GuidelinesforInspecting OverheadCraneStructures

May20,2011

GaryJ.Davis,P.E.
DirectorofConsultingServices IntegratedMachinerySolutions(IMS) FortWorth,Texas TexasRegisteredEngineeringFirm#11499

PreparedBy:

www.teamims.com garydavis@teamims.com 8176592399

Section 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.0 6.1 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.3

TableofContents Description Introduction Purpose Scope LimitationsofthisGuide OrganizationandPersonnel ImplementationofaDisciplinedPlan PrerequisitesforaQualifiedInspector RecommendedInspectionTeam InspectionSafety PreInspectionSafetyPlan SafelyManeuveringontheStructure IdentifyingHazards HighAmbientTemperatures:PrecautionsandPlanning PersonalSafetyEquipment PlanningandPreparation CleaningtheStructure AerialWorkPlatforms OtherInspectionParaphernalia GeneralInspectionGuidelines GettingStarted WheretoLook OtherInspectionGuidelines TrolleyStructureInspection TrolleyStructureInspectionPoints BridgeStructureInspection BridgeGirderInspectionPoints BridgeGirderInspectionNotes BridgeEndTruckandEndTieInspectionPoints BridgeEndTruckandEndTieInspectionNotes BridgeMiscellaneousInspectionPoints Page 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 13 13 15 20 20 22

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Section 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 9.0 9.1 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 11.0 11.1 11.2 12.0 12.1 12.2 13.0 14.0

Description HighStrengthBoltedConnections BoltedConnections:DescriptionandFunction HowtoCheckforBroken,Damaged,andLooseBolts RivetedCraneConstruction RivetInspection CautionsforReuseofBolts CheckingforProperFastenerHardware InspectionIntervals WhentoInspect BasicStructureBehavior WheretoLook Tension,Compression,andBending Shear DeflectionandCamber Buckling EffectofWelding StressConcentrationandFatigue AttachmentsCreateDiscontinuities SingleFailurepoints ManufacturingQualityandFatigueResistantDesignDetails TrolleyStructureBehavior TrolleyStructureDesign TrolleyDeflection BridgeStructureBehavior BridgeStructureDesign BridgeStructureResponsetoLateralLoadsandSkewing ExamplesofCraneStructureDamage References

Page 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 29 32 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 37 38 42

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1.0Introduction 1.1 Purpose This guide provides a comprehensive set of recommendations for structural inspection of overhead bridge cranes and trolleyhoists. Emphasis is placed on knowing where to look for structuraldamage.Basicconceptsareintroducedforidentifyinghotspotsonthestructure, andareaspronetofatigue.Thisguideisintendedforplantmaintenancepersonnelandcrane service technicians who are responsible for periodic, visual structural inspections. This guide will also be useful for entry level engineers and experienced engineers who are new to field inspection. Because structures are so reliable, it is easy to lose sight of their fundamental importance. Failure to complete overhead crane and hoist inspections and proper equipment maintenancecouldleadtoseriousinjury,deathordestructionofproperty1. Implementationofacomprehensiveanddisciplinedinspectionplanhasthefollowingbenefits: Reducedchanceoffatalityorinjurytopersonnel. Reducedliabilityexposure. Improvesequipmentproductivity. Prolongsequipmentservicelife. Ensurescompliancewithlaws,codes,andstandardsincluding:OSHA,ANSI,andASME. 1.2 Scope Thisguideisforoverheadbridgecranestructuresincluding: Bridgegirders. Bridgeendtrucks,endties,equalizersaddles,sillbeams. Platforms,ladders,stairs,cabs. Boltedandweldedconnections. Trolleyframes,trolleyendtrucks. 1.3 LimitationsofthisGuide This information is not a substitute for prevailing inspection standards for cranes and structures, or recommended inspection procedures provided by original equipment manufacturers. Thisguideisintendedtosupplementthetrainingandexperienceofpersonnelwhoare alreadyqualifiedtoperformstructuralinspectionsofoverheadcranes.

TheCrane,HoistandMonorailAlliance,anOSHACooperativeProgram,FactSheetNo.1,ProperInspectionand MaintenanceofOverheadCranes,http://www.mhia.org/industrygroups/osha
1

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Duetothewidevarietyofcraneapplicationsandequipmentconfigurations,thisguide canonlyprovidegenericguidance.Inspectionprovisionsforspecialapplicationsmay not be addressed here. Special applications not addressed here include: under running cranes, patented track systems, stacker cranes, jib cranes, portal cranes, gantrycranes,packagedtrolleyhoists,cranerunways,andbelowthehookequipment.

2.0OrganizationandPersonnel 2.1 ImplementationofaDisciplinedPlan Thefirststepindesigningahighqualityinspectionprogramistocreateacontrolleddocument manualcontainingworkinstructionsandprocedures.Themanualshouldbealivedocument thatiscontinuouslybeingimproved.Manualsfacilitateasystematicandrepeatableapproach, and set definite standards. Manuals also facilitate seamless transitions during changes in personnel. They help train new people, and identify existing plans to new management personnel.Ataminimum,themanualshoulddefinethefollowing: Personnelresponsibilitiesandauthorities. Minimumrequirementsfortrainingandcertificationofinspectors. Provideinspectionformscustomizedforvariouscranesintheplant. Standardsfordocumentationandrecordkeeping. Wheninspectionsshallbemade. Minimuminspectionintervals. Levelofdetailtobecarriedoutforvariousinspectionintervals. Criteriaforreportingsuspectandproblemareastotheresponsibleengineer. Theentireprogramshouldbecloselymonitoredandsupervisedbyanengineerwhoisqualified to design and inspect structures. Each inspection should be reviewed and approved by the responsibleengineer.Toensurethatinspectionsaremeetingminimumqualitystandards,the responsible engineer should perform inspections of recently inspected cranes (periodically at randomintervals). For longinterval inspections of major process cranes, hire a consulting engineer to do the inspection. It is important that the selected firm specializes in inspection and design of overheadmaterialhandlingequipment.Byperiodicallyhiringanoutsideexpert,itprovidesa goodcheckonthequalityofyourinhousesystem. 2.2 PrerequisitesforaQualifiedInspector Onlyproperlytrainedandqualifiedpersonnelshouldperforminspections.Aformaltraining andcertificationprogramshouldbeimplementedtoensurethatinspectorsarequalified,and remain qualified. For additional guidance on minimum requirements for crane inspectors,
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refer to CMAA Specification No. 782002, Standards and Guidelines for Professional Services PerformedonOverheadandTravelingCranesandAssociatedHoistingEquipment. 2.3 RecommendedInspectionTeam Theinspectorshouldhaveanassistantpresentatalltimes.Assistingtheinspectorisidealfor trainingandqualifyingnewinspectors. Primarydutiesfortheassistant: Monitortheimmediateareaforhazards. Operatetheaerialplatform. Assisttheinspectorbytakingnotesandmeasurementsasrequired. Handletools,flashlight,camera,notepads,etc. Communicatewithpersonnelonthefloorandelsewhereviaradio. Intheeventofaninjurytoeithertheassistantortheinspector,theotherwillprovide assistance. 3.0InspectionSafety 3.1 PreInspectionSafetyPlan Beforestartingtheinspection,followthesafetyproceduresrequiredbyyourcompany,OSHA, andstateandlocalauthorities.Generallyrecommendedsafetyproceduresinclude: Notifyplantpersonnel(inadvance)thataninspectionwilltakeplace.Personnelwho worknearthearea,orpassthroughtheareashouldbenotified. Locatethebridgeawayfromcraneactivityinthesameandadjacentcraneaisles. Ifothercranesonthesamerunwaymuststayinserviceduringtheinspection,provide ameanstopreventthemfromhittingthecranebeinginspected. If the mainline conductor system must remain energized during the inspection, all inspection personnel must remain aware of this hazard and stay clear of the conductors. Iftheinspectionrequirespersonnelmaneuveringandpotentialexposuretocraneson anadjacentrunway,installaguardorabarrierorprovideothersafemeanstoprotect theinspectorfromcontactwithadjacentcranes. Removeallsourcesofstoredmechanicalenergyincludingsuspendedloadblocks. Disconnect,tag,andlockoutallelectricalpowertothecrane. 3.2 SafelyManeuveringontheStructure Safe,comfortable,andcloseaccessisrequiredtoallpartsofthecrane.Ifpossible,thecrane should be moved to an area that has good lighting, comfortable temperature, and is away fromproductionprocesses,andadjacentcraneactivity.
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Inspectorsmaybestanding,sitting,kneeling,bending,squatting,climbing,orlayingdownto facilitatetheinspection.Theinspectormusthavephysicalagilitytoclimbtallladders,walkon partsoftherunway,andclimboverallpartsofthebridgeandtrolley. Theinspectormustbeabletosafelymaneuverandpositionhimselfinareasthathavelimited footingandspace.Onecommonlyencounteredexampleoflimitedfootingissteppingonto runwaybeamswherenoplatformsexist.Dependingonthespecificbuildingdesignandcrane location,accesstotherunwaymayberequiredtoexaminetheconditionofbridgeendtrucks, end ties, sill beams, equalizer saddles, squaring plates, girder connections, and bumper extensions. 3.3 IdentifyingHazards Itisimpossibletocreatealistofallpossiblehazards,butafewcommonsenseguidelinesfor safeinspectionsareofferedhere: Neverrushthetask. Nevermovetoalocationwhereyoucannotclearlyseethatyouwillhavesafefooting andifrequired,stablehandholds. Observe the condition of the walking surface and avoid walking on surfaces covered withlubricantsordebris. Continuouslymonitoractivitiesinallthreedimensionsofyoursurroundings. Whenclimbingandmaneuveringonthestructure,bothofyourhandsshouldbefree forgraspinghandholds.Taketimetothinkaboutyourmovementsinadvance. Makesurethatothersknowwhereyouare.Dontassumethatothersareawareof your nearby presence. When passing behind someone, be sure to announce your presence. Even if power is disconnected and locked out from the crane, its a good habit to remainawareofexposedconductorsurfacesandnottouchthem. Youshouldbeaccustomedtoheights. Be familiar with the OSHA definition of a confined space. Never enter a confined spacewithoutapermit. Identifypotentialpinchpointsandlocationswhereyoucouldbecrushed. Watchforunguardedopeningsinfloorsandhandrailings. 3.4 HighAmbientTemperatures:PrecautionsandPlanning Special attention and planning are required for inspecting cranes in hot areas. Due to the adverseenvironment,thesecranesmaynotreceivetheinspectiontimetheydeserve.Theair temperature on melt shop cranes in a steel mill can exceed 140 Fahrenheit. The crane structuremaybehot,andglovesarerecommendedformaneuveringonthestructureduring aninspection. Consider inspecting high temperature cranes at night, early morning, or on cloudy days. Whentemperaturesatthecraneelevationareextremelyhot,inspectiontimeisconsiderably
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longer. When air temperatures are 120 to 140 F., inspection personnel should limit their exposure time. Productive inspection time may be limited to 15 or 20 minute increments beforedescendingtothefloorlevel,orenteringanairconditionedcaborcontrolroom.For extremelyhotenvironments,60%cooldowntimeand40%inspectiontimemaybeusedasa roughguideforestimatinginspectiontime. 3.5 PersonalSafetyEquipment In addition to safety equipment mandated by OSHA, and if not already furnished by your company,thefollowingarticlesshouldbeconsidered: Twowayradio. Dustmask. Coverallswithzipperpockets. Gloves(lightcanvastype). 4.0PreparationforInspections 4.1 CleaningtheStructure Thesurfaceofthecraneshouldbecleanbeforestartingtheinspection.Forhighproduction, process cranes, it iscommon for structuralelements to be obscured by a thickcoat of dust andlubricants.Areascoveredbythicklayersofundisturbeddebris,mayindicatelongterm neglectofinspection. Over time, accumulated debris may harden into a thick crust that requires vigorous mechanicalcleaning.Thenatureandextentofthedebrismustbeevaluatedforplanningthe cleaningmethod,equipment,andmanpower.Donotunderestimatehowtightly thedebris maybebondedtothesurfaces,crevices,andcornersofthestructure.Crevicesandcorners are important areas of interest and must be thoroughly cleaned for inspection. In extreme cases,pneumaticchiselingisrequiredtoremovedebris. When it is not feasible to clean the entire crane before an inspection, it becomes more important for the inspector to know where to look. The inspector must have a basic understandingofstructures.Refertosection10foranoverviewofstructurebehavior. 4.2 AerialWorkPlatforms An aerial work platform (or manlift) is required for hard to reach areas, including the underside of the trolley and bridge girders. When planning for the aerial lifting apparatus, considerthefollowing: Identifyareasofthecranethatcanbesafelyinspectedwithoutanaeriallift. Determinethehighestelevationandfarthestlateralreachrequiredfortheapparatus.
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Considerwherethebaseoftheapparatusmustbemaneuveredtoreachthelocations previouslyidentified. Consider the travel path required to bring the apparatus through the plant, into the aisle,andunderthecrane. Useatrainedequipmentoperator. Theaerialliftshouldbeoperatedbysomeoneotherthantheinspector. 4.3 OtherInspectionParaphernalia Thefollowingitemsarerecommendedforlocalcleaningareasofinterest,markingsuspected areas,anddocumentingareasforreports: Camera.Useacompact,rugged,goodqualitycamera.Thecameramustbesuitable forsharpcloseupsandshouldbeweatherproof. Mini audio recorder. For dictating verbal descriptions that can be transcribed and editedforreports. Mirror.Asmallinspectionmirrorwithanextensionhandle,ora4x5acryliclocker mirror. Flexible borescope with optical or video display. A borescope allows closeup inspectionofinaccessibleareassuchastheinteriorofboxgirders,endtrucks,andend ties. Paintstick(whiteoryellow)foridentifyingareasofinterest. Extrapensandpencils. Notepadforsketches,measurementsandnotes. Blackmarkerforidentifyingareasofinterest. Flashlight.Useagoodqualityflashlight(Magliteorequalquality). Puttyknifeforscrapingdebristocleanareasofinterest. Smallwirebrushforcleaningareasofinterest. Tapemeasure.A16or25isadequate.Useawidebladetapemeasureformaximum reachtoinaccessiblelocations. Ballpeen hammer. Asmall (2 oz. or 4 oz.) hammercan be used for tapping on the face of girder webs or other weldments to determine the locations of internal stiffeners.Ahammercanalsobeusedtotapontheheadsofrivetsandboltstohelp determineiftheyarelooseorbroken. Torpedolaserlevelwithmagneticbaseorasmalllasercrosslevel.Astraight,level reference line is required to measure the elevation profiles of trolley rails. Use the brightest laser available (at least 100 working range) so the beam will be visible for usewithatapemeasure.
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5.0GeneralInspectionGuidelines 5.1 GettingStarted Starttheinspectionatthetopandworkyourwaydown.Thismeansstartingatthetopofthe trolley.Thenproceedtothetopofthebridge.Inspectasmuchaspossiblewithoutusingthe aeriallift.Noteareasthatarenotaccessibleforlaterviewingfromtheaeriallift. 5.2 WheretoLook Overheadcraneshavethesamebasicconfigurations,andagenericlistofbridgeandtrolley inspectionpointsissuggestedinsection6and7.Sincetherearesomanydesignvariations forcustomcraneapplications,itisnotpossibletoidentifyallpointsofinterestinthisguide.A basic understanding of structure behavior canhelp to identify other inspection points. This guide includes a section on basic structure behavior to help technicians identify points of interestthatmaynotbelisted.Acustomlistofinspectionpointsshouldbemadetosuiteach craneinyourplant. 5.3 OtherInspectionGuidelines Whenacrackisdiscoveredatonelocation,allothersimilarortypicallocationsmust becarefullyinspected.Oneexamplewouldbewhenacrackisdiscoveredinthegirder webadjacenttoplatformconnections.Theremaybeseveralotherconnectiondetails identicaltowheretheoriginalcrackwasdiscovered.Itisefficienttofocusattention ontypicallocationsthatarediscovered. Aviewingdistanceofnotmorethantwofeetisrecommendedforvisualinspections. Routinelyinspectareasthathavebeenrepairedormodified. Previously repaired areas that use patch plates present a problem for inspection. Thepreviouslyrepairedareacannotbeinspectedbecauseitiscoveredbythepatch plate.Patchplatedareasshouldbereportedtotheresponsibleengineerasdamaged areas that require action. The patch plate should be removed and an engineered repair should be made. The engineered repair procedure should be completed by a qualifiedstructuralengineer. All areas of structural damage must be documented and reported to a qualified structuralengineerforassessmentbeforeplacingthecranebackintoservice.
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Item 1

6.0TrolleyStructureInspections Table6.1:TrolleyStructureInspectionPoints Description PointsofInterestforInspection Wherestiffenersarewelded togirtsorwhere Mainandauxiliaryhoistload othermembersareweldedonornearthelower girts:bottomflange. flangeofgirt.Checkweldsandadjacentbase metal. Mainandauxiliaryhoistload Edgesofmembersadjacenttorunningwireropes. girts:bottomedgesof Lookforscuffing,erosion,andsawingaction members. fromwireropecontactwithstructure. Weldsandadjacentbasemetalwheregirtsare weldedtoendtrucks.Whenthedepthofthegirt Mainandauxiliaryhoistload memberislessthantheendtruck,checkfor girts:endconnections. flexingofthewalloftheendtruckatthebottom edgeofthegirt. Sheaveboxes Weldsandbasemetal. Similartoitems1and2.Lookforotherload Otherloadgirts. carryinggirts,includingsupportsforhoistdrums, drumpinionsupports,andequalizersheaves. Whereloadgirtsare weldedtotheendtruck, Trolleyendtrucks:frame especiallyonornearthelowerflange.Check connections weldsandadjacentbasemetal. Trolleyendtrucks:wheel For90and45MCBtypewheelassemblies,check assemblymounting. forcrackingatstiffenersandcorners. Trolleyendtrucks:bumper Weldsandbasemetal. Checkboltedconnections attachments,bumperchocks. persection8.0. Trolleyendtrucks:bolted Checkboltedconnectionspersection8.0.Check splicefortrolleyframe. weldsandbasemetalforconnectionplates. Damagefromjacking onedgesofendtruck Trolleyendtrucks:jackingpads flangesordirectlyonthebottomflangeplateof orjackingbrackets. theendtruck.Checkweldsandbasemetal aroundjackinglocations. Lookforcracksatcornersornotches.Checkwelds Trolleydrivemounting andbasemetalwherebracketsareweldedtothe brackets. trolleyframe. Lookforcracksatcornersornotches.Checkwelds Hoistreducersupportbracket. andbasemetalwherebracketsareweldedtothe trolleyframe. Torquearmbracketsfor Inspectbracketarmandweldtoendtruck. hollowshafttrolleyreducers. Bearingsupportsfordrum, Checkweldsandbasemetalatconnectionto bearingsupportforexternal trolleyframe. drumpinion.
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4 5

6 7 8 9

10

11

12 13 14

15

Handrails,guardrails,ladders, platforms,stairs,cantilevered platformsupports.

16

Cabattachments,cantilevered cabsupportstructures. Towarmforconductors.

17

Checkweldsandbasemetal.Checktightnessof allfasteners.Lookforloose,broken,ormissing bolts.Checkforproperfastenerhardware.Check formissingordamagedgatesorchains.Checkfor sharpedgesorcornersnearpersonnelpassage ways. Checkboltedcabconnectionspersection8.0. Weldsandbasemetalforconnectionplates.For cabssuspendedoutsidethebridgegirder,inspect thecantileveredsupportstructure. Checktowarmandtheboltedorwelded connectiontothetrolleyframe.

Figure61 Seesection6.1fortrolleyinspectionpoints.

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Item

Figure62 Viewunderneathtrolley, showingtypicalstructureinspectionpoints.

7.0BridgeStructureInspections Table7.1: BridgeGirderInspectionPoints Description PointsofInterestforInspection Looseandmissingsplicebolts,checkforimproper hardware.Jointbarboltshavestraightshankstothehead Trolleyrailbolted andaremadeperASTMA449.NutsareperA563gradeB. splices. A325boltsandnutsmayalsobeused.Check/tighten spliceboltsevery3months.Fastenersshouldincludea helicalspringlockwasher perAREAspecification. Trolleyrailclampsor Checkforfracturedclamps,crackedwelds,looseand clips. brokenbolts.Seenote2. Trolleyrail:erosion Underthebaseoftherail,checkforerosionofthegirder underrailbase. flangeorthewearplate(ifpresent).Seenote3. Checkfortopflangecrackingattheedgeoftherailbase. Trolleyrailsupport. Checkfortackweldsattheedgeoftherailbase.Seenote 4.
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2 3 4

Trolleyrailelevations.

Girdercamber.

Torsionboxrail support. Trolleyendstops.

Bridgedrivemounting bases.

10

Lineshaftbearing supports.

11

Platformconnections togirder.

12

Festoon/span conductorsupports. Pendantfestoon supports. Rivetedgirders. Girderwelds.

Fromoneendofthetrolleyrail,sightdowntherailhead. Sightovertheentirelengthoftherailfordipsinelevation. Checkforlocaldeformationofthegirderflangethat supportstherail.Dishingordipsinthegirderflange mayindicatebrokenintermediatediaphragmsorbroken welds.Checkthisconditionatbothtrolleyrails.See Figure71. Positionthetrolleyattheextremeendofthebridge.From theendofthebridgeoppositethetrolley,positionyour lineofsighttobeinlinewithoneofthetrolleyrails,and nearlyatthesameelevationastherailhead.The elevationoftherailnearthemiddleofthebridgespan shouldbevisiblyhigherthanneartheends(positive camber).Ifconditionsdonotpermitthisobservation,orif positivecamberisnotobserved,detailedmeasurements arerequired.Repeattheprocedurefortheothertrolley rail.Seenote6. Forboxgirdersthatsupportthetrolleyraildirectlyover theinsidewebplate,checkforcrackingofthegirder flangetowebweld. Welds,basemetal,andattachmenttogirder.Confirmthat trolleybumpersmakesimultaneouscontactwiththeend stopsatbothendsoftrolleytravel. Checktheconditionofgirderwebwherebridgemachinery isattached.Lookforoutofplanedeformationofthe girderweborcrackingofthematerialadjacenttowhere barsarewelded.SeeFigure72. Checktheconditionofgirderwebwherebearingsupports areattached.Lookforoutofplanedeformationofthe girderweborcrackingofthematerialadjacenttowhere barsarewelded. SeeFigure72. Checktheconditionofgirderwebwhereplatformsupport gussetplatesareattached.Lookforoutofplane deformationofthegirderweborcrackingofthematerial adjacenttogussetattachments.SeeNote11.SeeFigure 73,74,75. Checktheconditionofgirderwebwhereconductor supportsareattached.Lookforoutofplanedeformation ofthegirderweborcrackingofthematerialadjacentto wheregussetsorbarsarewelded. Checksupportmembers,weldedandboltedconnections. Inspectrivetedconstructionpersection8. Longitudinalflangetowebwelds.Inspectthelocationof shopsplicesforwebandflangeplates.Seenote15.
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13 14 15

16

Girderlowerflange andweb.

17 18 19

Walkingirders. Boltedgirdersplices. Girderconnection notch. Equalizersaddles. Platformtruss.

20 21

Insideedgesofthebottomflanges,includingtheadjacent webareafordamageduetowireropeabrasion,impact fromloadblocks,orliftingbeams.Forcraneswithlifting beams,alsochecktheconditionofthebottomsurfaceof thebottomflangeforimpactfromtwoblockingaccidents. Ifropeguardsarepresent,inspecttheropeguard attachmentstothegirder. Weldsandbasemetalforintermediateandfulldepth diaphragms,girderwebs,girderflanges.Seenote17. Checkboltsintopandbottomflangesplicesandweb splicespersection8. SeeFigure7.6. Checkweldsandbasemetalatcornersand whereweldsmeetatcorners.Checkweldswheregirder websareweldedtohorizontalshelfplate. SeeFigure77.Checkweldsandbasemetalwherethe verticalsaddleplatesareweldedtothehorizontalsaddle plate.Alsocheckweldedconnectionstogirder. Weldsandbasemetalforalltrussmembersandgusset plates. SeeFigure74.

7.1 BridgeGirderInspectionNotes ThefollowingitemnumberscorrespondtotheitemsinTable7.1. 2. Railclipsresistasmallupliftforcefromthetrolleyrail.SeeFigure71.Theraildeflects downwarddirectlyunderthetrolleywheel.Oneithersideofthetrolleywheel,therail reactsbydeflectingupward.Theupwardforceisresistedbytherailclips.Theclipsor weldsmaybreakduetofatigue. 3. Erosionofgirderflangematerialundertherailbaseismorelikelyinwet,corrosive,or abrasiveenvironments.Theerosioniscausedbytheslidingandcreepingactionofthe railrelativetothegirder.Thisactionisnormalandcannotbepreventedunlessarail padisused.Erosionundertherailsisaveryslowprocess.Itmaytakeseveralyears beforemateriallosscanbeobserved. 4. Duetohighcarboncontent,ASCEcranerailsarenotreadilyweldable.Tackwelding(or anyotherwelding)oncranerailsmustberemovedbygrinding.NDTthegirderflange basemetalforcrackingafterrailweldsareremoved. 6. Whencambercannotbevisuallyobserved,elevationmeasurementsarerequired.The preferredmethodistosetaselflevelinglaserlevelnearthecenterofthespanonone of the girders. At 5 foot increments along the span, measure and record the vertical distancefromthelaserlinetothetopoftherailhead.Measurementsforbothgirders shouldbetakenfromoneinstrumentsetup.Alternately,asmalltorpedolaserlevel
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can be used to obtain the rail camber elevations on each individual girder. With this methodhowever,theelevationdifferenceofthegirderscannotbemeasured. 11. Forcranesthatuseatrusstosupporttheoutsideedgeoftheplatform,theplatform connections to the girder are prone to fatigue damage. See Figure 73. The bridge girderdeflectsduetothetrolleyload,buttheoutriggertrussdoesnot.Theplatform connectionthat frames into the girder web is forced to translate vertically relativeto the truss end. The forced vertical translation causes a large bending action at the platformconnectiontothegirder.Figures74and75showtypicalgirderwebcracks nearthegirdertensionflangecausedbyoutofplaneflexingofthegirderweb. Shopsplicesaresometimesdifficulttolocate.Theexternalappearanceofshopspliced materialmayvarybyOEM.Shopsplicesmaybefoundbynotingsubtlechangesinthe profile of edges and surface texture. This is difficult to detect under a thick coat of paint.Bottomflange(tensionflange)splicesshouldhave beengroundflushwiththe basematerialbytheOEM. Beforeenteringawalkingirder,reviewandfollowapplicablesafetyrequirementsfor enteringandworkinginconfinedspaces.

15.

17.

Figure71 Schematicillustrationofhowthetrolleyraildeflects.Theupwardforceproducedby leveragefromthetrolleywheelisresistedbytherailclipsorclamps.

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Figure72 Bridgemachinerysupports. Checkgirderweb andwelds forverticalbarstoweb.

Figure73 Cranewithanoutriggertruss.Thediagonalmembersarepartofthetrussthatsupportsthe platform,bridgemachinery,andfestoontrack.

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Figure74 Thegirderwebiscrackedat thetoeofthefilletweldfor platformconnectionbar. Figure75 ThisisacloseupviewofFigure74.Thearrowpointstotheendofthecrack.Thecrackis propagatingtowardthebottomflangeofthegirder.Cracksinthebottomflangeofagirder cancauseacatastrophicgirderfailure.

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Figure77 Equalizedbogietruckswithrigidendtie
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Figure76 GirderEndConnection

Item 1

2 3 4

5 6 7

Table7.2:BridgeEndTruckandEndTieInspectionPoints Description PointsofInterestforInspection SeeFigure7.6.Checkboltedconnectionsforloose,broken, Squaringplate ormissingbolts.Looseboltsshouldberemovedand connection. replacedwithnewboltsofthesamegrade,size,andlength. Seesection8 forboltedconnections. SeeFigure77.Theendsoftherigidendtieareboltedto Rigidendtie thegirdersinonehorizontalplaneandtwoverticalplanes. connections. Seesection8forboltedconnections. Compensatingendtie SeeFigure78forcompensatingendtieconnection. Check connections. boltspersection8. Checkflangetowebwelds,checkweldsandbasemetalat Sillbeams. corners,abruptchangesingeometry,andwherewelds meetatcorners. For90and45MCBtypewheelassemblies,checkfor Endtrucks:wheel crackingatstiffenersandcorners.SeeFigure7.6.Check assemblymounting. weldforshoeplatetoendtruckweb. Endtrucks:equalizer Checkweldsandbasemetalaroundthedoublerplate pinsupports. supportingtheequalizerpin. Torquearmbrackets forhollowshaft Inspectbracketarmandweldtoendtruck. trolleyreducers.

7.2 BridgeEndTruckandEndTieInspectionNotes ThefollowingitemnumberscorrespondtoTable7.2. 3. Compensatingendtiesshouldbeflexibleforbendingintheverticalplane,andrigidfor bending in the horizontal plane. Improper design, crane service misapplication, and runway misalignment can make compensating end ties prone to cracking, especially at theirverticalendconnections.Thefatiguecracksarecausedbycompletereversalofthe bendingstress.
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Figure78 Boltedconnectionsforcompensatingendties

Item

Table7.3:BridgeMiscellaneousInspectionPoints Description PointsofInterestforInspection Weldsandbasemetal.Checkboltedconnectionsper section8.Lookforloose,broken,ormissingbolts.Check Handrails,ladders, forproperfastenerhardware.Checkformissingor stairs,gates. damagedgatesorchains.Checkforsharpedgesor corners. Checkcondition ofplatformdeck,decksupportmembers, Platforms. andweldedconnections.Checkboltedconnectionsper section8. Checkforbrokenmembersandbrokenwelds.Check boltedconnectionspersection8.Bentmembersare acceptableifatleast3clearanceremainsbetweenthe Mainlineguard. guardandnearestobstruction.Checkconditionofsafety tieoffcables.Ifcablesarenotpresent,theyshouldbe installed. Checkforbrokenmembersandbrokenwelds.Check Mainlinecollector boltedconnectionspersection8.Checkconditionof support. safetytieoffcables.Ifcablesarenotpresent,theyshould beinstalled. Hangerconnectionsandcageframe.Checkladderper item1.Checkforbrokenmembersandbrokenwelds. Mainlinerepaircage. Checkboltedconnectionspersection8.Checkcondition ofsafetytieoffcables.Ifcablesarenotpresent,they shouldbeinstalled. Checkconditionofsafetytieoffcables.Itemsthatcould falltothefloorshouldhavesafetycablesinstalled.These Safetycables. itemsinclude:mainlineguards,mainlinecollector supports,bumpers. Hangerconnectionsandcabframe.Checkforbroken Operatorcabstructure membersandbrokenwelds.Checkboltedconnectionsper andsupports. section8.Checkladders,stairsandhandrailsperitem1.

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8.0HighStrengthBoltedConnections 8.1 BoltedConnections;DescriptionandFunction High strength bolted connections are used for primary load path members including girders, end ties, and bolted field splices. They may also be used for cab and platform connections. High strength bolts are tightened to develop a high tensile stress in them which results in a predictableclampingforceonthejoint.Theactualtransferofloadsthroughthejointisdueto thefrictionforcedevelopedinthepiecestobejoined. 8.2 HowtoCheckforBroken,Damaged,andLooseBolts Applypenetratingoiltothefastenerstobeinspected.Usingahandwrenchwithatleasta16 handle,applyfullefforttotightentheelement.Theelementtobeturned(eitherthenutorthe bolthead)shouldbethesameelementthatwastightenedduringtheoriginalinstallation.The turnedelementshouldhaveahardenedflatwasherunderit.Iftheelementturns,theboltis consideredtobeloose. Whenalooseboltisfound,itmustbereplacedwithanewboltorremovedandinspected.For inspection,thoroughlycleantheboltandcheckfordamageincludingdeformation,elongation, wear,cracks,orstrippedthreads.Elongationcanbedetectedbyusingyourfingerstoinstallan unused nut on the bolt threads. If the nut stops turning after a certain point, the bolt has elongatedandshouldbediscarded. Primary connections are designed to resist the crane rated capacity (the live load) plus the weightofthebridgeandtrolleystructure(thedeadload).Sincetheliveloadisusuallyseveral times greater than the dead load, it is usually safe to remove one or two fasteners from a connection containing several bolts under dean load only. Consult with a qualified person before removing any fasteners. Do not release the crane for service until the replaced or inspectedboltshavebeenproperlyinstalled. Broken, damaged, and very loose bolts may be found using the hand wrench procedure suggested here. The formal procedure for inspection of high strength bolted connections is giveninRCSCSpecificationforStructuralJointsusingASTMA325orA490Bolts,(seereference 6).Theabovemethodispresentedasanalternativeforsituationswheretheformalmethod cannotbeusedduetolimitedspaceorotherpracticalconsiderations.Consultwithaqualified structuralengineertodetermineiftheformalmethodofcheckingbolttightnessiswarranted foryourinspectionplan. 8.3 RivetedCraneConstruction Manyrivetedcranesarestillinservice.Beforeelectricarcwelding,bridgegirders,endties,and end trucks used builtup riveted construction, and some trolley frames consisted of large castings.Whenproperlyinstalled,rivetsareveryeffectiveconnectorsforcranecomponents. Duringinstallation,arivetissqueezedfromeachendcausingthebodyoftherivettoexpand
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andcompletely(ornearly)fillitshole.Rivetsareinstalledafterheatingtoalightcherryred. Whentherivetcools,itshrinksandprovidesaclampingforce.Eveniftheclampingforcewas notgreatenoughtocarrytheload,thebodyboundrivetstillmaintainsjointalignment. 8.4 RivetInspection Examinetheconditionoftherivetheads.Thefullcircumferenceoftherivetheadshouldbein firmcontactwiththematerial.Usingasmallballpeenhammer,taptherivetheadatabout45 to the rivet axis. If the hammer impact sounds like a dull thud or if any movement is observed,therivetisloose.Tightrivetswillhaveasolidringwhenhitbyahammer.Mark thelooserivetswithapaintstickanddocumenttheirlocation. 8.5 CautionsforReuseofBolts It may be tempting for maintenance and inspection personnel to simply retighten loose fastenersonthespot,butA325boltscanonlyberetightenedonceortwice.Ifyoudontknow how many times the bolt has been retightened after the original installation, it should be replaced.Retighteninghighstrengthboltscausesthemtolosetheabilitytostaytight.A490 bolts shall not be retightened. In general, touching up or retightening previously tightened boltswhichmayhavebeenloosenedbythetighteningofadjacentboltsisnotconsideredtobe reuse.HighstrengthboltsshallbetightenedperRCSCSpecificationforStructuralJointsUsing ASTMA325orA490Bolts,(seereference6). There should be no excessive elongation of the bolt in the threaded area which would be presentifthebolthadbeenovertightened.Theboltcanbereusedifthenutcanbeinstalled by hand for the full thread length, and the bolt is not otherwise damaged. When in doubt, replacetheboltwiththesamegrade,size,andlengthastheoriginal. 8.6 CheckingforProperFastenerHardware Figure81showstypicalhardwareusedforhighstrengthboltedconnections.Wheninspecting primaryboltedconnections,notethefollowing: Confirm that high strength bolts are installed in connections for primary members, including girders, end ties, and trolley splices. See Figure 82 for standard head identificationmarksforhighstrengthbolts. Hardenedflatwashersshallbeinstalledundertheturnedelement. Lockwashersshallnotbeusedinhighstrengthboltedconnections. When bolting to sloped surfaces such as Sbeam flanges and channel flanges, beveled washersmustbeused.Figure83illustratesatypicalinstallationforbeveledwashers.
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Figure81 Typicalhardwareforhighstrengthboltedconnections. (FromReference11.)

Figure82 Standardheadidentificationmarksforhighstrengthbolts
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Figure83 Exampleofbeveledwasherinstallation (FromReference11)

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9.0InspectionIntervals 9.1 WhentoInspect Checktheoriginalmanufacturersmanualforrecommendationsaboutinspections.Ifacopyof themanualisnolongeravailable,refertothefollowingreferencedocuments: ASMEB30.22005,OverheadandGantryCranes(TopRunningBridge,SingleorMultiple Girder,TopRunningTrolleyHoist) OSHA29CFR1910.179(j)forOverheadandGantryCranes CMAA Specification No. 782002, Standards and Guidelines for Professional Services PerformedonOverheadandTravelingCranesandAssociatedHoistingEquipment 10.0BasicStructureBehavior 10.1WheretoLook Knowledgeofwheretolookforstructuraldamageisveryimportantfortheinspector.When inspectiontimeislimited,andthestructureiscoveredbydebris,knowledgeaboutwhereto lookbecomesveryvaluable.Sincestructuresrespondtoloadsinpredictibleways,someof themostlikelyplacestoinspectcanbeidentified. Abasicunderstandingofcranestructurebehaviorgivesfocustotheinspection.Thissection provides basic concepts and guidelines to help determine the locations most likely to have damage. 10.2Tension,Compression,andBending For beam members, look for cracks in the tension zone and at the end connections. See Figure101.Forsimplebeams,thebottomsurfaceisintension.Themiddle2/3ofthelength of the tension zone should be checked first. Material near the top surface of the beam is compressed, and the bottom is pulled into tension. If there are cracks in the compression zone, they will not grow. Cracks in the tension zone will grow, but the speed of growth dependsonthemagnitudeoftheloading,andthenumberofloadingcycles.
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10.3 Shear InFigure101,thehighshearzonesarenearthebeamends.Failuresinthehighshearzones aremorelikelytobesuddenandcatastrophic.Shearfailurescanoccurinboltedconnections and welds. The connected base material can also fail by shear but usually the shear is combined with tension and compression. Shear can be visualized as the tendency of the materialtoslideonitself.Figure102illustratesthedifferencebetweenshearandtension.A scissorscutspaperbyapplyingashearforce.Horizontalshearinabeamcanbeillustratedby astackofboardsspanningbetweentwosupports.Whenyoupushdownonthemiddle,the stackdeflectsandthesurfaceofeachboardslidesrelativetotheother.Thetendencyforthe boardstoslideiscausedbyshear. Figure101 Internalforcesanddeformationofasimplebeam Figure102
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10.4 DeflectionandCamber There is a common misconception that deflection indicates weakness of a structure. A structure can have low strength and little deflection, or high strength and large deflection. Deflectioniscausedbystretchingand/orcompressingthematerial.Theactualdeformation that causes visible deflection is too small to be seen with the unaided eye because it is distributedoverthelengthofthemember.Localelongationorcompressionofthematerial may only be a few thousandths of an inch long, but the cumulative effect is visible as deflection. The beam assumes a bowed shape because the length of the top material gets shorterandthebottombecomeslonger. Sometimes paint will crack from these small deformations. Areas of cracked paint can indicatehighstress,anddeserveacloselookduringaninspection. 10.5 Buckling Somevisibledeformations/deflectionsarecausedbybuckling.Bucklingiscausedbyexcessive compression.Inplatematerial,bucklingcanalsooccurfromexcessiveshear.Thesurfaceofa buckled plate will appear wavy or rippled. Free edges of plates and bars are subject to buckling.Whenviewedalongtheedge,thebuckledplateappearswavy.Forstraight(non plate) members such as building columns or legs of a gantry crane, buckling appears as a bowingofthenormallystraightmember. 10.6 EffectofWelding In general, welding creates an internal, local restraint that creates biaxial and triaxial stress and strain conditions. Triaxial stress can be visualized as a solid cube with a perpendicular load applied to each face. Structural steel is very ductile, i.e., it will undergo a very large deformationbeforefailing.Butwhensteelisloadedtriaxially(orbiaxially),itbehaveslikea brittlematerial.Whenweldscool,theyshrinkinalldirections.Internalreactionforcesare createdwhenweldsshrink.Thisisbecausethebasemetaloutsideoftheheataffectedzone resiststheweldshrinkageforce.Oneexampleforthisiswhenthreeweldsmeetatacommon cornerasshowninFigure108.Eachlineofweldshrinksinitslongdirection.Thepointatthe corner is subjected to tension forces in three perpendicular directions. Since this corner wouldbethemostlikelyspotforacracktoform,itshouldbeapriorityforinspection.Refer to Figures 103 and 104 for common examples of welded connections that are prone to fatiguecracking.Theseillustrationsalsoshowtheexpectedcrackpattern.Thisinformation canhelptheinspectoridentifylocationsthataremostlikelytocrack.
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10.7 StressConcentrationandFatigue Cracking will eventually occur in hardworked cranes with poor engineering details and/or poorweldquality.Inorderofimportance,keepaneyeonthefollowingconditions: 1) Previouslyrepairedareas. 2) Girderandendtieconnections. 3) Locationswherecyclicflexingofthinwalledelementsmayoccur. 4) Sharpcorners. 5) Weldedattachmentstothetensionflange. 6) Jaggedorflamecutedgesnotgroundsmooth. 7) Weldsthatmeetincorners.SeeFigure108. 8) Arcstrikes&tackwelds. 9) Abruptchangesinstructuregeometry(stressconcentrations). 10) Locationswherethestateofstressregularlyfluctuatesbetweentensionand compression(stressreversals).
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Figure103 Examplesofconditionsthatmayresultinfatiguecracking (FromReference13)

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Figure104 Examplesofconditionsthatmayresultinfatiguecracking (FromReference13)

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10.8 AttachmentsCreateDiscontinuities InFigure105,thereisatackweldatthebottomoftheverticalconnectionplate.Thisisthe mostlikelyplacewherethecrackstarted.Tackweldscoolrapidly,makingtheadjacentbase metalhard,brittle,andpronetocrack. InFigure105,stressisconcentratedatthecornersformedbythesquaringplateweldedto thebottomflangeoftheendtruck.Thestressfieldmaybevisualizedasasetofstreamlines analogoustofluidflowingthroughaduct.Figure106illustratestheanalogyforstressand fluid flow. Abrupt geometry changes, inclusions, gouges, or notches create stress concentrationsthatarepronetofatiguecracking.Figure107showshowthestressintensity variesintheflange.Redrepresentsthehighestlevelofstress. Figure105 Thebluearrowspointtoacrackthroughthebottomflangeofabridgeendtruck.Thiscrack mayhavebeencausedbytheeffectofthetackweld(pinkarrow)combinedwiththestress concentrationshowninFigure106.SeeFigure76foraviewofthecompleteconnection.
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Figure106 Lookforsharpcorners,notches,andabruptchangesingeometry

Figure107 Thisisaqualitativeillustrationofincreasedstresscausedbyasuddenchange inthegeometryoftheloadpath.Theredareasindicatethehigheststress.

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Figure108 Atriaxialstressconditioniscreatedfromlongitudinalshrinkageofthree weldsthatmeetatacorner. 10.9SingleFailurePoints Be able to recognize single failure points. Look for areas in the main load path where no redundancyexists.Theloadpathisredundantifthefailureofoneelementdoesnotcause completefailure.Redundantloadpathshaveabackupstructurethatcansupporttheload. Achainisanexampleofanonredundantstructure.Ifonelinkinthechainfails,theentire chainhasfailed.Aredundantstructureislikeaparallelcircuit,anonredundantstructureis likeaseriescircuit.Inspectionprioritiesshouldbeforelementsofthemainloadpaththatare singlefailurepoints. 10.10ManufacturingQualityandFatigueResistantDesignDetails Preferenceshouldbegiventocranebuildersthathaveaproventrackrecordfordesignand manufacture of hardworked cranes. The crane vendor must have knowledge of the application,andexperiencewithfatigueresistantdesign. High quality welding is important for dynamically loaded crane structures. Geometric imperfections such as undercut, porosity, slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, craters, melted corners,andhydrogenentrapmentcreatestressconcentrations.Theseflawsmaycausethe adjacentmaterialtoyieldandcrack.
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11.0TrolleyStructureBehavior 11.1TrolleyStructureDesign Thetrolleystructureisaframeworkofbeams.Figure111showstheconstructionofasimple trolleyframe.EachbeammemberintheframebehavesasshownisFigure101.Locations withthehighesttensionandshearstressshouldbeinspected.Thehighesttensionstressis located on the bottom surface of each member, at the midpoint of its length. The highest shear stress is at the end of each member. The maximum shear stress in the girt is at the weldedconnectiontotheendtruck. Figure111 Illustrationofasimpletrolleyframe
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11.2TrolleyDeflection When loaded, the trolley frame will deflect as shown in Figure 112. Each girt that spans betweentheendtruckswilldeflectasshowninFigure112.Whengirtsdeflect,theirends rotateandthiscausesthetrolleyendtruckstotilttowardeachother.Thealignmentofhoist machinerymaybeadverselyaffectedifthetrolleyframeistooflexible.Thisisespeciallytrue fortrolleyframeswitharelativelylargespanbetweenthetrolleyrails.

Figure 11-2

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12.0BridgeStructureBehavior 12.1BridgeStructureDesign Viewed from the top, the bridge structure is a rectangular frame with rigid corners. The bridge girders support the trolley load by bending in a vertical plane between the runway rails.Theendtrucksorendtiesalsobendinaverticalplane.Forverticalloading,thebridge structurebehavessimilartothetrolleyframeshowninfigure112.Thebridgeendtruckstilt towardeachotherwhenthegirdersbend. 12.2BridgeStructureResponsetoLateralloadsandSkewing The purpose of the bridge frame is to keep the end trucks parallel. See Figure 121. Unbalancedaccelerationsfromthebridgedrivesandlateralbridgewheelforcesfromtracking causetheframetoskew.Lateralgirderbendingfromtrolleyinertia(andwindloads)along withskewing,causethecornersoftheframetorotate.Thecornerrotationsteersthewheels intothesideoftherailandtrackingperformanceisaffected.Thebridgegirdersandendties (orendtrucks)musthaveenoughstiffnesstopreventexcessivecornerrotationoftheframe.

Figure 12-1

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13.0ExamplesofCraneStructureDamage

Figure131 Thespanforthisbridgewasincreasedbyinsertingadeepersectionatthecenterofthenewspan. The dashed lines show the original girder. The horizontal dashed lines show where the original girder flange overlaps the web of the new section. The splice at the other end of the added sectiondidnothaveaflangeoverlap,andthisiswherethefailureoccurred.Theflangeoverlap creates a transition for the sudden change in girder depth. Without the flange overlap, the reactionforceinthebottomflangeoftheoriginalgirderdoesnothaveenoughofananchor.In thiscase,thelowerflangeforcewasdistributedintothediagonalflangeplateandthewebofthe addedsection.Theweldedjointintheoverlapbetweentheflangeoftheoriginalsectionandthe webofthenewsectionmustbelongenoughtocarry100%oftheforceinthebottomflangeof theoriginalsection. Page39of43

Figure132 ThisisacloseupofFigure141showingtypicalcrackingatthesplicebetweenthe originalandaddedsection.Theoriginalgirderflangewasterminatedabruptlyand weldedtothediagonalflangeoftheinsertedsection.

Figure132 Itislikelythatthecrackstartedattheflangesplice,andthen propagatedintotheweboftheinsertedsection.(FromFigure141)

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Figure133 ThisisacloseupfromFigure141showingthecrackpropagatingintothewebplate oftheinsertedsection.Aholewasdrilledattheendofthecracktostop propagation.Therespannedcranehadbeeninserviceforabout5years.

Figure134 Theseverticalbarssupport the bridge drive for a high productioncrane.Asimilar configuration is shown in Figure 72. The bars were trimmed to install the grease lines. The cutting created a notch at the corner which initiated a crack that propagated into the girder web. Due to multiple repairs that could nolongersupporttheload, largesectionsofthegirder webwerereplacedandthe drive mounting was re designed.
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Figure135 This is a bridge girder looking up from below. The vertical edge of a full depth diaphragmisshown.Thisgirderwasbeing usedforaclassFbuckethandlingcrane. The girders were in service only one year beforetheyfailed.Thisfailurewasdueto improper welding and detailing. The girder web consisted of individual plates welded between full depth diaphragms. The vertical edges of the web segments were connected to the full depth diaphragms by intermittent fillet welds. For box girders, most of the bending is carried by the flanges, but web material neartheflangesissubjectedtonearlythe same strain. In this case the strain was tensilenearthebottomflange.Thetensile force in the web was carried by a single sided fillet weld to the diaphragm. This causedacyclicandeccentricloadingabout the throat of the weld that resulted in rapidfailureoftheweld.Thecrackedweb welds propagated into the lower flange which caused a complete failure of the girder.

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1. 2.

14.0References OmerW.Blodgett,DesignofWeldedStructures,JamesF.LincolnArcWeldingFoundation, Cleveland,Ohio,1976. Kulak, Fisher, Struik, Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, American InstituteofSteelConstruction,Chicago,Illinois,2001. AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction,SteelConstructionManual,9thed.,Chicago,1989. American Welding Society, Specification for Welding of Industrial and Mill Cranes and OtherMaterialHandlingEquipment,ANSI/AWSD14.1:2005,Miami,Florida,2005. American Welding Society, Structural Welding CodeSteel, ANSI/AWS D1.1:2010, Miami, Florida,2010. ResearchCouncilonStructuralConnections,SpecificationforStructuralJointsUsingASTM A325orA490Bolts,AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction,Chicago,2004. Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Steel Structures, Design and Behavior, Intext EducationalPublishers,NewYork,NY,1971. U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,HighStrengthBoltsforBridges,reportNo.FHWASA 91031,May,1991. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Overhead and Gantry Cranes (Top Running Bridge,SingleorMultipleGirder,TopRunningTrolleyHoist),ASMEB30.22005,NewYork, NY,2005. OccupationalSafety&HealthAdministration,29CFRPart1910.179OverheadandGantry Cranes. AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction,DetailingforSteelConstruction,Chicago,1983. Crane Manufacturers Association of America, Inc., CMAA Specification No. 782002, Standards and Guidelines for Professional Services Performed on Overhead and Traveling CranesandAssociatedHoistingEquipment,Charlotte,NC,2002. American Institute of Steel Construction, ANSI/AISC 36005, Specification for Structural SteelBuildings,Chicago,2005. S. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, Part II, 2nd edition, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York,1941.

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