11/5/2012

Week
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Subjects Introduction, Definition, Benefits of Material Knowledge, Standards Micro Structure of Materials: Atom, Interatomic Bonds, Atomic Arrangement, Crystal Structure, Amorphous Structure Crystallographic Directions, Interatomic Spacing, Relations between bonds and properties Physical Properties of Materials : Bulk Density, Specific Weight, Compactness, Porosity, Water Absorption, Saturation Degree

MATERIAL SCIENCE

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References

Material
Material

John, V.B., Introduction to engineering materials, second edition, ELBS, Macmillan, 1983. Mamlouk, M.S., Zaniewski, J.P., Materials for civil and construction engineers, second edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. Onaran, K., Malzeme Bilimi, Bilim teknik yaynevi, 8. Bask, 2000, in Turkish. Postacolu, B., Cisimlerin Yaps ve zellikleri, ITU Y., 1981. Material Science Lecture notes, KTU. Material Science Lecture notes, YTU.

is anything made of matter, constituted of one or more substances. Wood, cement, hydrogen, air and water are all examples of materials. Materials are the parts required to make something else, from buildings and art to stars and computers.

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Raw materials and processing

Material Science
Materials

science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties.

material can be anything: a finished product or an unprocessed raw material. Raw materials are first extracted or harvested from the earth and divided into a form that can be easily transported and stored, then processed to produce semifinished materials. These can be input into a new cycle of production and finishing processes to create finished materials, ready for distribution, construction, and consumption.

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Some Examples of Materials Common civil engineering materials:

Concrete Wood Steel aggregates masonry asphalt glass polymers

Examples for some common civil engineering materials

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Cement

Sand

Aggregates

Water

Concrete Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each yearmore than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.

Wood Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many plants. It has been used for hundreds of thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material. It is an organic material composed of cellulose fibers (which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression.

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Steel Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
A) According to their use and purposes: Structural materials: Materials with
high mechanical properties used for load bearing purposes; i.e. Concrete, steel, wood, stone, brick, etc.

Decorative materials: Materials used for decoration purposes; i.e. Gypsum, wood, stone, paint, etc. Protective materials: Materials that protect the structure from any deterious effects such as heat, water, moisture, solutions, etc. (i.e. paint, stone, heat and water insulation materials, bitumen, etc.)

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B) According to their deformations:

must have an instantaneous response (deformation) to load, and the material must return to its original shape when the load is removed. Most metals exhibit elastic behavior, at least at low stress levels. Rubber is also an elastic material. Plastic materials: Clay and fresh concrete are examples for plastic materials. Plastic behavior indicates permenant deformation of the specimen so that it does not return to its original shape when the load is removed. Elastoplastic Materials: For some materials, as the stress applied on the specimen is increased, the strain will proportionally increase up to a point; after this point the strain will increase with little additional stress. In this case, the material exhibits linear elastic behavior followed by plastic response. The stress level at which the behavior changes from elastic to plastic is the elastic limit. When the load is removed from the specimen, some of the deformation will be recovered and some of the deformation will remain. (i.e. steel)

Elastic materials: If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it

C) According to their physical structure

Homogeneous materials: Materials that have a

uniform composition throughout its structure (i.e. steel).

Heterogeneous

materials: Materials composed of dissimilar parts (i.e. wood).

identical in all directions (i.e. steel).

that

are

Isotropic materials: Materials whose properties are Anisotropic materials: Properties of anisotropic materials depend on the directions (axis). Wood is an example for anisotropic materials.

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C) According to their chemical structure

Ceramics: Ceramic materials are formed by a

combination of ionic and covalent bonds. Ceramics encompass a broad range of materials, including glass, fired clay products - bricks, concrete, rocks, porcelain, etc. These materials have high strength and stiffness but their lack of fracture toughness (1/50 of metals) limits their use in engineering applications. Ceramic materials tend to fracture in a brittle manner rather than to have plastic deformation. They can be used as abrasive materials in industry (Al2O3). They are also durable to high temperatures (refractory materials). Ceramic materials do not conduct heat and electricity well since they have no free electrons.

one, two, or three valance electrons. These elements bond into a mass with metallic bonds. Due to the nature of metallic bonds, metals have a very regular and well-defined structure. They conduct heat and electricity well (by free electrons). Metals generally have the capability to make plastic deformations. (i.e. copper, gold, iron, etc.) Polymers: Polymers are organic or synthetic materials composed of long molecules of covalent bonded nonmetallic elements such as C, H, O, N, Cl. Polymers can be classified as thermoplastics (polystyrene, PVC), thermosets (epoxy), elastomers or rubbers (elastic materials) and natural materials (wood). Examples: polystrene, PVC, rubber, wood, etc. Composites: The need for materials with proporties not found in conventional materials, combined with advances in technology, have resulted in combining two or more materials to form what are called composite materials. These materials usually combine the best properties of their constituents and frequently exhibit qualities that do not even exist in their constituents. Examples: concrete, reinforced concrete, etc.

Metals: The chemical definition of a metal is an element with

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Atom
The

atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons and both of these particle types make up the mass of the atom (atomic weight -AW). One mole of any substance will always contain the same number of molecules, and the number of molecules contained in a mole is given by the universal constant, Avogadros number (AN=0,602*1024).

Bonding Between Atoms (Strong bonds-Weak bonds) Ionic Bond

An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds are formed between a cation, which is usually a metal, and an anion, which is usually a nonmetal. Since these bonds are based on the transfer of electrons, they have no directional nature. Na++ClNaCl

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Covalent bond
A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of valance electrons between atoms. The atoms that are covalently bonded will each contribute at least one electron to the bond and the shared electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms. These bonds are highly directional. In materials such as diamond (very hard, high melting temperature), the covalent bonds are very strong. (i.e. HF, HCl)

Metallic bond
Metallic bond is found in metals and their alloys. The metallic bond forms when atoms give up their valence electrons, which form an electron sea. The positively charged atom cores are bonded by mutual (karlkl) attraction to the negatively charged electrons.Metallic bonds are non directional.

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Van der Waals bonds (Weak Bonds)

In

Molecule
A

addition to the primary types of interatomic bonding, there also exist weaker bonds, owing to the polarisation (kutuplama) of atoms or molecules. These weaker bonds, based on electrostatic attraction, are generally known as van der Waals forces.

molecule may consist of atoms of a single chemical element, as with oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O).

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Atomic Arrangement/Amorphous and Crysttalline Structure

Valance Electrons
The

electrons that occupy the outermost orbit are known as valence electrons. The number of valence electrons cant be greater than 8. These electrons determine; chemical properties, type of bonding, mechanical properties, electrical, optical, thermal properties.

Atomic arrangement or order plays an important role in determining the microstructure and behavior of a solid material. Some arrangements permit exceptional ductility, whereas others yield exceptional strength. If the atoms or molecules in a material are randomly arranged with no regular crystal structure, such materials are amorphous. If the constituent atoms or molecules of a material are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern, such materials are crysttalline.

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Types of Crystal Systems

Unit Cell
The

There are seven crystal systems;

Sizes Angles

unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure.

Triclinic Monoclinic Rhombohedral Hexagonal* Orthorhombic Tetragonal Cubic

abc abc a=b=c a=bc abc a=bc a=b=c

==900 ==900 ==900, =600 ===900 ===900 ===900

* Another system is sometimes used to define hexagonal form. In this system reference is made to four axes, namely, three coplanar axes, a1, a2, and a3, all of equal length and inclined at 1200 to each other, and a fourth axis, of length c, mutually perpendicular to the other three axes

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Lattice systems
The 7 lattice systems (From least to most symmetric)

These lattice systems are a grouping of crystal structures according to the axial system used to describe their lattice. Each lattice system consists of a set of three axes in a particular geometrical arrangement. There are seven lattice systems. They are similar to but not quite the same as the seven crystal systems and the six crystal families

1.Ttriclinic

simple

base-centered

2. Monoclinic

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simple 3. Orthorhombic

base-centered body-centered face-centered

6. Hexagonal
4. Rhombohedral

simple

body-centered

simple (SC) body-centered (bcc) face-centered (fcc) 7. Cubic

5. Tetragonal

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The Simple Cubic Crystal Structure

Atomic Packing Factor

The crystal structure is imaginary for pure metals; there is no common engineering materials have this crystal structure. The atoms are situated at each corner of this cube.

The atomic packing factor (APF) or packing fraction is the fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by atoms. It is dimensionless and always less than unity. For practical purposes, the APF of a crystal structure is determined by assuming that atoms are rigid spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the maximal value such that the atoms do not overlap. For one-component crystals (those that contain only one type of atom), the APF is represented mathematically by

where Natoms is the number of atoms in the unit cell, Vatom is the volume of an atom, and Vunit cell is the volume occupied by the unit cell.
a is the edge length of cube (is known as lattice parameter) r is the atomic radius

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Body-centered cubic crystal structure (BCC)

The primitive unit cell for the body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure contains nine atoms: one on each corner of the cube and one atom in the center. Because the volume of each corner atom is shared between adjacent cells, each BCC cell contains two atoms.

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Body-centered cubic crystal structure (BCC)

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Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Bonding Forces and Energy Well

ro (ao) is the equilibrium spacing. The exact shape of the energy well is important in determining several physical and mechanical properties. The deeper the well (Emin ) the higher the melting and vaporization temperatures, the higher the cohesive strength and the higher the E. Thermal expansion is inversely correlated with Emin. (a) The dependence of attractive, repulsive and net forces as a function of interatomic separation for two isolated and adjacent atoms. (b) The dependence of net potential energy as a function of interatomic separation for two isolated and adjacent atoms.

Atoms are arranged at the corners and center of each cube face of the cell. Atoms are assumed to touch along face diagonals

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Material Al Fe

Melting Temp. (T, oC) 660 1538

Thermal Expansion 22x10-6 12x10-6

Imperfections In Crystal Structures 1. Point Defects:

Point defects: 1.Vacancy (bo ke), 2.Self interstitial atom is an extra atom that has crowded its way into an interstitial void in the crystal structure. Self interstitial atoms occur only in low concentrations in metals because they distort (bkmek) and highly stress the tightly packed lattice structure. , 3.Substitutional impurity atom (Yer alan atomu) replaces or substitutes for the host atoms, 4.Interstitial impurity atoms (ara yer atomu) are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. They fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. i.e.: the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make steel.

Melting temperatures and thermal expansion coefficients of Al and Fe.

Fig. Point Defects

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2. Line Defects (Dislocations)

The most common type of line defect within a crystal is a dislocation. A dislocation is a one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned. Two types: edge and screw dislocation. Dislocations contribute metals plastic deformation capability.

3. Surface Defects

Surface defects are the boundaries that seperate a material into regions, each region having the same crystal structure but different orientations. Among these imperfections external surfaces and grain boundaries are the most important ones. A grain boundary is the surface that seperates the individual grains and is a narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly spaced.

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Crystallographic Directions and Planes

Every

Crystallographic Directions
A Crystallographic direction is defined as a line between two points or a vector. Indices of directions are the shorthand notation used to describe these directions. The following steps are utilized in the determination of the three directional indices: A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through the origin of the coordinate system. The length of the vector projection on each of the three axes is determined. These three numbers are multiplied or divided by a common factor to reduce them to the smallest values. The three indices, not seperated by commas(,), are enclosed in square brackets [uvw]. The u, v, w , integers correspond to the projections along the x, y and z axes respectively. Negative indices are also possible, which are represented by a bar over the appropriate index.

point within a unit cell can be identified in terms of the coefficient along the three coordinate axes. The origin is 0,0,0; the far corner of the unit cell is 1,1,1 regardless of the crystal system.

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Crystallographic Planes

The orientations of planes for a crystal structure are represented in a similar manner: The length of the planar intercept for each axis is determined in terms of the lattice parameters a, b, c. Teh reciprocals of these numbers are taken. A plane that parallels an axis may be considered to have an infinite intercept, and therefore a zero index. If necessary these three numbers are changed to the set of smallest integers by multiplication or division using a common factor. The integer indices, not seperated by commas, are enclosed within parantheses, thus (hkl).

Linear and Planar Atomic Densities

Linear density corresponds to the fraction of line length that passes through atom centers. Planar density is simply the fraction of total crystallographic plane area that is occupied by atoms.
L.A.D.=Number of atoms/Unit Length (atom/cm) P.A.D.=Number of atoms/Unit Area (atom/cm 2)

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2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Properties of materials will be examined in two topics; physical and mechanical.

2.1. Physical Properties / Pore structure

Pore properties include; ratio of pores, their size and characteristic (being enclosed or open).

2.1. Physical Properties As in all solid materials, basic physical properties in construction materials are weight, volume, density, specific gravity, permeability, color, etc. All construction materials except glass and metals more or less contain voids; and are effected by water and vapor.
Pores in Porous Materials

Distribution of pores in a solid medium can be; Regular or irregular Connected or disconnected Open or enclosed.

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2.1. Physical Properties

2.1. Physical Properties / Density

Physical parameters of porous materials are; Unit weight of the material; density (), Unit weight of the solid part; specific gravity (), Compactness ratio; compactness (k), Ratio of total pores; porosity (p), - Open pores, water absorption by mass and by volume, - Capillary pores, capillary water absorption (K) Permeability

a) Unit Weight (Density) (, g/cm3)

Wo Vt

Density () is defined as the dry weight (Wo) of a given volume (Vt) of a material. Density has a strong relation with strength and thermal conductivity.

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2.1. Physical Properties / Specific gravity b) Specific gravity (, g/cm3)

2.1. Physical Properties / Compactness ratio and porosity

c) Compactness ratio (k) Specific gravity is the dry weight (Wo) of a given volume of the solid phase (Vd) of a material. The ratio of solid volume of a material (Vd) to its total volume (Vt) and can also be calculated by dividing density () by specific gravity (). V k% d Vt d) Porosity (p) The ratio of the pore volume (Vb) to the total volume (Vt) of the material. Porosity can be determined by several methods such as; gas expansion method, mercury injection method, density methods, water absorption methods or statistical methods. Porosity (%p) defines total pores, whereas effective porosity (%pe) defines open, interconnected and continuous pores.

w = 0 v0

%p

Vb 1 k Vt

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2.1. Physical Properties / Absorption e) Absorption by mass (%am): The ratio of the increase in mass to the mass of the dry sample.

2.1. Physical Properties / Capillarity f) Capillary Water Absorption (K) Defined as the absorbed water amount (Q) from unit surface area (A) of a material in unit time (t). K= Q2/ (A2 t) Capillary water absorption Coefficient (K) is determined experimentally as a function of time and surface area that contacts with water. Sample: Cross Section Area, A (cm2) Weight, W0(g) t0 t1 t2 tn W0 W1 W2 Wn Q0 = 0 Q1=W1-W0 Q2=W2-W0 Qn=Wn-W0

W W0 am SSD W0
f) Absorption by volume (%av, Effective porosity) The ratio of the increase in mass to the to the total volume.

W W0 av SSD V
WSSD: The weight of the sample in the SSD state W0: The weight of the sample in oven dry state
Fig: Capillary water absorption test

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2.1. Physical Properties / Capillarity

Permeability
Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences (symbolized as k) is a measure of the ability of a porous material (often, a rock or unconsolidated material) to allow fluids to pass through it. Water Permeability Water permeability of a material is expressed by the coefficient of water permeability, which is measured by determining the rate of water flow through the material under pressure.

Q F. t

Capillarity Coefficient :

Q 2 cm 2 .( ) s F 2 .t

Rise time of water by capillarity:

2 Qmax ( H .%hs ) 2 K K

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