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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Thermometers are based on changes in a broad range of physical properties:
1. Changes in physical dimensions
a) Liquid-in-glass thermometers
b) Bimetallic elements
2. Changes in gas pressure or vapor pressure
a) Constant volume gas thermometers
b) Pressure thermometers (gas, vapor, and liquid-filled)
3. Changes in electrical properties
a) Resistance thermometers
b) Thermistors
c) Thermocouples
d) Semiconductor-junction sensors
i. Diodes
ii. Integrated circuits
4. Changes in emitted thermal radiations
a) Thermal and photon sensors
b) Total-radiation pyrometers
c) Optical and two-color pyrometers
d) IR pyrometers
5. Changes in chemical phase
a) Fusible indicators
b) Liquid crystals
c) Temperature-reference (fixed point cells)
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Liquid-in-glass Thermometers
Several desirable properties for the liquid are:
The temperature-dimensional relationship should be linear
permitting a linear instrument scale
Large coefficient of expansione.g. alcohol is better than
mercuryprovides easier reading.
Should accommodate a reasonable temperature range without
change of phase
Mercury is limited at the low end by its freezing point (-38.87
o
C) and
spirits are limited at the high temperature end by their boiling points.
Should be clearly visible when drawn into fine threadAlcohol is
usable only if dye is added.
Should not adhere to capillary wallsin this respect mercury is
better than alcohol.
Expansion type thermometers
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In liquid-in-glass when the immersion
employed is different from that used for
calibration, an estimate of correct reading
may be obtained from the following relation:
T = T
1
+ kT(T
1
-T
2
)
Where T = the correct temp.
T
1
= the actual temp reading
k = the differential expansion coefficient
between liquid and glass
T
2
= the ambient temp surrounding the
emergent stem
T = degrees of mercury thread emergence to
be corrected
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Use of Bimaterials
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Pressure Thermometers
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Constant volume gas thermometer
Gasusually H
2
and He contained
Pressure thermometers are called
Liquid-filledif filling medium is completely liquid
Gas-filledif the medium is completely gaseous
Vapor-filledif a combination of liquid and its vapor.
Are less costly than other systems
For the liquid-filled system
The sensing device C acts as differential volume indicator
For the gas- or vapor-filled system,
The sensing device serves as pressure indicator
In both cases, both pressure and volume change.
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Electrical resistance of most materials varies with
temperature.
A temp measuring device using an element of a metallic
material, is commonly referred to as resistance
thermometer, or a resistance temperature detector (RTD).
Semiconductor materialshaving negative resistance
coefficient are called thermistors.
Thermoresistive Elements
RTD Thermistors
Resistance change is small and
positive
Relatively large and negative
resistance
Nearly linear temp-resistance
relationship
Non-linear relationship
Operating range: -100
o
C to
275
o
C
Operating range: -260
o
C to
1000
o
C
More time-stable
provides better reproducibility
and lower hysteresis
Lesser time-stable
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Resistance Thermometers (RTDs)
Properties desirable in RTDs:
Should have a resistivity permitting fabrication in convenient
sizes without degrading the time response.
Thermal coefficient of resistivity should be high and as constant
as possibleproviding an approximate linear output.
Should be corrosion resistant
Should not undergo phase change
Should be available in condition providing reproducible and
consistent results
No material is universally acceptable for resistance
thermometer elementPt, Ni, Cu are most commonly
used. W, Ag and Fe are also employed.
The temp-resistance relationship of a RTD must be
determined experimentally. For most metals
R
t
= R
o
[1+A(T-T
o
) + B(T-T
o
)
2
]
R
t
= resistance at temp T
R
o
= resistance at reference temp T
o
A & B = temp coefficients of resistance depending on material.
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More recently, thin films of metal-glass
slurry have been used as resistance
elements.
These films are deposited onto a ceramic
substrate and laser trimmed.
Film RTDs are less expensive than metal
RTDs and have a larger resistance for a
given size. However, somewhat less
stable.
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Thermistors
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Thermally sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic-like semiconducting material
As temp rises, resistance decreases
Often composed of oxides of Mn, Ni, and Co
Resistivities range: 100450,000 .cm.
In cryogenic applications, doped germanium and carbon-impregnated glass are
used.
The temp-resistance function for a thermistor is given by
grade or n formulatio stor on thermi depends that constant a
K in , temp reference any at resistance the
K, in , any temp at resistance the
1 1
exp
=
=
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o o
o
o
T R
T R
T T
R R
When current flows, ohmic heating is generated by its resistancethe temp of the
element is raised, the amount depending on the rate with which the heat is
dissipated.
For a given ambient condition, a temp eqm. will occur at which a definite value will
exist.
The devices can be used for temperature measurement and control by employing
proper thermistors and electrical circuit characteristics.
Thermistors can be quite small (a few mm in dia.), so their response to changes in
ambient temp may potentially be very rapid.
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EMF exists across a junction of two unlike
metals
The potential comes from two different
sources:
Contact of two dissimilar metals at the
junction temperature, and
Temperature gradient along the
conductors in the circuit.
Named as Peltier and Thompson
effects
Two junctions are always required:
Onecold or reference
Secondhot or measuring
Law of intermediate metals
Insertion of an intermediate metal into a
thermocouple circuit will not affect the net
emf, provided the two junctions introduced
by the third metal are at identical
temperatures.
Law of intermediate temperatures
If a simple thermocouple circuit develops
an emf e
1
when its junctions are at
temperatures T
1
& T
2
and an emf e
2
when
its junctions are at potentials T
2
& T
3
, it will
develop an emf e
1
+e
2
when the junctions
are at temperatures T
1
& T
3
.
Thermocouples
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Thermocouple Materials & Installation
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thermopile
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Pyrometry
Electromagnetic radiations extend over a wide range of frequencies.
Pyrometry is based on sampling energies in certain bandwidths of this
spectrum.
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At any given wavelength, a body radiates energy
of an intensity that depends on the bodys
temperature.
By evaluating the emitted energy at known
wavelengths, the temperature of the body can
be found.
Two types of pyrometers:
Thermal detectors
Based on temp rise produced when the energy radiated from
a body is focused on to a target, heating it.
The target temp may be sensed with a thermopile, a
thermistor or RTD, or a pyroelectric element.
Photon detectors
Use semiconductors of either the photoconductive or
photodiode type.
The sensor responds directly to the intensity of radiated light
by a corresponding change in its resistance or in its junction
current or voltage.
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Pyrometers may be classified by the set of
wavelengths measured.
1) A total radiation pyrometer
Absorbs energy at all wavelengths, or at least
over a broad range of wavelengths (such as
all visible wavelengths).
2) An optical (or brightness) pyrometer
Measures energy at one specific wavelength;
a variant of this approach, the two-color pyrometer,
compares the energy at two specific wavelengths.
The most common is Infrared pyrometer
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Pyrometer Theory
When a piece of steel is heated to 550
o
C it begins to
glowthrough 550
o
C to 1540
o
C energy in the form of
visible light is radiated from it.
Even below 550
o
C down to room temp, it radiates
energy or heat in the form of IR radiation.
Energy is transmitted as electromagnetic waves or
photons traveling at the speed of light.
Radiation striking the surface of a material is partially
absorbed, partially reflected and partially
transmittedthese photons are measured in terms of
absorptance (), reflectivity (), and transmissivity (),
where
+ + = 1
For an ideal reflector, 1
Many gases represent substances of high transmissivity, for
which 1
A small opening into a large cavity approaches an ideal
absorber, or blackbody, for which 1
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A good absorber is also a good radiator.
For emitted radiation the term emissivity () is
used rather than absorptance ().
Emissivity: the ratio of the power per unit area radiated
by a surface to that radiated by a blackbody at the
same temperature. A blackbody therefore has an
emissivity of 1 and that a perfect reflector has an
emissivity of 0.
Absorptance: the ratio of the radiant or luminous flux
absorbed by a body to the flux falling on it
However, these two are related by Kirchhoffs law
which states that the emissivity of a body is equal to its
absorptance at the same temperature i.e. =
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According to Stefan-Boltzmann law, the net rate
of exchange of energy between two ideal
radiators A and B that view only each other is
q..= net radiant heat flux to B from A, in W/m
2
T
A
and T
B
= absolute temps of objects A and B, in K
...= the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6697x10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
.
) (
4 4
B A
T T q =
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In the case of non-ideal object A radiates to a
perfectly absorbing object B (as well as to other
relatively cool object), the expression must be
modified:

A
= the emissivity of object A
F
BA
= configurational factor to allow for relative
position and geometry of bodies
This expression forms the basis of thermal-
detector total-radiation pyrometry.
The detecting element B receives heat flux q from the
measured object A. T
B
has already been established
through calibration, which is raised by the detecting
flux. Hence the unknown temperature T
A
can be
measured.
) (
4 4
B A BA A
T T F q =
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In optical pyrometry, the color changes with
increasing temp
Change in color corresponds to change in
wavelength and the wavelength of maximum
radiation decreases with an increase in temp.
A decrease in wavelength shifts the color from
red towards yellowe.g.
At 850
o
C the color is bright red and
At 1200
o
C the color appears white.
The corresponding radiant energy maximums
occur at wavelengths of 3.5, 2.6 and 1.9 m,
respectively.
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Total-Radiation Pyrometry
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Generally used above 550
o
Chowever, low level radiation
(50350
o
C) is also possible.
Appropriate material is selected for a necessary range of
temp. e.g.
Pyrex: 0.3 to 2.7 m,
Fused silica: 0.3 to 3.8 m,
Ca-fluoride: 0.3 to 10 m.
Used ideally where sources approach blackbody
conditionsi.e. the source has an emissivity approaching
unity.
Radiated energy is a good measure of temp only if the
applicable value of is accounted for.
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Optical Pyrometry
Optical pyrometers measure radiant intensity at only one
or two specific wavelengths, which are isolated by use of
appropriate filters.
The intensity is found either by visual comparison to a
calibrated source or by using the output of a calibrated
thermal or photon detector.
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Source emissivity is important for optical
pyrometer like total-radiation pyrometer.
At a given wavelength, imperfect emissivity
reduces the source intensity.
Two-color pyrometry is an optical technique
that minimizes the influence of the
emissivity. Specifically, the two-color
pyrometer measures source intensity at two
wavelengths,
1
and
2
.
If the emissivity is independent of
wavelength or if the wavelengths are nearly
equal, then the ratio of measured
intensities depends only on temperature.
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Is an example of visual comparison type
The intensity of an electrically heated filament is varied to match the
source intensity at a particular wavelength.
In use, the pyrometer is sighted at the unknown temp source at a
distance such that the objective lens focuses the source in the
plane of lamp filament.
The eyepiece is adjusted to see the filament and source superimposed.
In general, the filament will appear either hotter than or colder than
the unknown source.
The current indicated by the milli-ammeter to obtain this condition may
then be used as the temp readout.
A red filter is generally used to obtain approximately monochromatic
conditions, and an absorption filter is used so that the filament
may be operated at reduced intensity, thereby prolonging its life.
Disappearing
filament
pyrometer