24. T growth of t E vocabulary. Semantic change: causes, nature of change, results.

Lexicology studies & describes vocab, its origin, development & current use. Its concerned with words, word groups, phraseol. units & morphemes. Word basic unit of lang. sys., t largest on t morphologic & t smallest on t syntactic plane of ling. analysis. Word = soundform + meaning. Word-meaning changes with historical development of lang. This is called t semantic change. Growth of vocab. is determined by it. 1. Causes of sem. change: )extralinguistic (in life of speech community, in economic & social structure etc) (Sound-form remains t same but meaning changes: e.g. pen meant feather (), but t writing technology has changed & t word is used now to denote any instrument for writing with ink) b)linguistic 1) T commonest formellipsis. In a phrase of 2 words one of them is omitted & its meaning is transferred to t 2nd one. E.g. starve in OldE meant to die & was used with hunger. In t 16th century it got t meaning die of hunger. 2) Discrimination of synonyms. E.g. beast came from French into MidE. Before it appeared t general word for animal was deer which became narrowed to its present meaning () after beast was borrowed. Then t Latin animal was borrowed & t meaning of beast served to separate t 4-footed kind =>beast displaced deer & was then displaced by animal. 2. Nature of sem. change: A necessary condition of s\c is some association between old & new meaning. Basic kinds of association: metaphor (transfer of meaning based on similarity- the leg of the table) and metonymy (contiguity () of meanings) (tongueorgan of speech-mother tongue) (T White House for pres). Ling. metaph. & meton. differ from metaph. & meton, as literary devices Other types of sem. change: hyperbole (contiguity () of meanings) (emotional attitude of speaker to what he is speaking about: I havent seen you for ages!), litotes (understatement) (t affirmative by t negative of its contrary) (not bad, rather decent), irony (ones meaning by words of opposite sense), euphemism (refers to smth unpleasant by using milder words & phrases so that an inoffensive word gets a disagreeable meaning: e.g. to pass away = die). 3. Results of sem. changes: 1) changes in the denotational meaning: restriction (specialization) & extension (generalization)of meaning 2) changes in the connotational component: amelioration () & deterioration of meaning (pejorative development boor was peasant, became ill-mannered person)

25. English wordstock. Polysemy, homonymy etc. Most E words are polysemantic. T actual number of meanings of t commonly used words ranges from 5 to about a 100. T commoner t word is t more meanings it has. 1. Polysemy: 2 approaches to this problem: diachronic & synchronic. Diachronically - change in t semantic structure of t word. A word retains its previous meaning + acquires 1 or several new ones. Questions regarded in this connection: did some meanings appear earlier than t others? Are t new meanings dependent on t existing meanings? e.g. table: in ModE t primary meaningflat slab of stone or wood. This meaning is proper to t word in OE. All other meanings are secondary. Synchronically -Polysemy is t coexistence of diff meanings of t same word at a certain historical period of t development of E. Table: an article of furniturethe basic (central) meaning. Other meanings are minor (marginal). Minor meanings are observed only in certain contexts. 2. Homonyms words identical in sound-form but diffr in meaning. Erich in homonymous words & word-forms cos of monosyllabic structure of t commonly used E words. Homonyms are DISTINCT words: not diffr meanings within one word! 3 groups: 1. homonyms proper - identical in pronunciation & spelling: back (noun & adv) 2. homophones buy by, knight night 3. homographs-lead, tear Causes of homonymy: a) homonymy through convergent sound development: 2 or more words of diffr origin coincide in sound: e.g. OE ic & ea ModE I & eye. b) homonymy developed from Polysemy through divergent sense development: e.g. flower & flour (originally one word flour with 2 meanings) 3. Synonyms words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning/meanings. 4. Lexical variants and paronyms. Lexical variants free variation in lang. that is optional with t individual speaker. T variation can concern morphological or phonological features or it may be limited to spelling. These are words belonging to the same part of speech, containing identical stems & synonymical affixes, and yet not permitting free variation, not optional. E.g. economic & economical interchangeable under certain conditions, more often economic is associated with economics, economical with economy. Paronyms words related in origin, similar in sound-form that are liable to be mixed but in fact different in meaning & usage & => only mistakenly interchanged. E.g. ingenious (=clever) ingenuous (frank, artless)

27. Typological differentiation of t E vocabulary 1.sources of t E vocabulary etymological composition of t E vocabulary is diverse. OE voc was almost entirely Germanic, t l of later periods borrowed foreign words. As a result two thirds of t voc come from foreign sources, mainly Romance. T loan words are fully integrated into t E lang. At first sight we cant find any differences in them on a phonetic, grammatical, word bilding or syntactical level. But a closer study reveals two typologically distinct layers: 1) the analitical layer of native voc - Germanic words, though thin but dominant (in frequent use) 2) the synthetic layer of borrowed voc - of norman loan-words of romanic origin, numerous, but as a rule less frequent, often stylistically marked 2. differences on t prosodical level: in ME period E words dropped their endings & became much shorter (one\two syllable words). Loanwords were much longer, word stress moved from t end to t beginning of t word. Long words developped a second stress: comfortable On t grammatic level: Words of German origin are grammatically flexible, they lost endings, & a vast number of E verbs & nouns became identical in formlove to love. Loan words are not flexible, have a transparent morphological structure with a clear part-of-speech meaning. Exeptions use, face (short and flexible) On t word-building level: Native words have fusion-free w building, analitical generation.

26. Vocabulary replenishment in ModE. Analytical trends: Different languages possess diff. means of expressing t same content. Like other Indo-Eur lang. E used to be an inflectedsynthetic lang. with a well-developed sys of morphological cgs & inflected parts of speech (declinations & conjugations). The loss of the inflexion transformed E from synthetic to analytic (the inflexion was compensated by a rigid word order, a greater use of prep, auxiliary verbs etc.). ModE is highly analytical. Word-formation in OE displayed clearly synthetic features: 1)suffixation was usually accompanied by sound interchange in roots: e.g. sinzan sonz (singsong). Modern suffixation is fusion-free: root morpheme & suffix dont fuse together ( -). Derived words are characterized by morphological clarity: worker, hopeful. Sound interchange became less productive. 2) Prefixation used to be (and still is!) a productive way of building new words in OE But in ME prefixes used with verbs to modify their meaning were replaced by adverbs in postposition to form composite verbs: e.g. go away (OE azan), go round (OE bezan). This is t main evidence of E becoming analytical. 3) Suppletive forms were common in OE: e.g. goodwell, go went. As a word-building it disappeared by the end of OE 4) Word-composition used to (and still is!) be productive: compounds were often formed with a linking element which is not t case now. It remained in words: salesman, spokesman. Analytical features in ModE word-building: 1) fusion-free affixation. Suffixation & prefixation still productive but characterized by morphological clarity & transparency. Exceptions borrowed words: admire admiration. 2) no suppletion 3) word-composition without a linking element 4) conversion as a new method of word derivation arose in Late ME and became a most productive way of creating new words. Its effected through a change in t gram paradigm & t syntactic use of t word in t sentence. Transformation into another part of speech: water to water 5) Analytical derivation productive means of vocab. replenishment to compensate for relatively less active morphol. derivations. 6) Composite verbswith locative particles: run in/off/away/up/around. They correspond to prefixal verbs in synthetic lang. (Russian: , ).7) phrasal verbs: e.g. give up/in/away etc. These are analyt nominations that denote by combining 2 or 3 (to be in for) separate elements: base verb (bring, take) & particle (up, down). T meaning is transferred: it cant be understood from t meanings of elements. Phrasal verbs belong in informal style, in everyday E. They originate from informal E. Their one-word synonyms are preferred in formal areas: put off postpone, make up for smth compensate. 8) Link verbs or rather semi-link verbs (have, take, give, make) & predicative verbal noun (a cry, look, laugh): e.g. have a cry, take a look. These nominations & their 1-word counterparts arent always interchangeable for they belong to different contexts: have a smoke (smoke)doesnt define t process but creates atmosphere of relaxation. To have a shave ( shave) etc. isnt normally used in t Contin Tense as it cant present actions in progress. 29. Semantic mechanism of phras. Sources. 1. Sources: reality of everyday life, customs, traditions, historical events, folklore, literature all these serve sources of associations to form imagery for Phr U. e.g. everyday life, customs, folklore: carry coals to Newcastle to do smth unnecessary (Newcastle was a centre of coal-mining in England) 2. Phr U containing proper nouns or names in particular: Hobsons choice (=no choice at all) referring to Tobias Hobson who kept a large number of horses for hire. When anyone asked to hire a horse Hobson would always offer only the horse nearest the door of the stable 3. a large number of Phr U originate from literary sources: from antique, Greek mythology, the Bible: a Pandoras box, to cross/pass the Rubicon. The Bible: cast pearl before swine; wash ones hands of smth. 4. Shakespeare: cakes and ale ; to give the devil his due . Also: Dickens, Pope, Swift, Scott etc. 5. Differences in associations with some certain words in diff languages: e.g. Dutch in English negative association: 17th century rivalry between England & Holland. In other lang it isnt the case. Dutch bargain , Dutch comfort ,

They tend to take on native affixes (of Germanic origin) Suffixes - -er, -y dirty, -ly, -less, -ness, -ful, -ish darkish Prefixes mis- misbehave, under- undertake, over- overload, up- uphill Loan words fusion The Romance prefix in-. It has variants im-, ir-, il- dependently on t 1st sound of t root Or changes in t root under influence of t affix: admire admirable, surpreme supremacy. Analitical nominations They are not formed by long multisyllable loan-words. Short flexible native words are more dynamic in this sense. Compare: t native word show & its borrowed synonym demonstrate 10 compound words & analitical nominations formed by show: show-room, show-girl, flowershow, etc, to show up (to put smb to shame), to show down ( ) and only one affixal derivative showy. on the stylistic level native words of Germanic origin are neutral, colloquial. Borrowed words are for t most part their literary formal synonyms: go on continue, make produce, putt off postpone

Dutch defense . 6. Some Phr U are similar in diff lang: to get on the high horse sich aufs hohe Pferd setzen. , . Middle Ages the same customs => the same Phr U.: to win ones spurs sich die Sporen verdienen = , . Reference to a medieval custom of awarding knighthood on warriors who distinguished themselves in combat. 7. In diff lang. the transferred meaning may be the same or close but the underlying imagery different (when diff associations are formed, prompted by diff conditions): a bakers dozen; - to carry coals to Newcastle. 8. Interpreters false friends: hands down (=easily) (=ready to give up) the same (or close) lexical composition but diff meanings as diff associations are formed: He passed the exam hands down. To lead smb by the nose (to persuade smb to do what one wants, to control smb) - (cheat).

30 Neologisms, types of neologisms. The English language just like other European languages is now facing a neological boom. This process has boosted a new branch of linguistics neology. Its a science concerned with the investigation and description of new vocabulary items. Neologism is any unit (a word or an expression) new either in form or in meaning. Proceeding from the type of nominative change three main groups of neologisms may be distinguished:

31. Sources of neologisms in the E language According to the way of creating neologisms may be qualified as:

1.

1. 2.

Neologisms proper (new form is combined with new meaning): the euro, e-mail, AIDS Transnominations new vocabulary units, the meaning of which is already expressed by traditional words (the form is new, the meaning is old though some new connotations are added Semantic innovation (the form is old, the meaning is new): gas, funky.

Phonological neologisms (words created ex nihilo, out of separate sounds, sometimes called artificial or invented), acryl, perlon Very closed to these are neologisms created by sound imitation (zizz (a short sleep), zap (to shoot, hit)) Borrowings The spelling of recent loan words is generally faithful to the system of the original language (dolce vita (ital), lunokhod (rus)); loan translations: third world, socialist realism (Russian)

2. 3.

3.
4.

Morphological neologisms are created according to the patterns of wordformation already existing in the language. Such units usually consist of familiar morphemes. Created through affixation, conversation, compounding, shortening etc. Affixation proves the most fruitful neological source. Suffixation: more productive than others suffixes are: -er, -ist, -y, -ism, -ster, -able Prefixation a large percentage of neologisms in E: De- (meaning of doing the opposite of), Non (meaning of the lack of), Pre (meaning of before), Re (meaning of repetition of the action), Micro, Mini, Counter, Anti, Under, Over Conversation is less popular nowadays, the commonest type being formation of verbs from nouns: the nominalization of phrasal verbs (show off, face off). Many verbs are formed from compound nouns. Compounding. Semantically all new compounds 3 groups: Motivated compounds (finger-food) Partially motivated compounds (TVdinner) Highly idiomatic (completely nonmotivated) compounds (slow-coach, sweettooth) Blends may be defined as new lexemes formed from two parts of two other words in such a way that there is no transparent analysis into morphs.

1.

analytical nomination: take over, show off; composite verbs (with locative particles, that correspond to Russian prefixal verbs): run out, in, into, away; units on the pattern of a semi link verb + a predicative verbal noun: to have a smoke

2.

derivation on the phraseology. 2 processes:

basis

of

32.33.34 Stylistic differentiation of the E vocabulary 3 groups: neutral words (notional content of the word) colloquial words (direct express or awake emotions) literary words (educational state) neutral literary colloquial Child Infant Kid To meet To socialize To hang out Use of the word that belongs to another stylistic layer is a stylistic device, can express irony, sarcasm Literary words Types: general & special general literary words bookish, belong to the official speech ubiquitous (), pernicious () special literary words: - neologisms, - archaic, barbarisms, - terms styl neologisms retain individual colour, are use for exotic effect. When a community begins to talk in these words, they become lexicological neologisms, stop being styl neologisms. Made on the basis of word building existing patterns: suffixation A spoonfula stateful of, armful of charm. conversation: to mother, to mydear (expressiveness) compounds: stepmotherland archaic words: obsolete, historical, proper obsolete archaic words not identified by the language community (happily for perhaps, nay for no). to create historical background archaic words proper not typical for El, but not so old as obsolete words, used for fun, joke: thou (), thee (, ) historical words denote objects, general phenomena, not relevant now: spear (), vassal for creating a true to life background barbarisms borrowings, retained native spelling and pronunciation: tet-a-tet, babushka terms in special literature, no connotations, neutral. 2 purposes: 1) convincing background; 2) humorous effect colloquial words slang, jargonism, vulgarism, dialectal words (have neutral synonyms of the vocabulary) slang in/out of the language very soon, main feature expressiveness which is result from figurativeness, the image is transparent (buck for dollar, all that jazz all that stuff, gas fun) there can be some phonetic peculiarities: sound imitation (blip quick, insignificant, of little importance: it was not a fight, only a blip) some word building peculiarities: through abbriviation (shortening) business bus, teenager teen jargonisms social and professional social gargonisms words used by a particular social class (mafia jargonisms: wacked killed) professional used to replace terms: a shot injection, x-ray scrins dialectal words retain dialectal character, to create local coloring : pat dialectal darling

a. word derivation- words are derived from phraseological units: compound words: a trail- blazer from to blaze a trail (to be the first to do smth.); simple words: shirty (angry, ill-tempered) from to have ones shirt out (to become angry) homonyms derived from P/Us: to finger (to give information on a person to the police; or-ly: to feel with ones finger) from to put the finger on smb. (to give information on smb. to the police b. phrasal derivation- new phrasal units derive from original P/Us: a man Friday from a girl Friday (secretary); Morphological sources

(now no longer dialectal because lost its dialectal characteristics) vulgarisms tabu words,

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

highly productive suffixes: -y/-ie: a groupy, a yuppy; prefixes: de-: defrost; re-: rethink, rebook, renew semi affixes: (an affix based as a word): consumer-friendly, stress-free, fat-free; -oriented, -wide, -conscious blends (-): workerholic, brunch (breakfast + lunch), motel (motor + hotel) clipping (a lexeme is shortened): mike (microphone) acronyms: abbreviations that pronounced as a word: NATO, AIDS are

35. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices several groups of stylistic devices, lexical devices are the most numerous 1) based on the interaction of different types of meaning 2) descriptive devices on use of phraseology on different styles, the contamination 1. based on the interaction of different types of meaning - of the logical and contextual types of meanings metaphor based on the resemblance between the object named and the object implied (on the association of similarity) Lucy was a violette on a mossy stone the metaphor can be a) - sustained, prolonged or 1 word-metaphor b) noun M, verb M, adj M (metaphorical epithets) spidery fingers, he listened hungrily a kind of M is the personification Necessity is the mother of invention 4)

3)

36. Syntactical expressive means sentences and paragraphs; word order, different constructions within a sentence Inversion Inverted WO, is used to emphasize that part of a sentence is of great significance 2 types of I: isolation & ellipsis isolation a private case of I; usually expressed by an attribute or adv modifier: Pale and trembling, Mary opened the door Ellipsis (used to draw smbs attention): Becky entered the ball-room, her face radiant. Rhetorical question and litotes gramm. form is contradictory to their meaning Rq dont need any answers, a kind of statement. Litotes - a deliberate understatement, often designed to create a comic or sarcastic effect. Mary was not a little surprised. He is not unlike a bull Represented speech 2 types: - represented uttered represented inner It is a mixture of the direct speech & indirect speech

Metonymy Based on the association of contiguity between the object named and the object implied types: -between a part and a whole -symbolic association through a symbol established (from the cradle to the grave) -trite M (the Cremlin said...) -original M (the moustache and I have nothing common) Irony Based on the contradiction betw the logical and contextual meaning through it, words are made to arouse an opposite meaning (saying the opposite of what you actually mean) How nice of you to have lost my key! Antonomasia Interaction betw the nominal and logical components of the meaning, instead of the figures name is used a quality of the character, a trait: He is a real Hercules Epithets Indirection betw the logical and motive components, disclose the individual emotional colored attitude of the author to describe the object. Expressed by adj, adv, nouns in an attributive position and the of-phrase He was a man with lips of flame but with a heart of stone -by ordinary adj: a grey metallic face -whole attributive chains (syntactical units, may form expressive epithets: dont-touch-me-or-illkill-you -fixed epithets: my true love -transferred E: unbreakfasted morning Oxymoron a combination (adj+noun, adj+adv pleasantly ugly), a combination of openly contradictory words and meanings. (sharp dullness) hyperbole overstatement, obvious and deliberate exaggeration. Its purpose is to emphasize something or to produce a humorous effect. all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand Zeugma The direct and figurative meanings are engaged at the same time (He took his sorrows and books to Paris) Pun A play of words, based on polysemy and homonymy, a play on words that have a similar sound but different meanings. The E has many homophones The importance of Being Earnest 2. descriptive devices Allusion Reference to well-known characters, facts: historic (He was an Napoleon), literary, mythological, biblical simile a kind of comparison in which 2 things are compared because they have smth in common (like or as) She walks like an angel. periphrasis a around-about way of describing things kinds of P: -metonimic P: marry a big bag of money -metaphoric P: a ship (camel) -euphemistic P (common in mass-media to conceal true motives): a war involvement a. the use of phraseology the transformation of P/U, manipulating the components, concealing the primary meaning, manipulating the imagination: to be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth (He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth and the spoon remained there) b. contamination of style mixing up of the words relating to different stylistic levels

the WO is reserved as ds the sequence of tense is observed only in the 3d person contains all kinds of interjections & exclamations Within a paragraph A paragraph is a device itself. Its criteria integrity, coherence. It contains one topic (which runs through the whole paragraph). Coherence is a logical sequence of ideas, having a clear connection among all the parts by using connecting devices (transitions, bridging sentences, repeated words, synonyms, conjunctions). Parallel constructions the pattern of the 1. sentence is repeated in the next sentence, shows equal importance, adds balance and rhythm and clarity to the sentence (He loved her dearly, she loved him passionately). Chiasmus a reversed parallelism (he stood up, down sat she). Climax (gradation) a special arrangement of sentences used to show an increase in emotions, significance: Your son is ill. He is desperately ill. I think he is beyond hope. Antithesis a syntactical device, contrast of 2 ideas brought out through parallel constructions, .2 criteria the 2 sent repeat the same syntactical pattern + logical contrast, contextual antonyms (in intellect they are angels, in their lust - serpents) Cumulation a conjunction is used to combine 2 parts of the paragraph which at first sight have no logical connection: He adored his mother and it was his first trip Repetition - emphasize smth important, to reinforce a theme, to create parallel structure, to highlight the speaker's attitude, to focus the reader's attention on some idea. Its function to create a certain rhythmical effect 3 types: - anaphora the first word is repeated

a) b) c) d)

epiphora the final element is repeated framing the initial element is repeated at the end of the sentence