Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................xxi
PART 1 Understanding Reliability Parameters and Costs ...................................1
Chapter 1: The History of Reliability and Safety Technology .....................................3
 &AILURE$ATA ........................................................................................................... 3
 (AZARDOUS&AILURES ................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Reliability and Risk Prediction.............................................................................. 5
1.4 Achieving Reliability and Safety-Integrity............................................................ 8
1.5 The RAMS Cycle .................................................................................................. 9
1.6 Contractual and Legal Pressures.......................................................................... 11
Chapter 2: Understanding Terms and Jargon.........................................................13
 $ElNING&AILUREAND&AILURE-ODES .................................................................... 13
 &AILURE2ATEAND-EAN4IME"ETWEEN&AILURES................................................... 15
 4HE/BSERVED&AILURE2ATE...............................................................................15
 4HE/BSERVED-EAN4IME"ETWEEN&AILURES ...................................................16
 4HE/BSERVED-EAN4IMETO&AIL.....................................................................16
2.2.4 Mean Life .........................................................................................................17
2.3 Interrelationships of Terms .................................................................................. 17
 2ELIABILTYAND&AILURE2ATE...............................................................................17
 2ELIABILTYAND&AILURE2ATEASAN!PPROXIMATION ............................................19
 2ELIABILTYAND-4"& .......................................................................................20
2.4 The Bathtub Distribution ..................................................................................... 20
2.5 Down Time and Repair Time............................................................................... 21
 !VAILABILITY5NAVAILABILITYAND0ROBABILITYOF&AILUREON$EMAND .................... 25
2.7 Hazard and Risk-Related Terms .......................................................................... 26
2.8 Choosing the Appropriate Parameter................................................................... 26

Chapter 3: A Cost-Effective Approach to Quality, Reliability and Safety ..................29

 2ELIABILITYAND/PTIMUM#OST............................................................................. 29
3.2 Costs and Safety .................................................................................................. 33
 4HE.EEDFOR/PTIMIZATION ..............................................................................33
3.2.2 Costs and Savings Involved with Safety Engineering......................................33
3.3 The Cost of Quality ............................................................................................. 34
v

PART 2 Interpreting Failure Rates....................................................................39

Chapter 4: Realistic Failure Rates and Prediction Condence..................................41
4.1 Data Accuracy ..................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Sources of Data.................................................................................................... 43
 %LECTRONIC&AILURE2ATES ...................................................................................44
 /THER'ENERAL$ATA#OLLECTIONS .......................................................................46
 3OME/LDER3OURCES.........................................................................................48
4.3 Data Ranges ......................................................................................................... 48
 5SINGTHE2ANGES .............................................................................................50
4.4 Condence Limits of Prediction.......................................................................... 52
4.5 Manufacturers Data ............................................................................................ 54
 /VERALL#ONCLUSIONS............................................................................................. 55

Chapter 5: Interpreting Data and Demonstrating Reliability...................................57

 4HE&OUR#ASES .................................................................................................... 57
5.2 Inference and Condence Levels......................................................................... 57
5.3 The Chi-Square Test ............................................................................................ 59
 5NDERSTANDINGTHE-ETHODIN-ORE$ETAIL.......................................................... 62
5.5 Double-Sided Condence Limits ........................................................................ 63
5.6 Reliability Demonstration.................................................................................... 63
5.7 Sequential Testing................................................................................................ 68
 3ETTING5P$EMONSTRATION4ESTS .......................................................................... 69
%XERCISES ..................................................................................................................... 70
Chapter 6: Variable Failure Rates and Probability Plotting.....................................71
6.1 The Weibull Distribution ..................................................................................... 71
 5SINGTHE7EIBULL-ETHOD................................................................................... 73
 #URVE&ITTINGTO)NTERPRET&AILURE$ATA.............................................................73
6.2.2 Manual Plotting................................................................................................75
 5SINGTHE#/-0!2%#OMPUTER4OOL .............................................................77
6.2.4 Signicance of the Result ................................................................................79
 /PTIMUM0REVENTIVE2EPLACEMENT...................................................................81
 -ORE#OMPLEX#ASESOFTHE7EIBULL$ISTRIBUTION............................................... 81
6.4 Continuous Processes .......................................................................................... 82
%XERCISES ..................................................................................................................... 83

PART 3 Predicting Reliability and Risk .............................................................85

Chapter 7: Basic Reliability Prediction Theory.......................................................87
7.1 Why Predict RAMS? ........................................................................................... 87
7.2 Probability Theory ............................................................................................... 88
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4

The Multiplication Rule ...................................................................................88

The Addition Rule............................................................................................88
The Binomial Theorem ....................................................................................89
Bayes Theorem.................................................................................................90

7.3 Reliability of Series Systems ............................................................................... 91

7.4 Redundancy Rules ............................................................................................... 92
7.4.1 General Types of Redundant Conguration.....................................................92
 &ULL!CTIVE2EDUNDANCY7ITHOUT2EPAIR .......................................................92
7.4.3 Partial Active Redundancy (Without Repair)...................................................94
7.4.4 Conditional Active Redundancy ......................................................................95
7.4.5 Standby Redundancy........................................................................................96
7.4.6 Load Sharing ....................................................................................................98
 'ENERAL&EATURESOF2EDUNDANCY......................................................................... 98
7.5.1 Incremental Improvement ................................................................................98
 &URTHER#OMPARISONSOF2EDUNDANCY.............................................................100
7.5.3 Redundancy and Cost.....................................................................................101
%XERCISES ................................................................................................................... 101

Chapter 8: Methods of Modeling .......................................................................103

8.1 Block Diagrams and Repairable Systems.......................................................... 103
8.1.1 Reliability Block Diagrams............................................................................103
 2EPAIRABLE3YSTEMS2EVEALED&AILURES ........................................................105
 2EPAIRABLE3YSTEMS5NREVEALED&AILURES ....................................................107
 3YSTEMS7ITH#OLD3TANDBY5NITSAND2EPAIR...............................................109
8.1.5 Modeling Repairable Systems with Both
2EVEALEDAND5NREVEALED&AILURES ...........................................................................110
8.1.6 Conventions for Labeling Dangerous, Safe,
2EVEALEDAND5NREVEALED&AILURES ...........................................................................110
 #OMMON#AUSE$EPENDENT &AILURE ................................................................ 111
 7HATIS##& .................................................................................................111
 4YPESOF##&-ODEL......................................................................................112
 4HE"%4!0,53-ODEL .................................................................................114
 &AULT4REE!NALYSIS............................................................................................ 118
 4HE&AULT4REE ................................................................................................118
8.3.2 Calculations....................................................................................................119
8.3.3 Cutsets............................................................................................................122
8.3.4 Computer Tools..............................................................................................122
 !LLOWINGFOR##& ..........................................................................................124
 &AULT4REE!NALYSISIN$ESIGN........................................................................126
8.3.7 A Cautionary Note .........................................................................................126
8.4 Event Tree Diagrams ......................................................................................... 126
 7HY5SE%VENT4REES ...................................................................................126
8.4.2 The Event Tree Model....................................................................................127
8.4.3 Quantication.................................................................................................129
8.4.4 Differences .....................................................................................................130
 &EEDBACK,OOPS .............................................................................................131

Chapter 9: Quantifying the Reliability Models.....................................................133

9.1 The Reliability Prediction Method .................................................................... 133
9.2 Allowing for Diagnostic Intervals ..................................................................... 135
9.2.1 Establishing Diagnostic Coverage .................................................................135
9.2.2 Modeling ........................................................................................................135
9.2.3 Partial Stroke Testing .....................................................................................137
 3AFE&AILURE&RACTION ......................................................................................137
 &-%!&AILURE-ODEAND%FFECT!NALYSIS ...................................................... 137
 (UMAN&ACTORS................................................................................................... 140
9.4.1 Background ....................................................................................................140
9.4.2 Models............................................................................................................140
9.4.3 HEART (Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique) ....................141
9.4.4 THERP (Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction) .................................143
 4%3%/%MPIRICAL4ECHNIQUETO%STIMATE/PERATOR%RRORS .........................143
 /THER-ETHODS................................................................................................144
9.4.7 Human Error Rates.........................................................................................144
9.4.8 Trends in Rigor of Assessment ......................................................................146
9.5 Simulation.......................................................................................................... 147
9.5.1 The Technique................................................................................................147
9.5.2 Some Packages...............................................................................................149
9.6 Comparing Predictions with Targets.................................................................. 153
%XERCISES ................................................................................................................... 153

Chapter 10: Risk Assessment (QRA).................................................................155

 &REQUENCYAND#ONSEQUENCE ........................................................................... 155
10.2 Perception of Risk, ALARP and Cost per Life Saved..................................... 156
 -AXIMUM4OLERABLE2ISK)NDIVIDUAL2ISK ...............................................156
 -AXIMUM4OLERABLE&AILURE2ATE...............................................................157
10.2.3 ALARP and Cost per Life Saved ...............................................................159
10.2.4 Societal Risk...............................................................................................161
 0RODUCTION$AMAGE,OSS ...........................................................................164
10.3 Hazard Identication ....................................................................................... 164
10.3.1 (!:/0.......................................................................................................165
10.3.2 HAZID .......................................................................................................169
10.3.3 HAZAN (Consequence Analysis)..............................................................169
 &ACTORSTO1UANTIFY .......................................................................................... 169
10.4.1 Reliability ...................................................................................................170
10.4.2 Lightning and Thunderstorms ....................................................................170
10.4.3 Aircraft Impact ...........................................................................................170
10.4.4 Earthquake..................................................................................................173
 -ETEOROLOGICAL&ACTORS...............................................................................174
 /THER#ONSEQUENCES...................................................................................174

PART 4 Achieving Reliability and Maintainability ...........................................177

Chapter 11: Design and Assurance Techniques....................................................179
11.1 Specifying and Allocating the Requirement.................................................... 179
11.2 Stress Analysis................................................................................................. 181
11.3 Environmental Stress Protection...................................................................... 184
 &AILURE-ECHANISMS......................................................................................... 185
 4YPESOF&AILURE-ECHANISM ......................................................................185
 &AILURESIN3EMICONDUCTOR#OMPONENTS.....................................................186
11.4.3 Discrete Components .................................................................................187
 #OMPLEXITYAND0ARTS....................................................................................... 187
 2EDUCTIONOF#OMPLEXITY ...........................................................................187
11.5.2 Part Selection..............................................................................................188
11.5.3 Redundancy ................................................................................................188
11.6 Burn-In and Screening..................................................................................... 189
11.7 Maintenance Strategies.................................................................................... 190

Chapter 12: Design Review, Test and Reliability Growth......................................191

12.1 Review Techniques .......................................................................................... 191
12.2 Categories of Testing ....................................................................................... 192
12.2.1 Environmental Testing ...............................................................................193
12.2.2 Marginal Testing ........................................................................................194
12.2.3 High-Reliability Testing ............................................................................195
12.2.4 Testing for Packaging and Transport...........................................................195
12.2.5 Multiparameter Testing..............................................................................196
12.2.6 Step-Stress Testing.....................................................................................197
12.3 Reliability Growth Modeling........................................................................... 198
12.3.1 4HE#535-4ECHNIQUE ............................................................................198
12.3.2 Duane Plots................................................................................................201
%XERCISES.................................................................................................................202

Chapter 13: Field Data Collection and Feedback .................................................205

13.1 Reasons for Data Collection ............................................................................ 205
13.2 Information and Difculties ............................................................................ 205
 4IMESTO&AILURE ............................................................................................... 207
13.4 Spreadsheets and Databases ............................................................................ 208
13.5 Best Practice and Recommendations............................................................... 210
13.6 Analysis and Presentation of Results............................................................... 211
13.7 Manufacturers data ......................................................................................... 212
13.8 Anecdotal Data ................................................................................................ 213
 %XAMPLESOF&AILURE2EPORT&ORMS.................................................................. 213

Chapter 14: Factors Inuencing Down Time .......................................................217

14.1 Key Design Areas ............................................................................................ 217
14.1.1 Access.........................................................................................................217
14.1.2 Adjustment .................................................................................................217
14.1.3 Built-In Test Equipment .............................................................................218
14.1.4 Circuit Layout and Hardware Partitioning .................................................218
14.1.5 Connections................................................................................................219
14.1.6 Displays and Indicators ..............................................................................220
 (ANDLING(UMANAND%RGONOMIC&ACTORS ...............................................221
14.1.8 Identication.............................................................................................222
14.1.9 Interchangeability.....................................................................................222
14.1.10 Least Replaceable Assembly....................................................................223
14.1.11 Mounting ..................................................................................................223
14.1.12 Component Part Selection ........................................................................223
14.1.13 Redundancy ..............................................................................................224
14.1.14 Safety........................................................................................................224
14.1.15 Software ...................................................................................................224
14.1.16 Standardization.........................................................................................225
14.1.17 Test Points ................................................................................................225
14.2 Maintenance Strategies and Handbooks.......................................................... 225
 /RGANIZATIONOF-AINTENANCE2ESOURCES....................................................226
14.2.2 Maintenance Procedures ............................................................................227
14.2.3 Tools and Test Equipment ..........................................................................228
14.2.4 Personnel Considerations ...........................................................................229
14.2.5 Maintenance Manuals ................................................................................230
14.2.6 Spares Provisioning....................................................................................232
14.2.7 Logistics .....................................................................................................238
 4HE5SERANDTHE$ESIGNER .........................................................................238
14.2.9 Computer Aids to Maintenance..................................................................239

Chapter 15: Predicting and Demonstrating Repair Times .....................................241

15.1 Prediction Methods.......................................................................................... 241
 53-ILITARY(ANDBOOKn0ROCEDURE.................................................242
 #HECKLISTn-ILn0ROCEDURE.............................................................243
 5SINGA7EIGHTED3AMPLE ..........................................................................250
15.2 Demonstration Plans........................................................................................ 250
15.2.1 Demonstration Risks ..................................................................................250
 53-ILITARY3TANDARD! ............................................................252
15.2.3 Data Collection...........................................................................................254

Chapter 16: Quantied Reliability Centered Maintenance....................................255

16.1 What is QRCM? .............................................................................................. 255
16.2 The QRCM Decision Process.......................................................................... 256
 /PTIMUM2EPLACEMENT$ISCARD .................................................................... 256

 /PTIMUM3PARES .............................................................................................. 259

 /PTIMUM0ROOF4EST ........................................................................................ 260
16.6 Condition Monitoring ...................................................................................... 262

Chapter 17: Systematic Failures, Especially Software ..........................................263

17.1 Programable Devices ....................................................................................... 263
 3OFTWARE RELATED&AILURES................................................................................. 265
 3OFTWARE&AILURE-ODELING .............................................................................. 267
17.4 Software Quality Assurance (Life Cycle Activities) ....................................... 268
17.4.1 /RGANIZATIONOF3OFTWARE1! ....................................................................269
17.4.2 Documentation Controls............................................................................269
17.4.3 Programming (Coding) Standards..............................................................272
 &AULT 4OLERANT$ESIGN&EATURES ..................................................................273
17.4.5 Reviews ......................................................................................................274
17.4.6 Integration and Test ....................................................................................274
 -ODERN&ORMAL-ETHODS ................................................................................. 275
17.5.1 Requirements Specication and Design.....................................................276
17.5.2 Static Analysis............................................................................................277
17.5.3 Test Beds ....................................................................................................279
17.6 Software Checklists ......................................................................................... 279
 /RGANIZATIONOF3OFTWARE1!.....................................................................279
17.6.2 Documentation Controls ............................................................................280
17.6.3 Programming Standards .............................................................................280
 $ESIGN&EATURES ..........................................................................................281
17.6.5 Code Inspections and Walkthroughs ..........................................................282
17.6.6 Integration and Test ....................................................................................282

PART 5 Legal, Management and Safety Considerations .................................285

Chapter 18: Project Management and Competence .............................................287
 3ETTING/BJECTIVESAND-AKING3PECIlCATIONS ................................................ 287
 0LANNING&EASIBILITYAND!LLOCATION ............................................................... 288
18.3 Program Activities ........................................................................................... 289
18.4 Responsibilities and Competence .................................................................... 291
 &UNCTIONAL3AFETY#APABILITY ........................................................................... 294
18.6 Standards and Guidance Documents ............................................................... 295
Chapter 19: Contract Clauses and Their Pitfalls..................................................297
19.1 Essential Areas................................................................................................. 297
19.1.1
19.1.2
19.1.3
19.1.4
19.1.5

Denitions ..................................................................................................298
Environment ...............................................................................................299
Maintenance Support..................................................................................299
Demonstration and Prediction....................................................................300
Liability ......................................................................................................301

 /THER!REAS...................................................................................................... 302

19.2.1 Reliability and Maintainability Program....................................................302
19.2.2 Reliability and Maintainability Analysis....................................................302
19.2.3 Storage........................................................................................................302
19.2.4 Design Standards........................................................................................303
19.2.5 Safety-Related Equipment..........................................................................303
19.3 Pitfalls .............................................................................................................. 304
19.3.1 Denitions ..................................................................................................304
19.3.2 Repair Time................................................................................................304
19.3.3 Statistical Risks ..........................................................................................304
19.3.4 Quoted Specications.................................................................................304
19.3.5 Environment ...............................................................................................305
19.3.6 Liability ......................................................................................................305
19.3.7 In Summary ................................................................................................305
19.4 Penalties........................................................................................................... 305
19.4.1 Apportionment of Costs During Guarantee ...............................................305
19.4.2 Payment According to Down Time ............................................................307
19.4.3 In Summary ................................................................................................307
19.5 Subcontracted Reliability Assessments ........................................................... 308
%XAMPLES .................................................................................................................. 308

Chapter 20: Product Liability and Safety Legislation ...........................................311

20.1 The General Situation ...................................................................................... 311

20.2
20.3
20.4

20.5

20.1.1 Contract Law ..............................................................................................311

20.1.2 Common Law .............................................................................................312
20.1.3 Statute Law.................................................................................................312
20.1.4 In Summary ................................................................................................313
Strict Liability.................................................................................................. 313
20.2.1 Concept.......................................................................................................313
20.2.2 Defects........................................................................................................313
The Consumer Protection Act 1987 ................................................................ 314
20.3.1 Background ................................................................................................314
20.3.2 Provisions of the Act ..................................................................................314
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 ............................................................... 315
20.4.1 Scope ..........................................................................................................315
20.4.2 Duties .........................................................................................................315
20.4.3 Concessions................................................................................................315
20.4.4 Responsibilities ..........................................................................................315
20.4.5 European Community Legislation..............................................................316
20.4.6 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 ..................316
Insurance and Product Recall .......................................................................... 316
20.5.1 The Effect of Product Liability Trends ......................................................316
20.5.2 Some Critical Areas ...................................................................................316

20.5.3 Areas of Cover............................................................................................317

20.5.4 Product Recall ............................................................................................317

Chapter 21: Major Incident Legislation ..............................................................319

21.1 History of Major Incidents............................................................................... 319
21.2 Development of Major Incident Legislation.................................................... 320
21.3 CIMAH Safety Reports ................................................................................... 322
 /FFSHORE3AFETY#ASES...................................................................................... 324
21.5 Problem Areas ................................................................................................. 327
 4HE#/-!($IRECTIVEAND!MENDMENT ................................... 328
21.7 Rail................................................................................................................... 328
21.8 Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide.......................................... 329
Chapter 22: Integrity of Safety-Related Systems .................................................331
22.1 Safety-Related or Safety-Critical?................................................................... 331
22.2 Safety-Integrity Levels (SILs) ......................................................................... 332
22.2.1 Targets ........................................................................................................332
22.2.2 Assessing Equipment Against the Targets .................................................336
22.3 Programable Electronic Systems (PESs) ......................................................... 338
22.4 Current Guidance............................................................................................. 338
 )%#)NTERNATIONAL3TANDARD 
&UNCTIONALSAFETYOFELECTRICALELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLEELECTRONIC
safety-related systems 7 parts................................................................. ...339
 )%#)NTERNATIONAL3TANDARD&UNCTIONALSAFETYnSafety
instrumented systems for the process industry sector ............................. ...339
 )NSTITUTIONOF'AS%NGINEERSAND-ANAGERS)'%-32
PROGRAMMABLEEQUIPMENTINSAFETY RELATEDAPPLICATIONSnTHEDITION ... ...339
 %UROPEAN3TANDARD%.
RAILWAYAPPLICATIONSnThe specication and demonstration of
dependability, reliability, maintainability and safety (RAMS)....... .. ...... ...339
 5+$EFENCE3TANDARD )SSUE 
Safety Management Requirements for Defence Systems ....................... ...340
 24#!$/ "%52/#!%%$ " Software Considerations in
Airborne Systems and Equipment Certication...................................... .. 340
22.4.7 Documents Related to Machinery ..............................................................340
 /THERIndustry Sectors................................................................................341
 4ECHNIS'UIDELINES1DEMONSTRATIONOFPRODUCTSYSTEM
compliance with IEC 61508.................................................................... .. 341
 &RAMEWORKFOR#ERTIlCATION ............................................................................ 341
22.5.1 Self-Certication ..........................................................................................342
22.5.2 Third-Party Assessment ...............................................................................342
 5SEOFACertifying Body .............................................................................342

Chapter 23: A Case Study: The Datamet Project ................................................343

23.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 343
23.2 The Datamet Concept ...................................................................................... 343
23.3 The Contract .................................................................................................... 346
23.4 Detailed Design ............................................................................................... 347
23.5 Syndicate Study ............................................................................................... 348
23.6 Hints................................................................................................................. 348
Chapter 24: A Case Study: Gas Detection System ...............................................349
24.1 Safety-Integrity Target ................................................................................... 349
 2ANDOM(ARDWARE&AILURES ........................................................................... 350
24.3 ALARP .......................................................................................................... 352
24.4 Architectures.................................................................................................. 352
24.5 Life-Cycle Activities ..................................................................................... 353
 &UNCTIONAL3AFETY#APABILITY ......................................................................... 353
Chapter 25: A Case Study: Pressure Control System ...........................................355
 4HE5NPROTECTED3YSTEM................................................................................ 355
25.2 Protection System .......................................................................................... 356
25.3 Assumptions .................................................................................................. 357
25.4 Reliability Block Diagram............................................................................. 357
 &AILURE2ATE$ATA ........................................................................................... 358
25.6 Quantifying the Model................................................................................... 358
25.7 Proposed Design and Maintenance Modications ........................................ 359
 -ODELING#OMMON#AUSE&AILURE0RESSURE4RANSMITTERS .......................... 359
25.9 Quantifying the Revised Model..................................................................... 360
25.10 ALARP .......................................................................................................... 361
25.11 Architectural Constraints ............................................................................... 361
Appendix 1: Glossary .......................................................................................363
! 4ERMS2ELATEDTO&AILURE................................................................................ 363
! &AILURE......................................................................................................363
! &AILURE-ODE ...........................................................................................363
! &AILURE-ECHANISM..................................................................................363
! &AILURE2ATE .............................................................................................364
! -EAN4IME"ETWEEN&AILURESAND-EAN4IMETO&AIL ............................364
! #OMMON#AUSE&AILURE...........................................................................364
! #OMMON-ODE&AILURE ...........................................................................364
A1.2 Reliability Terms............................................................................................ 364
A1.2.1 Reliability ................................................................................................364
A1.2.2 Redundancy.............................................................................................364
A1.2.3 Diversity ..................................................................................................365
! &AILURE-ODEAND%FFECT!NALYSIS...........................................................365
! &AULT4REE!NALYSIS .................................................................................365

A1.3

A1.4

A1.5

A1.6

A1.2.6 Cause Consequence Analysis (Event Trees) ...........................................365

A1.2.7 Reliability Growth...................................................................................365
A1.2.8 Reliability Centered Maintenance...........................................................365
Maintainability Terms.................................................................................... 365
A1.3.1 Maintainability ........................................................................................365
A1.3.2 Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)................................................................365
A1.3.3 Repair Rate..............................................................................................366
A1.3.4 Repair Time.............................................................................................366
A1.3.5 Down Time.............................................................................................366
A1.3.6 Corrective Maintenance .........................................................................366
A1.3.7 Preventive Maintenance .........................................................................366
A1.3.8 Least Replaceable Assembly (LRA)......................................................366
A1.3.9 Second-Line Maintenance .....................................................................366
Terms Associated with Software .................................................................... 366
A1.4.1 Software .................................................................................................366
A1.4.2 Programable Device...............................................................................367
A1.4.3 High-Level Language.............................................................................367
A1.4.4 Assembler ..............................................................................................367
A1.4.5 Compiler ................................................................................................367
A1.4.6 Diagnostic Software...............................................................................367
A1.4.7 Simulation ..............................................................................................367
A1.4.8 Emulation...............................................................................................367
A1.4.9 Load Test................................................................................................367
! &UNCTIONAL4EST.......................................................................................368
A1.4.11 Software Error........................................................................................368
A1.4.12 Bit Error Rate.........................................................................................368
A1.4.13 Automatic Test Equipment (ATE)..........................................................368
A1.4.14 Data Corruption .....................................................................................368
Terms Related to Safety.................................................................................. 368
A1.5.1 Hazard....................................................................................................368
A1.5.2 Major Hazard .........................................................................................368
A1.5.3 Hazard Analysis.....................................................................................368
! (!:/0 ..................................................................................................368
! ,/0! .....................................................................................................369
A1.5.6 Risk ........................................................................................................369
A1.5.7 Consequence Analysis ...........................................................................369
! 3AFE&AILURE&RACTION..............................................................................369
A1.5.9 Safety-Integrity ......................................................................................369
A1.5.10 Safety-Integrity level..............................................................................369
General Terms................................................................................................. 369
A1.6.1 Availability (Steady State) .....................................................................369
! 5NAVAILABILITY0&$ ..............................................................................369
A1.6.3 Burn-In...................................................................................................370

A1.6.4 Condence Interval ................................................................................370

A1.6.5 Consumers Risk ....................................................................................370
A1.6.6 Derating..................................................................................................370
A1.6.7 Ergonomics ............................................................................................370
A1.6.8 Mean ......................................................................................................370
A1.6.9 Median ...................................................................................................370
! 0&$ ........................................................................................................370
A1.6.11 Producers Risk ......................................................................................370
A1.6.12 Quality....................................................................................................371
A1.6.13 Random ..................................................................................................371
! &2!#!3 ................................................................................................371
A1.6.15 RAMS ....................................................................................................371

Appendix 2: Percentage Points of theChi-Square Distribution ...............................373

Appendix 3: Microelectronics Failure Rates.........................................................381
Appendix 4: General Failure Rates ....................................................................383
Appendix 5: Failure Mode Percentages...............................................................391
Appendix 6: Human Error Probabilities..............................................................395
Appendix 7: Fatality Rates................................................................................399
Appendix 8: Answers to Exercises ......................................................................401
Chapter 2.................................................................................................................. 401
Chapter 5.................................................................................................................. 401
Chapter 6.................................................................................................................. 402
Chapter 7.................................................................................................................. 402
Chapter 9.................................................................................................................. 403
Notes .....................................................................................................................404
Chapter 12................................................................................................................ 405
Chapter 25................................................................................................................ 406
 0ROTECTION3YSTEM ......................................................................................406
 2ELIABILITY"LOCK$IAGRAM.........................................................................406
 1UANTIFYINGTHE-ODEL...............................................................................406
 2EVISEDDIAGRAMS......................................................................................407
25.10 ALARP ......................................................................................................409
25.11 Architectural Constraints ...........................................................................409

Appendix 9: Bibliography..................................................................................411
Appendix 10: Scoring Criteria for BETAPLUS Common Cause Model ...................413
A10.1 Checklist and Scoring for Equipment Containing
Programable Electronics................................................................................413

A10.2 Checklist and Scoring for Non-Programable Equipment ............................. 415

&OR0ROGRAMABLE%LECTRONICS .................................................................................... 417
&OR3ENSORSAND!CTUATORS ........................................................................................ 417

Appendix 11: Example of HAZOP .....................................................................419

A11.1 Equipment Details ........................................................................................ 419
! (!:/07ORKSHEETS ..................................................................................... 419
A11.3 Potential Consequences ................................................................................ 419
Worksheet............................................................................................................421

Appendix 12: HAZID Checklist .........................................................................423

Appendix 13: Markov Analysis of Redundant Systems .........................................427
Index ..............................................................................................................433