Physical Education Book

LIVE IT UP 2
V C E P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N U N I T S 3 & 4
THIRD EDITION
David SMYTH Wayne JUDGE Michelle OKEEFFE Fiona SHEPHERD

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Helen Brown, Christine McCallum, Ross Pritchard, Peter Wright, Rick Gervasoni
CHAPTER
Chapter 6 revision
Note:
Source: Sports Medicine
5 1 work-to-rest ratio
10
a. Fill in the table to show an appropriate overload for the next training period. Question 1
(adapted from ACHPER Trial Exam 2005, question 2)
1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 2 marks
A VCE physical education student is participating in a school-based training program and is completing three training sessions per week. One of her main aims is to improve the muscular endurance of her abdominal group. At the end of each week she completes a 60-second maximal effort test to monitor her progress. Her results for the 60-second maximum curl up test are presented below. Week Number of curl ups 1 15 2 20 3 25 4 30 5 33 6 35 7 36
b. Identify the energy system that is dominant during the rst and second repetitions of the rst set of training. c. i. Name the type of recovery which would be used between each repetition. ii. Justify your answer to part i. d. List two ways this program is specic to batting in the sport of cricket. Question 4
(adapted from VCAA Physical Education exam 2006, question 3)
a. State the principle of training most evident from the students test results.
1 mark
Martina Hingis returned to Grand Slam tennis in 2006 after a three-year enforced retirement with ankle and foot injuries. During preparation for the 2006 Australian Open, she aimed to develop her capacity to play an attacking style of tennis through concentrating on the development of her muscular strength, power, agility and speed. a. i. Which training method would most likely lead to improvements in her court speed and anaerobic capacity? 1 mark
b. The student ceased training once her exams started and completed no training at all for four months. When she retested herself on the same 60-second maximal effort curl up test after this time she was only able to complete 18 curl ups. State the principle of training that explains the change in her results after no training. 1 mark Question 2
(ACHPER Trial Exam 2005, question 13)
The coach of the Australian Rugby Team for over 5 years devotes approximately 3045 minutes of each training session to exibility work. a. Explain how slow active stretching potentially delivers greater increases to exibility than static stretching does. b. PNF stretching includes isometric muscle contractions. Briey discuss how isometric contractions are different from isokinetic contractions. Question 3 2 marks
ii. For each of the variables listed below, provide a suitable example that shows the correct application of this training method to improve Martinas court speed and anaerobic capacity. Work to rest ratio Intensity Frequency 3 marks b. Discuss the effect of manipulating the duration of the rest intervals on the intended aim of this training method. Question 5 2 marks
2 marks
Below is a sample training program for volleyball players.
(VCAA Physical Education exam 2007, question 3)
Tuck jumps Hops Bench blasts Bounds
2 sets 8 repetitions 2 sets 6 repetitions 2 sets 12 repetitions 2 sets 8 repetitions
In preparation for the 2007 Cricket One Day World Cup, the New Zealand team found that their opening batsman, Stephen Fleming, had trouble running between wickets. This was especially the case when he was batting for an extended period of time. To address the problem a special sprint training program was initiated. Work time Rest period 25 seconds Work-to- Frequency rest ratio per week 1:5 3
Intensity Repetitions 8
Sets 3
a. State the type of training being performed by the volleyball players in the sample training program. b. State the main tness component this type of training is likely to develop. c. This recovery time should be: active/passive (circle the correct answer).
1 mark 1 mark 1 mark
5 95% max seconds heart rate 95% max heart rate
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Live It Up 2, Third Edition
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Concept 1 of 6:
g performance Unit: 4. Enhancin ng a training program nting and evaluati Planning, impleme Area of study: 1. ents related fitness compon Topic: 1. Health Aerobic power
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Summary
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Physical Education
Sit exam My results Download Podpack Export My notes Help
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CHAPTER
Improves social skills/networks Enhances self-esteem/confidence Encourages family/community links Reduces isolation/loneliness
Improves quality of life Manages weight Improves sleep Develops motor skills Improves concentration Enhances memory and learning
Reduces traffic congestion Reduces air pollution Reduces greenhouse emissions (due to reduced car usage) Reduces noise pollution Creates safer places due eates to more people being outside
Creates employment Reduces absenteeism Reduces crime Increases health savings Supports local business Increases tourism
Reduces risk of coronary heart disease Reduces risk of stroke Lowers both blood cholesterol and triglycerides and increases high-density lipoproteins (HDL) the good ones Lowers risk of high blood pressure and helps reduce blood pressure in people who already have hypertension (high blood pressure) Lowers risk of non-insulin dependent (type 2) diabetes mellitus Reduces risk of colon cancer Helps achieve and maintain healthy body weight Reduces feelings of depression and anxiety Promotes psychological wellbeing and reduces stress Helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints Helps older adults become stronger and better able to move about
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CHAPTER 1 REVISION
Summary
Technological advances have assisted us in our day-to-day lives. However,
we have seen a detrimental effect on our health and tness levels due to the increasing amounts of inactivity these advances have caused. We need to understand the importance of physical activity and how we can incorporate it into our lives, so that we can remain a t and healthy society.
National Physical Activity Guidelines The Australian Department of Health and Ageing has devised a set of recommendations for physical activity called the National Physical Activity Guidelines (NPAG). These refer to the minimum levels of physical activity required to attain good health and a healthy body weight. One of the major recommendations of the NAPG is to put together 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity on most, preferably all, days. In order to do this, we need to understand levels of intensity and how we can measure what intensity we are working at. Another important piece of information required is how to assess what physical activity we are doing. We can measure this using subjective or objective methods. Methods of assessing physical activity levels Subjective measures of assessing physical activity include: diaries logs recall surveys. Objective measures of assessing physical activity include: pedometers heart-rate telemeters accelerometers electronic motion sensors observation. The socio-ecological model To fully understand our physical-activity levels and promote physical activity within dened population groups and across various settings, we need to understand the factors that inuence peoples participation and be able to provide strategies to overcome any barriers that arise. The socio-ecological model is a multifaceted approach to promoting physical activity. It requires communication and planning among a number of key stakeholders. A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to promote physical activity. Strategies are required at a population level (e.g. mass media, government policy and environmental approaches) that we can refer to. Another common approach to the promotion of physical activity is to deliver promotional strategies within a particular setting; for example, in workplace, school, community, environmental and health settings. Once we understand the benets of physical activity and its inuences on peoples behaviour, we can condently provide strategies to ensure that it becomes an integral part of our lives. The socio-ecological model is a useful tool to analyse the success of programs for diverse populations.
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UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance
Strengthen your understanding

1 Identify and justify the method that would best assess whether a 7-year-old child is meeting the National Physical Activity Guidelines for children aged 512 years. 2 List ve subjective methods of assessing physical activity. 3 Compare objective and subjective methods of assessing physical activity, using examples. 4 Outline three purposes of the National Physical Activity Guidelines. 5 Moderate-intensity physical activity refers to any activity that utilises (A) 1 to 2.9 METs. (B) 3 to 5.9 METs. (C) more than 6.0 METs. (D) none of the above. 6 Describe the four domains of the socio-ecological model. 7 Outline the relationship between accuracy and practicality when measuring physical activity levels. Include examples. 8 Explain the differences between subjective and objective methods of assessing physical activity levels, giving examples of each type of method. 9 What methods of assessing physical activity would be best to assess the physical activity levels of a large number of 6-year-old primary school children? 10 Outline two possible implications for an individual or group within society if they do not meet the National Physical Activity Guidelines. 11 Try the 'Understanding physical activity' interactivity in your eBookPLUS to review your understanding of this chapter.
Interactivity
Searchlight ID: int-1841 Understanding physical activity
Exam questions
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CHAPTER 1 Physical activity and participation
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CHAPTER 1 REVISION
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Source: www.cartoonstock.com
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Occupational House/garden Active/transport Leisure
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CHAPTER 1 REVISION
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Vigorous-intensity physical activity Moderate-intensity physical activity Low-intensity physical activity
Time (minutes)
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER 2 REVISION
Summary
ATP: The body's energy currency The energy for physical activity is released by the catabolism (breaking down) of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This energy source is stored in only very limited quantities within muscles and must be constantly replenished or resynthesised in order for muscular contractions to continue. ATP breaks down to ADP and Pi. ATP can be resynthesised from ADP and Pi but energy is required in order to do this. The energy required to resynthesise ATP from ADP and Pi is produced via three energy pathways: the ATPCP (or phosphate) energy system, the anaerobic glycolysis (or lactic acid) system and the aerobic (or oxidative) system. Energy fuels The fuels or substrates that are used by the bodys three energy systems include creatine phosphate, carbohydrates, fats and protein. The energy systems break down these fuels to provide the energy to resynthesise ATP. Creatine phosphate or phosphocreatine (PC) is a chemical compound which, like ATP, is stored in limited quantities within muscle cells. Also like ATP, creatine phosphate is a high-energy substance capable of storing and releasing energy via the high-energy bond that binds the creatine and phosphate parts of it together. When this bond is broken energy is released that enables ATP to be resynthesised from ADP and Pi. Carbohydrate is broken down into glucose. Glucose is stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver. Any excess is stored as fat in adipose tissue around the body. Fats provide more energy per gram than the other fuels, but the body prefers carbohydrate as an energy source during exercise because it is easier to use. There are two groups of fats: saturated and unsaturated (mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated). Protein is used as an energy source only when carbohydrate and fats are depleted; for example, in extreme conditions such as in ultra-endurance events. Energy systems and pathways The ATPCP system uses creatine phosphate to create new ATP supplies without using oxygen. The phosphate energy system can create ATP very quickly, and is the predominant energy contributor to very high intensity, short-duration activities of up to 610 seconds duration. The anaerobic glycolysis system involves the metabolism of glycogen stores within the muscle without oxygen needing to be present. The anaerobic glycolysis system takes longer to create ATP than the ATPCP system, and it is the major contributor to high-level exertions of 1060 seconds duration. This system creates lactate and hydrogen ions as by-products. The aerobic energy system can use glycogen and fats (and protein under extreme conditions) to provide energy for ATP resynthesis, but oxygen must be present for the chemical reactions involved in aerobic metabolism to take place. The aerobic system is the major contributor to energy production during rest and low- to moderate-intensity activity. It becomes the primary energy contributor to sustained maximal activity after approximately 60 seconds. Aerobic metabolism occurs primarily within specialised cell structures known as mitochondria, which can be considered the power houses of the cell. Tables 2.5 and 2.6 summarise the main information that has been presented in this chapter.
CHAPTER 2 Energy for physical activity 81
CHAPTER 2 REVISION
TABLE 2.5 Summary: the conversion of food to energy
Characteristics Conversion and storage
Carbohydrates Transported in the blood as glucose Stored in muscle cells as muscle glycogen Stored in liver as glycogen Excess carbohydrates stored as fat in adipose tissue The most readily available source of energy to fuel working muscles during exercise performance (moderate- to high-intensity exercise)
Fats Free fatty acids in blood Stored as triglycerides in muscle Stored as fat in adipose tissue
Proteins Broken down through digestion into amino acids These amino acids stored in muscles as muscle amino acids Excess amino acids stored as fat in adipose tissue Help the formation, growth and repair of body tissue Help in the production of red blood cells and enzymes Provide an emergency fuel source for energy during prolonged exercise, when carbohydrate and fat stores are depleted Generally only occurs in extreme situations such as starvation and ultra-endurance events such as the Hawaii triathlon
Major role and function
The most concentrated form of energy, but a secondary source of energy during moderate- to high-intensity exercise Primarily used as a source of energy during rest and lowintensity exercise At rest provide approximately two-thirds of the energy needs of the body As exercise intensity increases, the percentage of fats being used as an energy source decreases Fats as an energy source become increasingly important when stores of carbohydrates become depleted during endurance exercise (usually after 90120 minutes of continuous activity). Average person: 2025 per cent Endurance athletes in training: 2030 per cent
Use
At rest and during low-intensity exercise provide about one-third of the energy required During moderate- and highintensity exercise are used as the primary energy source Carbohydrates as fuel can last for up to 90120 minutes of continuous exercise
Percentage of total daily intake
Average person: 5560 per cent Athletes in training: 60 per cent or greater, or 710 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram body mass Foods with low glycaemic index: Those carbohydrate-rich foods that take longer to digest and release glucose at a slower but more sustained rate Include bread, cereals, pasta, lentils and baked beans Foods with high glcaemic index: Those carbohydrate-rich foods that are digested rapidly and release glucose at a fast rate Include sugar, honey, bananas, potatoes, jelly beans, soft drinks and sports drinks
Average person: 15 per cent Athletes in training: strength athletes may require slightly more protein in their diets Animal foods such as meat, poultry, sh, eggs and dairy products are rich in protein and contain all the essential amino acids Plant foods such as cereals, grains, lentils, beans and peas are also good sources of protein, although they do not contain all of the essential amino acids
Common food sources
Saturated fats: Found in animal foods such as milk, cheese and meat products This type of fat contains cholesterol (implicated in cardiovascular disease) Unsaturated fats: Two groups of unsaturated fats: polyunsaturated and monounsaturated. Polyunsaturated fats are found in most vegetable oils (e.g. sunower oil) and oily sh (e.g. tuna) Mono-unsaturated fats are found in olive oil, avocados and nuts Both types of unsaturated fats help lower total cholesterol levels
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TABLE 2.6 Summary: characteristics of the three energy systems
Characteristics Alternative name or names
ATPCP system Phosphagen system ATPCP system Creatine phosphate system Phosphate system
Anaerobic glycolysis system Lactic acid system Lactacid system
Aerobic system Oxygen system
Aerobic or anaerobic Fuel or fuels used
Anaerobic Creatine phosphate (also known as phosphocreatine) stored in small quantities within muscle cells
Anaerobic Carbohydrates stored as glycogen within muscle cells and the liver
Aerobic Carbohydrates preferred fuel during exercise Fats stored as triglycerides in muscle cells and the liver. Used predominantly when body at rest, and during lowerintensity exercise (up to about 5065 per cent of maximum oxygen uptake) Proteins only in extreme circumstances such as starvation or ultra-endurance events Slowest system to provide energy for ATP resynthesis due to complex nature of its chemical reactions, and the fact that sufcient oxygen has to be made available to the muscle cells 1.0 mole per minute
Maximal rate of energy production
Fastest rate of energy release for resynthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi 3.6 moles per minute This is because this system is the least complicated of the three energy systems (fewer chemical steps), and because creatine phosphate is found within the muscle cells themselves Small amounts of ATP produced Less than 1 mole of ATP per mole of phosphocreatine
Provides energy for ATP resynthesis rapidly, but not as quickly as the ATPCP system 1.6 moles per minute This is due to a more complex series of chemical reactions that results in glycogen breaking down to glucose and then to pyruvic acid and then eventually to lactic acid Approximately twice as much ATP produced as the ATPCP system Approximately 2 moles of ATP per mole of glycogen
Maximum ATP production (yield) per mole of fuel source
Vastly greater amounts of ATP produced compared with the two anaerobic systems 38 moles of ATP from 1 mole of glucose Over 100 moles of ATP from 1 mole of fat (but more oxygen required) Also activated at the start of highintensity exercise and will become the predominant supplier of energy for ATP resynthesis during continuous sub-maximal intensity exercise that exceeds 12 minutes in duration In a maximal effort lasting 75 seconds, equal energy is derived from the aerobic and anaerobic systems Predominant supplier of energy for ATP resynthesis when at rest and during sub-maximal activity As event duration increases and intensity decreases, the contribution of the aerobic system to energy production increases while that of the anaerobic systems diminishes
(continued)
Duration and intensity of peak energy production
Activated at the beginning of high-intensity exercise Predominant energy supplier within the rst 6 seconds of high-intensity exercise, but its capacity is depleted after 610 seconds of maximal intensity exercise
Also activated at the beginning of high-intensity activity Predominant energy contributor for ATP resynthesis from the time when the phosphagen system is rapidly depleting up until about 3060 seconds during highintensity exercise May also become predominant producer of energy for ATP resynthesis during repeated short-duration maximal intensity efforts that have insufcient recovery time to allow for full replenishment of creatine phosphate stores
CHAPTER 2 Energy for physical activity
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CHAPTER 2 REVISION
TABLE 2.6 (continued)
Characteristics Specic examples
ATPCP system Athletic eld events (e.g. high jump, shot put) Short sprints (50- to 100-metre) Tennis serve Gymnastics vault Golf drive Depletion of creatine phosphate stores
Anaerobic glycolysis system 400-metre athletic event 50-metre swim High-intensity tennis rally of 1530 seconds duration
Aerobic system 10 000-metre athletic event Marathon 2000-metre rowing event Mid-eld players in many team sports (e.g. Australian Rules, soccer)
Major limiting factor or factors when functioning maximally Metabolic by-products Links to tness components
Changes in the intra-muscular environment due to the accumulation of hydrogen ions (H+) Lactic acid lactate and hydrogen ions (H+) Anaerobic power Local muscular endurance Speed and agility Muscular power
Depletion of glycogen stores
Nil Muscular strength Muscular power Anaerobic power Speed and agility Reaction time
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Water (H2O) Relevant to all tness components because it provides the basis for recovery in anaerobic-type tasks as well as the bulk of energy production for sub-maximal activities

1 What energy substrate stored in the body can produce the most amount of energy for ATP resynthesis? 2 Describe the energy rate and yield associated with the ATPCP system. 3 Outline the characteristics associated with the energy production in the lactic acid system. 4 Compare the characteristics of low-GI and high-GI foods. 5 Complete the following diagram outlining the metabolism of lactic acid. Lactic acid + oxygen ______________ + __________________ 6 In which energy system or systems are hydrogen ions a metabolic by-product of the chemical process? 7 Explain what is meant by the term interplay of energy systems. 8 List one advantage and one disadvantage in using creatine phosphate as a fuel. 9 Name a specic sporting activity or situation that clearly illustrates the use of anaerobic glycolysis as the predominant fuel source.
Exam questions
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CHAPTER 2 REVISION
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CHAPTER
5A
(a)
3.2 Acute responses of the cardiovascular system: blood pressure, redistribution of blood flow, aerobic capacity/power, anaerobic capacity/power arteriovenous oxygen difference
Artery Capillary Vein
Health related fitness components
Oxygen (millilitres per 100 millilitres of blood)
24 20 16 12 8 4 0 0 1
Arterial content Mixed venous content
20 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

(b)
a-VO2 diff. 45 mL O2 per 100 mL blood
a-VO2 diff.
Artery
Capillary
Vein
a-VO2 diff. 15 mL O2 per 100 mL blood
Oxygen uptake (litres per minute)
FIGURE 3.8 The arteriovenous oxygen difference (a) at rest and (b) during intense aerobic exercise
FIGURE 3.9 Changes in arteriovenous oxygen difference from low levels to maximal levels of exercise
Source: Reprinted with permission, Wilmore, Costill & Kenney 2008
TEST your understanding

1 Which component of blood pressure is most affected by exercise? Explain why this is the case. 2 What is the difference between vasodilation and vasoconstriction? Explain how these processes result in increased blood ow and oxygen delivery to working muscles. 3 Explain what is meant by the arteriovenous oxygen difference. Explain why this increases during exercise.
EXTEND your understanding

4 Learning activity: laboratory test on measuring blood pressure Working in small groups of three or four, measure and record the blood pressure of one member of your group while they undertake the activities listed below. Record the blood pressure each minute (i.e. at 1 minute, 2 minutes, 3 minutes). Sitting at rest Standing at rest Lying at rest Cycling for 10 minutes on an exercise bike at a moderate intensity In order to complete this laboratory test you will need to be procient in the use of either a
sphygmomanometer or a digital blood pressure reader. Your teacher will show you how to use this equipment to measure blood pressure. (a) Graph the blood pressure data you obtained. Make sure both systolic and diastolic values are shown on the one graph. (b) What effect did different body positions have on blood pressure when the participant was at rest? Explain how you account for any differences observed. (c) What happened to the participants blood pressure during exercise? At what point in the exercise bout did blood pressure reach its maximum value? Did blood pressure plateau at any point? (d) Did the changes in the participants blood pressure during exercise match what you expected to happen based on your understanding of blood pressure responses to exercise? Explain. (e) Explain what might happen to the participants blood pressure if they had been asked to perform a maximum bench press test? How would this blood pressure response differ to that experienced during the 10 minutes of moderate-intensity cycling? Explain why this difference occurs.
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UNIT 3 Physiological activity participation and physiological performance
(continued)
CHAPTER 3 REVISION
Summary
Table 3.2 summarises the acute cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular system responses to exercise that have been discussed in this chapter.
TABLE 3.2 Summary of acute responses to exercise
Body system Cardiovascular system
Acute response Increased heart rate
Nature of response Increases linearly with increasing exercise intensity up to approximate maximum that is calculated by subtracting the individuals age (years) from 220 Maximal value reached during sub-maximal exercise Increases from 56 L/min at rest to 2025 L/min or more during maximal exercise Increased systolic pressure At rest 1520 per cent of total blood ow directed to working muscles; during exercise 8090 per cent of total blood ow directed to working muscles Increases can be almost threefold over the value at rest Increases from 12 breaths per minute to as many as 3540 per minute Increases from around 0.5 litres per breath at rest to as high as 5 litres per breath at maximal workloads Increases from around 56 L/min at rest to beyond 108 and 130 L/min during exercise (for males and females respectively) Increases from 0.30.4 L/min at rest to maximal values of 2.03.5 L/min during exercise
Increased stroke volume Increased cardiac output
Increased blood pressure Redistributed blood ow to working muscles
Increased arteriovenous oxygen difference Respiratory system Increased respiratory frequency (breathing rate) Increased tidal volume
Increased ventilation Increased oxygen uptake
Muscular system
Increased motor unit and muscle bre recruitment Increased blood ow to the muscles Increased muscle temperature Increased muscle enzyme activity Increased oxygen supply and use Depleted muscle energy stores
More motor units recruited and muscle bres activated Increases from 1520 per cent of total blood ow at rest up to 8090 per cent during exercise As a result of increased blood ow and ATP production In order to produce the increased amounts of ATP required by the muscles during exercise Muscle cells extract and use more oxygen during exercise ATP, creatine phosphate, glycogen and triglycerides
CHAPTER 3 Acute responses to exercise
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CHAPTER 3 REVISION

1 List the major body systems that respond immediately to the transition from rest to exercise and provide a brief outline of their role in helping the body adapt to the changes required by the onset of exercise. 2 Outline how heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output respond during the transition from rest to exercise, and during exercise of gradually increasing intensity. 3 Draw appropriate graphs to show an average 18-year-olds typical heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output responses to exercise of low, moderate and maximal intensities. 4 Which two factors, when combined, result in ventilation? 5 Outline how ventilation is controlled (changes) during exercise performance. 6 Why is it that an athlete who has just completed a 100-metre sprint that relies predominantly on anaerobic energy metabolism would breathe heavily (in other words huff and puff) for some time after the completion of the race? 7 Describe the point at which an athlete can be said to be oxygen decient in terms of their oxygen uptake. 8 How can steady state in relation to exercise be best described?
Exam questions
Question 1
The graph below shows systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings taken from a 20-year-old male during a maximal graded exercise test completed to exhaustion.
220 Blood pressure (mm Hg) 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 0 Speed (km/hr) 0 Grade (%) 4 0 6 2 8 4 10 6 12 8 14 10 Line B Line A
a. Which line, A or B, represents diastolic blood pressure? b. Explain what is meant by the term systolic blood pressure. c. At the end of the test the subject will have reached his maximum heart rate. What is this likely to be?
1 mark 2 marks 1 mark
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Question 2
The graph below shows the VO2 levels measured during a sub-maximal test. Values were recorded before, during and after exercise.
VO2 (L/min)
A B D
Time (minutes)
Which of the labelled sections below indicate oxygen decit and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)?
Oxygen decit A. A B. B EPOC D B Oxygen decit C. C D. D EPOC C A
1 mark
Question 3
In the table below, the VO2 (L/min) has been recorded at rest, during 5 minutes of sub-maximal treadmill running and 5 minutes after the completion of running. Values were recorded every minute and the data is shown below. VO2 (L/min) Rest Exercise 1 min Exercise 2 min Exercise 3 min Exercise 4 min Exercise 5 min Recovery 1 min Recovery 2 min Recovery 3 min Recovery 4 min Recovery 5 min a. i. ii. iii. iv. 0.5 1.0 1.2 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.1 0.7 0.5 1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 1 mark
Identify the time period in which the person is O2 decient. Identify the steady state value during exercise. Identify how long the person is in steady state during exercise. Identify when the person experiences excess post-exercise oxygen consumption.
b. Other than decreasing the intensity of the exercise, name a strategy this person could use to reduce the oxygen decit incurred during running. Outline how this strategy would reduce the decit. 2 marks
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CHAPTER 3 REVISION
Question 4
Anthea and Cathy, both 60 years old, have been walking together for 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week for over 10 years. Anthea recently purchased a heart-rate monitor to wear during her walks. The graph below shows the heart-rate data recorded from one 30-minute walk.
Heart-rate response to exercise 220 200 180 Heart rate (bpm) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 Minutes 25 30 Heart rate (bpm)
a. What zone is shown by the shaded area on the graph? b. Anthea reaches a steady state 8 minutes into her walk. Explain why this steady state is not reached until this point of her walk. Question 5
1 mark 3 marks
The following diagram is a representation of an individuals oxygen uptake prior to, during, and after exercise in an outside temperature of 20C.
1.6 1.4 VO2 (L/min) 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Time (minutes)
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a. On the graph provided, identify the region of excess post oxygen consumption (EPOC). b. i. Identify what would happen to EPOC after 30 minutes of running at the same pace in an outside temperature of 35C compared to 20C. ii. Outline why this occurs.
1 mark
1 mark 2 marks
c. What strategy could an athlete use to reduce EPOC? Give a practical example of how this could be achieved. Question 6
During exercise, blood ow is diverted from some organs. Which organs are likely to receive less blood ow during exercise? A. The skeletal muscles and the brain. B. The small intestine and the kidneys. C. The skin and the skeletal muscle. D. The heart and the brain.
1 mark
Question 7
(VCAA Physical Education exam 2005, question 23b and c)
When an athlete begins to exercise, the bodys need for oxygen increases and a number of immediate changes occur to help increase the supply of oxygen to the working muscles. a. What name is given to these immediate changes that occur in response to exercise? 1 mark
b. One of these cardiovascular responses to exercise is an increase in arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff.). What is meant by the term a-VO2 diff.? 1 mark c. Outline why a-VO2 diff. increases during exercise. 1 mark
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CHAPTER
Sports drink
650800 mL of sports drink 800 mL of cordial 500 mL of fruit juice, soft drink or flavoured mineral 250 mL of carbohydrate loader drink 60 g packet of jelly beans or jube sweets 3 medium pieces of fruit 1 round of jam or honey sandwiches (thick-sliced bread and plenty of jam/honey) 3 muesli bars 1 large Mars bar or chocolate bar (70 g) 2 breakfast bars 3 rice cakes with jam or honey 2 crumpets or English muffins with Vegemite Cup of thick vegetable soup with large bread roll Jaffle/toasted sandwich with banana filling (using whole banana) One sports bar (check the label to see total carbohydrate content) 115 g (1 large or 2 small) cake-style muffin, fruit bun
Vegetable soup
Jelly beans
330 g (1 cup) of creamed rice 300 g (large) baked potato with salsa filling Baked potato with
CHAPTER 4 REVISION
Summary
Fatigue Fatigue is an extremely complex subject involving both physiological and psychological factors. It can describe a range of afictions, varying from a general state of lethargy to localised muscular fatigue induced by specic exercise or work. Fatigue can also be classied into local, general and chronic (long-term) fatigue. Physical fatigue is the inability to continue functioning at the level of ones normal physical abilities, and usually manifests itself as local muscular fatigue. Muscular fatigue is a highly complex phenomenon that consists of numerous factors acting at multiple sites within both the contracting muscles themselves (peripheral fatigue) and the central nervous system or CNS (central fatigue). The causal mechanisms of local muscular fatigue depend on the type, duration and intensity of the exercise being performed, as well as other factors such as the bre-type composition of the involved muscle or muscles, the tness and training status of the athlete, the nutritional state of the athlete, and even the athletes mental state. Peripheral muscular fatigue can be dened as the force or power decit that occurs despite optimal activation of the muscle bres by their motor neurons. Peripheral fatigue may result from fuel depletion, the accumulation of metabolic by-products and/or impaired muscle excitability. Whatever the casual mechanism, the muscular fatigue that results manifests itself as the eventual lack of ability of a single muscle or local group of muscles to do work at a given intensity. Central muscular fatigue can result from fatigue at the neuromuscular junction and in the central nervous system. Recent research theories have also postulated that there may be a central governor mechanism in the brain that regulates performance levels and invokes the sensation of fatigue as a protective mechanism to prevent disruption to the bodys homeostasis. Fatigue may also occur as a result of disruption in the thermoregulatory mechanisms of the body, particularly when the body becomes hyperthermic and/or dehydrated. Recovery Recovery can be dened as the overcoming or reversal of fatigue experienced as a result of training or some form of exercise. In general terms, the recovery process encompasses the cool-down or active recovery phase immediately post exercise, passive rest, replenishment of fuel and food stores, and replenishment of uids and electrolytes. The replenishment of fuel and food stores (most notably carbohydrates and protein) is essential to the recovery process, particularly following prolonged training sessions. Carbohydrate (glycogen) restoration should occur as soon as possible after the cessation of training, and certainly within the rst 2 hours post exercise. Carbohydrate-rich foods with a high glycaemic index should be consumed in this period. Protein also needs to be ingested in the post-exercise period. Protein intake, if within the prescribed ratio, aids in the restoration of muscle glycogen stores and also provides the basic building blocks (amino acids) for muscle repair. Replacing body uids lost during training (rehydration) is also essential to the recovery process. While plain water is suitable for replenishing uid losses, particularly after events lasting 3060 minutes, sports drinks that contain carbohydrates and/or electrolytes improve rehydration after longer events.
144 UNIT 3 Physiological activity participation and physiological performance

1 2 3 4 5 What three factors signicantly inuence the causes of fatigue? What are the three levels of fatigue? Describe each level. What are the common causes of fatigue in athletes? Describe the main functions of nutrition during recovery. While undergoing training in preparation for the Tour de France Cadel Evans spent 90 minutes pedalling on a bicycle ergometer at 85 per cent of his aerobic capacity. If he continued exercising for another 30 minutes at the same workload, describe why his energy supply would come preferentially from fats rather than carbohydrates. Dene the term 'lactate inection point (LIP)'. Why would a high lactate inection point be likely to provide a competitive advantage to an athlete in a 5000-metre race but not in a game of basketball? List the main causes of fatigue for endurance athletes other than the depletion of muscle glycogen stores. Try the 'Understanding fatigue and recovery' interactivity in your eBookPLUS to review your understanding of this chapter.
6 7 8 9
Interactivity
Searchlight ID: int-1844 Understanding fatigue and recovery
Exam questions
Question 1
The graph below shows a recreational runners blood lactate concentration measured during a running treadmill test until exhaustion. The speed was increased every minute and the lactate concentration was measured at the end of each minute.
12 10 Lactate (mmol/L) 8 6 4 2 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Treadmill speed (km/h)
a. At what speed does the lactate inection point occur? b. Why does the lactate inection point occur? c. Explain the relevance of the lactate inection point to an endurance athlete.
1 mark 1 mark 3 marks
CHAPTER 4 Fatigue and recovery
145
CHAPTER 4 REVISION
Question 2
a. Consider a 42 km marathon. It is usual for a competitor to decline in speed around the 35 km point during a marathon of this length. Identify and briey describe the most likely cause of fatigue at the 35 km point. 2 marks b. During a 400 m sprint, the athletes speed will gradually decline. Identify and briey describe two of the possible physiological causes of this decline in speed in a 400 m sprint. 4 marks Question 3
The table below presents blood lactate concentration data obtained from a 21-year-old soccer player during an incremental treadmill test to exhaustion. The speed was increased by 1 km/h every minute. Speed (km/h) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Blood lactate (mmol/L) 2 2 2 2 3.5 4.0 4.5 5 5.5 6 Heart rate (bpm) 110 122 130 141 152 163 171 180 192 199
a. i. At what speed does the lactate inection point (LIP) occur? ii. State the range of speeds where lactate clearance is equivalent to lactate production. iii. State the range of speeds where lactate production exceeds lactate clearance. 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 marks b. Based on the information in the table above, at what heart-rate range would you advise the athlete to train to improve their LIP? c. What happens to the athletes ability to sustain exercise effort when LIP is exceeded? Question 4
1 mark 2 marks
(adapted from VCAA Physical Education exam 2008, question 16c)
Cricket is a sport played professionally in the summer, often in conditions of heat and humidity. Hydration is essential in these conditions, even more so during Test matches which can last for several days. To avoid dehydration many players will consume sports drinks. Briey discuss how dehydration affects performance. 3 marks
146
Question 5
An Australian Rules football player can be affected by fatigue at different stages in the game. Identify the major cause of fatigue in the following circumstances as described in part a. and b. a. A player takes the ball in the backline, sprints 30 metres taking three bounces, kicks 40 metres to a team mate, continues to sprint down into the forward line and tackles an opponent in the goal square, covering 70 metres in total. 1 mark b. An on-ball player who has covered 19 km in the match at varying intensities and who is in the last 5 minutes of 100 minutes of playing time. 1 mark During the third quarter of the game, the on-ball player performed 9 separate high intensity efforts over a 12 minute period. The players heart rate reached 196 beats per minute during these efforts and returned to values around 145 beats per minute immediately after the efforts. Despite playing effectively, the player was rotated from the playing eld via the interchange in accordance with the coachs instructions. c. Explain, from a physiological perspective, why the strategy of rotating on-ball players and allowing them time on the interchange is a sound approach. Question 6
3 marks
Which one of the following statements is false? A. At the end of a 200-metre race, lactate levels are maximal. B. At rest there is approximately 1 ml/mol of lactate in the blood. C. Lactate removal after exercise occurs more quickly with an active recovery. D. Trained 400-m specialists have more blood lactate accumulation at the end of a race than a non-trained 400-m runner. 1 mark Question 7 While competing in New Zealand, the Under 25 Australian netball team played a tournament consisting of 12 games over a 10-day period. Their coach requested the players consume some food within 30 minutes of completing each game, and suggested they have a piece of fruit, a mufn and a sports drink. a. Why is it important to eat food of this type within 30 minutes of completing a game? Discuss briey. b. Identify and describe the type of meal each athlete should consume 23 hours before each game. c. Briey discuss why the coach is correct in suggesting his athletes consume a sports drink (containing 48 grams of extra carbohydrates per 100 mL than water) after or during each game. 2 marks 2 marks
2 marks
CHAPTER 4 Fatigue and recovery
147
CHAPTER
Speed zone distance percentages 40 Per cent 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 Zone 4 5 6
Distance within speed zone Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lower 0 6 12 16 25 30 Upper 6 12 16 25 30 35 Distance (m) 932.9 1184.8 1062.8 795.4 36.9 0 Percentage 23.2 29.5 26.5 19.8 0.9 0 Entries 108 177 109 40 2 0
Speed zone time percentages 60 Per cent 40 20 0 1 2 3 Zone 4 5 6
Time within speed zone Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lower 0 6 12 16 25 30 Upper 6 12 16 25 30 35 Minutes 17.6 7.92 4.58 2.48 0.08 0 Percentage 53.9 24.2 14 7.6 0.3 0 Exertion 1055 950 824 595 25 0 Entries 108 177 109 40 2 0
FIGURE 5.33 Collected AFL activity data from one game's quarter in 2009
Source: GPSports.
CHAPTER 5 Fitness components and activity analysis
173
CHAPTER 5 REVISION
Summary
Fitness components are those aspects of tness that should be performed to
a reasonable level in any sport or activity.
Health-related fitness components Health-related tness components form the basis of all tness training programs and underpin a players physical tness in a competitive situation. The division of energy production into aerobic and anaerobic directly affects an individuals ability to perform a physical activity. Flexibility is the common link between all physical activities. Other health-related tness components are more or less important to particular pursuits. Skill-related fitness components Skill-related tness components are central to skill drills in a training program, and are the more obvious differentiating factors in players abilities. Balance, reaction time and coordination are tness components that are determined by the interaction between an individuals mental processes and muscular movements. Activity analysis Activity analysis is a key technique that coaches use to determine the physiological requirements of a sport. It investigates energy systems, components of tness and movement patterns. GPS data collection is a state-of-the-art method of collecting activity analysis data. Observations can involve simple visual observation or the use of heart-rate monitors and video recordings. Skill analysis can provide valuable information about individual players. A players training methods and activities should always be based on the ndings of such analysis.

1 Identify the type of stretching exercise where the muscle is taken to its maximum length and then contracted isometrically against a resistance. 2 (a) Outline the purpose of games analysis and its role in developing a training program. (b) List three different methods of games analysis. 3 Why is exibility central to every tness training session? 4 What procedures need to be followed to undertake: (a) static exibility training (b) PNF exibility training? 5 Which other tness components would have a direct inuence on a performers agility? 6 What are the differences between muscular strength, muscular power and local muscular endurance? Use sporting examples to supplement your denitions. 7 What is the main requirement for the three types of exibility training? 8 What are ve different sporting examples that demonstrate: (a) whole-body speed (b) part-body speed? 9 Why is it important to undertake an analysis before developing a tness program for an athlete or player?
178
UNIT 4 Enhancing performance
Exam questions
2 marks
6 marks
1 mark
2 marks
1 mark
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Muscle force developed (kg)
10
15
20
25
30
35
2 marks
Muscle cross-sectional area (cm2)
179
CHAPTER 5 REVISION
1 mark 1 mark 3 marks
2 marks
180
1 mark
4 marks
3 marks
181
CHAPTER
Weight (kilograms) Height (metres)2
Waist-to-hip ratio
Waist girth Hip girth
9.8(M
D)
Key Direction of travel Cone or chair
9.2 metres
Start
Finish
1.8 metres
1.8 metres
Reaction time =
2 distance 9.81
CHAPTER 6 REVISION
Summary
Why undertake fitness testing
Fitness testing is integral to any serious tness training program and to any
tness teacher, instructor, coach or performer.

Fitness assessment provides a measurement of physiological responses to
physical activity within a controlled environment.

Sophisticated laboratory tests or simpler eld tests can be used to assess
tnesslevels.
Benefits of fitness testing
Athletes can undergo tness testing before, during and after a training program.
Testing at these times achieves four important benets: identifying specic attributes of the athlete, determining the athletes strengths and weaknesses, monitoring progress, and providing motivation and incentive.
Fitness test criteria
The principles of testing must conform to the following criteria: relevance and
specicity, validity and reliability, and comparable and interpretable results.

Prior to undertaking any tness testing, the athlete must follow certain safety
procedures and precautions to ensure that they are physiologically and psychologically prepared. The safety procedures include signing documentation of informed consent and condentiality.
The fitness test battery
A wide variety of tests is available to assess each tness component. Selecting a particular test is a matter of deciding which test best suits the needs
of the individual and the activity.

There are expected characteristics of a well-designed tness test battery and
performer requirements for completing a tness test battery.

1 Describe how a high aerobic capacity would assist a cyclist competing in the Tour de France. 2 What precautions and procedures should an athlete follow before undertaking any form of tness testing? 3 What are some ways of assessing body composition? 4 A VCE Physical Education student undertakes the 20-metre multi-stage shuttle run test (beep test) as part of a tness testing program for their class. (a) State the main tness component measured by the 20-metre multi-stage shuttle run test. (b) A 17-year-old male student achieved a score of 14.7 on this test. What would be the most appropriate level of achievement you would expect him to reach? 5 Many Australian distance athletes attend altitude training camps at Falls Creek (1500 metres above sea level). Before starting the 3-week altitude training camp, a distance coach has his team of athletes undertake a series of maximal effort, directly measured pre-tests in the Victorian Institute of Sports physiology laboratory. At Falls Creek the coach does not have access to individual laboratory testing of his athletes so he has them complete an indirect measure of their tness partway through the camp to monitor their progress. (a) State the name of the tness component that the coach is most likely to be trying to develop during the training camp. (b) State the name of one recognised predictive tness test that the coach could administer to his athletes to monitor the effects of the altitude training while still at Falls Creek. (c) Explain how this test is administered. Provide details such as instructions, timing requirements and equipment. Be specic in your response. 238 UNIT 4 Enhancing performance
Exam questions
1 mark
1 mark 1 mark 4 marks 4 marks
Fitness test VO2 max (ml/kg/min) Speed (sec) Upper arm circumference (cm) Vertical jump (cm) A 20 m sprint NA Vertical Jump test
Player 1
Test 1 Test 2
Player 2
Test 1 Test 2
Player 3
Test 1 Test 2
54 7.5
60 7.1
38 8.9
45 8.6
59 6.9
70 6.8
36
37
42
42.5
39
41
58
62
63
65
54
60
CHAPTER 6 Fitness assessment
239
CHAPTER 6 REVISION
(continued)
2 marks
2 marks
1 mark 2 marks
1 mark
240
3 marks 3 marks
2 marks 1 mark
2 marks
2 marks
CHAPTER 6 Fitness assessment
241
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 7 REVISION
Summary
Training principles refer to the rules or guidelines that ensure the training session
is relevant to the initial aim. The ve primary training principles are as follows. 1. Specicity: a replication of the requirements of an activity in the training for that activity. 2. Intensity: the level of demand of the work rate on the working muscle, usually measured as a percentage of maximum heart rate. 3. Duration: the length of the training program. 4. Frequency: the number of sessions trained per week with appropriate periods of rest. 5. Progressive overload: the application of increased physical workload in training so the human body can adapt to higher levels of stress or workload. Other training principles for the success of a training program include: variety, where the range of different activities, the order of exercises and the venues can all improve player motivation diminishing returns, where the rate and amount of improvement reduce as tness levels increase de-training, where the loss of tness increases as the period of time without training becomes greater maintenance, where current levels of tness can be maintained with less frequency than that required to improve tness (although the intensity levels must remain the same) individuality, where the rate and amount of improvement varies from one individual to the next. Training methods are specic activities or groups of activities that cause an improvement in particular tness components and energy systems. Continuous training: slow-distance activities, such as running, that are designed to improve aerobic tness. Interval training: periods of work followed by periods of rest and recovery. This method is excellent for team games and individual activities where the interplay and recovery of energy systems are important. Resistance (weight) training: movement of a load by a particular muscle group or groups to improve strength, power or speed. There are three forms of resistance training isotonic (free weights), isokinetic and isometric. Flexibility training: the stretching of individual muscle groups to allow an increase in the range of motion for the joint. There are four types of exibility training PNF, passive, active and ballistic (with this order being the most effective and appropriate). Plyometrics: an explosive movement, such as skipping, that results from lengthening then shortening the muscle. It creates an increase in power. Circuit training: a sequence of activities that are specic to the tness component and energy system requirements of an activity or sport. It allows the athlete to train several tness components and energy systems at the one time, and can be done by large numbers of people in a conned space. Fartlek training: slow-distance activities, such as cycling, that are interspersed with higher-intensity efforts, such as sprints, and three-quarter pace efforts. This method is designed to improve the aerobic system and, to a lesser extent, the anaerobic system. It is an excellent method for activities such as team sports where the interplay between energy systems is important. Speed training: for sports and events where specic-part or whole-body speed is needed. Carefully designed speed training is both benecial and essential. Core-stability training: all body movements require strength and endurance of the underlying muscles that control the lower spinal and middle trunk areas.
282 UNIT 4 Enhancing performance

1 Cross-training is designed to (A) improve several different tness components. (B) improve tness in more than one sport. (C) use all three energy systems. (D) all of the above. 2 The training principle that states that training workloads must be gradually increased as adaptations to the stress of training occur is known as the principle of (A) specicity. (C) de-training. (B) diminishing returns. (D) progressive overload. 3 Which of the following combinations of training methods would be most likely to bring about chronic training adaptations to the aerobic system? (A) Short interval training, plyometric training and resistance training (B) Continuous training, fartlek training and longer interval training (C) Weight training, circuit training and continuous training (D) Fartlek training, exibility training and Pilates training 4 The training principle that states that tness gains gradually decrease as the length of the training program increases is known as the principle of (A) specicity. (C) detraining. (B) diminishing returns. (D) progressive overload. 5 Muscle strength can best be increased by (A) increasing the resistance or weight to be lifted. (B) completing each repetition as fast as possible. (C) increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight. (D) decreasing the recovery time between each set. 6 Which of the following statements best describes 1 RM? (A) The maximum amount of weight that can be lifted one time (B) The percentage of weight that is lifted in one repetition (C) The total amount of weight lifted in one training session (D) The maximum amount of weight that is recommended for someone to begin weight training 7 A javelin thrower wishes to increase the fast powerful arm movement for his throw. Which weight-training load would you recommend from the choices below? (A) 25 repetitions with a load of 8095 per cent of 1 RM (B) 610 repetitions with a load of 7095 per cent of 1 RM (C) 610 repetitions with a load of 3070 per cent of 1 RM (D) 1535 repetitions with a load of 3070 per cent of 1 RM 8 Which of the following combinations of training methods would be most likely to bring about chronic training adaptations to the aerobic system? (A) Short interval training, plyometric training and resistance training (B) Continuous training, fartlek training and longer interval training (C) Weight training, circuit training and continuous training (D) Fartlek training, exibility training and Pilates training 9 Australian Rules football players playing in an on the ball position in the mideld run approximately 20 kilometres during a game. This total distance also includes approximately 90100 intermittent sprint efforts lasting only a few seconds each. Given this, which of the following training methods would be the most specic for an Australian Rules football midelder? (A) Short interval training (B) Plyometric training (C) Fartlek training (D) Long, slow distance training (continuous training) 10 Which of the following best describes the training principle of diminishing returns? (A) Loss of muscle glycogen stores, which results in diminished performance (B) Decreased training volume prior to a major event (C) Changing training intensity in the lead-up to competition (D) Lower rates of tness gains due to high levels of tness CHAPTER 7 Fitness training: principles and methods 283
CHAPTER 7 REVISION
Exam questions
Question 1
A VCE physical education student is participating in a school-based training program and is completing three training sessions per week. One of her main aims is to improve the muscular endurance of her abdominal group. At the end of each week she completes a 60-second maximal effort test to monitor her progress. Her results for the 60-second maximum curl up test are presented below. Week Number of curl ups 1 15 2 20 3 25 4 30 5 33 6 35 7 36
a. State the principle of training most evident from the students test results.
1 mark
b. The student ceased training once her exams started and completed no training at all for four months. When she retested herself on the same 60-second maximal effort curl up test after this time she was only able to complete 18 curl ups. State the principle of training that explains the change in her results after no training. 1 mark Question 2
The coach of the Australian Rugby Team for over 5 years devotes approximately 3045 minutes of each training session to exibility work. a. Explain how slow active stretching potentially delivers greater increases to exibility than static stretching does. b. PNF stretching includes isometric muscle contractions. Briey discuss how isometric contractions are different from isokinetic contractions. Question 3 2 marks
2 marks
In preparation for the 2007 Cricket One Day World Cup, the New Zealand team found that their opening batsman, Stephen Fleming, had trouble running between wickets. This was especially the case when he was batting for an extended period of time. To address the problem a special sprint training program was initiated. Work time Rest period 25 seconds Work-to- Frequency rest ratio per week 1:5 3
Intensity Repetitions 8
Sets 3
5 95% max seconds heart rate 95% max heart rate
284
a. Fill in the table to show an appropriate overload for the next training period. b. Identify the energy system that is dominant during the rst and second repetitions of the rst set of training. c. i. Name the type of recovery which would be used between each repetition. ii. Justify your answer to part i. d. List two ways this program is specic to batting in the sport of cricket. Question 4
1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 2 marks
Martina Hingis returned to Grand Slam tennis in 2006 after a three-year enforced retirement with ankle and foot injuries. During preparation for the 2006 Australian Open, she aimed to develop her capacity to play an attacking style of tennis through concentrating on the development of her muscular strength, power, agility and speed. a. i. Which training method would most likely lead to improvements in her court speed and anaerobic capacity? 1 mark
ii. For each of the variables listed below, provide a suitable example that shows the correct application of this training method to improve Martinas court speed and anaerobic capacity. Work to rest ratio Intensity Frequency 3 marks b. Discuss the effect of manipulating the duration of the rest intervals on the intended aim of this training method. Question 5 Below is a sample training program for volleyball players. 2 marks
Tuck jumps Hops Bench blasts Bounds
2 sets 8 repetitions 2 sets 6 repetitions 2 sets 12 repetitions 2 sets 8 repetitions
a. State the type of training being performed by the volleyball players in the sample training program. b. State the main tness component this type of training is likely to develop. c. This recovery time should be: active/passive (circle the correct answer).
1 mark 1 mark 1 mark
CHAPTER 7 Fitness training: principles and methods
285
CHAPTER
Step 1 Undertake an activity analysis Energy systems Fitness components Muscle groups Types of contractions Step 4 Determine the length and periodisation of Step 4 the training program Phases of training preparatory competition transition microcycles mesocycles macrocycles Step 5 Design the specific training sessions Content of each session training method exercise type activities intensity volume duration Training principles specificity progressive overload
Step 2 Carry out a fitness Step 2 assessment Pre-training fitness assessment utilising a range of appropriate fitness tests Step 3 Select training methods Appropriate selection is based upon: activity analysis fitness assessment
Step 6 Develop a training timetable (matrix) An outline of the contents of every training session in an easy-to-read grid or matrix
CHAPTER 8 REVISION
Summary
Design of a training program The design and implementation of a training program requires a step-by-step approach that incorporates information obtained from an activity analysis and tness assessment, the appropriate application of training principles and the selection of relevant training methods. It is necessary to plan the length of the training program, ensuring that the proper periodisation of training is incorporated in the program. The number of specic training sessions and the content of each of these sessions then need to be determined and recorded via a training timetable. The term periodisation of training basically refers to the dividing of a training program into smaller phases of training. Typically, these phases of training are known as: the preparatory phase the competition phase the transition phase. The terms microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle are also important when planning a training program. A microcycle refers to a relatively small number of training sessions that form a recurrent unit; for example, an athletes repetitive weekly training pattern. A mesocycle is a block of training consisting of a number of microcycles. The three phases of training preparatory, competition and transition can be thought of as distinct mesocycles. A macrocycle is made up of a number of mesocycles. In most cases the macrocycle represents the full training program undertaken year by year. The preparatory (pre-season) phase of training aims to develop a suitable tness and skill base for the competition phase. The main objective of the competition (in-season) phase is to maintain tness and skill attributes, as well as develop and rene strategies, tactics and game plans. The transition (off-season) phase is designed to provide the athlete with a physiological and psychological break from the demands of training and competition. Peaking and tapering are important considerations in the design of training programs. Peaking refers to the planning of training so that an athlete obtains their optimum state of readiness to perform at a particular predetermined time, such as a major event or competition. Tapering refers to a reduction in training loads, particularly the volume of training prior to a major event, to allow for complete recovery. The goal of peaking and tapering is to produce a fresh, rested, uninjured athlete who is ready to perform at their optimum level at a given time. Design of a training session Individual training sessions should generally consist of a warm-up component, a skill development component, a conditioning component and a cool-down component. The aim of the warm-up is to prepare the body both physiologically and psychologically for the skill development and conditioning phases of the training session, as well as reducing the possibility of muscle injury and soreness. As a general rule, a warm-up should include some form of lowintensity continuous activity to begin with, interspersed with a range of static and dynamic exibility exercises, followed by general movements and light resistance exercises, and culminating in performance-specic movements. The skill development component usually consists of activities designed to practise skills, game plans, tactics and strategies. It may either precede or follow the conditioning phase.
316 UNIT 4 Enhancing performance

1 If you were training players for the following sports or positions, estimate the interval distance they would train for and the work-to-rest ratio of the interval training they would follow: (a) (i) Netball centre (ii) Netball goal keeper (b) Tennis (c) (i) Football midelder (AFL) (ii) Football forward (AFL) (d) (i) Soccer goal keeper (ii) Soccer fullback (e) Basketball (f) (i) Hockey wing (ii) Hockey goalkeeper 2 Compare the frequency of training required for a year 12 Physical Education student and an elite athlete. 3 Explain the importance of a warm-up and a cool-down in a training session. 4 Outline the purposes of using tness tests: (a) before a training program starts (b) midway through a training program (c) at the end of a training program. 5 List the probable signs of a sportsperson suffering from overtraining. 6 Outline three ways in which a coach can prevent and treat (reverse) the effects of overtraining. 7 Explain why climate and seasons are important considerations in training programs. 8 Why is exibility a method of training that all sportspeople should include in their training program? 9 Explain what is meant by peaking and tapering in performance. How could you assess whether an athlete was at the peak of performance?
Exam questions
Question 1
To maintain peak performance for competition many athletes reduce their training volume before a major competition. This is referred to as A. tapering B. detraining C. overtraining D. adaptation 1 mark Question 2
As part of her training for the 400 m event, an elite athlete completes 4 250 m sprints in 30 seconds with 60 seconds rest between each sprint. At the completion of her training session the athlete should perform an active recovery in order to A. prevent venous pooling B. assist in the breakdown and removal of accelerated metabolic byproducts such as lactate and hydrogen ions C. keep the heart rate elevated to assist oxygen delivery to skeletal muscles D. all of the above 1 mark
CHAPTER 8 Designing a training program
317
CHAPTER 8 REVISION
Question 3
The reduction in training load (volume and intensity) undertaken over the course of the nal week or so prior to a specied event or competition is referred to as A. overtraining B. recovery C. peaking D. tapering. 1 mark Question 4
The table shows part of 2 weeks of an 8 week resistance training program. Week 5 Exercise Lift 1 Lift 2 Resistance 60 kg 30 kg No. of repetitions 4 4 Week 6 Resistance 65 kg 30 kg No. of repetitions 4 5
a. Identify the two modications that the athlete is making to the resistance training program detailed above. b. Identify the training principle that underlies the two modications that the athlete has made to his training program. c. Suggest two other ways the athlete could apply the training principle you identied in part b. above to this resistance training program without altering the intended purpose of the training. Question 5
2 marks 1 mark
2 marks
An Australian athlete won the gold medal in the pole vault at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, becoming Australias rst male athletics gold medal winner for 40 years. a. List two key tness components that a pole vaulter requires to be successful in this event. b. List an appropriate tness test for each of the tness components you identied in your response to part a. c. List two types of training methods a pole vaulter may use when preparing for this event. Justify your selections with reference to the requirements of the event. d. What type of muscle bre would be best suited to the type of event that pole vaulters compete in? 2 marks 2 marks
4 marks 1 mark
318
Question 6
The graph below shows the training distances for a group of 5000 metre runners in the eight days prior to the Beijing Olympics in 2008.
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 Day 5 6 7 8 Km per day
a. What term is used to describe this reduction in the training load in the days or weeks leading up to a major event or performance? b. Explain why these 5000 metre runners might choose to adopt this practice. c. Apart from the reduction in their training load, state two other strategies a 5000 metre athlete could do to assist their preparation in the eight days prior to competition. Question 7
Training distance (kilometres)
1 mark 2 marks
2 marks
There are a range of methods of undertaking muscular stretching or exibility training. These include static, slow active, PNF, dynamic and ballistic. a. Select two of these types of stretching and describe in detail how an athlete would undertake each method. b. Outline two advantages of undertaking static stretching as part of either a warm-up or cool-down to a training session. 4 marks 2 marks
CHAPTER 8 Designing a training program
319
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 9 REVISION
Summary
Long-term responses that develop over a period of time (usually a minimum
of 6 weeks) when training is repeated regularly are referred to as chronic adaptations to training. The combined effect of all chronic adaptations is known as the training effect. Chronic adaptations to training may occur in the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems. The result of these physiological adaptations is a signicant improvement in performance. Chronic adaptations to training are dependent on: the type and method of training the frequency, duration and intensity of training the individual athletes capacities and genetic make-up. Aerobic (endurance) training adaptations lead to more efcient delivery of larger quantities of oxygen to working muscles. Specically, the cardiovascular system increases blood ow and delivery of oxygen to the muscles, and the respiratory system increases the amount of oxygen available. Aerobic training effects are best developed through continuous, fartlek and longer interval type training. Anaerobic training adaptations lead to increased muscle size, enabling greater strength, power and speed, as well as changes at the cellular level that improve anaerobic energy production. Anaerobic training effects are best developed through sprint training, short and intermediate interval training, plyometric training, circuit training and resistance (strength and power) training. Table 9.2 summarises the chronic adaptations resulting from both aerobic and anaerobic type training programs.
TABLE 9.2 Summary of chronic training adaptations
Evident at: Tissue or system level Circulatory system Specic adaptation to types of training Aerobic training Cardiac hypertrophy increase in size (volume) of ventricular cavities Increased capillarisation of the heart muscle Increased stroke volume Decreased resting heart rate Decreased heart rate during sub-maximal workloads Increased heart-rate recovery rates Increased cardiac output at maximum workloads Decreased blood pressure Increased a-VO2 diff. Increased capillarisation of skeletal muscle Decreased blood cholesterol, triglycerides, low- and high-density lipoprotein levels Yes Yes Yes Yes NA NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA Yes Yes NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Rest Sub-maximal exercise Maximal exercise
338
TABLE 9.2 (continued)
Evident at: Tissue or system level Circulatory system Specic adaptation to types of training Anaerobic training Cardiac hypertrophy increase in the thickness of the ventricular walls Respiratory system Aerobic training Increased lung ventilation Increased VO2 max Increased lactate inection point (LIP) Muscle tissue Aerobic training Increased oxygen utilisation Increased size of mitochondria Increased myoglobin stores Increased muscular fuel stores: Glycocen Triglycerides Free fatty acids Oxidative enzymes Increased oxidation of fats Decreased use of the anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system Muscle bre type adaptations Muscle tissue Anaerobic training Muscular hypertrophy Increased number of myobrils Increased size of myobrils Increased amounts of myosin and actin myolaments Increased capacity of the ATPCP system Increased stores of ATP Increased stores of CP Yes Yes Yes Yes NA Yes Yes NA Yes Yes NA Yes Yes Yes Yes NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA NA Yes NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Rest Sub-maximal exercise Maximal exercise
Digital document
Searchlight ID: doc-1120 Summary of chronic adaptations
Increased glycolytic capacity Increased storage of glycogen Increased levels of glycolytic enzymes Increased speed and force of contraction
NA: not applicable
CHAPTER 9 Chronic adaptations to training
339
CHAPTER 9 REVISION

1 Why are the quadriceps muscles of long distance runners able to use large amounts of glycogen for fuel during a race? 2 Explain how increased ventilation and pulmonary diffusion improve an athlete's performance. 3 Which of the following is not a chronic adaptation to training? (A) Increased red blood cell count (B) Increased capillarisation of the heart muscle (C) Increased muscular storage of glycogen (D) Increased resting heart rate 4 Describe the effects of muscular hypertrophy. 5 Which of the following chronic adaptations to training would indicate an improved level of aerobic tness? (A) Decreased stroke volume at rest (B) Increased cardiac output during maximal exercise (C) Increased blood pressure at rest (D) Decreased arteriovenous oxygen difference during sub-maximal exercise 6 Explain the likely differences in the hypertrophy of the heart that would be experienced by an athlete who undergoes a 12-month aerobic training program compared with an athlete who undergoes a 12-month anaerobic training program.
Exam questions
Question 1
(adapted from ACHPER Trial Exam 2005, question 15c)
During a running race, a runners heart rate seems to level off. What is likely to be happening to the oxygen consumption at the same stage? Question 2
1 mark
The increase in stroke volume that occurs as a result of aerobic training is made possible by A. an increase in blood pressure. B. an increase in arterio-venous oxygen difference. C. an increase in ventricular size (hypertrophy). D. increased mitochondria. 1 mark Question 3
Peter is a train driver, which is a sedentary job. His work involves changing shifts which makes it difcult to commit to regular organised team sports. He decided to improve his health so he began a rowing tness program. Each session consists of a 20-minute workout on a stationary rower. He has been training for the past six weeks.
340
His week one, ve and six program results are listed below. Metres Average Predicted rowed Stroke heart VO2 max in 20 rate per rate Total (ml/kg/ Day and date minutes minute (bmp) calories min) Mon 14 Jan Tues 15 Jan One Thurs 17 Jan Fri 18 Jan Sun 20 Jan Mon 11 Feb Tues 12 Feb Five Thurs 13 Feb Fri 15 Feb Sat 16 Feb Mon 18 Feb Tues 19 Feb Six Wed 20 Feb Fri 22 Feb Sat 23 Feb 4327 4320 4433 4458 4603 4535 4858 4719 4871 4828 4868 4886 4914 4946 4941 22 23 23 21 20 21 21 21 22 20 22 22 22 22 22 140 139 139 140 140 129 146 136 138 140 140 141 143 141 140 250 250 262 265 281 273 313 295 315 308 307 314 320 325 324 41 40 38
Week
a. Outline 2 chronic adaptations within the muscle which would result in an increase in VO2 max. b. Outline a chronic adaptation that would have contributed to an increase in metres rowed despite strokes per minute remaining consistent. c. Meters rowed increases whilst average HR remains consistent and slightly decreases. Briey discuss what chronic adaptation causes this. Question 4
4 marks
2 marks
2 marks
Aerobic training results in which of the following adaptations to the arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff.)? A. It remains unchanged during both sub-maximal and maximal exercise. B. It decreases during both sub-maximal and maximal exercise. C. It increases during both sub-maximal and maximal exercise. D. It increases at sub-maximal levels only. 1 mark
341
CHAPTER 9 REVISION
Question 5
Jeremy is a 38-year-old male who likes to keep t. His training program consists of a 30-minute swim once a week, a 30-minute walk twice a week and every Saturday morning he walk/jogs the Kokoda Trail. This is a 1000 step trail in the Dandenong Ranges. Jeremy lightly jogs 400 m to the steps as a warm up, and then he jogs down the steps at a steady pace. On the way back up Jeremy works at an intensity of 85% max heart rate. He does this twice and then walks 400 m home for his cool down. The following data was taken using a heart-rate monitor while Jeremy was completing his activity on the steps.
200 180 160 140 Heart rate (bpm) 120 Heart rate 100 80 60 40 20 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
1000 steps heart rate
Minutes
After three months of completing this program, Jeremy is able to complete the activity 50 seconds quicker. One chronic adaptation that occurred due to training was an improved arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff.). List and explain one muscular and one vascular adaptation that has led to the improved a-VO2 difference. 4 marks Question 6
a. List two chronic/long-term adaptations that could be expected to occur within each of the listed body systems as a result of participation in a long-term aerobic (endurance) training program. 4 marks Body system Cardiovascular Respiratory Chronic adaptations due to aerobic training i. ii. i. ii.
b. Outline how these chronic adaptations contribute to improved performance.
4 marks
342
Question 7
For an untrained athlete, which of the following is a chronic response to the long-interval training program shown below? % HR max. 90% Interval time 50 seconds Work:rest 1:2
A. Increased maximum heart rate B. Improved fatty acid oxidation C. Increased slow-twitch bre size D. Increased fast-twitch a bre size Question 8
1 mark
Which of the following combinations of training methods would be most likely to bring about chronic training adaptations to the aerobic system? A. Short interval training, plyometric training and resistance training B. Continuous training, fartlek training and longer interval training C. Weight training, circuit training and continuous training D. Fartlek training, exibility training and Pilates training 1 mark Question 9
At the training camp prior to the Beijing Olympics, an elite Australian swimmer completed eight repetitions of 50 metres in 30 seconds. Each repetition was completed at a high intensity, with a 120 second (two minute) stationary recovery between repetitions. The swimmer continues to use this training method for twelve months. Identify three chronic training effects that are likely to develop at the muscle tissue level as a result of involvement in this training program 3 marks Question 10
At the start of the year a VCE physical education student completes a 1.6 km run test. He then decides to undertake some serious training and participates in a 6-month training program designed to improve his aerobic tness. He then re-runs the 1.6 km run at the same speed as his initial performance 6 months previously. Circle one answer in each of parts a., b., c., d., and e. below. During his second test run: a. his lactic acid accumulation will be: b. his stroke volume will be: c. his exercise heart rate will be: d. his lactic acid accumulation will occur: e. the % of slow twitch muscle bres in his trained muscles will: higher higher higher earlier lower lower lower later 5 marks the same the same the same the same
increase decrease stay the same
343
CHAPTER
10
CHAPTER 10 REVISION
Summary
Nutritional needs It is essential that all athletes consume the correct balance of nutrients to supply their body with the energy needed for physical activity and to aid in the recovery process. The main nutrients required to supply the body with energy include carbohydrate, protein and fat. Carbohydrate-rich food should constitute approximately 5565 per cent of our total daily intake, protein should contribute 15 per cent and fats 2030 per cent. Not only must athletes adhere to these dietary guidelines, they must also develop their own eating plan to help achieve the best from their training. This plan will be specic to their sporting event, ensure an optimal intake of nutrients and meet the need for increased uid and energy. Carbohydrate is broken down into glucose and transported in the bloodstream as a source of energy to fuel working muscles. Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles if the body does not require energy immediately. Carbohydrate provides the body with its major fuel source for exercise during both extended high-intensity work and prolonged sub-maximal work. As the ability to store carbohydrate is limited, it is important to consume the appropriate amount before, during and after exercise. Training will dictate the amount of carbohydrate needed by the individual athlete. The glycaemic index (GI) is a ranking system that compares individual carbohydrate foods according to how they affect blood-glucose levels. Foods with a high glycaemic index are appropriate for the rapid recovery of muscle glycogen stores. Foods with a low glycaemic index are appropriate for sustained energy during an event. Protein is required to assist in the recovery or repair of damaged body tissue. It is also needed for the growth of additional muscle tissue when using resistance training to achieve gains in body strength. Additional amounts of protein are usually achieved by the increase in carbohydrate intake as a part of the training diet. Protein supplements are rarely needed in addition to this. Timing of protein consumption is a more important consideration for the athlete. Fat provides energy for sustained sub-maximal exercise, especially when carbohydrates are depleted. It is broken down into free fatty acids (FFA) to be transported in the bloodstream and stored as triglycerides. Athletes must plan pre-event, event and recovery diet programs to ensure they have appropriate nutrition to optimise performance. Pre-event preparation should allow the athlete to top up their glycogen stores and uid levels. This should be completed within 14 hours prior to the event, with foods that have a low glycaemic index being recommended. Athletes who participate in prolonged sub-maximal events such as marathons and triathlons will also require carbohydrate loading. These athletes should manipulate both their diet and training program to superstore glycogen in their muscles to ensure they have sufcient energy to last the entire event. Athletes should not require further consumption of carbohydrate during a competition, unless it lasts longer than 90 minutes. During these events, the athlete should ingest carbohydrate to promote carbohydrate sparing, provide extra fuel and delay the effects of fatigue. Carbohydration is a convenient and effective way of consuming carbohydrates to replace used stores, while also addressing the need to keep the body hydrated. Commercially prepared sports drinks are the most common form of carbohydration used by athletes today.
CHAPTER 10 Strategies to enhance performance and recovery 389
CHAPTER 10 REVISION
Hydration Fluid loss can lead to a decline in performance. It is important to consume uid before, during (if applicable) and after exercise. Water is suitable for short-duration events lasting less than 60 minutes; longer events are better served by a sports drink that contains carbohydrate and electrolytes. Most athletes should consume approximately 200600 millilitres of uid prior to their event, and replace approximately 5001000 millilitres of uid per hour during the actual event. Athletes should begin drinking early in exercise and consume small volumes (200300 millilitres) every 1520 minutes if possible. Sports drinks can be classied as isotonic (68 per cent carbohydrate), hypotonic (low level of carbohydrate; less than 8 per cent) or hypertonic (high level of carbohydrate; greater than 8 per cent). Intravenous (IV) infusions for rehydration are only permitted under the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) code for medical reasons, not for convenience or faster rehydration of an athlete. Physiological strategies Physiological therapies used to assist an athletes recovery include hydrotherapy, compression garments, massage, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and sleep. Hydrotherapy can be broadly dened as the external application of water, in any form or temperature, for healing and recovery purposes. Water provides buoyancy and reduces stress on joints, allows for a fuller range of motion, and provides a gentle massaging effect on moving limbs and body parts. Many hydrotherapy techniques are used by athletes, including cryotherapy (ice and cold water application), hot and cold temperature contrast therapy, spas and mineral springs (balneotherapy). Compression garments provide mild compression on muscles and are thought to assist with increased blood ow and venous return and enhance clearance of metabolic by-products. Massage and hyperbaric oxygen therapy can also assist with the stimulation of blood ow to areas of the body that have been stressed during training. Massage can also help with the removal of accumulated lactic acid and other metabolic by-products of exercise. Sleep is very important as lack of sleep can have both physiological and psychological effects on the body. Establishing a pre-sleep routine and paying attention to nutrition can assist with better sleep. Psychological strategies Sports psychologists focus on techniques that athletes can use in competitive and training situations to maintain control, concentration, condence and commitment (the four Cs) and so optimise their performance. Performance anxiety and arousal are both emotional control factors that can impact on performance. Techniques to manage these include reduction techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation, centred breathing and meditation, as well as promotion techniques including pre-competition psyche up (e.g. music, video and motivational addresses). Concentration involves focusing on the task at hand and can be improved via mental imagery and rehearsal, positive self-talk, cue words and using pre-performance routines. SMARTER is the acronym used to assist athletes to set goals to work towards achieving specic objectives. SMARTER stands for Specic, Measurable, Accepted, Realistic, Timeframed, Exciting and Recorded.
390

1 List the ve essential nutrients required by athletes. Why are they required? 2 Explain why it is important for athletes to understand the glycaemic index. 3 Outline the fuelling strategies required for short-duration, moderate-intensity and prolonged sub-maximal events. 4 Explain what an athlete has to do to carbohydrate load and suggest types of activities that would benet from this strategy. 5 Compare the differences between isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic sports drinks and identify types of athletes that would benet from consuming each drink. 6 Describe the physiological benets to the athlete of using the various forms of hydrotherapy as part of their recovery strategy. 7 Outline the ways compression garments are thought to enhance performance and aid recovery. 8 Discuss why sleep is an important part of an athletes recovery process. 9 Dene performance anxiety and discuss the techniques an athlete can use to control it. 10 Outline the steps for successful goal setting and explain how goal setting can be used as a motivational tool for athletes.
Exam questions
Question 1
Which statement is true about low GI foods? A. Low GI foods are digested rapidly and cause a rapid release of glucose to muscles. B. Low GI foods should be eaten 14 hours pre-competition. C. Low GI foods are more benecial for sprinters than endurance athletes. D. Examples of low GI foods include: potatoes, corn, bananas and porridge. 1 mark Question 2
The U/21 Australian womens hockey team has just completed a tournament in The Netherlands playing a series of games over a 10-day period. The Australian coach instructed her athletes to consume a snack consisting of bananas, mufns and Gatorade drinks within 30 minutes after each game. a. Briey explain why it is important to consume this type of snack within 30 minutes after the game. b. Outline and explain the type of meal the players should be consuming 23 hours prior to each game. c. Many athletes drink specially designed sports drinks during the game. Briey explain the benet of consuming a drink with 48 grams of added carbohydrates per 100 mL. 2 marks 2 marks
2 marks
CHAPTER 10 Strategies to enhance performance and recovery
391
CHAPTER 10 REVISION
Question 3
(adapted from ACHPER Trial Exam 2008, question 19c and d)
A few years ago a particular sporting club frequently used intravenous rehydration of its players during the half-time break of specic games where conditions were hot and humid. This practice has subsequently been banned partly due to ethical concerns over its use. a. Outline two supposed advantages associated with the use of intravenous rehydration as a means of enhancing recovery from exercise. 2 marks b. Outline two ethical concerns associated with this practice. Question 4 2 marks
Use the following scenario to answer the question. Australias Lleyton Hewitt is a professional tennis player who has been ranked number one in the world. In a best of ve set match, Hewitt was down two sets to love. He hits a winner down the line and calls out Come on! with the accompanying gesture (see photograph). Indicate on the graph with an X where Hewitts arousal level would probably be for him to need to perform this action. Justify your answer. 2 marks
Performance
Arousal level
Question 5
Many athletes, such as divers and long jumpers, use imagery to obtain optimum arousal and concentration levels. Give a specic example of how a diver or long jumper could use imagery and how this could bring about improved performance. 2 marks Question 6
Hydrotherapy is best used to A. promote recovery through weight-bearing exercise. B. decrease blood ow to injured muscles to assist recovery. C. reduce stress on the joints and facilitate stretching to assist recovery. D. assist in both physiological and psychological recovery of an athlete. 1 mark Question 7
What are the main functions of nutrition during recovery? A. Restoring muscle glycogen, replacing lost uids and electrolytes and manufacturing new muscle and red blood cells in the repair and adaptation process
392
B. Restoring muscle glycogen, replacing lost uids and electrolytes and relaxation of muscles through massage C. Replacing lost uids and electrolytes, allowing the immune system to handle any damage caused by the exercise bout and preventing delayed onset muscular soreness D. Replacing lost uids and electrolytes, manufacturing new muscle and red blood cells in the repair and adaptation process and preventing delayed onset muscular soreness 1 mark Question 8
Many athletes include the use of hot-and-cold contrast therapy during recovery sessions. This may involve the athlete having a hot shower for a couple of minutes, followed by getting into an ice bath for a minute or so, as shown in the photograph at right. a. Describe the physiological changes that occur when the athlete uses hot-and-cold contrast therapy. b. Explain how these changes can enhance recovery when compared to a passive recovery. Question 9 2 marks 3 marks
A Victorian Institute of Sport tennis player is taking the required 25-second break between games at a qualifying tournament for the Australian Open. As part of his game plan his sports psychologist requires him to undertake an arousal reduction technique during these breaks. Which of the following is not an example of a suitable arousal reduction technique for the tennis player? A. Revving himself up with motivational music B. Biofeedback C. Positive self-talk D. Breathing control Question 10
1 mark
(ACHPER Trial Exam 2009, question 7a, b and e)
There a number of different sports drinks on the market but they fall mainly into two categories: isotonic and hypertonic. a. Outline the difference between an isotonic sports drink and a hypertonic sports drink. b. Under what circumstances would it be preferable for an athlete to ingest a hypertonic sports drink in preference to an isotonic one? c. Identify three guidelines an athlete should follow to ensure they remain adequately hydrated before, during and after exercise. Question 11 2 marks 1 mark 3 marks
(adapted from VCAA Physical Education exam 2001, question 10d)
Identify two physiological benets runners would receive from a massage during their recovery from a marathon.
2 marks
CHAPTER 10 Strategies to enhance performance and recovery
393
CHAPTER
11
CHAPTER 11 REVISION
Summary
Ergogenic aids Ergogenic aids are any methods, devices or substances that enhance athletic performance. They can be legal or illegal and are categorised as mechanical, nutritional, pharmacological, physiological or psychological aids to enhance performance. Ergogenic aids improve performance by inuencing the physiological capacity of a particular body system, removing physiological constraints that impact on performance or increasing the speed of recovery. Legal substances and methods Legal substances and methods to enhance performance include some training methods and devices as well as nutritional aids. Training methods and mechanical devices can improve an athletes performance by specically focusing on relevant tness components and energy systems in a particular sport and enhancing training effects. Altitude training is a legal method that induces physiological changes to enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, thus increasing the delivery to and use of oxygen by the muscles. This training can occur at actual altitude (greater than 1500 metres above sea level) or in specically designed rooms or tents that simulate altitude. Nutritional supplements can also benet the athlete. There are a myriad of nutritional supplements on the market, although many of them have no scientic backing to support their ergogenic claims. While specialised sports foods or drinks are very popular and can be a useful addition to a specialised program, nutritional ergogenic aids should be used with caution. Only a few so-called nutritional ergogenic aids actually offer benets supported by scientic evidence. The AIS has set up an information program for its athletes, which categorises sports supplements and/or ergogenic aids. Currently, only those supplements found in group A have scientic backing and are supported by the AIS for use by its athletes. Examples of these supplements include sports drinks, electrolyte replacement supplements, sports bars or gels, liquid-meal supplements, orally ingested vitamin or mineral supplements, creatine and bicarbonate. Illegal substances and methods Doping is the use of certain substances or methods that could articially improve an athletes physical and/or mental condition, thus enhancing their performance. Performance-enhancing drugs are currently banned or considered illegal in most sports. Performance-enhancing drugs may be taken by athletes to increase their strength and muscle mass, counteract undesirable side-effects, mask the presence of other banned substances, increase alertness or aggressiveness, or reduce pain. The World Anti-Doping Authority (WADA) produces a list of banned substances and methods annually that athletes and sporting organisations must abide by. Drugs can be prohibited at all times, only in competition or only in certain sports depending on their classication and effects on the body. Table 11.4 outlines the WADA 2010 prohibited list and identies performance benets and possible side-effects of each substance and method.
CHAPTER 11 Ergogenic aids
425
CHAPTER 11 REVISION
There are a variety of reasons why athletes take drugs. These can include
dissatisfaction with performance and progress; belief that others are using drugs; being easily inuenced by others; lack of knowledge about side-effects; culture of the sport; pressure to win from coach, parents, public, media; and nancial reward.
Anti-doping codes Anti-doping codes in sport were established to eradicate the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances and methods and to create a fair and level playing eld. The overarching code is the World Anti-Doping Code administered by WADA. In Australia, the Australian Sports AntiDoping Authority (ASADA) is the government organisation responsible for administration of and adherence to this code. The AFL is an example of a national sporting organisation that has not only implemented the code but also made a conscious effort to target illicit drug use through development of its own policy and by testing footballers out of competition for use of illicit drugs.

1 Explain what an ergogenic aid is and how it is thought to improve performance. 2 Describe the changes that occur in the body when undertaking altitude training and why they might improve performance. 3 Outline the different categories of dietary supplements and suggest why athletes might take them. 4 Caffeine, creatine and bicarbonate are supplements that should be used with caution. Explain why this is so. 5 Choose either caffeine, creatine or bicarbonate. Outline perceived benets and possible harms for an athlete who might consume the supplement. 6 Discuss some of the specic pressures athletes experience that may inuence them to use performance-enhancing drugs and/or methods. 7 Make a list of all the legal and illegal methods of performance enhancement outlined in this chapter. For each method, suggest a type of athlete who may choose to use the method and explain why. 8 Identify legal and illegal methods that athletes might use to enhance oxygen transfer. Discuss performance benets and potential harms of these methods. 9 Discuss why anti-doping codes have been introduced. Outline both the WADA and ASADA anti-doping codes. 10 In a table, summarise the perceived benets and potential harms of the following illegal drugs: steroids, erythropoietin, diuretics, stimulants and beta blockers.
426
Exam questions
Question 1
Which of the following is not a principle that would need to be considered in any sporting ethical charter? A. Harm prevention B. Refusing to take an unfair advantage C. Duty of care D. Use of science to enhance performance Question 2
1 mark
Creatine supplementation is a dietary enhancement practice thought to enhance performance. a. Outline the major perceived benet to performance from the use of creatine supplementation. b. What type of athletes would most benet from the use of creatine supplementation? c. Outline one other possible effect that creatine supplementation may have on an athlete. Question 3 2 marks 1 mark 2 marks
Which two of the following physiological characteristics are increased by creatine supplementation? A. Increased phosphocreatine stores and increased capability to resynthesise ATP B. Increased haemoglobin concentration in the blood and increased muscle glycogen C. Increased ability to oxidise lactic acid and increased capability to resynthesise ATP D. Increased phosphocreatine stores and increased cardiac output 1 mark Question 4
During 2005, the media ran a number of stories relating to the use of caffeine supplements as a performance enhancing practice for elite athletes. a. Outline two supposed performance benets associated with the use of caffeine. b. Outline two potential side-effects associated with the use of caffeine as a performance-enhancing substance. 2 marks 2 marks
CHAPTER 11 Ergogenic aids
427
CHAPTER 11 REVISION
c. A few years earlier a particular sporting club frequently used intravenous rehydration of its players during the half-time break of specic games where conditions were hot and humid. This practice has subsequently been banned partly due to ethicalconcerns over its use. Outline two supposed advantages associated with the use of intravenous rehydration as a means of enhancing recovery from exercise. d. Outline two ethical concerns associated with this practice. Question 5
2 marks 2 marks
Jones pleads guilty, admits lying about steroids Marion Jones was the owner of three Olympic gold and two bronze medals which she won at the 2000 Sydney Games. Suspicions and doping allegations had dogged Jones for years. She had angrily and deantly denied all doping allegations, even in court before a grand jury. In October last year, Jones was forced to come clean and admit that she had used steroids. She pleaded guilty to lying to federal investigators when she denied using performance-enhancing drugs, then announced her retirement in a tearful apology outside a US District Court. She has had a stunning fall from grace because she was once the symbol for everything that was right about women in sports. She was powerful and had the grace and poise of a supermodel. Seven years later, she is broke, she has been stripped of her ve Olympic medals and her reputation is ruined. She has also served time in prison.
Source: Adapted from http://nbcsports.msnbc.com. Accessed July 2008
a. Other than physiological benets, state two reasons why some athletes may choose to take performance-enhancing drugs. b. Outline two detrimental effects to sport that may result from an athletes decision to use a banned performance-enhancing substance. Question 6
2 marks
2 marks
Some athletes will consider anything to enhance their performance. On 1 January 2005, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited the use of diuretics in all sports. Excluding reference to the physiological effects of diuretic use, outline two positive and two negative ethical considerations an athlete may address when choosing whether or not to use diuretics to enhance their performance.
4 marks
428

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LIVE IT UP 2

David SMYTH Wayne JUDGE Michelle OKEEFFE Fiona SHEPHERD

Source: Sports Medicine

1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 2 marks

(adapted from VCAA Physical Education exam 2006, question 3)

Below is a sample training program for volleyball players.

(VCAA Physical Education exam 2007, question 3)

Tuck jumps Hops Bench blasts Bounds

2 sets 8 repetitions 2 sets 6 repetitions 2 sets 12 repetitions 2 sets 8 repetitions

1 mark 1 mark 1 mark

5 95% max seconds heart rate 95% max heart rate

Next generation teaching and learning

Using the JacarandaPLUS website

Using eBookPLUS references

Live It Up 2, Third Edition

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Practice VCE questions

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UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

Strengthen your understanding

CHAPTER 1 Physical activity and participation

UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

2 marks 2 marks 2 marks

8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

CHAPTER 1 Physical activity and participation

UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

Vigorous-intensity physical activity Moderate-intensity physical activity Low-intensity physical activity

Teacher instruction eacher

CHAPTER 1 Physical activity and participation

Characteristics Conversion and storage

Major role and function

Percentage of total daily intake

Common food sources

UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

TABLE 2.6 Summary: characteristics of the three energy systems

Characteristics Alternative name or names

Anaerobic glycolysis system Lactic acid system Lactacid system

Aerobic system Oxygen system

Aerobic or anaerobic Fuel or fuels used

Maximal rate of energy production

Maximum ATP production (yield) per mole of fuel source

Duration and intensity of peak energy production

CHAPTER 2 Energy for physical activity

Characteristics Specic examples

Depletion of glycogen stores

Strengthen your understanding

UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

1 mark 1 mark 1 mark 2 marks

CHAPTER 2 Energy for physical activity

UNIT 3 Physical activity participation and physiological performance

CHAPTER 2 Energy for physical activity

Health related fitness components

Oxygen (millilitres per 100 millilitres of blood)

Arterial content Mixed venous content

20 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

a-VO2 diff. 45 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

1516 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

20 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

a-VO2 diff. 15 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

5 mL O2 per 100 mL blood

Oxygen uptake (litres per minute)

TEST your understanding

EXTEND your understanding