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Determination of Count, Events per Unit Time, and Time Interval

Chapter 10 Beckwith

Counts, Events per Unit Time, and Time Interval EPUT (Events Per Unit Time)
the counting of events that take place intermittently or sporadically (occurring only sparsely or occasionally); not dependant on steady rate. E.g. counting of various particles radiated from a radioactive source.

Frequency
Events per unit of time (EPUT) for phenomenon under steady-state oscillations, such as mechanical vibrations or ac voltage or current.

Period
Time interval becomes a period if it is the duration of a cycle of a periodic event.
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Counting and timing measurement Classification

1) Basic counting;
1) either to determine a total or 2) to indicate the attainment of a predetermined count.

2) Number of events or items per unit of time (EPUT) independent of rate of occurrence. 3) Frequency, or number of cycles of uniformly recurring events per unit of time. 4) Time interval between two predetermined conditions or events. 5) Phase relation, or percentage of period between predetermined recurring conditions or events.
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Use of Counters
Electronic Counters
Require that the counted input be converted to simple voltage pulses, a count being recorded for each phase. A simple switch can be used actuated by the function to be counted. Photocell, variable resistance, inductance, or capacitance devices, Geiger counter, and like may be employed. Simple amplifiers may be used to raise the voltage level if required. Signal inputs may include almost any mechanical quantity, such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, strain, pressure, and load, so long as distinct cycles or pulses of the input are provided. A variation is the count-control instrumentProvision is made for setting a predetermined count, and when the count is reached, the instrument supplies and electrical output that may be used as a control signal.
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EPUT Meters
Combine the simple electronic counter and an internal time base with a means for limiting the counting process to preset time interval. This permits direct measurement of frequency and it is quite useful for accurate determination of rotational speeds. Intermittent or sporadic events per unit of time may also be counted along with regular rate.

Time-Interval Meter
In this case, input pulses start and stop the counting process, and the pulses from an internal oscillator make up the counted information. In this manner the time interval taking place between starting and stopping may be determined, provided the 6 frequency of the internal oscillator is known.

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Photocells are arranged so that the interruption of the beams of light provide pulsesfirst to start the counting process and second to stop it. The counter records the number of cycles from the oscillator which has an accurately known stable output. In the example, the count would represent the number of hundredthousandths of a second required for the projectile to traverse the distance between the light beams.

The Stroboscope

During the intervals when openings in the disk and the stationary mask coincided, the observer would catch rapid glimpses of an object behind the disk. If the disk speed was synchronized with the motion of the object, the object would be made to appear to be motionless. Modern stroboscopes operate on a somewhat different principle. Instead of whirling disk, a controllable intense flashing light source is used. Repeated short duration (1040 s) light flashes of adjustable frequency are supplied by the light source. The frequency, controlled by an internal oscillator, is varied to correspond to the cyclic motion being studied. The readout is the flashing rate required for synchronization. These devices are often called Strobe Lights.
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Cautions required during measurements with stroboscope

Geometry of the item to be kept in mind Multiple ratios of the flashing rate to the objects true cycling rate An obvious approachstop the motion, note the rate and then double the rate and check again. Or
Use following convenient procedure
1) Determine a flashing rate f1 that freezes the motion 2) Slowly reduce the rate until the motion is frozen once more. Note this rate, f2. Then f f

Actual cycling rate of the object f o

1 2

f1 f 2

Stroboscopic lighting can also be used to study nonrepeating action. By using a still camera with shutter locked in the open position, it can be used to track the position of a moving object, e.g. a moving bullet.
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Electronic Oscillators
Electronic oscillators are sources of periodic voltage variation of either fixed or variable frequency. Electronic oscillators are used in a wide variety of applications:
as energy sources for circuitry measurement as audio sources for electronic musical instruments, as sweep generators for oscilloscopes and TV receivers, as carriers for radio and TV signal propagation, as clocks for synchronizing computer actions and so forth. Mechanical sources such as pendulum or tuning fork Electromechanical such as piezoelectric crystals Pneumatic Hydraulic Thermal

Sources of frequency

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Displacement and Dimensional Measurement

Beckwith ; Chapter 11

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Displacement and Dimensional Measurement

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Internal diameter

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Gage Blocks for direct comparison

Blocks must be wrung together in such a way as to eliminate all but the thinnest oil film between them. This oil film, incidentally, is an integral part of the block itself; it cannot be completely eliminated, since it was present even at manufacture.

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Surface Plates Provides an accurate reference plane for gage blocksmust be made with an accuracy comparable to that of the blocks themselves. Materials
Carefully ground and lapped cast iron plates Machined lapped and polished granite plates
Granites are almost free from residual stresses than any other material Less tendency to warp when the plates are prepared Residual stresses are not induced even by dropping of tool or work piece etc. as are in metals. Granite simply powders somewhat at the point of impact. 15 Granite does not corrode.

Temperature Problems
Temperature differences or changes are major problems in accurate dimensional gaging. Coefficient of expansion () of gage-block steels is about 11.2 ppm/oC. Hence, even a shift of 1oC in temperature would cause dimensional changes of the same order or magnitude as the gage tolerances. The standard gaging temperature has been established as 20oC. Several solutions:
Use air-conditioned gaging roomnot a complete solution. Use of insulating gloves and tweezers is recommended in order to avoid thermal changes during handling which require 20 minutes to correct. Use of a constant temperature bath such as of kerosene oil. The gages may be removed from the bath for comparisonIn extreme cases measurement may be made in submerged condition. If the gage block and the work piece are of like materials, there will be no temp. error as long as the two parts are at the same 16 temperature.

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Corrections may be made by application of the following:

L = Lb[1-()(T)(10-6)
where

= (p-b)

L = the true length of the dimension being gauged (at reference temperature) Lb = the nominal length of the gage blocks determined by summation of dimensions etched thereon.

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Pneumatic Comparators

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Application of Monochromatic Light and Optical Flats

Optical Flats and monochromatic light source may be used to:

compare gage block dimensions with unknown dimensionsi.e. dimensional comparator. determine the contour of an almost flat surface.

Principles of Interferometry are applied

Light waves from a single source may be caused to add or subtract, increasing or decreasing the light intensity, depending on the phase relation.
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Two requirements must be met:

1)An air gap (a wedge of varying thickness must exist between the two surfaces, and 2)The work surface must be reflective.

Light is reflected from both the working face of the flat and the work surface of the part being inspected. At the particular points where multiples of half wavelengths occur, we can see dark interference bands or fringes. A fringe represents a locus of separation between work and the flat of definite integral number of half wavelengths of the light used. Adjacent fringes may be interpreted, therefore, as representing contours of elevation differing by one-half wavelength. This distance is called the fringe interval.
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Point or line of contact between Flat and the work surface

There will be at least one primary support point for the flat. On a convex surface, as the flat is rocked, the point of contact is determined as the spot or line in the pattern that does not shift. Actually in some situations the point will move slightly, but in general it does not stray far from its starting point. Each adjacent fringe represents a change in elevation, or fringe interval, of one-half wavelength of the light that is used. For a helium lamp, would be 0.295 m.
On a concave surface, if the flat is pressed at an edge, the center point may shift slightly the edge point or line will remain stationary, and does not move as the pressure is varied. d = (fringe interval) x N = (/2)N
d = the difference in elevation between contact and the point in question. N = the fringe order at the point in question = the wavelength of the light source used.
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Use of optical flats and monochromatic light for dimensional comparison

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Interference Interference is a phenomenon that occurs whenever two waves (e.g. sound waves, light waves, ocean waves, seismic waves from earthquakes) come together at the same time and place. Interference can be visualized as the adding together of two waves with each other. Depending on wave size (amplitude) and the degree to which they are in or out of phase with each other, they will either add together or cancel. The canceling out is still really an "addition''; in this case, it's like adding plus one to minus one.

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Interferometry Interferometry is the use of interference phenomena for measurement purposes, either for
very small angles or tiny distance increments (the displacement of two objects relative to one another).

Interferometer An interferometer is a device to make such measurements. Though there are many different types and designs of interferometers, virtually all of them operate on the same basic principle. From a beam of light coming from a single source (a star, a laser, a lamp, etc.), two or more flat mirrors are used to split off different light beams. These beams are then combined so as to interfere with each other. One well-known basic design for an interferometer is the Michelson interferometer, invented by the American physicist, Albert Michelson (1853-1931)
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Basically, in the Michelson interferometer, one is looking "down'' along the axis of two combined beams towards the light source. A beamsplitter mirror is used to bring the beams together from the two flat mirrors. It has a deliberately thin reflective coating to permit about one-half of the light to pass through. If the light is of a single wavelength, fringes will form all along the optical axis of the combined beams, oriented perpendicular to this axis and will appear to stand still, even though the beams are traveling at the speed of light -- a standing wave phenomenon. To the eye, the fringes appear as alternating small rings of light and dark surrounding the central 25 images of the light source.

What makes the interferometer such a precise measuring instrument is that these fringes are only one light-wavelength apart. In visible light, about 590 nanometers --that corresponds to 1/43,000th of an inch! Any movement along the optical axis by either flat mirror will cause the fringes to shift an equal amount in lockstep. The measurement of this movement is made by literally counting the number of fringes - each dimming and brightening of light - one wavelength at a time! Such a precise system is also incredibly sensitive -- so much so that any vibration, movement, thermal expansion, etc. is picked up as well. In fact, Michelson's early experiments were affected by street traffic vibrations up to 1,000 feet away! Using shorter wavelengths of light allow greater precision, but are much more difficult to work with (the fringes are closer together).

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At the detector, the two reflecting beams will interfere constructively (bright) or destructively (dark), depending on the number of wavelengths by which their paths differ. One reflector can be traversed along the length of an unknown dimension. If the distance is then the beam path increases by 2. The number of successive dark fringes that occur at the detector is equal to the number of wavelengths, N, in the path change: 2 = N By counting the passing fringes, N is obtained and the distance 27 is measured.

Measuring Microscopes Microscopes for mechanical measurement relatively low power.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Fixed scale Filar Traveling Traveling-stage Draw-tube

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Fixed-scale microscopes
Usually 100 divisions with each div 0.1mm

Filar microscope
Uses moving reticles A single or double hairline is moved by a fine pitch screw threadIn general a bifilar type is more easily used than the single hairline type. Problem in keeping track of number of turns of the micrometer screw.

A filar-type microscope
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Traveling Microscope and Traveling-stage Microscope

Traveling microscope
Microscope is moved relative to the work by means of a fine-pitch lead screw, and the movement is measured. Microscope is merely to provide a magnified index.

Traveling-stage microscope
Work is moved relative to the microscope.

Draw-type microscope
Uses a scale on the side of optical tube Determines displacement in a direction along the optical axis, e.g. the height of a step can be determined by focusing first and second elevations.
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Optical tooling and long path interferometry

Precision alignment of parts of relatively large dimension is often of great importance. Tolerances of a few thousandths of an inch or less Special equipment for optical methods includes:
Alignment telescope Collimators Autocollimators Accessories

Alignment telescope
Consists of a medium- to high-power telescope with a cross-hair reticle at the focal point of eye-piece. May be used in the same manner as the surveyor's transit for establishing datum lines and levels. Often used in conjunction with a collimator. 31

A collimator is a device that narrows a beam of particles or waves. To "narrow" can mean either to cause the directions of motion to become more aligned in a specific direction (i.e. collimated or parallel) or to cause the spatial crosssection of the beam to become smaller. A device capable of collimating radiation, as a long narrow tube in which strongly absorbing or reflecting walls permit only radiation traveling parallel to the tube axis to traverse the entire length.
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Optical collimators In optics, a collimator may consist of a curved mirror or lens with some type of light source and/or an image at its focus. This can be used to replicate a target at infinity without parallax. Optical collimators can be used to calibrate other optical devices, to check if all elements are aligned on the optical axis, to set elements at proper focus, or to align two or more devices such as binoculars and gun barrels/gunsights. Optical collimators are also used in gunsights and other pointing devices to give the viewer an image of a reticle at infinity. Collimators may be used with laser diodes and CO2 lasers. 33

Collimator
A source or bundle of parallel light rays Essential parts are:
A light source and A lens system for projecting the bundle of rays Reticles whose images are projected by the collimator. Important features are:
When reticle R2 is in place, the observed image at the telescope is a function of angular alignment only, independent of lateral or transverse positioning. When reticle R3 is observed, its image is dependent only on lateral position and is independent of angular alignment. Possible to first establish correct angular relation between the collimator and the telescope and then to determine the magnitude of any lateral misalignment. Magnitudes are independent of distance of separation and are read from scales inscribed on the reticles.

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An Autocollimator uses light to measure angles. It operates by projecting light made parallel (collimated) through an objective onto an object with a reflective surface. If the surface is perpendicular to the projected light, the beam is reflected back to its point of origin. If, however, the surface is tilted relative to the optical axis of the collimator, the reflected light is displaced (visualized against a graticule - usually a crossline). Any deviation between the projected and reflected beam is measured against a scale and measured in arcseconds*). Autocollimators may use either visual detection (by eye) or digital detection using a photodetector. Autocollimators can be used to detect and visualize microscopic edges enabling measurement of angular deviations in from parallelism, flatness and perpendicularity. (*An arcsecond is one sixtieth of an arcminute, which is equal one sixtieth (1/60) of a degree or pye/10800 radians). APPLICATIONS: Autocollimators are used in industrial and manufacturing environments for precision alignment of mechanical components, the detection of angular movement and angular monitoring over time and to ensure there is no angular error in a system and to ensure compliance with angle specifications and standards.
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Autocollimator
A combination of a telescope and a collimator
a) b) It projects a bundle of parallel light rays and Uses the same lens system for a viewing a reflected image.

An important accessory is some form of mirror for reflecting the light beama cube corner (trihedral) prism can be used. Intermediate targets may be set up to provide a reference point from which dimensional measurements can be made. The reflected beam emerges parallel to the direction of the incident beam, regardless of alignment. Laser interferometeran important advancement Also used for distance measurement by echo-pulse technique.

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Surface Roughness Some of basic methods are:

1. Visual comparison with a standard surfacebased on appearance. 2. The tracer method, which uses a stylus that is dragged across the surface. This method is the most common for obtaining quantitative results. 3. The plastic-replica method, wherein a soft, transparent, plastic film is pressed into the surface, then stripped off. Light is then passed through the replica and measured. Refraction caused by the roughened surface reduces the transparency, and the intensity of transmitted light is used as the measure. 4. Reflection of light from the surface measured by a photocell. 5. Magnified inspection, using a binocular microscope or an electron microscope.
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6. Adsorption of gas or liquid, wherein the magnitude of adsorption is used as the surface roughness criterion. Radioactive materials have been used for providing a method of quantitative measurement. 7. Parallel plane clearance. Leakage of low viscosity liquid or gas between the subject surface and a reference flat is used as the measure of roughness. 8. The electrolytic method, which assumes that the electrical capacitance is a function of the actual surface area, the rough surface providing a greater capacitance than a smooth surface. 9. The scanning tunneling microscope. This device detects quantum-mechanical (tunneling) effects on a tiny stylus passing over a surface to determine the surface structure on an atomic scale.
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The Tracer Method

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