goats and 12 'timad' farm land (4 timad=1 hectare. 2. The medium households are those who have a pair of oxen, 2 cows, 2 to 3 sheep 2 to 3 goats, 6 to 8 timad farm lands. 3. the poor households are those who have less than a pair of oxen, 2 to 4 timad farm land and mostly those that rent their land to the others due to lack of oxen for farming. Normally rich households take the land from those who have no oxen in exchange of their oxen, or by renting in cash or through the system of share cropping. There fore a large amount of land has been owned and cultivated by rich households.

1.5.4 Stratified Random Sampling

In wealth classification one key informant from each social stratum was selected together with one KPA leader in each KPAs. These four people were asked to rank the households according to their wealth status. Male and female headed households in the selected Kebeles were selected and names were written down on a 3cm by 5cm card and key informants were asked to sort these cards according to their wealth status based on the already set criteria for classification. Accordingly, they categorized the heads of the households into 3 wealth classes namely rich, medium and poor. This stratum was used

for in depth formal and informal surveys. After categorizing the household based on the three wealth classes respective households from each wealth category were selected randomly. The sampling technique employed was therefore stratified purposive random sampling. Thus sample households in each KPAs are selected purposefully to make the number of respondents equal in each KPAs across all wealth categories. The sample size was decided on the basis of time and resource available for the study. The study was conducted on 120 households for the socio-economic interviews and the inventory of wood species. From each KPAs 30 households out of which 10 households were selected randomly to represent each wealth category: rich, medium and poor. Table 1.1 House hold population of the surveyed KPAs
KPAs Distance from the Total number of households living in KPAs 1428 1269 1130 1237 5064 Proportion households sampled 30 (25%) 30 (25%) 30 (25%) 30 (25%) 120(100%) of center Marwoled 25 Wogedad yayshal 17 Markuma 8 SebadarabanaKalo 5 Total Source: WOARDO (2007)

Focus group discussion which includes young, women and agricultural experts of the woreda also conducted to asses different problems related with tree planting which comprises 6-9 people in the selecting four KPAs, with a total of 31 people. In addition to this 10 forest extension workers were also interviewed on their perception of eucalyptus plating. Totally 161 respondents participated in the study.

1.5.5 Data collection Methods

Structured household interviews were conducted for the collection of basic socioeconomic data and people's perception of eucalyptus planting for the survey households. In this method, household size, age, land size, income source, attitude to tree planting and labor availability data were collected. The head of the household was contacted for the interviews because he/she could give much information on the households affairs.

The focus group discussion was conducted with women, young community group and agricultural experts of the woreda, to collect information on their perception of eucalyptus planting. Moreover, it helped to line farmers' perception about eucalyptus planting with that of agricultural experts. In this interview constraints encountered with extension workers in eucalyptus planting in relation to livelihoods of farmers were carried out. Key informant interviews were also held with older people, from different wealth strata and KPA leaders who know the history of the area, in each village to know the historical trend of eucalyptus expansion in the respective study KPAs. In each KPAs respondents from different social status and age group were interviewed to discuss the historical time at which eucalyptus was introduced to the study area. Interviews were also carried out with extension workers of the Woreda to know their view about eucalyptus plantation and the relationship between eucalyptus trees and food crops. Inventory forms were prepared to record the detailed information of the type of species present per KPAs. A total census was carried out to record perennial woody species in each farm or niche. The species identification was made on the site by using key informants. Eucalyptus tree inventory was taken in separate forms. The eucalyptus diameters were measured to know the eucalyptus diameter distribution across wealth categories. The total enumeration was taken for farm boundary and live fence. For wood lots five percent of the total area of wood lots area was measured. Direct observation were made to assess current land used patterns, geographic features and agro forestry practices in each study site, approximation of distance of the observed place from the main town Shendi was registered. The review of available information such as demographic data map and the socioeconomic condition of the study area and Regional forestry policy were collected from different institutions.

1.5.6 Methods of Data Analyses

To analyze the various data collected: the study used both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Qualitative techniques were used to describe and substantiate data acquired, through observations group discussion and some socio-economic data and characteristic

of the rural households through questionnaire. The quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistic, mean percentages etc...) Pearson correlation and Analysis of variance (ANOVA) were also employed using SPSS 14 and accessories to see the relation that exists between/with in different variables.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the study

This micro level study is limited to Wombema Woreda. In addition to this it was based on about 120 randomly selected households from the specified area. On the other hand Ethiopia has a wide variation in agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions. There fore it is difficult to make generalization from the study made in such small area. However, the area selected for the study is the representative of the areas in which eucalyptus tree became dominant over the other woody species. Hence it is hoped that the result could be applicable to some locations having similar circumstances. The other problem related to this study is the wealth classification may be biased because it varies with peoples perception about wealth. However, maximum effort was made to get optimum and fair classification of wealth categories by taking detail information from the key informants.

1.7 organization of the thesis

This thesis is divided in to six major chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction part which includes background of the study, objective of the study, significance of the study, methodology, thesis organization and scope and limitation of the study. The second chapter is devoted to the conceptual framework and general literature review of eucalyptus plantation which covers the historical development of eucalyptus in Ethiopia and debates on ecological, economic and social aspects of eucalyptus trees. The third chapter deals with the general back ground of the study area which covers the physical and social settings of the Woreda. The fourth chapter comprises the analysis result on the major factors related with eucalyptus plantation in the study area and the fifth chapter deals with the different methods and management practices of eucalyptus plantation taken by farmers in the study area. The last chapter concludes the study by detail summaries and recommendations.

CHAPTR TWO
REVIEW OF LITREATURE 2.1 Conceptual Framework
A critical factor related to tree planting is land availability. Eucalyptus is one of the cash generating trees for many households. However there is an argument that although the sales of cash crops generate income, this source of income may not necessarily foster self reliance. In addition cash crop production reduces the area of land available to grow food crops which are needed. As a result more land is needed to produce food crops. Otherwise more cash is needed for buying food from the market. Farmers are also motivated to engage in off-farm employment (Arnold, 1992). A study in Rwanda Biggelaar,( 1996) indicates that there is a positive correlation between land size and tree density. When farm size declines farmers plant few numbers of species and they also shift planting locations (Bigalaar, 1996). A study in Babati district, Tanzania (Alriksson and Ohlsson, 1990) stated that eucalyptus wood plots were either located on the land around or in the direct vicinity of the homestead, and also sometimes they can be planted as wind breaks to save crops from high wind on the farms. Thus they may be classified as one of the agro-forestry practices Alrikson and Ohlsson,( 1990). Aronold (1987) argued that small farmers often intensify the home garden by food and agricultural cash crops when the farm size diminishes below the level of which they cannot meet their basic household food needs. Hence, the area that exceeds the size of land needed for food production by family labor could be normally used for tree planting. This implies that when the size of the farmland diminishes below a certain level tree planting will be given less priority than agricultural crops. It was stated that economic environment for tree growing exists where trees are used clearly for the ultimate benefit of those who plant them or for gift to their children. Conversely the absence of land tenure security or control over the use of land resources is often a major constraint to tree growing (FAO, 1985). Patterns of tree tenure can be quite complex, but generally involve the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant them,

the right to use them and the right of disposal (FAO, 1985). For instance, in India and Nepal commercially valuable tree species largely belonged to the government regardless of on whose ever land they grew (FAO, 1985). The state ownership of forest resource has been severe constraint on conducive economic growth and enhancing the responsibility of private entrepreneurs and farmers in managing and conserving natural resources. This has discouraged the private sector and individual farmers participation in forest resources management and utilization of agro- foresting (FAO, 1999). Labor availability is another factor to tree planting. Trees need to be planted at the same season when there are peak demands for agriculture labor at their highest (FAO, 1985). The main operations in eucalyptus planting are digging, planting and thinning. Digging of marginal lands may be done in the summer months when other fields do not require labor. When planting on arable lands, digging and planting are done together. The planting season for both eucalyptus and crops is generally common and one has to consider the peak for labor demand. The total labor requirement is much less for eucalyptus than for annual crops (Saxena, 1994). As a study made in India (Arnold, 1987) indicated, farmers prefer tree planting because of its low labor requirement and thus reducing dependency of hired labor. However, the farmer may use hired labor at the peak period when agricultural activities coincide with tree planting. This mainly depends upon the socio-economic status of the farm households. Household characteristics are the fourth factor affecting tree planting decision. There are many well developed indigenous tropical agro-forestry systems and it is necessary to assess their comparative contributions to the households in particular and the rural economy in general with the view of promoting similar systems elsewhere. However the socio economic benefits of agro-forestry systems are difficult to estimate due to intra-and inter-household relations (Stocking et al 1989; Nair, 1980). According to a survey in Thailand,Phantum Vanit et al (1990) found that eucalyptus planters were, on average, younger, more educated and more experienced and motivated for progress in growing trees than those who did not plant eucalyptus. A study in Rwanda showed that when the head of the household of a large family holding is getting old, the size of farm land would be small. This is because of the portion of land left to each of his children (Biggelaar, 10

1996). However a study in Niger state of Nigeria Adegbehin and Omijeh (1993) found that tree planting is more linked to farmers awareness than to age, family size and farm size. Factors such as species, type and location or habitation affect the rate of tree growth and consequently, have a significant bearing on whether or not communities and small holders will invest in tree planting. For example, small holders living at higher elevations, where trees are grown slowly may not find it attractive to invest in tree planting ( Jagger and John 2000). Trees with very slow growth rates or low mean annual increment will not give benefit within a short time span and hence, are not preferred by small holders (Jagger and John, 2000). Species, which are easy for management, withstand adverse climatic and marginal condition; need low management skills, high market demand or whose products are demanded by local people for different uses etc are important aspects to be considered by community (Raintree, 1991; Nair, 1980). The choice of species differs among different categories of people. Categories, such as women, the poor landless, common resource users and ethnic minorities differ with respect to species preference. Farmers may not select species on the basis of high yield replacement value or any aesthetically appealing concept but they base their selection on tradition, immediate need and experience (Barker, 1990). Gender relations in tree planting are important for designing an effective extension method for afforestation and re-aforestation activities. The role of women in tree planting activities is different in different countries. It depends on cultural practices and the socioeconomic development of the society. For instance, in Kenya and Rwanda women are forbidden to plant or cut trees because land belongs only to men, who can plant perennial species in their holdings that ensures land ownership (FAO, 1989). As a study in Rwanda indicates, local customs do not allow women to plant trees. An exception is made for fruit and medicinal trees, both of which increase household food security and wellbeing. By considering that fruit trees are food crops instead of saleable trees women have been able to gain an advantage over the traditional ban on tree planting (Biggelaar, 1996). A case study in Gujarat, India, showed that women are involved in weeding and transportation of

11

the seedling while men participate in digging holes for planting (Rorison, 1989). All negotiations for selling the harvested tree poles are settled by men. On the other hand, the transportation of the wood for domestic use from the field to the house is the task of the women (FAO, 1989). Men and women often have different views on the importance of various tree resources. A womans concern may be to find enough trees and forest products to satisfy her immediate family needs, particularly fire wood and fruit collection, whereas mens first concern may be for tree types with products that are primarily sources of cash, particularly timber (Alriksson and Oholssun, 1990; Huby, 1990; FAO, 1989). Although women are interested in cash in some areas they may not be allowed to participate in tree based income generation activities. Men mostly sell products that could generate a higher income, for instance, timber, whereas women sell minor tree products such as fruit and berries, whose return is less than for the timber (FAO, 1989). Marketing is important in tree planting. A higher output of a particular product may be the result of a high yield or an increased market price, or both. The qualities and quantities of the production or distribution over the year often affects market price. A study in Kenya showed that one of the reasons for planting eucalyptus on farm lands was that eucalyptus gave high investment returns for a given input and needed less initial investment cost. The other reason was that the price of wood is decided at the local market while the price of tea or coffee and many other cash crops strictly follows international or external factor market price. Moreover, it is easier to predict the price of wood because it is related to population growth and the lack of alternative sources of energy. This makes the planting of eucalyptus a safe investment (Gustavson and Kiemu, 1992). As a study in Thailand suggests the price of tree products is correlated with tree planting (Shively, 1999).( Alriksson and Ohlsson 1990) also argued that proximity and accessibility to market are determinants to the type and form of agro-forestry practices. The above fact tells that the increase in demand of a forest product and its price have accelerated the intervention of trees on the farmlands (Shively, 1999).

12

To sum up, there are several concepts in agro-forestry that need clarification so as to make clear the distinction between different agro-forestry practices along with socioeconomic factors such as land, capital and labor are key factors affecting tree planting. The household characteristics like age, gender household size, attitude and perception of farmers etc determine the labor availability and awareness of farmers towards tree planting. The species characteristics is also an important factor because species that grow fast ,need low input and low initial investment along with quicker return of investment are highly preferred by farmers. Eucalyptus is one of the fast growing species and is preferred by the communities. Gender differentiated preferences of species depends on immediate need, culture and past experience. Marketability of a particular product is determined by its local and international market price. Thus eucalyptus planting is affected by market and other socio economic factors.

Socio economic factors -Availability of land -Availability of labor -Personal factors (age, gender. education etc..) -Economic status -Distance from the market center -Nature and type of tree species Impact on: -perception -attitude/view to tree planting Response: Lack of interest or motivation to tree palpating Impact on: farmers decision to plant or not to plant trees

Activities of extension workers: -providing seedlings -giving training and other facilities

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2.2.1 Eucalyptus Debates

2.2.1.1 The Historical Development of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia During the time of Emperor Minilik II, a fuel wood shortage was one of the main driving forces behind the deliberate shift of capital town from Ankober to the Entoto hills, in 1881. At the time the Emperor found that his people did not have sufficient wood for fuel and construction, and decided to start reforestation and a forestation activity. He discussed the issue with his cabinet repeatedly and requested Mondon-vidolillet, a French railway engineer and philologist (one of his expatriate advisors) to assist him in the introduction of some exotic tree species .Miniliks intention was to get some kinds of tree species which could rather grow faster and sustain in Ethiopian soil and climatic conditions. He also preferred that such trees could provide both fuel and construction wood. Accordingly, Mondom-vidolillet brought in 1895 seeds of 15 eucalyptus species, including E-amgadalina, E-bicolor, E-camaldulensis, E-clado Cladocalyx, E-cornuta, Edivers, patent, E-resinifera, E-ridis, E-salubris, E-tereticornis and Acacia species from Australia to Ethiopia. He also brought other species, e.g. pines from Portugal, Italy and Greece (Pohjoner and Pukala, 1990b). Out of the introduced species of trees, the local people preferred E.Camaldulensis, E-Citriodora, E-globulus, E-Saligna and E-tereticornis and their cultivation gradually expanded slowly throughout the country (Friis, 1995). Currently, about 55 species of eucalyptus are reported from cultivation in Ethiopia, of which between five and ten species are widely planted (Friis, 1995). The period from 1895 to 1898 is held to be the period of eucalyptus introduction around Addis Ababa. But half a century the rate of eucalyptus expansion was slow. However, during 1960 1974 its expansion was rapid on both private and government lands. In a worldwide context eucalyptus investments were made for the use of paper and saw mills. These extensive uses of wood in industrial matter attracted even external funding agencies like SIDA and FAO and forced them to involve in providing aid for the forestry sector and also forestry was visualized as an important segment of industrial development (Anonymous, 1995). Until the revolution of 1974, the source of forest products in rural areas of Ethiopia was limited to natural forest exploitation with limited planting of 14

eucalyptus in homesteads. Thus up to the mid 1970s most rural people were used to exploring natural forests and wood for various needs. However such continued reckless exploitation without any planting and a forestation led to chronic shortage of fuel as well as construction wood particularly around the expanding cities and larger villages. More particular that arose the so called fuel wood crisis in several parts of Ethiopia as well as southern and central parts of Africa (Anonymous, 1995) From 1975 to 1984 about 175,000 hectares of land were covered by eucalyptus plantation. This was mainly done under soil and water conservation projects that were sponsored by the World Food Programme. On the other hand, large scale plantation on private land started declining during this period due to land reform of 1974 which nationalized private lands to state ownership. In 1978, the World Bank led a powerful worldwide campaign for private forestry sector in a forest policy paper focused on forest by the people for the people. The aim was to enable small farmers to increase food production along with planting trees and thereby conserving soil land and the environment. Following this the FAO World Conference on agrarian reform and rural development was arranged in 1979 (Arnold, 1992). In 1984 and 1988 the SudanoSahelian of the United Nation led to the establishment of 900 hectares of fuel wood plantation in Ethiopia (Stiles et al, 1991). This was the result of the 1981 UN conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy. The FAO also prepared a fuel wood map that focused on energy needs of the world (Arnold, 1992). Altogether during 1974 to 1991 a total of 200,000 hectares of plantation was established, usually on hill tops and slopes to conserve soil and water sources. Planting activities were organized all over Ethiopia on working days by Peasant Associations (PAS) (Poschen-Eiche, 1987). Recent estimates put the figure of eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia to be around 250,000 hectares. According to Amare (1999a) that may be an underestimation, but it still places Ethiopia amongst the top ten countries in the world producing large eucalyptus wood sources. Ethiopia is also the only country that produces and uses large hectares of Ecamalulensis while other popular species E-globulus is grown in Spain, Portugal and China (Amare, 1999a). The overall expansion of eucalyptus has been observed in the last

15

3-4 decades, where aforestation and reaforestatoin have been under taken to a significant extent in rural areas (Poschen-Eiche, 1987). Different NGO workers visualized a significant increase in tree planting on privately controlled lands in central and southern Ethiopia in 1990/95 immediately after the Derg regime abandoned key features of the agrarian reform and relaxed control over the private sector (Hoben, 1996). 2.2.1.2. Social Aspects The issue about who benefits from a particular tree planting is an important debate at the heart of eucalyptus debate. Much of the early debate centered on the idea that only large scale farmers were benefiting from eucalyptus farm forestry. However, information on the actual adoption pattern soon revealed that even the relatively small farmers are establishing eucalyptus wood lots and get good benefits from them (Raintree, 1991). It is also assumed that an increasing number of technically and economically viable commercial tree growing innovations will benefit more rural poor and disadvantaged (marginal) farmers. Jagger and John (2000) argued that small holders benefit from tree planting by producing timber and non timber forest products from the household consumption as well as cash from sale. This would increase household incomes and improve their livelihoods. In contrast to this idea Malla and Fisher (1988) and phentumvaint et al. (1990) support the general belief that tree planting is usually a business for relatively wealthy farmers. These large farmers have enough land holding and capital to diversify their farming activity and experiment with new crops and are ready to undertake risks of adopting new crops. While small farmers find it difficult to adopt tree planting because of the trees extended production period, a high establishment cost and lack of large land holdings. The landscape in Ethiopia at least in some areas is often dominated by eucalyptus established, to a very large extent by farmers (Turnbull, 1991). Eucalyptus is so inter woven with the life of Ethiopian society that it is difficult to dissociate it from the people (Turnbull, 1991). It has different social benefits for rural people. The good smell of eucalyptus is usually used to eliminate bad odor. It is also used to sprinkle water on the 16

deceased in order to clean the corpse before burial. E- citroidora has an attractive odor and is used in making perfume. Traditionally some people chew and throw away Eucalyptus- globules leaves to control bad breath. There are also some other medicinal uses, such as people use its young leaves in boiling water and take lung breaths to be cure from cold and sneezing Eucalyptus is also found to be relatively non labor intensive. Although one of the constraints in the tree planting is availability of labor during annual agricultural activities as they coincides with tree planting time (FAO, 1985), yet labor requirements of eucalyptus for planting, thinning and harvesting are spread throughout the year and hence require much less overall labor input. A study made in North Gonder, Ethiopia, revealed that farmers established eucalyptus woodlots using the tangua methods of plantation establishment (Amare, 2001). In this method, the land cultivated for crops is also used at the same time for eucalyptus planting, without an allocation of extra labor for land preparation exclusively for the eucalyptus. From a gender point of view eucalyptus assists women by saving time for fuel wood collection, but the cash sell of eucalyptus poles belongs to men (Robison, 1989). This shows that financial income that could be generated from the sell of eucalyptus more benefits the male than female. In summary, eucalyptus planting is mainly visualized as benefiting the rich farmers rather than the poor. However the poor farmers also benefit in satisfying their fuel wood and construction needs. Additionally eucalyptus needs low labor inputs and saves the time of women for fuel wood collection. 2.2.1.3. Ecological Aspects The ecological debate of eucalyptus in Ethiopia has begun since the time of King Lej Eyasu (1913-1916). He ordered that 2/3 of eucalyptus plantation that have been established around Addis Ababa should be up rooted and replaced by mulberry species for silk production. This issue was taken more seriously when an Egyptian minster of work, who visited Ethiopia in 1913, said that the case for the drying up of the springs in Ethiopia was the eucalyptus introduction. Despite this, eucalyptus gained popularity

17

among the local people and its planting was expanded (Kinfe, 2000). The perception that eucalyptus has a negative impact on crop production to the determinant of food security and livelihood still persists in some regions of Ethiopia. This is due to the belief that eucalyptus takes more water and nutrients so that it also depletes the soil. The debate has covered the silvicultural and social forestry literature during the last 30 years and no consensus has yet been reached. But it is surprising that nobody seems to criticize the depletion of agricultural lands that are continually being planted without the addition of fertilizer. The negative ecological effect of eucalyptus is the result of inappropriate choice of the species. Eucalyptus should not be heralded as a wonder species that will bring immediate solutions to local wood crises and erosion problems. The blame should then not fall on the eucalyptus purse rather than bad forestry practices (Poore and Fries, 1985). A study in India revealed that most of the critics of eucalyptus relate the promotion of eucalyptus planting by private farmers as high as cash crop for sell (Raintree, 1991). While most critics argue that social forestry programs should have been concentrated as a variety of multipurpose trees instead of planting eucalyptus exclusively on the farm land only, others recommend that eucalyptus should be planted in integration with other useful multipurpose species, as woodlots in commons and waste land for fuel wood, medicine and other subsistence needs. Phantumvanit et al (1990) stated that most farmers in Thailand complained about the negative environmental impacts of eucalyptus such as indirect damage to their crops and a reduction in soil moisture and water supply in the vicinity of the eucalyptus plantation. However they thought that the land used for planting eucalyptus could still be used for other crops after the stump had been removed. Moreover, a study made in north west India (Ahmed, 1989) concludes that loss in wheat production due to eucalyptus was nil in the first two years, 8.2% of the total output in the 3rd and 4th years, 13.6% in 5th and 6th year and went up to 26.4% in the 7th and 8th year. After this the loss increased rapidly to 48.8% for the 9th and 10th year. However, in this study the method of estimation was not indicated. Saxena (1992) argues that losses might depend on the spacing between trees, the number of rows in which trees were planted, water applied and management practices. It is generally assumed that eucalyptus 18

plantation provides good shelter belts across the wind direction side against high winds and there by benefit crops to some extent, but over all there is a significant loss in production due to shade cast by the tree and this loss increase with the growing size and foliage of the tree. Advocates of agroforestry often cite the fact that leguminous tree contributes nitrogen to the soil, enhancing crop productivity, and better suitability to soil. In contrast, nonleguminous trees such as eucalyptus may compete with agricultural crops in utilizing the scarce soil nutrients. There is significant support from the literature for the assertion that fast growing tree crops deplete the nutrients on the site regardless of whether or not the trees are leguminous (Poore and Friis, 1985). A study made in Australia on the nutrient up take of eucalyptus revealed that the amount of nitrogen taken up by the cereal crop was two and half times more than the amount taken by eucalyptus plantation. In contrast the phosphorus uptake of eucalyptus was fifteen times more than cereal crops because the sapwood contains 33 times more phosphorus. The study also showed that nutrients removed in the native forest were 20 times less than in the short rotation eucalyptus plantation (FAO, 1988). This is because in the native forest, the leaves, branches and bark were left on the site. The rate of water uptake by eucalyptus could reach between 20 and 40 liters per tree each day, depending on the size of the tree to produce equal proportion biomass to the amount of water consumed. The nutrient uptake of eucalyptus is inherently site specific, highly dependent upon tree and crop interaction being considered and the soil under which tree and food crops is established. Research in Nigeria on three agricultural crops under neem, prosopis and eucalyptus trees described that the mean crop yield were 13.99 g/plant, 8.32 g/plant and 6.8 g/plant respectively, to be comparable to a control test of 4.76 g/plant respectively. The research suggested that although eucalyptus soils are superior to the control, they do not lead to strong crop growth even when a leguminous agricultural crop is planted (Jagger and John, 2000). In India farmers are now planting Eucalptus-Camaldulenss, along farm boundaries. This is because the elongated crowns and vertical roots of eucalyptus do not noticeably reduce crop yields, and also because the farmers can use or sell the produce from the trees (Conroy, 1993). A study conducted in southern Ethiopia 19

Legesse, (1994) found that eucalyptus plantation up to 6m away from the tree shelterbelt has a significant competitive effect on sorghum and maize crops. The study concludes that growing Eucalyptus- camaldulensis closer to the field of food crops should be discouraged and replaced with multipurpose tree species. There is also evidence that after planting eucalyptus on previously treeless sites, soil fertility increases through the development of humus, which may be slightly on some soils (Pore and Fries, 1985). In addition to fertility maintenance in a treeless site the root system contributes to the soil conservation and reduces mass wastage of slopes. Jagger and John (2000) also suggested that in regions where rainfall is sufficient to sustain trees, the soil conditions conducive to tree growth and perhaps less appropriate to the input of fertilizers, tree planting might be environmentally suitable and an alternative land use practice. The plantation of eucalyptus may result in new habitats by changing the ground flora, the structure of the vegetation and the land use. It substitutes the existing species to occupy the dominant place in the community. This has certain social and environmental implications (Poore and Fries, 1985). Jagger and John (2000) conclude that it is not advisable to make decision about the use of eucalyptus on the basis of considering only the negative or the positive impacts. The reason why poor households choose to plant these trees and the economic inputs that trees may have on the welfare of the households should also be considered. 2.2.1.4. Economic Aspects The eucalyptus tree provides a range of timber and non timber products to rural households in Ethiopia. The farmers use very small areas of land, often as small as 0.1ha to plant Eucalyptus- globules. They often use a very close spacing up to 60,000 seedlings per hectare. Subsequently the plot may be managed in a form of a coppice with a standard to yield a variety of products (Turnbull, 1991). Timber products are several poles, fuel wood, fodder and charcoal. Products obtained from non timber products include medicine, tannin, resin, honey and bee wax. Farmers in the high land part of Ethiopia plant large numbers of eucalyptus, particularly Eucalyptus- globulus and mange small branches for fuel wood, and poles and posts for building and other uses. Farmers who have insufficient land to have a wood lot often grow a few trees, which can be 20

harvested and sold when cash is required to buy additional stocks from the market when they experience food shortages (Turnbull, 1999). Many scholars have stated that no other species, be it indigenous or exotic, could replace eucalyptus in the near future to bridge the ever-widening gap between supply and demand of wood (Turbull, 1999; Pukkala and Davidson, 1989).How ever, indigenous trees like Cordia africana,Croton macroslycs and Albizia gumufera gives greater advantage in the study area by providing fuel wood and construction purpose to the people. One economic aspect, with respect to eucalyptus planting is whether to invest in agricultural crops or planting eucalyptus on a given unit of farmland. A study made in Ethiopia by Amare (1999) shows that the production cost to establish and manage eucalyptus wood is minimal in the way farmers do it. According to the study, one hectare of eucalyptus wood lot with 40,000 trees/ha only costs ETB 2,500 until harvest at the end of five or six years from planting. Successive coppice rotations do not involve labor beyond wood harvests. It is also indicated that annual income from agricultural crops is ETB 529/ha. On the other hand, woodlot containing 10,000 and 40,000 trees/ha annual income is calculated to be ETB 43,813 and 207, 389 respectively. In other words the net income from 10,000 and 40,000 trees per hectares woodlot would be ETB 783,360 and 2,631,540 at 8% discount rate within 20 years while agricultural crops would make only ETB 10,580 (Amare, 1999). One must also note that the farmer is freed from hard work in woodlot farming as well as the uncertainty of the rains and weather. A study made by Asaye (2001) in Gonder, Ethiopia, indicated that the net present value of a EucalyptusCamaldulensis wood lot in a planting density of 20,000 trees per hectare was four times higher than teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site conditions. In the same manner, the net present value of a planting density of 1000 trees per hectare was nearly two times more than growing teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site conditions at a 10% interest rate. Additionally, the study conducted by Tesfaye (1997) in Tigray in northern Ethiopia, found that eucalyptus growing is four to five times more financially profitable than barley production at 15% rate of return (farmers received 15 unit profit per hundred units they invested). Pohjonen and Pukkalas (1988) study in the

21

central high lands of Ethiopia found that profitability of forestry as compared to agriculture is higher at a lower discount rate. In order to utilize fertile land for agricultural production, the farmers use marginal land or land with no other productive use for tree planting. Trees are also capable of growing when they are planted as plot boundaries, on-household compounds or as live fences, which occupy small, previously uncultivated areas. These lands may also have a lower or no opportunity cost (Jagger and John, 2000). A study conducted in Tigray region showed that E-globules dominate other species in both village and community woodlot (Jagger and John, 2000). In this study it was stated that 100% E-globules and E-camaldulensis plantings are on hillsides or waste land rather than on cultivate land. It was also stated that under most circumstances, planting eucalyptus trees yielded a higher rate of return (above 20%) than agricultural crops. Further Daba (2000) made a study in the central highlands of Ethiopia, to compare E-globules growing with financial return from agricultural use of lands. This study showed that growing E-globules is ten times higher in financial return than from growing agriculture crops at a discount rate of 10%. He concluded that plantation of E.globulus is economically more profitable than agricultural use of land. 2.2.1.5. Farmers Interest of Eucalyptus Planting Much has been said about eucalyptus planting by different authors but neither environmentalists nor foresters seem to have consulted farmers on the issue (Saxena, 1992). Evans (1988) also argues that successful tree planting programs on small farm are achieved when villagers perception and hopes are looked into assessed and not when others ideas are imposed. Farmers may not see eucalyptus planting only in terms of cash profitability because they may be interested in producing tree products for the household use such as construction, posts, poles and fuel wood, and in other cases, for soil and crops protection as wind breakers also. Hence cash profitability is not necessarily a good predictor of the adoption of tree planting (Current and Scherr, 1995). Eucalyptus species are really loved and purposely used by Ethiopians. Indeed removing eucalyptus from this country means deforesting highlands and cutting the remaining high forest (Evans, 1988). Farmers in Ethiopia are planting eucalyptus to the extent of even 22

replacing enset (staple food), and other tree including fruit trees growing in the homestead in the south, again because of the high cash return, low labor requirements and low input demands (Amare, 2001). Crop farms are being converted to farm woodlot using the tanguya method of establishment that further reduces labor requirements, enabling farmers to extend the crop-growing period too (Amare, 2001). A survey conducted in north Gonder zone, Ethiopia revealed that farmers reasons for planting eucalyptus included (in the order listed) cash income, fear of future shortage of wood, tree growing experience/knowledge acquired /and MOA project extension and technical assistance. Those few farmers that did not plant eucalyptus gave land shortage as the main reason (Amare, 1999). Similarly, a study conducted in Eastern Guajrat, India showed that the reason that farmers were enthusiastic to plant eucalyptus was to obtain a good price. Another is that, unlike many farmers in other semi-arid areas most of them do not appear to have experienced a reduction in the yields of annual crops adjacent to their eucalyptus plants (Conroy, 1993). In India trees are even beginning to be used as security for consumption loans from the banks. Moreover, trees that can be cut and sold are good savings banks and insurance for poor rural people (Chambers and Richards, 1986). Farmers in Thailand were in great controversy with the government on the time of Eucalyptus planting and farmers interest to use the land for other uses. For instance, there was strong protest against the planting of eucalyptus, in the east Thailand particularly in 1985 (Puntasen et al. 1992). Two thousand people moved into eucalyptus plantation, pulling up young trees, burning eucalyptus, nurseries and government offices. The protest demanded the withdrawal of subsidy given to private planters by the government. However the protest was not against eucalyptus planting. It was because of the illegal issuing of licenses to investors for planting eucalyptus. Again in 1987 people of another district pulled up young eucalyptus trees and began confiscating government tractors. They demanded that natural forest be maintained, as it was originally, so that people could use its products to supplement their daily survival. The natural forest at this time was about to be cleared for eucalyptus plantation by the government (Puntason et al. 1992). The protest was against clear cutting of natural forest for eucalyptus planting.

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To sum up the chapter, eucalyptus was introduced to Ethiopia in the late 19th century. The main reason for its introduction was to alleviate fuel and contraction wood problems around Addis Ababa. Its expansion was aggravated during 1960 1970 in private lands whereas its expansion increased on government land from 1970 1990 and relaxed control over land in 1990/1991 eucalyptus expanded on private lands. However eucalyptus has been a major species of debate in Ethiopia as well as other parts of the world. Social aspects of the debate focused on the issue that eucalyptus benefited those who have access to resources but not to the resource poor farmers. The study by scholars on this issue indicates that both the rich and the poor benefit, except that the degree of benefit may be varied. Another contradicted issue is on the ecological aspect of eucalyptus tree. The main issue is its competition for water and nutrients with adjacent crops. A study finding indicates that eucalyptus has a competitive impact on land up to 10m away from the tree shelter belt. Financial analysis of eucalyptus as compared to agricultural crops showed that eucalyptus is more profitable than the use of land for agricultural crops at a certain interest rate. Despite all of these arguments farmers plant eucalyptus for different reasons; and they state that currently, no species could replace eucalyptus for their immediate needs. Thus, if eucalyptus is planted in the appropriate site, it will provide multiple benefits with out affecting agricultural production.

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CHAPTER THREE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Physical Setting
3.1.1 Location and Size
Womberma Woreda lies in the South Western parts of West Gojam zone in Amhara National Regional State. It is bordered by Bure Woreda in the East and Northeast, Awizone in the North and Northwest and Oromiya (East Welega) in the south. Astronomically the Woreda is located between 100 18' 30'' N to 100 35' N latitude and 360 30' E and 370 00' 3''E longitude It covers an area of 12170 hectare, that can make the Woreda the third largest in the zone. It has twenty Kebele Peasant Adminstrations(KPAs)

25

2 00 4 00 11 00 85 0

2 50 5 00

2 00 7 00

2 50 8 00 11 00 85 0

Legend Kebele Boundary Study Kebeles Town 11 00 70 0

Koki Markuma Waz engis Wog ereb

Da fm Sha mbla Sab adir Abana Web o Legese ma Shin di T own Diend Sh indi Bo lade n Bu re afe r Arabag el Danp Be lima Kal o

Ye rg in Wege dad Jamb i Yayshal He re t Ag amim a

Chira r Kentef in Mar Wole d Galab ed

11 00 55 0

Al eze b Desert

Weynm a Ases

Koli Mabel

N W S E

11 00 40 0

2 00 4 00
ERI TREA

2 50 5 00

2 00 7 00

2 50 8 00

ETHIOPIA
Legend
JI B O U TI

TIGRAY

SUDA N
A MHARA

A A F R

Amhara Region West G ojjam Zonal Boundary

W EST G OJJAM
B ENISHANGUL GUMz

Womberma
D IRE DAWA A DDIS ABEB A HARARI

Womberam W oreda
SOMA LIA

GA MBELLA

SOUTHER NATION N NATION A ITIES L AND PEOPLES

SOMALI OR M O IA

SUDA N

SOMA LIA

200
KEN YA KEN YA

200

400

Kilometers

Fig 3.1. The study area Source: Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office.

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11 00 40 0

8 Kilometers

11 00 55 0

Gome r Dond

11 00 70 0

3.1.2 Climate
The Woreda has a variety of terrains ranging from 1660m to 2600m in height above sea level. It is characterized by distinct dry and wet season. Most of the Woreda falls within the Woynedega zone (2300 to 2600m) above sea level. The mean annual and monthly rainfall for the Woreda at Shendi metrological station is 1430 mm and 116.23 mm respectively. The "small rains" occurs in January and December and the big rains occur during the period May to October. The mean annual temperature of the Woreda is 26.570C. The maximum and minimum daily temperature recorded was 20C in January and 34.50C in April over the previous 5 years. Mostly the hottest and the coldest months in the Woreda are December and April respectively.

Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station.

400 350 300 250 Mean Monthly Rainfall 200 150 100 50 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul 0
Apr May

Aug sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

Fig 3.2. Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station.

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3.1.3

Soil, Vegetation and land Features

The soil of the flat land is darkish in color with a clay loam texture and that of the hillside is whitish in color and has a coarse texture. The soil is shallow and barely deep. The top soil has been subjected to severe sheet erosion and is also exposed to the action of wind erosion. High and medium sized stone pieces cover about 3% of the area of the ground. The topography of the Woreda varies from roiling plains to slopes of mountain masses. However the area includes extensive area of cultivated lands probably originating from grassland derived from clearing and burning forests within the past. The area also includes patches of grasslands, which is seasonally waterlogged, especially in the valley bottom and on plains with insufficient drainage. Shrubs of different varieties are also found along eroded hillsides. Some indigenous tree species are also found scattered in the farmlands. However, currently eucalyptus tree species are widely planted by small holders as a woodlot, farm boundary and as live fences.

3.2 Cultural Setting

3.2.1 The People
Population is an asset. But if its size goes much beyond the required resources or existing resources; it becomes a burden. Rapid population growth and absolute size are the driving forces for the destruction of forests all over the country (Davidson, 1988). Massive destruction of forest is also leading to drastic change in land use/ land cover and livelihood strategies in the highlands of Ethiopia (Selamyihun, 2003). Among the woodlots gone currently, exotic tree species like eucalyptus trees are integrated into the crop production system of the small land holders. Thus it is well known that the size, growth and spatial distribution of population influence the degree of utilization of natural resources, the level of economic development and the level of socioeconomic services. According to the 1994 Population and Housing census of Ethiopia the total estimated population of Womberma Woreda is about 109,276. The rural population accounts for 91% and the urban population is 8.9%. Male female ratio is estimated at almost 100:104. Due to adverse climate condition and prevalence of disease in the lowlands, about 90% of

28

the population is concentrated in the highlands whereas 10% of the total population is estimated to live in the low lands. Average family size and annual growth rate are about 6 persons and 3% respectively. The growth rate is lower than the national average which is 3.1% per annum (CSA 1995). The age structure of the population shows that 56% of the populations are below 15 years of age, 42% are between 15 and 64. The remaining 2% are older than 64.

3.2.2 Culture and Tradition

About 97% of the people in the area are ethnically "Amhara" sharing the same culture and tradition. Agriculture is found to be the major occupation of nearly all people. The most dominant farm technology is an age-old ox-drawn system. Land is the basic source of wealth. The larger the size of the land holding, the higher is the social status of an individual in the community. The numbers of cattle have also a great contribution to the position of a person in the social ladder. The people of the Woreda are famous for their Orthodox Christianity. They are very diehard in their Orthodox faith and they used to observe celebrating different holidays named after "Angels" and martyrs at least fifteen full days in a month without working. Those that do not celebrate holidays will be condemned by the clergy of the church. Thus religious binding continuous to grater obstacle in production of agricultural output and resource development keeping the people too poor and short of even food

3.2.3 Household and Social Organization

In Womberma Woreda a household (local language "Beteseb") is defined as those persons that live in the same house, cook and eat together, share the same farm and are administered normally under the head of the household e.g. father if he is alive. In other words, a household includes the mother and father living together with their children and other dependents in the same household and own the same farm holding. Grown up children could also live in the same compound or in different villages. The head of household has access and right to control over the land. He can also decide about all issues regarding family affairs.

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In Amhara culture the women could not be the head of the family, if the husband is alive and could not decide on family affairs, but she may have access to the use of land resources. If the husband dies, the wife will be the head of the household, unless she maries another man. According to the informants there are different social organization like "Ekub" "Edir" and "Mahiber" within which the people in each village of the woreda are used to solve their variety of social problems. The social organizations play vital role by resolving social conflicts including conflicts in land through the elected village leaders called "Shimagiles". The village leaders (Shimagiles) are usually elected on the basis of their local status, age and family background. The main duties and responsibilities of the village leaders are to arrange agreement when conflict arises between husband and wife, neighbors and relatives etc.. within the village. The elders also can mobilize people when there is a need to construct ones house, cultivate and harvest crops (usually called "Tirota"). This is usually done when an individual in the village faced health problem or his oxen are sick or stolen by a thief.

3.2.4 Land Use Pattern , Land Tenure and Landholding Size

The main economic activities of the people in the Woreda are crop production and livestock rearing. Land utilization in general is a reflection of this mode of production. According to the Agricultural and Rural Development of the Woreda records, arable land takes the largest share of 78%of the total land. The remaining land is classified as grazing land (10%), settlement (5%) forest and bush land (5%) and marginal land (2%). Because of increasing population, the grazing land, forest and bush land have been shrinking in size from time to time. In high land areas even very steep mountain sides are used for cultivation which leads to the greater vulnerability of the area to erosion hazards. Land redistribution was conducted two times during the Derg regime and once under the present government. The Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) redistributed land to the rural community in 1998 with the sense of equity consideration. The Woreda also followed the regional government and implemented the redistribution of land in 1998. But the interview result and focus group discussion with key informants indicated that

30

there is still greater difference in land holding size. Accordingly, the largest land holding size is 3 hectares while the smallest is 0.5 hectare. The land redistribution in the Woreda is mainly based on family size except for those people who were privileged and politically active during the Derg regime, in which case only 1 hectare is given to them without considering their family size as a sort of revengeful political action.

3.2.5 Farming System

Mixed farming is the major economic activity in the rural part of Ethiopia. Farmers' livelihood directly depends on subsistence base of crop production and livestock rearing. Crop production Crop production is confined mostly to the rainy season i.e. Meher. This is probably due to Mono-modal nature of rainfall in the area. According to the data obtained from the Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, greater portion of the land is allocated for the cultivation of maize, wheat, teff and millet. Of all the crops grown in the area maize crop gives the highest yield per unit area (42qt/ha) followed by wheat (35 qt/ha) (WWARDO 2007). In addition to these, pepper, beans, peas are also produced on different patches and smaller quantities. Livestock production Livestock production is one of the major economic activities in the Woreda after crop production. Farmers use their cattle for ploughing, threshing the harvested crops and assisting the crop production. The major constraint of the production of the sector is shortage of feed. The rapidly growing population pressure and associated demand of the newly married couples for land, land redistribution to the landless and tree plantation have resulted in sharp declining of common grazing land, to woodland and grassland.

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CHAPTER FOUR
EUCALYPTUS PLANTING IN FOOD CROP PRODUCING AREAS 4.1 Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area
Among the surveyed households of the study area the average household size is the highest in Marwoled with an average of 7 persons /household followed by Wogedadyayshal 6.6 Markuma 6.3 and Sebadarabanakalo 6 across all wealth categories. This implies that a little higher availability of human labor for eucalyptus planting may be found in Marwoled than in other KPA Table 4.1 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm practices in surveyed KPAs
KPAs Socio -economic Attributes Wealth Categories Average Household 10 7 4 7 9 7 4 6.6 8 6 5 6.3 8 6 4 6 Average Age 66 49 51 55.3 56 60 56 57.3 60 58 50 56 59 50 54 54 Average Land

Rich Medium Poor Marwoled Mean Wogedad yayshal Rich Medium Poor Mean Rich Medium Markuma Poor Mean Rich Medium SebadarabanaKalo Poor Mean Source: Household survey (2008)

Size in hectares 3 1.96 0.95 1.97 37 1.97 0.92 1.96 2.72 1.67 0.74 1.71 2.95 1.88 0.87 1.90

As table4.1 shows above, the household size increases on average with increase in wealth status. Thus the rich farmers have (8.7 persons /household), medium (6.5 person/ household), and poor (4.25 person/ household) in all KPAs. Rich farmers that have better source of income, able to produce more food, and sustain their large household larger number of children compared to the medium and poor farmers. have

32

Moreover many rich farmers in the study area who have better source of income and are able to produce more marry widowed women in order to get additional farm land, and through polygamous arrangement, they can also be get more children. Thus rich farmers are endowed with more land and larger family labor for farm work and planting eucalyptus. Woldeamlak (2003) also found that the current forestland holding size of the study area reveals a general trend of "More people more trees". The average land size per household also varies with 1.97 ha/household for Marwoled, 1.96 ha/household for Wogedadyayshal, 1.90 ha/household for SebadarAbanakalo and 1.71 ha/household for Markuma. This indicates that better conditions for eucalyptus planting are available in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal than in SebadarAbanakalo and Markuma KPAs. Besides, the average land holding size also varies with varying wealth status in all sample KPAs. Thus, rich farmers have 2.92ha/household, the medium farmers 1.87 ha/household and the poor farmers 0.87 ha/household. This shows that rich and medium farmers have greater land resources and opportunity to plant eucalyptus than poor farmers in terms of availability of land.

4.2 Introduction and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Womberema Woreda

According to the information obtained from the respondents eucalyptus plantation in the study area started in the late 1950s.But the trend of expansion and number of planters were very low at the beginning i.e from 1955to1965 and rose during 1965-1975 and again declined from 1975to1985. The highest number of eucalyptus planters was recorded from 1990 onwards. This variation in the number of eucalyptus planters is mainly related to the land tenure policy of the country. For instance the time from 1975to1985 was the period in which private land was nationalized as a state ownership. This led to the declining of private planters. But in 1990s private planters increased when the agrarian reform by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) fully relaxed the private sector to participate in it.

33

Table 4.2. Number of farmers involved in eucalyptus plantation

Numbers of farmers involved in eucalyptus panting during different periods KPAs Marwoled Wogedad yayshal Markuma Sebadarab 1955-1965 no % 0 0 0 0 2 2 6.66 6.66 1965-1975 no % 6 20 5 16.66 7 8 23.33 26.66 1975-1985 no % 1 3.33 0 0 0 1 0 3.33 1985-1995 no % 10 33.33 9 30 10 11 33.33 36.33 1995-2005 no % 13 43.33 16 53.33 11 8 36.66 26.66 Total no % 30 100 30 100 30 30 100 100

anakalo Source: Household survey (2008)

Eucalyptus plantation was initiated for the first time in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPA's. This is perhaps due to their nearness to the woreda center where new information could be easily obtained.

4.2.1. Farmers preference to Eucalypts Tree

Eucalyptus tree has some unique characteristics that makes it more preferable to other indigenous specious of trees, particularly in case of the small land holders. Since its introduction as a potential solution for the growing firewood and construction material 34

crisis and growing demands, eucalyptus became a widely grown tree species in the highlands of Ethiopia. In the study area too, it became the main component of the land use system among the small holders. Table4.3. Farmers reason for preferring eucalyptus to other indigenous trees.
Reasons Multiple Response % 18.26 24.20 21.91 15.98 11.41 6.39 1.83 100 Single Response count 5 13 3 3 4 1 1 30 % 16.66 43.33 10 10 13.33 3.33 3.33 100 Total count 45 66 51 38 29 15 5 249 % 18.07 26.50 20.48 15.26 11.64 6.02 2 100 Count A fast growing tree 40 A multipurpose tree 53 Good for both fuel and 48 construction A source of cash 35 Needs less capital to plant 25 Needs less labor 14 Others 4 Total 219 Source: Household survey (2008)

There are a number of reasons that motivate farmers to prefer eucalyptus to other indigenous specious of trees. As it is indicated above, it is a multipurpose tree that can be used for fuel and construction material, self use at household level and generation of money by sale in the market and diversification of income source. Especially in areas like Womberma Woreda where there is no strong tradition of growing cash crops, growing eucalyptus is becoming essential to accumulate wealth and to improve the living standard at household level. Thus as a feasible way farmers prefer eucalyptus to other indigenous trees. In addition to this, some farmers also reported that they prefer eucalyptus because it needs less labor force and capital compared to other crops.

4.3 Land Allocated to Eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs

The result of the survey shows that in general the average largest portion of land was allocated for wheat followed by maize, millet, teff, eucalyptus and vegetables respectively. Wheat, maize teff, and millet are produced as a staple food crops while eucalyptus and vegetables as a source of cash and fulfilling other demands.
Table 4.4 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm crops in surveyed KPAs

35

Wealth KPAs Category

Total average land size Wheat 14.4(43) 5.9(43) 1.9(50) 47 11.34(42) 6.2(45) 1.76(48) 45 10.88(50) 5.21(55) 2.29(62) 55.66 10.62(45) 5.86(52) 2.08(160) 52.33 Maize 5.4 (18) 2.97(18) 0.84(22) 19.33 4.59(17) 2.2(16) 0.63(17) 16.66 2.61(12) 1.20(12) 0.40(11) 11.66 3.54(15) 1.47(13) 0.45(13) 13.66

Farm Practices

Rich 30(100) Medium 13.72(100) Marwoled Poor 3.8(100) Mean 100 Wogedad Rich 27(100) Medium 13.79(100) yayshal Poor 3.68(100) Mean 100 Rich 21.76(100) Medium 10.02(100) Markuma Poor 3.7(100) Mean 100 Rich 23.6(100) Medium 11.28(100) Sebadar Poor 3.48(100) abanakalo Mean 100 Source: Household survey (2008)

Millet 3(10) 1.92(14) 1.78(13) 12.33 4.05(15) 1.93(14) 0.66(18) 15.66 2.83(13) 1(10) 0.37(10) 11 2.83(12) 1.35(12) 0.38(11) 11.66

Teff 3(10) 1.65(12) 1.50(11) 11 3.51(13) 1.93(14) 0.40(11) 12.66 2.61(12) 1.10(11) 0.40(11) 11.33 3.07(13) 1.58(14) 0.42(12) 13

Vegetables 1.2(4) 0.42(3) 0.14(1) 2.66 0.81(3) 0.41(3) 0.07(2) 2.66 1.74(8) 0.80(8) 0.19(5) 7 2.12(9) 0.68(6) 0.10(3) 6

Eucalyptus 2.7(9) 1.37(10) 0.41(3) 7.33 2.7(10) 110(8) 0.15(4) 7.33 1.08(5) 0.40(4) 0.037(1) 3.33 1.41(6) 0.33(3) 0.03(1) 3.33

*Values in parentheses are percentages of land allocated for each farm practice

As the above table indicates, eucalyptus occupied the largest proportion of land in Marwoled and Wogedadyayhal with the mean percentage values of 7.33 percent out of the total land use. Markuma and SebadarAbanaKalo had only 3.33 percent of the total land area allocated to eucalyptus. This is due to the availability of large average land holding and laborforce in Marwoled and Wogedad yayshal KPAs than in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo. Contrary to this in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo higher portion of land is allocated to vegetables than to eucalyptus trees. This is due to the proximity of the KPAs to the town (Shendi) in which vegetables are readily needed by urban people. Thus the farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs use vegetables as cash crops in place of eucalyptus. The average proportion of land allocated to eucalyptus planting differs among wealth categories in all KAPs. Accordingly the proportion of land allocated to eucalyptus is higher on the farms of rich farmers (7.5) followed by medium farmers (6.5%) and poor farmers (3%). Thus the rich and medium farmers allocate more land to eucalyptus tree planting than the poor farmers. This is accounted for their better accessibility to labor and land. Table 4.5 Average percentage of land allocated to eucalyptus out of the total farm land
holdings across wealth categories.

36

Wealth KPAs Category

Total average land size in ha 30(100%) 13.72(100%) 3.8 (100%) 100% 27(100%) 13.79(100%) 3.68(100%) 100% 21.76(100%) 10.02(100%) 3.7(100%) 100 23.6(100%) 11.28(100%) 3.48(100%) 100%

Percentage

of

land

Distance from the town in Km 25 17 8 5 -

allocated to eucalyptus 2.7(9%) 1.37(10%) 0.41(3%) 7.33% 2.7(10%) 1.10(8%) 0.15(14) 7.33% 1.08(5%) 0.40(4%) 0.037(1%) 3.33% 1.41(6%) 0.33(3%) 0.03(1%) 3.33%

Rich Medium Marwoled Poor Mean Wogedad yayshal Rich Medium Poor Mean Rich Medium Markuma Poor Mean Rich Medium Sebadarabanakalo Poor Mean Source: Household survey (2008)

4.4 Land Converted to Eucalyptus Plantation

Results of the survey on the history of the previous land use practice on eucalyptus planting sites are given in table4. 6 (below). Accordingly, most of the present eucalyptus woodlots had been previously grazing land followed by teff and maize fields. As the result, grazing land has been adversely affected more by extended eucalyptus planting than other forms of land use. Moreover some farmers are found to be planting eucalyptus to the extent of replacing food crop land. Table 4. 6. Number of plots converted to woodlots within the last 15 year
Farm land Marwoled Wogedadyaysha l Maize 2 Wheat Teff 4 Millet Grazing land 8 Total 14 Source: Household survey (2008) 2 3 7 12 1 11 5 7 1 1 4 6 6 10 24 40 Markuma Sebadarabanakalo Total

37

According to most respondents the reason for the conversion of grazing land to eucalyptus is that in 1992 E.C the distribution of grazing lands was made to the farmers in order to supplement the cultivated land. Following that many farmers covered their land by eucalyptus trees. This mass conversion of land to eucalyptus woodlots is due to two reasons. The first reason according to many farmers in the area was that the food crops grown adjacent to eucalyptus tree were highly affected by the droplets of water (tefetef) and crop yield got less and less from time to time. In addition to this, the eucalyptus woodlots around the farm did not allow the oxen to be turning back on the farm plot while ploughing. Because of the above mentioned and other related problems, the grazing land distributed during the time was almost covered by eucalyptus trees.

4.5 Patterns of Eucalyptus Planting

Based on the survey result, obtained from the selected KPAs farmers plant eucalyptus trees in different localities that range from a single and scattered to larger size woodlots level plantation on their own respective land holdings. The average densities of eucalyptus per niche across all the surveyed area is higher on woodlots (2320) followed by farm boundaries (211) live fences (160) road sides (100) and degraded land (5). Table 4. 7. Average density of eucalyptus per niches per household
KPAs With teff With wheat With millet With maize live On fences wood lots farm On side On degraded land boundaries road

Marwoled Wogedad yayshal Markuma Sebadar

mean 0 percent 0 mean 0 percent 0 mean 0 percent 0 mean 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

164 2.60 424 13.19 9 0.87 43

6084 96.60 1700 52.88 967 93.88 530

38.38 0.60 745 23.14 30 2.91 32

5 0.08 347 10.8 24 2.33 25

2 0.03 4 0.12 9 0.87 5

38

abanakalo percent 0 0.01 0 Source: Household survey (2008)

6.82

84.12

5.03

3.93

0.78

As high81.81% of eucalyptus trees in the surveyed area are planted in the woodlots. This indicates that planting eucalyptus in the woodlots has become a widespread activity among the small holders of the study area. According to many respondents the main reason for this widespread of planting eucalyptus as a wood lot is the earlier distribution of grazing land to the farmers to supplement the cultivated land by the Woreda and Kebele officials. Following this for the first time some farmers covered their plot of land with eucalyptus, but later on due to its adverse impact on the nearby crops other farmers also followed this practice and used to cover their land with eucalyptus. As a result most of the area changed into block plantation. Some respondents also mentioned, their preference to plant eucalyptus in the form of woodlot is because of easiness to protect them by making fences to escape danger from grazing animals especially during the time of open grazing.

Fig.4.1A wood lot as a cause for block plantation. Filed photo, (2008) About 8% of eucalyptus trees in the study area planted as a live fence and on farm boundaries. According to this group of planters, planting eucalyptus as a farm boundary

39

and live fence is important to protect agricultural fields from the damaged by animals. It also helps the household to get fuel wood without going far from their residential area. Planting eucalyptus tree on the road side is also practiced in many parts of the surveyed KPAs. The farmers plant eucalyptus in such localities due to its suitability to transport wood poles to the market center. Planting eucalyptus trees on the degraded and wastelands or gully sides is almost insignificant. Field survey shows that most of the plantation is taking place on flat lands which are important to crop production. According to many respondents in the surveyed KPAs, planting eucalyptus in the degraded and marginal lands is not preferable because planting eucalyptus trees on such lands is not suitable to the vigorous growth of eucalyptus tree so that it will not be productive. Moreover, since degraded and marginal lands are inaccessible, it is also difficult to protect the trees from damage caused by stray animals and fire.

4.6 Eucalyptus Trees as Annual Source of Income

Eucalyptus is becoming a major source of income in Womberma Woreda. As indicated by some farmers during the focus group discussion, selling eucalyptus wood poles has been increasing from time to time and the income obtained from it is also becoming more profitable due to the rising prices of poles and other related tree products. Table 4. 8 Different sources of income in the surveyed area
Source of income Marwoled count % Wheat 10 33.33 Maize 7 23.33 Vegetables 0 0 Millets 2 6.66 Eucalyptus 6 20 Teff 2 6.66 Offarm activites 3 10 Total 30 100 Source: Household survey (2008) Wogdadyayshal count % 9 30 7 23.33 0 0 1 3.33 7 23.33 2 6.66 4 13.33 30 100 Markuma count % 8 26.66 6 20 6 20 2 6.66 3 10 1 3.33 4 13.33 30 100 Sebadarabanakalo count % 9 30 7 16.66 7 23.33 2 6.66 2 6.66 0 0 5 16.66 30 100 Total count % 36 30 25 20.83 13 10.83 7 5.83 18 15 5 4.17 16 13.33 120 100

The main sources of income for many of the surveyed households are wheat and maize followed by eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is the third largest source of income in the Woreda. However this situation differs from one kebele administration to the other. In those KPAs that are comparatively more distant, Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal eucalyptus comes 40

next to wheat and maize as a source of income but for those that are nearer to the center, Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo off farm activities and vegetables are major source of income next to wheat and maize. This is mainly because vegetables and offarm activities and non farm products need shorter time and safe transportation to reach the consumers. On the other hand wood poles of eucalyptus can stay for a long time and can be transported by some mode of transport available for greater distance. According to the participants of the focus group discussion in Sebadarabanakalo KPA due to relative shortage of agricultural land, farmers prefer to grow vegetables that have shorter rotation period and can be used for cash instead of eucalyptus trees which take longer time for marketability Using eucalyptus as a source of income within different wealth categories also varies considerably because of the variation in the available amount of land to be allocated to eucalyptus planting and the availability of labor needed to perform eucalyptus tree management from planting up to harvesting. Table 4. 9. Eucalyptus as a source of income across different wealth categories
Source of income Wheat 9 30 Maize 7 23.33 Vegetables 3 10 Millet 1 3.33 Teff 1 3.33 Offarm 3 10 Eucalyptus 6 20 Total 30 100 Source: Household survey (2008) Rich count % Medium count % 10 6 2 2 2 3 5 30 33.33 20 6.66 6.66 6.66 10 16.66 100 Poor count % 13 8 2 1 1 1 2 30 43.33 26.66 6.66 3.33 3.33 10 6.66 100 Total count % 32 21 7 4 4 9 13 90 35.55 23.33 7.77 4.44 4.44 10 14.44 100

Thus the survey result clearly showed that eucalyptus is used as a source of income mainly in case of rich and medium farmers than that of the poor farmers. This is because the poor farmers plant eucalyptus to satisfy their household consumption for fuel wood than to generate income due to shortage of land and labor. On contrary the rich and medium farmers have both extra land and labor to plant eucalyptus that can satisfy their home consumption at the same time to generate income by sale

41

4.7 Tree Species Diversity of the study area

The tree plantation activity in the study area is mainly practiced with a single tree species, eucalyptus. Farmers prefer eucalyptus tree for its fast growth, coppicing ability and less labor intensive nature. In addition to these its increased demand in the market persuades them to plant eucalyptus than other tree species. Table 4.10. Species composition of the average tree holding in surveyed KPAs
Wealth KPAs Category Average density of eucalyptus hectare Marwoled Rich Medium Poor Mean Wogedad yayshal Rich Medium Poor Mean Markuma Rich Medium Poor Mean Sebadarabanakalo Rich Medium Poor Mean Source: Household survey (2008) 4310 3180 810 2766.6 4123 2110 320 2347.66 1813 1201 290 1101.33 512 310 180 334 4370 3754 1120 3081.33 4379 2494 480 2451 2000 1496 513 1336.33 640 420 380 480 per Total tree Other species composition per hectare 3 5 8 5.33 4 5 7 5.33 4 6 9 6.33 5 7 9 7 98.62 84.70 72.32 85.21 94.15 84.60 66.6 81.80 90.65 80.28 56.53 75.82 80 73.8 47.36 67.05 tree Percentage the total tree share pre hectare of eucalyptus from

Other tree species found and traditionally grown in the study area include Albizia gumifera (Sesa), Cordia african (Wanza), Aceacia nilotica (Cheba), Aronia amysdalian (Girawa), Croton macruslachys (Bisana) etc. In addition to these species of trees Saspania and Gravilia robusta are widely planted in the study area. These two species of trees are

42

officially recommended and their seedlings are given to the farmers by the Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office to be planted around their farm land. This is because the experts of the Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office believe that Gravilia robusta protects the impact of eucalyptus trees if it is grown in between eucalyptus trees and the adjacent croplands, while Saspania can be used as afodder tree to the animals. Because of this these two species of trees are commonly seen scattered in many parts of the area next to eucalyptus trees. However almost all the private afforestation activities in the area are dominated by planting eucalyptus (key bahirzaf). The widespread culture of this particular species is mainly due to the exchange of ideas among farmers rather than the active involvement of experts or other extension workers. The average proportion of eucalyptus out of the total tree population across the surveyed area was the highest in Marwoled (85.21%) followed by Wogedadyayshal (81.80%),Markuma (75%) and Sebadarabanakalo(67.05%). This means that more suitable environment for eucalyptus plantation is found in Marwoled than in other KPAs. However, the average proportion of eucalyptus across all wealth categories in the area was different. Accordingly, in comparison to the rich (90.8%) and medium farmers (80.85%) the poor farmers have less coverage (60.70%) in terms of the total tree population. Other tree species are also more dominated and replaced by eucalyptus particularly in case of the rich and medium category farmers. The highest proportion of eucalyptus out of the total tree stand is the highest in the rich farmers landholds (98%) in Marwoled followed by 94% in Wogedadyayshal KPAs. The least proportion of eucalyptus was found in the poor category farmers (47.36%) in Sebadarabanakalo KPA. The average number of different species of trees per hectare in the surveyed area was 8/ha in the poor farmers, 6/ha in medium and 4/ha in case of the rich farmers landholdings. This survey result indicates that the poor farmers plant various species of trees to satisfy their household consumption in construction and fuel wood while the rich and medium farmers dominantly plant eucalyptus to generate income beyond their household consumption in the form of construction and fuel wood.

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4.7.1 Eucalyptus Tree Holding Size in the Surveyed Households

As indicated in table4.10 the average number of eucalyptus tree coverage varies in the surveyed KPAs of the study area. Accordingly, the average eucalypts tree holding size was 2766.6, 2374.66, 1101.33 and 334 trees as we go away from the town of Shendi towards Marwoled, Wogedadyayshal, Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo respectively. Thus the number/size of eucalyptus tree holding increases as we go away from the market center. Thus as the distance decays from the market center, the number of eucalyptus trees shows significant correlation (r= 0.417 ,p<0.05). Furthermore, the eucalyptus holding varies across the sampled KPAs with varying socio-economic background of the planters. For example, households with larger land holding size have higher density and more number of eucalyptus trees. This shows that land holding size and number of eucalyptus trees in the surveyed KPAs are significantly correlated (r=0.382, p<0.05). Eucalyptus plantation is also affected by the gender of the household. For instance, the number of trees in the female headed households of the surveyed KPAs is lower than in the male- headed households. This is because female headed households are more constrained by labor force to perform the task of eucalyptus plantation and management. As mentioned by many women participants in the focus group discussion due to shortage of oxen to plough their land, they use their land either by renting for cash or by giving their lands on share cropping agreement. Because of this, the female headed household may not be able to plant and manage eucalyptus trees. Thus the variation of number of trees in the female and male headed household is significant (F=36.76 p<0.05). However, age and educational level of the respondents are not strongly significant in affecting eucalyptus tree plantation. This is perhaps due to the homogeneity of the households in their age and educational level. Another socio-economic factor that causes variation in eucalyptus tree plantation across the surveyed households of the study area is the economic/ wealth status of the households. Accordingly, the poor farmers have lower density or number of trees compared to that of the medium and rich farmers (r=0.46 p<0.05). This variation was because of difference in land holdings size and labor force, which are very low in poor farmers and higher in case of medium and rich farmers. Besides, due to shortage of oxen 44

to plough their land, most of the poor farmers give their land to the rich and medium farmers on different types of contracts. This also has its own impact on the difference of the number of eucalyptus trees between farmers of different wealth categories.

45

CHAPTER FIVE 5. Methods of Eucalyptus Plantation and Management

The analysis result in table4.2 of chapter four shows that eucalyptus plantation has been becoming a major activity in Womberma Woreda since its introduction in the 1950s. However, the methods used by farmers in eucalyptus establishment differs widely in terms of space and localities Table 5.1. Method of eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs
Source: Household survey (2008) Method of planting Marwoled Wogdadyaushal Markuma count % count % count % Direct seeding 18 60 16 53.33 5 16.7 Planting seedling 5 16.7 7 23.33 18 60 Both direct seeding and 7 23.36 7 23.33 7 23.33
planting seedlings Total 30 100 30 100 30 100 Sebadarabanakalo count % 4 13.33 17 56.7 9 30 30 100 Total count % 43 35.83 47 39.16 30 25 120 100

Most farmers in Markwoled and Wogedadyayshal KPAs plant eucalyptus through direct seeding. This is perhaps due to their distant location from the market center in which the seedlings of eucalyptus trees are usually sold. On the other hand, the availability of large land holding helps them to grow eucalyptus seedlings on their own land and transplant them. In contrary the majority of farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo KPAs plant eucalyptus trees by transplanting the seedlings bought from other farmers. This is mainly related to their relative shortage of land to grow their own seedlings and the availability of eucalyptus seedlings in the near by market from other farmers.. In terms of the management of the planted trees almost all farmers of the study area practice cultivation, thinning and coppice reduction practices for eucalyptus woodlots. In coppicing management most of the farmers in the study area leave an average of five shoots per stump and remove the rest. According to key informants, coppicing is advantageous because it allows the tree to send up a number of shoots instead of the original single stem. However coppiced plant requires adequate space for coverage and soil and water for adequate growth and expansion.

46

According to the information obtained from the key informants, the majority of farmers in Wogedadayayshal and Marwoled KPAs usually harvest eucalyptus from March to April. This is because the farmers become free from other agricultural activities so that they can get much human labor and at the same time cutting the tree is safe because the crops near to the tree will have been harvested so that it could not be damaged during tree harvesting. However, farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo harvested eucalyptus trees when ever there was a need of wood for personal consumption. This is because the farmers in these KPAs chiefly plant eucalyptus for personal or home consumption unlike in Marworled and WogedadYayshal KPAs where it is used for market sale. Almost all farmers in the study area harvest eucalyptus trees less than six years after planting. The harvesting rotation in Marworled and Wogedadyayshal takes from two to three years. While the length of rotation in Marworled and Sebadarabanakalo KAPs is nearly three years. This is perhaps due to the reason that the farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo use other sources of income i.e. vegetables and offarm activities to satisfy their immediate needs.

5.1. Sources of Eucalyptus Seedlings

Farmers of the study area plant eucalyptus trees through different methods by obtaining the seedling of the tree from different sources.
Table5.2. Source of eucalyptus seedlings planted in the study area.
Source of eucalyptus seedlings Maroled No.of % house - Their own land -The market -The Agricultural office Total holds 26 4 30 21.67 3.33 25 Wogedad yayshal Markuma No.of % No.of % house holds 24 5 1 30 20 41.7 0.83 25 house holds 14 12 4 30 11.67 10 3.33 25 Sebadarabanakalo No.of % house holds 8 18 4 30 6.67 15 3.33 25 Total No .of % house holds 72 39 9 120 60 32.5 7.5 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

The majority of farmers (60%) in the study area grow their own seedlings on their own land. According to the information obtained during field observation most farmers especially the rich, living at a distance from the market center i.e those in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal KPAs grow their seedlings on their own land during the belg time

47

(March to May) and transplant them during the summer season on the well prepared site for this purpose. Farmers are also sowing the seeds of eucalyptus tree especially on their farm boundary. The second source of eucalyptus seedling is the market center where they have to be purchased by cash payments. About one third of the planters in the surveyed KPAs planted eucalyptus trees buying the seedling from the market. This was commonly seen in case of farmers who live in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo KPAs. This is perhaps due to their proximity to the market center in which all tree seedlings including eucalyptus are commonly sold. In contrast only some farmers about (7.5%) in the area obtain eucalyptus seedling from the Woreda Agricultural Office. As it was mentioned by most of these farmers, the main reason that helped them to obtain eucalyptus seedlings from the Woreda Agricultural office was their active participation in agricultural extension package. This indicates that the extension workers of the woreda do not have strong stand to persuade the farmers for eucalyptus plantation 5.1.1 Problems related to Eucalyptus Plantation Eucalyptus tree plantation is becoming a commonly practiced and growing activity of small land holders in Womberma woreda. However, the number and spatial extent of trees in the area under study are not geographically even. The spatial variation in number and distribution of eucalyptus trees in the area mainly depends on the absence and presence of the necessary in put and other related factor required for the purpose.

Table 5.3. Problems of farmers related to eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed KPAs

48

Lack of Wealth KPA Marwoled Category land

Lack of labor

Problems of eucalyptus plantation Lack of Survival Lack Inadequate capital rate of of tree knowledge or for tree plantation 4(13.33) 3(10) 3(10) 10(33.33) 4(13.33) 2(6.66) 3(10) 9(30) 2(6.66) 3(10) 2(6.66) 7(23.33) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 4(13.33) 29(24.17) seedlings security skill

Marketing problem

Total

Rich Medium Poor Total Wogedad Rich Medium yayshal Poor Total Rich Medium Markuma Poor Total Sebadaraban Rich Medium akalo Poor Total Total

1(3.33) 2(6.66) 3(10) 1(3.33) 6(20) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 8(26.66) 2(6.66) 3(10) 2(6.66) 3(10) 2(6.66) 4(13.33) 2(6.66) 10(33.33) 6(20) 4(13.33) 1(3.33 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 5(16.66) 2(6.66) 13(43.33) 4(13.33) 37(30.83) 15(12.5)

1(3.33) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 3(10) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 9(7.5)

3(10) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 6(20) 3(10) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 6(20) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 5(16.66) 3)10) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 6(20) 23(19.7)

--

1(3.33) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 3(10) -

10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 30(100) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 30(100) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 10(3.33) 30(100) 120(100)

Source: Household survey (2008)

*Values in parenthesis indicates percentages

Shortage of land in case of smallholder farms is the major reason that hinders the expansion of eucalyptus tree in their farm holds. other obstacles such as, inadequate knowledge of farmers to tree planting and low survival rate of the seedlings of eucalyptus trees are also considered by farmers as the main problems that are faced during tree plantation. Inadequate knowledge of tree planting and survival of seedlings are mainly related with the absence of external expert agents that can provide technical assistance and training to the farmers during and after plantation period. According to the response of most participants in the focus group discussion, extension agents and other concerned bodies are not willing to give either technical assistance or adequate number and healthy seedlings to the farmers. Even sometimes they advice the farmers not to plant eucalyptus simply by explaining its negative impact to the adjacent crops ignoring its advantages in short and long term perspectives Although, they are not considered as sever as the other main problems mentioned before, there is lack of labor and capital as constraints to eucalyptus tree planting in the study area. Shortage of labor to tree planting has been commonly observed in the female

49

headed households. According to the response of most women participants in the focus group discussion eucalyptus tree planting is difficult to them even in case of harvesting such as cutting and preparing the wood pole for sale as well as for fuel and construction as this task needs much labor. The young participants of the focus group discussion also mentioned that although it is not great constraint as that of the production of food crops, eucalyptus planting needs money to buy seedlings and to transport them as well as labor force to prepare the planting area, to plant them and to protect and manage until they are cut down and taken to the market center. However, preparing and transporting eucalyptus wood poles to the market is not a common problem in the area excluding few farmers that prepare some eucalyptus wood poles for the distant market. However, almost all rich and medium farmers usually contact the wood pole merchants by the help of middlemen (delala) and are able to transport their wood pole for the market. Lack of tree security was not considered as a greater problem for tree planters of the area. This is because according to the information obtained during field observation, there is no any concerned body that prohibits the farmers not to cut and sell their eucalyptus tree. However the severity of the above mentioned problems on eucalyptus plantation differs from place to place as well as across different wealth categories of farmers. For instance lack of survival of the seedlings of eucalyptus trees and inadequate knowledge to tree planting are considered as major problems incase of rich farmers. Shortage of land is the main problem of many poor farmers in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal . But for all KPAs found near to the town of shendi shortage of land is the major constraint for eucalyptus plantation almost for all wealth categories of farmers.. It may be due to this reason that farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo similarly plant vegetables (annual crops) that have shorter rotation period and quickly get cash payments every sell instead of eucalyptus which can be sold after4 -5years. Lack of labor and capital has also their own contribution in affecting eucalyptus plantation in the nearby two KPAs than in the distant two KPAs due to their smaller farm sizes. Moreover the seasonal migration of labor to the nearby town in order to seek additional income through daily work aggravates the problem in these two nearby KPAs. 50

5.2 Gender Difference and Eucalyptus Plantation

According to the focus group discussion, the role of men and women in eucalyptus tree planting happens to be quite different. Traditionally decisions like where to plant, how to utilize and manage tree products was mainly decided by men. Culturally a woman is not allowed to decide on such activities unless her husband is dead and she becomes the head of the household. (FAO 1989) Consolidate this idea in the form that, the role of women in tree planting activities is found to be also different in different countries. It depends on cultural practices, the general status of women versus men and the socio-economic development of the society. For instance, in Kenya and Rwanda women are forbidden to plant or cut trees because land holding belongs only to men, who can generally plant perennial species that ensures their land ownership specifically. Thus the choices of men and women are also different in different countries in terms of their preference to the type of trees planted on their land. This was also commonly seen in the study area too. As a result Women prefer their particular tree species type in descending order as, Gesho, fruit, AroniaAmy saliana (Girawa), eucalyptus and Cordia africana(wanza), while men prefer Eucalyptus, Cordia africana(wanza),fruit, Gesho and Aroniaamy salina (Girawa). This shows that men and women often have different views on the importance of various tree resources. A womans concern may be to find adequate number of trees and forest products to satisfy her immediate family needs whereas mens first concern is for the forest products that are primarily sources of cash, particularly timber (Alrikson and Oholssun, 19990, FAO 1989). In the same way, many women participants in the focus group discussion put their reason for the preference of Gesho in the first place because it is necessary to make local drink. tella . the leaves of Girawa tree have also their own contribution in the making of tella for the cleaning of pots used for the preparation of this local drink However, on the mens side the use of Gesho and Girawa is considered as insignificant. This is because the price of one wood pole of eucalyptus tree can buy more than one quintal of Gesho. Thus for men, the use and price of Gesho and eucalyptus is not comparable from market point of view. As a result male headed households had a higher density of eucalyptus per household than the femaleheaded households. Accordingly in the nearby KPAs of Markuma and

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Sebadarabanakalo, female headed households have an average of only 50 eucalyptus trees per household while the average density of eucalyptus per household in the male headed households of the same KPAs is as high as 810. On the other hand in distant KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal the average number of eucalyptus trees per household increases even though the difference in male and female headed household remains much. Thus in those KAPs the female headed households had an average of 1257 eucalyptus trees per household as compared to4120 in the maleheaded household. This shows that the majority of eucalyptus trees in the surveyed KPAs are found in the male headed households land than in case of the female headed counterparts. Thus the male headed households benefited more from eucalyptus planting than the female headed households as far as cash income is concerned. According to some women participants of the focus group discussion, apart from differences in the preferential order of the type of trees for planting, other cultural influence as well as shortage of land and labor needed for eucalyptus tree planting and harvesting are also constraints faced by the female headed households. This is because culturally tree planting is mainly considered as a male task, if a woman involve herself in the males task, she will lose her respect in the society and even she can be considered as a different sort of person behaving abnormally in the society. Culturally women are allowed only to involve in the household care and looking after children. Moreover as mentioned by one woman in the discussion tree plantation is more difficult to them especially during the time of harvesting because tree cutting and preparing need more physical force. She also added that womens activity in eucalyptus tree plantation cannot go beyond transporting the seedlings to planting area, planting them and weeding the planted trees. Cutting and harvesting including protecting the trees from theft and selling the tree products is mainly the task of men. In line with this Rorison, (1989) stated that a case study in India showed that women involved themselves in weeding and transporting of the seedling to the planting site while men operates in digging holes for planting. FAO (1989) also confirmed Rorisons idea by stating that all negotiations for selling the poles are settled by men. On the other hand the transportation of the wood for domestic use from the field to the house is the task of the women. In the study area also

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women are normally engaged only in some activities of eucalyptus plantation and management (Appendix 3)

5.3 Farmers Interest on Eucalyptus Plantation

Farmers in the surveyed KPAs mentioned their interest in eucalyptus tree plantation for several benefits. In the first place eucalyptus plantation to them generally is a vital source of income to improve the life of their households through different ways. Thus they can use it as a source of cash income, construction and for fuel wood as well as to make agricultural tools. Current and Scherr,( 1995), did confirm that farmers in general are not only interested in eucalyptus plantation as a source of income only but also for producing tree products for the household use such as construction poles and fuel wood and in other causes for soil and crop protection as wind breakers. Hence cash profitability is not necessarily a good indicator of the adoption of tree planting. The respondents also mentioned that eucalyptus is profitable to them as compared to other crops because it does not need fertilizer unless it is sown on the land prepared for seeding. At the same time it does not need more care if the seedlings are grown up in two years of age. Even if it is in its young stage, the plants do not need series and close follow up steps like other crops. Supporting this idea, FAO (1985) stated that labor requirements of eucalyptus for planting, thinning and harvesting are spread through out the year and hence require much less overall labor input. Although eucalyptus tree has the above mentioned importance to the planters they are also aware of its negative impact. As indicated by participants of the group discussion, a woodlot planted adjacent to the farm land creates difficulty during cultivation by hindering the farmers to turn oxen while ploughing. This problem is common in many areas where eucalyptus is planted either as a farm boundary or as a woodlot. According to some farmers this condition forced many farmers to cover their entire land with eucalyptus trees. Another negative impact of eucalyptus tree is in the form of the leaf fall and shadow effect. When the leaves of eucalyptus tree fall on the adjacent farmland it tends to dry up

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and crop growth is hindered. Moreover the woodlot does not allow sufficient sunlight on the growing crop. Thus the crop land enclosed by eucalyptus does not give good output compared to other crop lands which are free from this effect. The respondents also added that most of the time these negative effects of eucalyptus trees create conflicts between farmers who have adjacent farm lands. Due to this, many farmers are forced to plant their lands with eucalyptus. Although farmers in the study area believed that eucalyptus planting between adjacent farms is the main source of conflict a majority of them mentioned that no other species could replace eucalyptus in terms of benefits to them.

5.3.1 Preferable sites to Eucalyptus plantation

Farmers entertain different types of planting sites on their own convenience. These individual choices differ. They provide the following preference sites in order as on roadside, as woodlot, on farm boundary, on degraded land and in farm land, respectively Table 5.4. Farmers preferred sites for eucalyptus planting
Site types farm land 0 farm boundary 25 woodlot 33 roadside 56 degraded land 16 Total 120 Source: Household survey (2008) Number of respondents Number % 0 20.83% 27.5% 46.67% 5% 100%

Accordingly most respondents (46.67%) prefer to plant eucalyptus trees on the road side. The main reason for this preference is for its suitability to transport whenever they want to take the products. Another reason for the preference of this site is that road sides are free from crops or other tree species most of the time so that such areas are safe to grow and cut the trees at any time.

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Fig 5.1Planting eucalyptus on the road side. Field Photo, (2008) The second preferable site for planting is as a wood lot. The main reason for these groups of respondents was that a woodlot is important to minimize the impact that can be caused by eucalyptus trees on adjacent croplands. According to them planting eucalyptus trees as a woodlot has been homogenizing the area, as practiced by many farmers to avoid any possible conflict caused by negative impact of eucalyptus trees on adjacent cropland of neighbors. Planting eucalyptus tree as a farm boundary is the third type of choice for many farmers. The respondent put their reason of preference in the form that planting eucalyptus trees on the farm boundary can help them to protect their crops from animal damage and also may function as a wind breaker to the cropland at the time of speedy wind. Furthermore eucalyptus trees can also serve to separate their farmlands from the adjacent farmland. But the respondents also mentioned its negative impact on the adjacent crop land. It also slackens the speed of the wind that helps farmers to separate the grain from the straw after threshing time. According to them whatever it is, planting eucalyptus as farm boundary is by far better than planting it together with crops (on the farm land) and on degraded lands which are not suitable to the growth of the tree. They also mentioned that trees slacken the wind speed and hinder the process of winnow up the grains from chaff or straw after threshing the harvests.

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Fig 5.2 .Planting eucalyptus as farm boundary. (Field photo, 2008) Only few (5%) of the respondents prefer planting eucalyptus on the degraded lands. This is because these lands are not suitable for proper growth of eucalyptus, due to absence of fertile soil and their exposure to the damage of the tree by stray animals .However the respondents did not deny the importance of eucalyptus tree to protect from further soil erosion on the wastelands. In connection to this, one respondent put forward his reason of preferring eucalyptus on degraded land, because planting trees on such type of lands could save the suitable and fertile land not to be totally consumed by eucalyptus trees. However none of the respondents recommended planting eucalyptus on the farm lands together with crops or amidst crops. This may be due to the negative impact of eucalyptus on the adjacent crops as it may cause a decrease in the yield of crops.

5.4 Extension Workers and Eucalyptus Plantation

Extension workers are employees of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) who give technical advice in agricultural and forestry practice to farmers. These extension workers 56

could be trained either in agriculture or forestry. The extension workers in Womberma Woreda were interviewed about their perception in eucalyptus planting practice of farmers in the Woreda. All of the trained respondents mentioned that eucalyptus had a high nutrient and water consumption effects that could reduce the yield of adjacent field crops. They explained that species such as E. Camal dunesis, E-globulus and E-grabdus are more efficient competitors and draw upon rapidly and heavily on the soil nutrients and water and thus do not allow these elements to benefit the crops fully. However none of them could explain which type of crops, at what age and to what extent could be negatively affected. This may be related to their training level and background. In line with this Mulugeta (1992) indicated that the type of training and background (being rural or urban) of extension workers is one of the development problems in Ethiopian agriculture development. They must be well trained or may need to have rural background which would make them most immediately useful. They must not only acquire farming competency but also must learn about rural custom, socialvalues and ways of thinking why farmers do prefer eucalyptus. Lack of preparation in these areas can make them to feel insecure and inadequate to discharge their responsibility. According to the extension workers of the Woreda eucalyptus tree is not friendly to the environment due to its ecological effect Therefore they only recommend Gravillia robusta ,Albizia gumfera, Croton macroslachys and Cordia africana as potential species to replace eucalyptus. With regard to the impact of eucalyptus on food security only one expert said it could sustain the households food security if the food supply could be obtained by the cash earned from eucalyptus sales to market but the rest believed that eucalyptus had negative impact on food security. The reason they stated was that since eucalyptus would reach some growth for harvest within 4-5 years farmers did not have alternative means to feed their families during the intervening period of 4-5 years. In this context Amare (2001) indicated that farmers should have to use the tangua method i.e. planting eucalyptus together with food crops during its young age so that they can withstand the problem of food insecurity caused in relation with eucalyptus planting.

5.4.1 Preferred Sites of Extension Workers for Eucalyptus Plantation

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Extension workers were asked about their views in their preferred types of sites for eucalyptus planting. They gave the following order of preference as: degraded land, waste land and on steep slope, along river bank, road sides and as livefence. Table 5.5 Extension workers preferred site for eucalyptus planting
Site waste land degraded land steep slope river bank road side live fence Total Source: Household survey (2008) Number of respondents Number % 5 5 5 4 4 2 10 50% 50% 50% 40% 40% 20% 100%

Most of the extension workers recommend farmers to plant eucalyptus on waste land, on degraded land and steep slopes. The main reason for their preference was that waste land degraded land and steep slopes are areas of land that are not suitable for crop production. Therefore planting eucalyptus in such areas will be profitable. Also since these areas of land are exposed to erosion, covering them with eucalyptus tree will be used to protect the land from further sever erosion. River banks and roadsides are also other preferable site for eucalyptus plantation because these areas are open and free to cut and transport the wood pole without causing damage to other crops and trees. Planting eucalyptus as a live fence was not as such preferable to the extension workers well as on the near by houses. None of the extension workers recommended planting eucalyptus as a farm woodlot on fertile lands. The main reason is that it would minimize the proportion of land to be used for the production of food crops otherwise the area will become food insecure. In contrast Daba (2000) has found that planting eucalyptus on fertile land is more profitable than using such lands for agricultural purpose. According to him planting eucalyptus on well prepared and fertile land would have high economic return compare to food crops. because planting eucalyptus as alive fence in their opinion can cause damage on the adjacent crops as

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But in a densely populated food insecure country or area food is more important than planting tree Extension workers also mentioned the RLAUP (NO.46/2000:Article 1315) that obligated the peasants to identify trees including eucalyptus which have negative effect upon crop production and plant them far from the farm land .

5.5 Eucalyptus Diameter Frequency Distribution across Wealth Categories

The data on the frequency distribution of diameters across the so far uncut first generation eucalyptus trees shows almost no difference across the plantations of all wealth category farmers in nearby KPAs in case of less than5cm diameter. This indicates that no eucalyptus tree in this stage is ready for consumption or sale. But a proportional decrease in the number of eucalyptus trees between the different wealth categories of farmers in the surveyed KPAs has been seen, starting from a diameter of 5-9.9cm. The proportion of number of trees in this stage started decreasing in the lands of poor farmers while it remains almost the same in the lands of rich and medium farmers. However the grater difference in the proportion of number of eucalyptus trees in different wealth categories in the surveyed households was clearly seen when the diameter of the poles of eucalyptus trees is reached between10-14.99cm. Accordingly the number of eucalyptus trees in this stage is fewer in the lands of poor farmers, highly declined in the lands of medium farmers and started declining in the rich farmers. But when the diameter classes of eucalyptus trees reached between15-19.99, the number of trees becomes the fewest in the lands of poor farmers; it became insignificant in the lands of medium farmers and highly declined in the rich farmers. Thus, the over all trends of diameter frequency of eucalyptus trees in Marawoled and Wodegedyayshal KPAs (those farm from the center of the town of Shendi showed that rich farmers and to some extent medium farmers could keep eucalyptus trees until they attained large diameter while the poor farmers harvest it at an early stage either for consumption or sell. This is perhaps due to their difference in the availability of diversified source of income and accumulated capital using in medium and rich farmers carry to solve their immediate problems.

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Fig.5.3 Diameter Frequency Distribution of Eucalyptus Tees in Marwoled and Wogdadyayshal KPAs The proportion of number of eucalyptus trees for diameter classes less than 5cm do not show differences across different wealth categories of farmers in Markuma and abanakalo KPAs. But when the diameter of eucalyptus trees reaches between5-9.99cm the proportion starts varying between different wealth categories. Accordingly the numbers of trees in the poor category farmers minimize while they remain the same in case of medium and rich farmers remain the same. According to the information obtained during the field observation this is the stage in which the poor farmers start harvesting eucalyptus trees and use it for different purposes. However, when, the pole of eucalyptus trees become mature and reach a diameter class between 10-14.99cm and 15-19.99cm the disparity in the proportion of eucalyptus trees in between the different wealth categories increases. Thus the greater numbers of eucalyptus trees are found in case of the rich farmers land less in medium farmers but in the poor farmers land they were fully consumed. When the diameter classes of eucalyptus trees increases to 20cm, the number of eucalyptus in the medium and poor farmers category become insignificant and there 3

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fore greater but decreasing number of trees are found in the rich farmers land. This indicates that the rich farmers in the surveyed KPAs have a potential to wait until the tree can have a large diameter and hence they can sell their pole with better prices compared to the medium and poor farmers.
Figure Diameter Distribution of Eucalyptus trees in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs across diferrent wealth categories 450 400 Number of trees 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 <5cm 5-9.99cm 10-14.99cm 15-19.99cm >21cm Diameter classes Rich Medium Poor

Fig 5.4 Diameter Frequency distribution of eucalyptus trees in Markuma and SebadarAbabkalo KPAs.

The trend of tree by diameter size shows that the large diameter of eucalyptus was concentrated on the rich and medium categories farmlands both in those KPAs near and far from the center of the town. Thus, the eucalyptus diameter frequency distribution was directly proportional to the wealth status of farmers. However the higher proportion of eucalyptus with lower diameter classes were found in distant KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadeyayshal which indicates that there is a shorter rotation of harvesting eucalyptus trees either for sell or other personal consumption in these KPAs. This is also related to the farmers greater dependency on eucalyptus trees for different purposes. On the other hand, in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KAPs the diameter frequency distribution of eucalyptus trees across the different wealth categories was greater. This indicates that the eucalyptus tree harvesting period in these KPAs is more extended than those in distant KPAs far from the center of the town. This is because the farmers in

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these KPAs use other cash crops like vegetables and offarm products as a source of cash until the eucalyptus tree get matured to develop full diameter size.

5.6 Relative Share of Eucalyptus per Niche

The relative share of eucalyptus trees per niche also varies. Thus eucalyptus accounted for the highest share in woodlot and on farm boundary out of the total tree plantation respectively. As a whole eucalyptus shared about 88.15 percent of the total number of woody species. Fruit trees and other woody species accounted for a smaller portion compared to eucalyptus trees. The share of eucalyptus within the farms is insignificant. This indicates that the farmers are well understand the impact of eucalyptus on food crops so that they do not grow it mixed with food crops in the farm land. Table 5.6 Relative share of eucalyptus per niche in the surveyed KAPs
Niche Number of trees and shrubs planted Eucalyptus Fruit Other tree species Share of eucalyptus Livefence 2150 300 2 1848 13.95 Woodlot 17100 17100 0 0 100 Farm boundary 1900 1750 3 147 83.33 Vegetable 25 0 5 20 0 Wheat 348 5 0 343 1.44 Teff 110 2 0 108 1.81 Maize 100 2 0 98 2 Total 21733 19159 10 2564 Percent share 100 88.15 0.046 11.80 Source: Household survey (2008)

5.7 Farm Size versus Eucalyptus Planting

According to the data obtained from the Woreda Agricultural office, the majority of farmers (40%) have a farm size less than one hectare. However a substantial number of households (34%) had a farm size of 1-1.5 hectare and the rest had larger than 1.5 hectares. The density of eucalyptus declines proportionally with a decline in farm size. This is because the farmers give top priority to their land for the production of food crops used for their family. Arnold (1987) argues that small farmers often intensify the home garden with food and agricultural cash crops when the farm size falls below the level of which they can meet their basic household food needs. Hence, the area that exceeds the size of food needed for the family and that can be cultivated by family labor would be 62

usually used for tree planting. Accordingly, the density of eucalyptus in the study area is the highest in the households that had a farm size greater than one hectare. Thus farm size in the study area is highly correlated with tree planting density.

The Relationship Between Farmsize and Number of Eucalypts Trees

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 <1 1-1.5 Farmsize
Fig.5.5 the relationship between eucalyptus planting and farm size

Numbre of tree

1.5-2.

>2

1.5-2 ha

The density of eucalyptus trees thus massively increases when the farm size increases above two hectares and decreases appreciably in farm sizes below one hectare. This implies that small holders give priority to food crops or other cash crops which have a minimum rotation age than eucalyptus plantation.

CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Summary

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The historical development of eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed KPAs of the study area indicates that there were two periods of eucalyptus expansion. Following its introduction in the late 1950s the increasing or decreasing in eucalyptus planting was closely linked with the events at the national level (Amare 2001) and international level (Hegberg 1995, Arnold 1992) favoring or disfavoring forestry development. Generally eucalyptus planting in the Woreda increased during1965-1975 and from 1995to2000 because of the active involvement of private farmers in tree planting. This trend was supported by the agrarian reform of 1990 and relaxation of control over the private sector. Tree planting by private farmers in the study area showed a decreasing trend during 1975-1985 following the nationalization of private land to state ownership by the Derg regime. Eucalyptus plantation in the Woreda has developed as one of the major economic activities to day with the greater impact on grazing land. The highest portion of grazing land in the surveyed KPAs was mainly converted to eucalyptus woodlot. Even in some places eucalyptus plants proved to be so lucrative to the farmers that they began planting them even replacing maize and teff crops. The fast growing nature of the tree and its suitability to multipurpose benefits together with higher output of eucalyptus for a given input led the farmers to plant eucalyptus to a higher degree. There are pertinent spatial distributions in KPAs and also in terms of farm size of farmers with other assets in land, labor and capital and other resources. The two KPAs of this study area are located comparatively near to the woreda center of Shendi, while the other two KPAs of the study area are distant from it. This difference in location causes difference in eucalyptus plantation. The main reason for farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs for planting eucalyptus is for construction and fuel wood. A study by Kahuranaga et al (1993) in Sidama, Ethiopia has reached a similar conclusion. Thus farmers are more interested in producing trees for household use such as for construction and fuel wood. Therefore, as Current and Scheer (1995) also argue that financial profitability is not necessarily the basic criterion for predicting the adoption of tree planting. However this situation has changed over time as evidenced in the present study area. Here farmers in almost all wealth categories also use eucalyptus for marketing the extra products beyond

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their own requirements in form of poles and posts particularly in distant two KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal. Also rich and medium class farmers all over the four KPAs, who have relatively more eucalyptus trees use it in the form of poles and posts and even earn more money. The number of farmers involved in eucalyptus planting and the area allocated for woodlots were significantly different among the four surveyed KPAs Farmers live in KPAs little far away from Shendi town are more actively involved in eucalyptus tree planting than those nearer to it. The latter grows vegetables ready for cash in the nearby market The average numbers of eucalyptus across wealth categories in the surveyed KPAs was higher in case of the rich and medium category farmers than in case of the poor category farmers. This is mainly because the rich and medium category farmers have larger land holdings than the poor, higher labor force and diversified sources of income so that they could allocate some portion of their land to eucalyptus planting and are able to adopt better and more efficient means in tree planting and management on time. They are also more capable of withholding their tree until maturity time for maximum benefit. Malla and Fisher (1988) states that the rich farmers could bear the risk that might come as a consequence of eucalyptus planting that is the possible reduction of yield of food crops. The diameter size frequency of eucalyptus trees in the study area varies in case of different wealth categories of farmers. This is because the rich farmers are able to retain their trees for longer time to allow higher growth in diameter dimension. The largest diameter poles of eucalyptus trees that can fetch higher prices than the smaller diameter enable the rich farmers to profit more from planting eucalyptus than the smallholder. Malla and Fisher (1988) stated that eucalyptus tree planting practices could be also used as to meet some accidental or eventual needs such as wood for funereal ceremonies, fire or for the rebuilding of houses after floods or fires or other disasters. The proportion of area allocated for eucalyptus tree planting and the farm size (land holding) of farmers are significantly correlated. Thus the proportion of land allocated for eucalyptus planting was very low for land sizes less than one hectare because farmers with smaller size of farm land gives top priority to food crops for family needs. Secondly, farmers involved in eucalyptus planting, planted few tress only to satisfy their home consumption in the form 65

of construction and fuel wood. Thus the massive increase of eucalyptus trees in the study are was found for land size greater than two hectare and less and less as the farm size decreases in general. Eucalyptus accounts for a larger portion of tree density of the total woody species in all the surveyed KPAs of the study area. It was most commonly planted as woodlots, live fences and farm boundaries. This shows that farmers are well aware about the adverse impact of eucalyptus on crops so that they are reluctant to plant it in form of mixing with crops in the farmland. Shortage of land and low land opportunity cost of boundary and live fences planting site usually attract farmers for tree planting than other sites. Farmers also plant eucalyptus as farm boundaries to secure their holdings. One of the criticisms by agricultural extension workers and policy makers about eucalyptus is that farmers plant eucalyptus on agricultural land. They state that agricultural production cannot be sustained and led to food insecurity. Because of this the extension workers as rule advise the farmers no to plant eucalyptus trees. Even regularly noticing that farmers are increasingly plant eucalyptus, they do not provide them better methods of plantation, healthy seedlings where and how to plant them. Despite all these farmers of the study area take their own decision free from official advice and plant eucalyptus trees on their own site by themselves. In fact women in the study area are not actively involved in eucalyptus tree plantation. The reason is mainly socio-cultural. Culturally women are not given any decisive role within the household to decide when and where to plant trees or what to do with trees unless her husband is dead and she becomes a head of a household. Besides, most women who serve as a heads of household can ill afford to plant eucalyptus on their land due to shortage of labor and oxen. Because of these two key factors many of them always use their land by renting on cash or by sharecropping. Both farmers and extension workers confirm that eucalyptus tree plantation can affect adjacent crops adversely. But they do not indicate at what distance interval and age of plants, and which species of eucalyptus start giving adverse impact. Their main argument is simply that eucalyptus takes up much amount of water and soil nutrients and leave 66

smaller share for crops planted next to it. Due to this and other reasons extension workers do not give technical advice and even eucalyptus seedlings to the farmers. However the actual forms of planting pattern in the study area tell us that farmers do rationalize their own self interest and plant eucalyptus on their own methods and sites out side their cereal crop farmlands. As a matter of fact extension workers views are mainly based on their negative attitude to eucalyptus without looking into the conditions and needs of the farmers involved in the actual practice. However the extension workers and farmers of the study area believe that eucalyptus planting could affect the households food security in the negative way. Their justification for this is that eucalyptus would take 4 -5years to be ready for harvest so that the households would face food shortage during this period. However, current eucalyptus planting shows that eucalyptus is complemented along with the cereal crops by sharing smaller portion of the farm holdings or by planting agricultural crops within eucalyptus until three years. After that farmers convert it totally to eucalyptus woodlots. Extension workers advise the farmers to grow other species of tress which are friendly with the food crops as well as to the fertility of the soil and land. Farmers and extension workers have different opinions in their site preference for eucalyptus planting. Farmers prefer farm woodlots for eucalyptus while extension workers suggested degraded land and steep slopes as preferable site for the purpose. The extension workers justification for their preference is that, degraded lands are out of production so that it can fit for plantation of eucalyptus trees and hence fertile land could be exclusively used for agricultural crops. Moreover waste land would escape from sever soil erosion In general, eucalyptus planting in the study area is one of the main income sources particularly to farmers in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal KPAs. In the nearby KPAs of Markuma and SebadarAbanakalo eucalyptus is used more for construction and fuel wood. However, eucalyptus plantation in these nearby KPAs is constrained by the availability of alternative cash crops like vegetables and other offarm and nonfarm activities. Thus farmers are more interested to produce vegetables and offarm and nonfarm activities than in eucalyptus trees. This has an implication that accessibility or

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proximity to the market center may not be the only factors for eucalyptus planting. It may also depend on the perception of the farmers and access to land and labor as well.

6.2 Conclusion
Plantation of eucalyptus trees in Womberma Woreda was started in the late 1950s. The activity expanded mainly without the active involvement of external factors. The numerical increase and decrease of eucalyptus planters in the study area was related to land tenure system. Large numbers of farmers were encouraged to involve in eucalyptus planting after the agrarian reform in 1990s. Farmer to farmer extension was the main means for its dissemination. The major reasons for farmers to choose this species are as a source of cash sales, fuel wood and construction wood and also because of its fast growing ability. This species has expanded at the expense of grazing land, some areas of teff and maize fields have also been converted to eucalyptus woodlots because of the need for cash and construction as well as fuel wood.

The proximity to towns and access to market are not necessary incentive for eucalyptus tree plantation in the study area. Other activities like offarm and income from vegetable sales in the near by market does have its own influence on eucalyptus plantation. Farmers growing interest in eucalyptus tree plantation and availability of large land holding size also plays a significant role. The density of eucalyptus is higher in case of rich and medium farmers than in case of the poor farmers because of their difference in land holdings, labor size and other resources. Eucalyptus is more common in rich farmers fields than in case of medium and poor farmers. This implies that rich farmers obtained more benefits from eucalyptus planting than the poor and medium farmers. Lower numbers of more aged eucalyptus in the poor farmers field is because the poor farmers use them early at the age of 4-5 years for their immediate needs. They cannot hold them longer like the rich farmers.
Eucalyptus density and farm size are positively correlated when a farm size is above one hectare where farmers are more a bale to meet subsistence requirements. Eucalyptus plantation is not only related to farm size but also to farmers interest, site quality and other socio-economic factors. The farmers in Womberma Woreda are aware of the impact of

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eucalyptus on food crops. Therefore they plant eucalyptus on the selected sites as woodlots, farm boundaries and live fences in form of block or rows outside the farm lands. Both extension workers and farmers have similar idea on the impact of eucalyptus on food crops. However, the preferred site for eucalyptus plantation to them is different. Cultural influence together with shortage of land and labor become the main reason for decreasing of eucalyptus tree holdings in the womans farmland.

6.3 Recommendations
This paper recommends to the concerned bodies to actively participate with appropriate policy implementation in order to create friendly relationship between eucalyptus plantation and other food crop production activities in the area and to help farmers in improving their economy. Eucalyptus tree is becoming the main source of income in Womberma woreda in general and especially for the rich farmers in Marwoled and Wogdadyayshal KPAs. Due to this, the plantation activity has increased for the last 50 years, if it continues in such manner the crop land will be totally colonized by eucalyptus trees. As a result, the area will be much food insecure. Thus the farmers need to be persuaded to think that eucalyptus is not the only source of income to supplement their livelihood in the cereal crop producing area. As clearly shown from the result of the study, the farmers in Markuma and Sebadarababkalo KPAs who are living near the market center use vegetables and offfarm activities to diversify their income. In the same way the farmers in relatively distant KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal can use other cash crops like growing papper and oil seeds that have short rotation period and greater market demand in order to substitute the income obtained from eucalyptus. This way they can control the growing number of eucalyptus tree on their own farm lands and also simultaneously improve their economy.

Shortage of land is the major factor that disfavors the poor farmers from planting eucalyptus in the study area. They devote most of their farm lands for food crops for family needs. As a result even some of the farmers face shortage of wood for construction

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and for fuel. So introducing and popularizing the tangua method of plantation establishment i.e. the method of using the land cultivated for crops at the same time for eucalyptus planting for a short time, will help to solve the problem related to shortage of fuel and construction needs. It will also be possible to help the female and other poor households who are seriously affected by the problem. Local governments of the woreda ,NGOs ,civil society and well aware farmers organization are required to persuade the farmers for growing food and as sufficient for income generation through eucalyptus tree along with balanced planting of other species of trees ,cash crops etc through which ready as providing well organized seedlings and other technical advices of alternative tree resources to farmers to know where to grow them and how and where to market them but not the cost of food security or general fertility of land. Environmental effects and impacts on the general land, soil and water resources of this mixed species of trees, other alternative cash crops and the farm households benefits are required to be considered in a package planning of policy and execution. This apart in dominantly crop growing areas like Womerma Woreda, some feasible offarm activities such as crop processing, fruit- canning and processing etc need to be established to provide fruit full employment to the society Although it is a nation-wide problem, establishment and effective work of family planning and population control centers are necessary to create a balance between population growth rates, food and row materials and higher crop yields and sustainability because sustainable development in such poor farming, deforested area can not be possible with fast rapid growth of population

In general eucalyptus tree plantation in the woreda should be in its optimal benefit providing stage but not the cost of food security or general fertility of land, so it is up to the extension workers and other concerned officials to work with the farmers and make

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the plantation a balanced mix of species of trees, harmonious with other economic activities by giving trainings and other assistance to the planters.

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(1989). Women in community forestry: A field guide to project design and implementation. Food and Agricultural organization of the United Nations, Rome. Friss. (1995). Myrtaceae: In: Flora of Ethiopia. Edward,S,Mesfin Tadesse and Hagberg,I.(eds.).Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa and Upssala,Vol.2(2),pp.71-106. Guastavsson,S. and Kimeu,K.(1992). Socio-economic Evaluation of eucalyptus Growing on Small scale Farms in Vhiga Division, Kakamega District,Kenya. Aminor Field study.Working paper 210. Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Uppsala. Hagberg, S. (1995). Whose Forest Counts? Rhetoric and Realities in Participatory Forest Management in Burkinafaso.Development studies Unit, Report no.27.Department of Social Anthropology. Stockholm University Hobben, A.(1996). The Cultural Construction of Environmental policy: Paradigms and Politics in Ethiopia In: The Life of the land: Challenge Received Wisdom on the African Environment. M. Ceach and R.Means(eds.). Portsmouth:Heinemann Huby, M. (1990). Where you cant see the wood for the trees Extension method in rural fuel wood development. Wilson sessions, tree or press, New York. Jagger, P. and John P. (2000). The Role of the trees for sustainable management of less favored lands: The case of eucalyptus in Ethiopia. EPTD Discussion paper no.65. Environment and production Technology Division, International Food Policy Research institute 2003k street, N. W., Washington, D.C 2006 USA. Kahurananga,et al.(1993). Informal Surveys to Asses Social Forestry of Dibandida on Aletawondo,Ethiopia. Agroforestry systems 24:57-80. Kinfe Abebe.(2000). The Socio-economic Aspects of eucalyptus IN: eucalyptus Dilemma.Natural work shop;Ethiopa Environmental NGO in collaboration with Pact-Ethiopia,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia.

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Legesse Seyoum.(1994). Allopathic Effect of eucalyptus-camaldulensis Phen.On seed Germination,growth and Biomass Formation of maize(Zea mays L.) and Sorghum(Sorghum bibolor L.) Malla, Y.B and R.J. Fisher, (1988 ).Planting Trees and Private Farmlands in Nepal: The Equity Aspect. In: Multipurpose tree species for small farm use. Dale Washington, Kenneth G. Mac Dicken, Cheral B. Sastry and Norma R. Adams (eds.). Proceedings of an International Workshop Held Nov. 2-5, 1987 in Pattaya, Thailand. Mulugeta,Mekuria, et. al. (1992). Farming system research in Ethiopia: Evaluation, development and Organization. In: S, Franzel(ed) Research with farmers: lesson from Ethiopia UK: Red wood press, pp.(9-26) Nair, P.K.R. (1993). An introduction to Agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Netherlands. ( 1980). Agroforestry Species: A crop sheet Manual. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Phantunvanit, D., Theadore P., Songpol, J. (1990). Eucalyptus for and for what? Nancy Conklin (ed.) TDRI Quarterly Review, Vol.5, No.2, PP.3-5. Pohijone, V. and Pukala, T. (1988). Profitability of establishing eucalyptus globules plantation in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Silva Fennica Vol. 22 n:04 307-321. ( 1990b). Which eucalyptus Grows best in Ethiopia. Biomass and Bio Energy 1:193-195. Poore,M.E.D and Friis c.(1985).The Ecological Effects of eucalyptus.FAO Forestry paper series 59.Food and Agricultural Organization Of the United Nation, Rome Poschen. Eiche, P. (1987). The Application of farming systems. Research for community forestry. A case study in Hararghe high lands, eastern Ethiopia. Tropical agriculture 1. Weikers Leem, Germany Scientist

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Punatasen.,et al.(1992).Political Economy of eucalyptus: Business,Bureaucracy and the Government.Jornal of contemporary Asia Vol.22(2) 187-206. Raintree, J.B.(19870, An Introductory to Agroforestry Diagnosis and design:D and D user Manual International Council in Agroforestry. ICRAF.Nairobi,Kenya. ____________(1990).Theory and practice of Agroforestry.Diagnosis and Design.In Agroforestry: classification and Management.Kenneth G.MacDicken and Napoleon T.Vergara (eds.).John Willey and sons,New York. Raintree. (1991). Socio economic attributes of trees and tree planting practices. Food and agricultural organizations of the United Nations, Rome. Rorison.(1989). Acase study of farm Forestry and Wasteland Development in Guajirat,India Kathlen Rorison(ed).Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation,Bangkok. Saxecna, N.C. (1992). Crop Losses and their economic Implications due to Growing of Eucalyptus on Field Bands A pilot study. In financial and economic analysis of agroforestry system workshop paper described as proceedings. Oxford University, South Parks Road, Ox1 3rb, United Kingdom. (1994). Indians eucalyptus craze. The God that Failed. Sag publication. New Delhi. Thousand Oaks. London. Selamyihun Kidane (2004). Using eucalyptus for soil and water conservation on the highland Vertisol of Ethiopia: A PhD dissertation. Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Shively, G.E (1999). Prices and tree planting on hillside farms in Palawan. World Development V. 27(6) 937-949. Stiles,et al.(1991). Reforestation: The Ethiopian Experience, 1984-1989. Technical support Division of UNSO (United Nation Sdano Sahlian Office), New York, UNSO.

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Stocking,et al.( 1989). Financial and Economic Analysis of Agroforestry: Key Issue. Discussion Paper 212, Stockholm. /87 Tesfaye Teklay(1997).Problems and Prospects of tree growing by smallholder farmers. A case study in Feleghe-Hiwot locality,eastern Tigray, Ethiopia. Msc in Forestry Programme thesis Works,Report No 1996:7 Skinnskatteberg,Sweden. Turnbull, J.W.(1991).Future use of eucalyptus: Opportunities and Problems.In: Symposium on Intensive Forestry: The Role of eucalyptus A.P.G Schnau(ed.). Procedings-Volume1, International Union of Forestry Research Organaization,Durban,South Africa -------------.(1999). Eucalyptus Plantations. New Forests 17: 37-52 Woldeamlack Bewket (2003). Household Level Tree Planting and its implication for Environmental Management in the Northwestern high lands of Ethiopia:Acase study in the Chemoga Watershade ,Blue Nile Basin. Land Degradation and development. In press. WWARDO(Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office) 2007.Agriculture annual Report. Unpublished. Zikre Hig (Proclamation No.46/2000). Proclamation issued to determine the administration and use of the rural land in the Amhara National Region.

Abstract
The main objective of the study is to examine how farmers plant and use eucalyptus in the cereal crop producing area of Womberma woreda by investigating the key socioeconomic factors favoring and disfavoring the farmers in eucalyptus plantation. To achieve the intended objectives, a questionnaire survey was conducted for 120 sample

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hold in four KPAs by categorizing them into 3 wealth category namely rich, medium and poor. In addition to this the view of group discussion participants and key informants as well as measurement and direct observation were incorporated. The data collected were analyzed using qualitative and various statistical tools such as percentage, mean correlation and variance analysis (F-ratio) test. The finding of the study show that eucalyptus tree plantation which was introduced in the late1950s become well known in Womberma Woreda passing through the problems related to land tenure policy in different government systems. At present farmers of the study area actively planting eucalyptus trees mainly on the expense of grazing land and in some extent on teff and maize fields. However, the expansion of eucalyptus trees in the woreda has been done by the effort of the farmers with out the support of extension workers and other concerned bodies. The study also demonstrate that eucalyptus tree planting in the study area practiced differently by farmers depending on their wealth status, proximity to the town, access to land, sex, availability of alternative income source and interest. Thus density of eucalyptus and area allocated for eucalyptus plantation per household between the kPAs located far and near to the market center were significantly different. As the result we can get greater density of tree and more land allocated for eucalyptus plantation as we go far away from the market center and vice versa. This was mainly due to the reason that farmers near to market center sought alternative source of income that have shorter rotation period and does not need more land like eucalyptus. Moreover due to cultural constraints, shortage of land and labor, women in the study area are not directly involved in eucalyptus plantation.

Acknowledgement
First and for most Glory be to God who helped me to carry all the burdens throughout my study and research completion.

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Next, I would like to thank my advisor professor KN.Singh, who has been with me all the way through this study, more importantly, his expert advise, guidance, comments, suggestions and pain staking corrections were extremely valuable. I would also like to express my indebtedness to the workers of Womberma Woreda Agriculture and rural development office workers. Especially Ato Belayneh Kassa, Temesgen Hailu, Ato Mulualem Ayalew who have always been with me when ever I need assistance during my field survey. They provide me with all necessary equipments and assisted me in data collection. I also thanks all who assisted me in data collection. My sincere appreciation also goes to the informants for their openness and enthusiastic response and provision of information and hospitality during the study. My gratitude also extends to my family, friends and colleagues, who in one way or an other shared my pains during the course of the study. Special thanks go to my father Ato Anteneh Wubie, and my mother W/ro Enat Mekonnen and my brother Agumasie Anteneh for their special advice moral support starting from my childhood till now. Last but not least. I would like to thank my lovely W/ro Getenesh Dejene for her unreserved moral and material support.

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Appendix 1 Questionnaire
Dear respondents, I am doing a research as a part of MA Program in Addis Ababa University. This questionnaire is designed to assess the socio-economic aspects that affect the farmers in eucalyptus planting practices in Womberma Woreda. Hence I would like to thank you in advance for giving me your valuable time to fill this questionnaire and discussion about it.

Part I Household Socio-economic Survey

Interview Date 1. Family status 1.1. Household number Age younger (under 30) Education level (tick) Can read and write Cant read and write Training if any 1.2. Income What are the main sources of cash for the household? Off-farm employment Gift or remittances Sale of cash crops (paper) Sale of livestock products such as milk Sales trees of tree products such as wood Other specify 1 - 6 grade 7 8 grade 9 12 grade Male Older (over 30) Female PA Social Class Code

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2. How does the household cop up with food shortage? Is there any insurance crop (trees) to be consumed or sold? There is no insurance crop There is donation to the community by the government The farmers sale eucalyptus and other trees to buy food Migration to other resource rich area Other means specify 2.1. Is eucalyptus tree planting affect your farming practices? Yes No If yes in what way 2.1.1. Is eucalyptus planting replacing the families food and cash crops? Yes No If yes how 3. Attitude to tree planting Have you planned to plant trees on your farm? Yes No If yes which species Lack of tree seedlings Lack of land others specify_____________ -If not, why not because of ________________________ Inadequate knowledge to tree planting Lack of labor Low survival rate of the seedlings 4. Livestock 4.1. Which kind of livestock does the household have? Animals Cattle Goats Sheep Ass Horse Poultry Other Number owned by this household

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5. Land 5.1. What is the total size of your farm land? (Estimate) 5.2. What proportion of land is allocated for: Wheat? Maize Millet Teff_______________________ Fruit trees(Vegetables)__________ Eucalyptus_________________ 5.3. Does the household have access to other land outside the farm? Yes No -If yes where is it (Location?) -What it is used for (crops, tree planting, grazing, other uses?) -How is it obtained? 5.4. Tree tenure right 5.4.1. Can you cut and sell your own tree any time? Yes If not what is the problem 5.4.2. Are there restrictions on the type of trees you may plant and/or harvested on your holdings? 6. Labor availability 6.1. How many people work on the farm full-time? Male Female older than 30 years old older than 30 years old younger than 30 years old younger than 30 years old Yes No No Communal Borrowed rented Given by higher government bodies (Hectare or timad)

6.2. Is labor hired or family labor? If hired for what operation How long? What costs?

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PART II
Questionnaire on Historical Trend and Reason for Eucalypts Planting
Interview Date 1. Past and present residence 1.1. How long have you lived here? 2. Do you have eucalyptus tree Yes No E.C. from my children - If yes, when did you plant it for the first time in 19 2.1. How did you know about this tree? From development agent From neighbor Other specify 2.2. Who brought eucalyptus to your farm? Husband Wife Yes -If yes, when (year) It is fast growing It is good for both fuel wood and construction It is profitable to sell Others specify 5. Did you ever get eucalyptus seedling from different institutions? Yes No - If yes, from which institution_________________ how ________________- . ? 6. What form of land use was practiced for the last fifteen years in this area before you cover it with eucalyptus? Maize Wheat teff millet other tree species other crops specify No by whom it needs less labor it needs less capital it is a multipurpose tree Son/daughter others specify from my friend NGOs specify Years K PA Social Class Code

3. Did you remember when eucalyptus was introduced in this area?

4. Why do you plant eucalyptus rather than indigenous trees? Because

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6.1 What was your reason to convert the land to eucalyptus plantation? ______________ ____________________________________________________________________ 7. Management aspects of eucalyptus 7.1. How the tree is established Planting the seedling Direct seeding Both direct seeding and planting seedlings. 7.2. What kind of management practice would you supply? Pollarding Cultivation Pruning Coppice-reduction Thinning Others specify

-At what time you harvest (cut) trees 7.3. How many times do you cut trees? Once in a year Once in a season 8. Constraints for tree planting 8.1. What are the constraints to plant eucalyptus trees? Lack of land Lack of labor Lack of capital Low survival PART III A
FARMERS PERCEPTION ON EUCALYPTUS PLANTING QUESTIONNAIRE

more than once in a year never cut

Lack of tree security Inadequate knowledge or skills Marketing problem others specify

Name/group of Interview

Young Women Men

Interview Date 1. Do you plant eucalyptus?

PA Yes

Social Class No If no why

Code

2. From where did you get eucalyptus seedlings? 3. Have you encountered any problem with regard to eucalyptus tree planting?

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4. Where do you want to plant eucalyptus trees? And why? On the farm land On the farm boundary On the degraded land The reason 5. Do you know any tree species which could substitute for eucalyptus function? Yes No . 6. Do you think eucalyptus planting may affect food security? On Waste land/marginal land As wood lot Others specify

Why? ______________________________________________________ 7. Do you get any eucalyptus seedlings and technical assistance from agricultural office? Yes No If any why

8. What kind of taboo/culture exists in relation to tree planting in your area? And which species of trees are unwanted by the farmers and why?

PART III B
PERCEPTION OF EXTENSION WORKERS ABOUT EUCALYPTUS TREES QUESTIONNAIRE

Interview Date

PA

Social Class

Code

QUESTION FOR EXTENSION WORKERS

1. What kind of constraints have you observed in eucalyptus planting (both ecological and social) (from your experience in research work constraints 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

2. Do you have any empirical evidence of ecological impact of eucalyptus in Ethiopian case in general and womberma case in particular?

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3. Which eucalyptus species has a negative impact for the crops, which one is appropriate and in which site? 4. Do you know other species that have relatively the same function as eucalyptus?

__________________________________________________________________ 5. What kind of advantage and disadvantage could you observe between eucalyptus and other agroforestry trees? Advantage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Yes Yes No No Disadvantage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. If no why If yes, how On road side On live fence Together with crops others specify

6. Does your institution raise and distribute eucalyptus seedlings? 7. Does eucalyptus expansion affect food security? 8. Where shall eucalyptus be planted? And why? On waste land /marginal land On degraded land On fertile land On steep slope Along the river bank The reason for your choice__________________________________________________

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Gender Role Data Sheet

Interview Date Focus group No 1 Planting material - Purchase of seedling - Household nursery Transport of plant materials Preparing the land for planting Planting seedling Giving care to the planted seedlings - Watering - Weeding 6 7 8 9 - Mulching Protection - Fencing Long term maintenance Harvesting - Recurrent products (fruits leaves, branch) Processing - Recurrent product - Wood and timber Marketing Recurrent products (fruit, leaves, branch) Wood and timber Activities Men Responsible person Women Son Daughter PA Social Class Code

2 3 4 5

10

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PART V
DATA SHEET FOR COLLECTING PERENNIAL SPECIES COMPOSITION

Interview Date Farm plot no

Farm type 1

PA

Social Class Social Class

Planted 7

Code

Amharic Local Scientific Niche Quantity Name 2 name 3 Name 4 5 (no) 6

Retained Spatial 8 site 9

Uses part 10

Strata 11

NB. (1) 1 maize (5) On farm boundary 2. Teff 3. Wheat 4. Grazing 5. Millet 6. Grave yard 2 farm wood lot 3 live fence 4 front yard 5 in the farm 6 road side

(10) uses 1 fuel wood 2 fence 3 construction wood 4 boundary 5 fodder 6 charcoal 7 shade 8 food

9) farm tool (11) upper layer - middle layer - lower layer 7) -leaves -root -trunk

PART VI DATA SHEET FOR INVENTORY OF EUCALYPTUS STAND Interview Date Plot no Niche Species Age PA Social Class Quantity Diameter in cm Height (meter) Volume Social Class Code

Name of Data collector

Signature

Date

PART VII

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A.Secondary Data 1. Regional (local) tree planting policy guide lines 2. Land and tree tenure pattern in the region B.Direct Observation Land feature and land use 1. Current land use 2. Where is the site situated? 1. Top of hill 2. Mid slope 3. Valley bottom 4. On flat topography 3. What type of soil is found on this plot? 1. Red loamy 2. Black cotton 3. Sandy 4. Alluvial 5. Rocky 6. Nitosol 4. What is the slope of the plot 1 Flat (0 4%) 2 Gentle (5 7%) 3 Moderate (8 30%) 4 Steeper (> 31%) 5. Where are trees planted 1 with corps 2 agroforestry plot 3 degraded land

Appendix 2
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I. Checklist for focus group discussion with youngsters, women and agricultural experts 1. What is your problem related with eucalyptus tree planting? 2. Do you think that eucalyptus is use full to you? If yes, in what way? 3. Among the eucalyptus trees you harvested how much income do you earn from sale per annum? 4. How can you compare the price of eucalyptus now and before? 5. Who decide where to plant eucalyptus trees in your family? 6. Who make decisions about how eucalyptus trees are used and manage in your family? 7. Are there difference in the preference of tree species between men and women? If yes -What are the choice of women (please put it in order from ascending to descending) -What are the choices of men (put it in order) 8. Do you think that eucalyptus have an impact on food crops? If so, How? 9. Have you ever given any training or advice to the farmers or extension workers about eucalyptus trees and food crops? 10. Is your office ever made any research work in relation with food crops and eucalyptus trees? 11. What suggestion can you give about the expansion of eucalyptus trees in the expense of food crops? II. Check list for key informant interview 1. Do you remember when eucalyptus plantation started in your Kebele? - Who brought it for the first time? 2. How is your relation to the extension workers? -Are they voluntary to provide the seedlings and other technical assistances?. 3. How can you see the expansion of eucalyptus tree in your Kebele? Is it increasing or decreasing? 4Which season is appropriate to harvest your tree products?

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5. What kind of management would you use before and after harvesting the tree products? -Why you prefer that specific method?

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Appendix 3
Division of labor between men and women in tree planting in surveyed KPAs No 1. 2. 3. 4 5 Activities Planting material Purchase of seedling Raising of seedling Transport of planting material Preparing the land for planting Planting seedlings Giving care to the planted seedlings Watering Weeding Mulching fencing Harvesting Processing the harvested tree products Recurrent products(leaves, branches} Wood and timber Marketing Recurrent products ( leaves, branch) Wood and timber Men X X X X X X X X X X X X X Responsibilities person Women Son Daughter X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

6 7. 8.

Apendix4
SPSS data analysis result(SPSS Version 14 and accessories)

92

Correlations Total number of eucalyptus trees per household 1 120 .382(**) .000 120 120 Land size possessed by the respondents .382(**) .000 120 1

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household Land size possessed by the respondents

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Correlations Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold .175 .056 120 1

Age of the respondents Age of the respondents Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N 1 120 .175 .056 120

120

Correlations

93

Distance of kebeles from the town Distance of kebeles from the town Total number of eucalyptus trees per household Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N ** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1 120 .417(**) .000 120

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household .417(**) .000 120 1

120

ANOVA Total number of eucalyptus trees per household Sum of Squares df Between Groups 34608911. 1 615 Within Groups 111111581 118 .510 Total 145720 119

Mean Square 34608911.6 15 941623.572

F 36.755

Sig. .000

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted per household Economic status of

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted per household 1 120 .455(**)

Economic status of respondents .455(**) .000 120 1

94

respondents

Sig. (2-tailed) N

.000 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Correlations

Totalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold Educational Status of respondants

Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N

Totalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold 1 120 -.148 .054 119

Educational Status of respondants -.148 .054 119 1 119

Acronyms
ANRS=Amhara National Regional State.
Cm=Centimeter. CSA=Central Statistical Authority. ETB=Ethiopian Birr. FAO=Food and Agricultural Organization. Ha=hectare. 95

KPAs=Kebele Peasant Administrations. M=meter. Masl. =Meter above sea level. MoA=Ministry of Agriculture. MoARD=Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Mm=millimeter. NGO=Non Governmental Organization 0c=Degree centigrade. RLAUP=Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation. SIDA=Seweden International Development Agency. SPSS=Statistical Package for Social Scientists. TGE=Transitional Government of Ethiopia. UN=United Nation. UNSO=United NationSudanoSahlian Organization. WOAS=Woreda Agricultural Statistics. WWARDO=Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office.

Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgement I Table of contents...... ...II 96

List of tables...III List of figures.IV Acronyms...........................................................................................................................V Abstract............................................................................................................................VI Appendices

List of Tables
Page
Table 1.1 House hold population of the surveyed KPAs....5 Table 4.1 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm practices in surveyed KPAs .........31 Table 4.2. Number of farmers involved in eucalyptus plantation..33 Table 4.3. Farmers reason for preferring eucalyptus to other indigenous trees. ...34

97

Table 4.4 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm crops in surveyed KPAs..........35 Table 4.5 Average percentage of land allocated to eucalyptus out of the total farm land holdings across wealth categories. ....36 Table 4. 6. Number of plots converted to woodlots within the last 15 year..37 Table 4. 7. Average density of eucalyptus per niches per household........38 Table4. 8 Different sources of income in the survey area.....40 Table 4. 9. Eucalyptus as a source of income across different wealth categories.....41 Table 4.10. Species composition of the average tree holding in surveyed KPAs.....42 Table 5.1. Method of eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs.46 Table5.2. Source of eucalyptus seedlings planted in the study area. 47 Table 5.3. Problems of farmers related to eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed KPA...........49 Table5.4. Farmers preferred sites for eucalyptus planting....54 Table 5.5 Extension workers preferred site for eucalyptus planting.58 Table 5.6 Relative share of eucalyptus per niche in the surveyed KAPs..62

List of Figures
Fig 1. Map of the study area......25 Fig 2. Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station. ....26 Fig.3 A wood lot as cause for block plantation. (Filed photo, 2008) ...39 Fig 4. Planting eucalyptus on the road side. (Field Photo, 2008) .....55 Fig 5.Planting eucalyptus as farm boundary. (Field photo, 2008) ....56

98

Fig 6.Diameter Frequency Distribution of Eucalyptus Tees in Marwoled and Wogdadyayshal KPAs......60 Fig 7. Diameter Frequency distribution of eucalyptus trees in Markuma and SebadarAbabkalo KPAs........61 Fig.8. the relationship between eucalyptus planting and farm size....63

Apendix4
SPSS data analysis result(SPSS Version 14 and accessories)

Correlations

99

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household Land size possessed by the respondents

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household 1 120 .382(**) .000 120

Land size possessed by the respondents .382(**) .000 120 1 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Correlations Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold .175 .056 120 1

Age of the respondents Age of the respondents Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N 1 120 .175 .056 120 Correlations

120

Distance of kebeles from the town Distance of kebeles from the town Total number of eucalyptus trees per household Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N ** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1 120 .417(**) .000 120

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household .417(**) .000 120 1

120

ANOVA Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

100

Between Groups Within Groups Total

Sum of Squares 34608911. 615 111111581 .510 145720

df 1 118 119

Mean Square 34608911.6 15 941623.572

F 36.755

Sig. .000

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted per household Economic status of respondents

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted per household 1 120 .455(**) .000 120

Economic status of respondents .455(**) .000 120 1 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Correlations

Totalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold Educational Status of respondants

Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N

Totalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold 1 120 -.148 .054 119

Educational Status of respondants -.148 .054 119 1 119

101

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