Chapter One

Basic Principles of Turbomachinery

What is a Turbomachine? A Turbomachine is a device that exchanges energy with a fluid using continuously flowing fluid and a blade. If the device extracts energy from the fluid it is generally called a turbine. If the device delivers energy to the fluid it is called a compressor, fan, blower or pump depending on the fluid used and the magnitude of the change in pressure that results.

Classification of Turbomahcines Based on power Power generating : Turbines Power absorbing : Pumps, compressors, blowers, fans Power transmitting : fluid couplings, torque converters Based on the direction of flowing fluid in the rotor Axial flow : Axial flow compressors , Axial turbines (propeller turbines), Axial pumps Radial flow : Radial turbines (Francis Turbine), Centrifugal compressors and pumps Mixed flow Based on the type of fluid used Liquid : Pumps, Hydraulic turbines Steam : Steam turbines Gas : Gas turbines, compressors Air : Wind turbines, compressors

Comparison between positive displacement machines with turbomachines The machines whose functioning depends essentially on the change of volume of a certain amount of fluid within the machine are known as positive displacement machines. The word positive displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of the boundary of a certain fluid mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the reciprocating motion of a piston within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of fluid in it. The machine producing mechanical energy is known as reciprocating engine while the machine developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical energy is known as reciprocating pump or reciprocating compressor. Turbo machines differ from positive displacement machines in a way that they require a relative motion between the fluid and the moving part of the machine.

Applications
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Power generation industry: Steam turbine power plants, Gas turbine power plants, Hydro-electric power plants and wind turbine. Transport industry: Turbo propeller and Turbo fan engines. HVAC s: Fans, blowers Process industry and miscellaneous applications: Pumps and Compressors

Energy Equation First law of Thermodynamics: For a system working in a cycle or for an infinitesimal change For applications in Turbomachines the energy term will include internal energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.

Substitution gives us the general energy equation for turbomachines ( ) ( ) ( )

Steady flow energy equation For steady flow processes through turbomachines, the work term in the energy equation contains shaft work and flow work. It is by applying the principle of first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow in a control volume.

The flow work is the work associated with the pushing the mass of fluid across the system boundaries. ( )

The energy equation becomes: ( But ( ) ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( ) ( )

A further simplification can be done for a compressible fluid by assuming most of the turbomachines are adiabatic and the change in potential energy ( )is negligible as compared to changes in enthalpy and kinetic energy ( ( ))

Therefore ( ) ( ) [adiabatic energy equation]

is the stagnation enthalpy

Stagnation enthalpy is the enthalpy a fluid would attain if it were brought to zero speed at zero elevation by a steady, adiabatic process with no external work (isentropic process). Suppose that our steady flow control volume is a set of streamlines describing a flow up to the nose of a blunt object

State 1: State 2:

and and

The energy equation for this control volume is: which is (stagnation enthalpy)

In a - diagram

Energy Transformation Some adiabatic processes involve only energy transformation; e.g., expansion of gases in nozzles and compression of gases in diffusers.

The adiabatic energy equation is or

N.B.: All turbomachines are energy transfer machines In a - diagram

Eulers equation of Energy Transfer in Turbomachinery The energy transfer occurs only in its moving or rotating elements, the rotors.

is the absolute velocity of the fluid, is the velocity of the fluid relative to the rotor blade, and is the peripheral velocity of the blade. The three velocities can be related in a simple vector equation

The absolute velocity has a tangential component The linear momentum in the tangential direction is

and a radial component

From Newtons second law of motion torque is defined as the rate of change in moment of linear momentum ( )

Finally the work done by the rotor will be ( ( ) )

The specific work can be expressed as (Eulers energy equation for turbomachines)

A simple re-arrangement can be made on the Eulers energy equation by geometric manipulation of the velocity triangles.

Therefore: ( ) ( ) ( ) is composed of three components ) ( )

This equation shows that the total energy transfer ( ) (

Work and Efficiencies in Turbines Losses are inherent in nature Efficiencies are incorporated to compensate to the losses in turbomachinery Losses in turbomachines occur due to Mechanical losses : bearing friction, windage (frictional force between the rotating shaft and air ) Fluid-rotor losses : friction between the blade and the fluid
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Ideal process in turbines is expressed by isentropic expansion (reversible) in - diagram In a - diagram

The efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the actual work to the ideal work for the same pressure ratio ( ).

The efficiency of a turbine can be expresses in two ways: Total-to-Total efficiency: the ratio between the actual shaft work to its ideal (isentropic) shaft work between total conditions at entry and exit.

Total-to-Static efficiency: the ratio between the actual shaft work to the ideal shaft work between the total conditions at entry and static conditions at exit

Comparing the two efficiency equations and referring to the figure the total-to-total efficiency is greater the total-to-static efficiency

The efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the actual work to the ideal work for the same pressure ratio ( ).

The efficiency of a turbine can be expresses in two ways: Total-to-Total efficiency: the ratio between the actual shaft work to its ideal (isentropic) shaft work between total conditions at entry and exit.

Total-to-Static efficiency: the ratio between the actual shaft work to the ideal shaft work between the total conditions at entry and static conditions at exit

Comparing the two efficiency equations and referring to the figure the total-to-total efficiency is greater the total-to-static efficiency

Substitution gives
( )

is the ratio of specific heat capacities at constant pressure and volume respectively

And

Finite stage A stage with a finite pressure drop is a finite stage. If the required pressure drop is more, multi staged are required, so that full expansion will takes place and which results in more rotation and high efficiency. and

or

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The total expansion in the turbine is divided into three stages of the same efficiency and pressure ratio

Infinitesimal stage efficiency or Polytropic efficiency A finite stage is divided into an infinite number of small sages of the same efficiencies

Therefore

) (
( )

( )

( )

or
( )

Finite stage efficiency The finite stage efficiency can be expresses in terms of the polytropic efficiency
( (
( ( ) )

) )

This equation is also applicable to a multi-stage turbine

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( (

) )

( (

) )

Assuming constant stage pressure ratio, the total pressure ratio is ( ) =( ) , where stages is the number of

Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the turbine brake power to the indicated power

Brake power Indicated power

is the work output at the turbine shaft is the mechanical energy supplied by the rotor

N.B. Polytropic efficiency and the related efficiencies (both stage and overall) expresses by polytropic efficiency apply for the static conditions which only shows the thermodynamic implications of multi stages. Example 1 Air flows through an air turbine where its stagnation pressure is decreased in the ratio 5:1. The total to total efficiency is 0.8 and the air flow rate is 5 kg/s. If the total power output is 500 KW, find a) Inlet total temperature, b) the actual exit total temperature c) the actual exit static temperature if the flow velocity is 100 m/s and d) the total to static efficiency of the device Example 2 In a three stage turbine the pressure ratio of each stage is 2 and the stage efficiency is 75 %. Calculate the overall efficiency and the power developed if air is initially at a temperature of 600 0C flows through it at the rate of 25 kg/s. Find reheat factor Work and Efficiencies in Compressors The efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of ideal work to its actual work for the same pressure ratio ( )

Analogous approach to that of turbines

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In a h-s diagram

Total-to-total efficiency
( )

Static-to-static efficiency: If magnitude of gas velocities at entry and exit of a stage are almost equal or negligible, then their stagnation enthalpies mainly depend on static enthalpy only.

The mechanical efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the indicated power to the brake power.

The steps employed to calculate efficiencies for a compressor is analogous to that of a turbine.

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Finite stage

or

Infinitesimal stage Efficiency or Polytropic efficiency

( )

Finite stage efficiency

( ( ) )

The above equation also applies for a multi stage compressor

Example Each stage of a four stage air compressor delivering 44 kg of air per second operates at a pressure of 1.2, with a stage efficiency of 65 %. Calculate overall efficiency and pressure ratio. Calculate power required to drive the compressor if air temperature at inlet is 20 0C. Find also exit air temperature. Example An air compressor has eight stages of equal pressure ratio 1.35. The flow rate through the compressor and its overall efficiency are 59 kg/sec and 82 % respectively. If the condition of air at entry 1 bar and 40 0C, determine (a) the state of air at the compressor exit, (b) polytropic
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efficiency, (c) efficiency of each stage and (d) power required to drive the compressor and (d) power required to drive the compressor assuming overall efficiency of the drive as 90 %, (e) power required in each stage

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Chapter Two
Flow through cascades
While a turbomachine is rotating, it is difficult to see or study the flow conditions of the flowing fluid. Therefore, keeping the geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities, it is possible to study the fluid flow conditions in a stationary cascade of blades in a model. Cascade: is a single or an array of aerofoil blades In a cascade view, an infinite radius of rotor is assumed and the rotor blades appear to be arranged in a horizontal fashion.

Aerofoil blades (Nomenclature) An aerofoil blade is a streamlined body having a thick rounded leading edge and a thin trailing edge. The centrifugal force along the convex surface of the blade pushes flow away from the surface which reduces the pressure below the free stream pressure, hence termed as suction side. The centrifugal force along the concave surface of the blade pushes flow towards the surface which increases the pressure above the free stream pressure, hence termed as the pressure side.
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Cascade: A single or an array of aerofoil blades Chord line: An imaginary line joining the center of the leading edge to trailing edge Camber line: It is a back bone lying mid-way between the upper and lower surfaces Angle of incidence ( ): The angle between the air flow line and the camber line Aspect ratio: It is the ratio of the blade height to chord length of the blade

Blade pitch (S): The distance between the adjacent blades Pitch chord ratio: The ratio of the pitch to chord length of the blade

Turbine cascades Blades of a given shape are arranged in a different manner in the cascades of turbines and compressors. The difference in the geometry is due to the accelerating and decelerating flows in turbine and compressor cascades respectively.

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Stagger angle ( ): It is the angle between the chord line and the perpendicular axial line Camber angles ( ): It is the angle between the chord line and the camber line. The camber angle ( ) for a given blade is the sum of the camber angles at the entry and exit.

Blade angle (

): It is the angle between the camber line and the axial line At inlet At exit

Adding the above equations Air angle ( ): It is the angle between the air flow line and the axial line

Angle of incidence ( ): It is the angle between the air flow line and the camber angle at inlet. The figure above shows a positive angle of incidence. Flow at large positive incidence will lead to stalling on the suction side of the blade A large negative incidence will lead to flow separation (negative stall) on the pressure side of the blade

Deviation angle ( ): It is the angle between the air flow line and the camber line at exit Deflection angle ( ): It is the sum of the air angles at inlet and exit

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Velocity triangles for a turbine cascade The velocity vectors and at the entry and exit are at air angles and respectively

Subscripts x and y denotes axial and tangential components respectively The mean axial and tangential velocities are And assuming constant axial velocity

[ Blade forces

Tangential force ( ): This force is developed due to the change in linear momentum in the tangential direction.

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Axial force ( ): This force is developed from the change in linear momentum in the axial direction and the static pressure change. In fact, the change in linear momentum in the axial direction diminishes due to the assumption that the velocity in the axial direction is constant. Drag force ( ): The force in the direction of the air flow is called drag force Lift force ( ): The force perpendicular to the air flow direction or the drag force is called the lift force.

From the geometric relation the lift ( ) and the drag ( ) forces can be expressed in terms of the axial ( ) and tangential ( ) force components.

The continuity equation for the control surface is ( ) ( )

The flow is assumed to be incompressible because a stationary cascade is used and the axial velocity is also assumed to be constant. Then, Tangential Force [ Substituting for , (
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per unit length or span of the blade

)] )

But ( Multiplying both sides by ( )

and ) ( )

( ) To get a dimensionless tangent force coefficient ( )

( )

This can also be expressed in terms of exit velocity ( ) and ( )

( ) is the blade to pitch ratio of a blade Axial Force ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) but

which is per unit length or span of the blade

For incompressible flow the stagnation pressures at the entry and exit of the blade are: and ( *( From the velocity triangles at inlet and exit and ) ) ( ( )+ )

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* * (

( )+ and

)+

)+

To get a non-dimensional force coefficient dividing both sides by ( )

Again ( )

( )

( )

is the pressure loss coefficient for the turbine cascade

Therefore the axial force coefficient

Lift force

* (

( ) )

)+

( (

) )(

But

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( ( ( From velocity triangle )

) )( )

( ( Multiplying the right side with ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )

) )

Drag force

* [ (

( ( ) ( )

)+ )]

( ( ( (

) ) ) )

To find the non-dimensional coefficient divide both sides by ( ( )

From velocity triangle

and

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Substituting Substituting the above expression on the drag coefficient ( )

is the pressure loss coefficient

( ) Example: Air enters the test section of a turbine blade ( ) cascade tunnel at ( ). The pitch chord ratio of the cascade is 0.91. The average loss in the stagnation pressure across the cascade is equivalent to 17.5 mm of W.G. Determine for this cascade (a) (b) (c) (d) The pressure loss coefficient The drag coefficient Lift coefficient Tangential and axial force coefficients

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