Abstract This study entails the design optimisation of a

tubular, transverse flux, reciprocating linear electric generator

for short stroke, high frequency applications - more specifically
with resonant free-piston Stirling engines. Gradient-based
iterative dimensional optimisation was performed using a static
three-dimensional finite element analysis in order to determine
the most suitable design. The electromagnetically active mass
of the generator was minimised while maintaining certain
power output and efficiency levels. Three consecutive
optimisations were performed with increasing degrees of
freedom to investigate the influence thereof on the mass of the
generator. The final design is considered to be an improvement
on previous efforts.

Index Terms iron-core, linear, moving magnet,
optimisation, short-stroke, Stirling engine, transverse-flux.
I. INTRODUCTION
HE manufacturability of tubular short-stroke linear
electric generators is greatly determined by the required
configuration of laminations. Two distinctly different
designs are considered practically feasible in this regard,
namely, air-cored, longitudinal flux machines which avoid
the use of wedge-shaped laminations; and iron-cored,
transverse flux machines which have identical laminations
stacked in the direction of linear reciprocation. This study
focuses on the design optimisation of the latter.
Previous work as described by Boldea and Nassar [1]
proposes a moving iron design. A representation of this is
shown in Fig. 1.a. This machine design is remarkably robust
due to the stationary magnets, but it was determined by
Schutte and Strauss [2] that this topology suffers from a poor
power-to-weight ratio and large equivalent series inductance
which leads to difficulty in the control of the generator. It is
therefore considered to be insufficient for use in free-piston
Stirling engines (FPSEs). For similar reasons, Arshad [3]
found that it was not suitable for use in crankless internal
combustion engines either. However, a foundation for this
family of electric machines was established.
In an effort to improve on this topology, Schutte [4]
investigated a different design, where the magnets are fixed
to the translator. A representation is shown in Fig. 1.b.
Experimental verification of this design improved both the
power-to-weight ratio and the inductance.
Cosic [5] proposed a topology similar to that of Schutte
for application in crankless internal combustion engines.
Cosics design differs in that it has more poles (with the
magnets axially separated) and is a three-phase design which
requires multiple stators along the axis of motion. The
design is reportedly an improvement on that of Boldea and
Nassar when used in conjuncture with a crankless internal
combustion engine. However, the much shorter stroke of
FPSEs and higher frequency of operation dictates the use of
two-pole single-phase generators.
Infinia Corporation [6] utilises a dual stator design with
moving magnets placed along the periphery of the coils as
seen in Fig. 1.c. The improvements of this topology in
comparison with the topology of Boldea and Nassar remain
unclear.
Due to the shared specific application, and availability of
information, this investigation attempts to improve the
topology proposed by Schutte [4].
II. FPSE APPLICATION
Stirling engines are in essence externally combusted heat
engines compatible with almost any heat source. This makes
them extremely versatile, capable of operating with almost
any fuel combustion or alternative heat supply.
In conventional Stirling engines, there is a direct
mechanical coupling between the pistons. FPSE have no
such coupling and piston motion is a function of resonant
behaviour. As such, it can be designed to be practically
frictionless which avoids the need for lubrication. FPSEs
can therefore be hermetically sealed while conventional
Stirling engines would risk lubricant contamination or
clogging of the regenerator if sealed [7].
Design Optimisation of a Transverse Flux,
Short Stroke, Linear Generator
L.H. Joubert, J. Schutte, J.M. Strauss, R.T. Dobson
T
Fig. 1. Previous transverse flux linear generator topologies: (a) Boldea and Nassar [1], (b) Schutte [4] and (c) Infinia Corporation [6].
(a) (b) (c)
978-1-4673-0141-1/12/$26.00 2012 IEEE
638

Hermetic sealing holds certain advantages: an efficient
working fluid (typically Helium) can be contained within a
high pressure vessel that can operate at an increased
performance and the low friction environment can lead to a
low-maintenance design with a long operational life.
If the power piston of a FPSE is directly coupled to the
translator of a linear alternator (LA), as shown in Fig 2, heat
energy can be converted to electrical energy. The design of
such an electrical machine is subject to rigid physical
restrictions.

Fig. 2: Schematic of a FPSE and the generator application.
The required output power, stroke length, operating
frequency and efficiency (excess losses could cause
unwanted heat-exchange within bounce space) are all
determined by the FPSE and the power-to-weight ratio needs
to high to minimise costs and so that the bounce space
volume can be kept within its design specifications.
III. TOPOLOGY
The topology investigated in this study combines elements
of both Schutte and Infinia Corporations design. The
machine has two separate stator elements with reciprocating
magnets in between the two stators, resulting in a dual air-
gap machine. Four coils which circumnavigate the outer of
the two stators magnetic flux paths were chosen for the
investigation
This project correlates closely with Schuttes work and
can be viewed as a continuation thereof. Certain distinct
design changes therefore need to be highlighted.
In an attempt to direct the magnetic flux more efficiently,
Schutte experimented with the shape of the inner laminate
stack. However, it was found (as part of this study) that the
specific shape acted to the detriment of the machines
performance. For this reason, the shape of the inner
laminate stack is cylindrical and forms the inner stator for
this study. Removing the inner laminate stack away from
the translator to form a second stator significantly weakens
an unwanted, parasitic permeance path while simultaneously
decreasing the mass of the translator.
In his investigation, Schutte used 45 mm as the stroke
specification. This length was partly chosen to simplify
experimental testing of the generator, although FPSEs
generally operate at much shorter stroke lengths. It was
therefore decided to shorten the stroke length from 45 mm to
30 mm. This is the only difference between the input
specifications of Schuttes topology and the topology under
investigation for this study.
Fig. 3 shows a three dimensional sectioned view of a four
spoke, two pole representation of the topology. Fig. 4 shows
the flux paths through the coils.

Fig. 3: 3D representation of the topology with one quarter cut-out.
The dual stators (one inner and one outer stator) are
shown in grey. The four coils are shown in brown. Four
sets of permanent magnets are shown in red and blue to
indicate outward and inward magnetisation respectively.
The magnets are the only moving members in the topology
and as such, it is similar to that of Infinia Corporations
shown in Fig. 1c.

Fig. 4: Cross section of the machine to show the flux paths and linkage with
the coils.
An orthogonal view of one eighth of the topology is
provided with the front and side view, showing the various
dimensions by which the topology is defined in Fig 5.

Fig.5: Front orthogonal view of one eight of the topology and a side view
thereof, showing the various dimensions with which the topology is
described.
639

IV. MODELLING
It is difficult to model transverse flux machines of this
kind analytically due to the three dimensional nature of the
flux in the machine. Analytical models tend to be accurate
only for a limited combination of dimensions and tend to
misrepresent the machines for dimensional variation outside
these limitations. Cosic presented a complex analytical
model of a similar machine [5], but even this detailed model
was insufficient to accurately represent the machine.
In iterative optimisation, the shortcomings of analytical
models will be compounded as the geometry changes within
a wide variation of dimensions. Any inaccuracies in the
models output could skew the results of an optimisation. A
three dimensional finite element method (3D FEM) is
therefore the only viable modelling tool that can be used in
this study.
The commercial 3D FEM software package MagNet
from Infolytica was chosen based on past experience of
this software in combination with iterative dimensional
optimisation.
V. OPTIMISATION
Venter [8], states that there are generally two types of
optimisation techniques that are considered in single-
objective engineering problems. Global techniques which
are typically inspired by some natural phenomenon and local
techniques which make use of gradient information to obtain
an optimum.
Global optimisation techniques are robust and easy to
implement with an increased likelihood of obtaining a global
optimum but are computationally expensive and are poor at
handling constraints.
Local optimisation techniques are computationally
efficient and typically require little problem-specific
parameter tuning. However, they are complex algorithms
that are susceptible to convergence on local, sub-optimum
design points.
No algorithm exists that can guarantee convergence on a
global optimum within an unknown design space and no
algorithm exists that will solve all optimisation problems. It
is advised that global techniques only be considered in cases
where it is not viable to implement a more efficient, local
algorithm [8]. In this study, precedence is given to local
algorithms due to the high computational costs involved in a
3D FEM.
Schittkowski and Yuan [9] state that Sequential Quadratic
Programming (SQP) is currently the standard method in both
academia and industry for solving complex application
problems. In essence, this local optimisation algorithm
generates linear approximations of the constraint functions
and a quadratic approximation of the goal function based on
gradient information around a design point. This
information is used to determine a search direction along
which the design point is improved. Convergence is
generally obtained when the search direction yields a null
result i.e. no search direction will improve the design point
under evaluation.
The goal of the optimisation was to minimise the active
total mass, while maintaining certain electrical performance
measures within the dimensional constraints determined by
the specific FPSE application. The strategy employed to this
end is as follows:
The mass was analytically calculated from the parameters
and the electrical performance, e.g. input and output power
and efficiency, was obtained by post-processing information
received from a model defined by these parameters and
simulated in 3D FEM.
The optimisation process (illustrated in Fig. 6) is
controlled by the main script written in the open source
scripting language Python. This script initialises the process
and then calls the SQP algorithm to start the optimisation.
Optimisation software produced by Vanderplaats Research
& Development, Inc. that implements the SQP algorithm was
used. The SQP algorithm then iteratively calls a 3D FEM
simulation via the main script to obtain the performance
outputs of a certain design. This process of obtaining the
performance outputs is done via a Visual Basic (VB) script
that is responsible for the interface with MagNet. The
process terminates when the SQP algorithm reaches a
termination criterion.

Fig.6: Flow diagram of the holistic optimisation algorithm.
For the 3D FEM analysis, a magnetostatic simulation
technique was used. There are two interdependent reasons
why this simulation technique rather than a transient
technique was used to obtain the electrical performance
measures.
The evaluation time required for a magnetostatic
simulation to complete is significantly shorter than an
equivalent transient simulation. However, magnetostatic
simulations cannot account for losses associated with a
variation in the magnetic flux, as it statically simulates the
generator at predetermined time intervals. Copper losses are
therefore the only loss mechanism that can be taken into
account.
The copper losses, P
loss
, can be calculated during the
initialisation phase with
P
Ioss
= P
out_dcscd
(1 p
dcscd
-1) (1)
where P
out_desired
denotes the desired output power and
desired

denotes the desired efficiency. The copper loss P
loss

therefore remains constant throughout the optimisation
process.
The copper resistance of the generator can be analytically
calculated from the dimensional parameters. As a result, the
amplitude of the sinusoidal driven current I is dependent on
the copper resistance (and consequently the dimensional
parameters) namely
640

I = 2P
Ioss
R
where R is the copper resistance of the coil
desired efficiency is obtained when the de
is achieved.
A transient simulation would have ne
current amplitude be defined as an optim
and the desired efficiency as an optimisatio
This decision reduces the compu
optimisation. However, it is based on th
the dominant losses in the generator are
that the losses due to magnetic flux variatio
Schutte [4] found that the optimised p
current is close to 0 deg, i.e. the current
force are in phase with each other for this
The phase angle of the current is therefo
0 deg.
Lastly, the coil is implemented as a sin
conductor. This simplifies the optimisation
calculation of the turns is necessary.
construction phase where the turns and con
calculated.
From the simulated results (written to th
the magnetic flux-linkage of the coils co
sinusoidal position in time is obtained
shown in Fig. 7.
Fig.7: Flux linkage data points of an example simu
Fig. 8 shows a simplified electrical circ
machine.
Fig.8: Simplified electrical circuit.
The voltage v

(t) is numerically derived

:
x
(t) = Jz(t) Jt
(2)
ls. In this way, the
sired output power
cessitated that the
misation parameter
on constraint.
utational cost of
he assumption that
copper losses and
on are negligible.
phase angle of the
and electromotive
s type of machine.
ore assumed to be
ngle turn, stranded
n process, since no
It is only at the
nductor diameter is
he output text file)
orresponding to the
for every step as

ulation.
cuit diagram of the

from
(3)
by using splines in Python to d
linkage at each step.
At this point it should be
already reflects the influence
inductance value may be d
simulated results. This may be
voltage drop across the induct
current. The voltage drop may
v

from the simulated emf obtain

The terminal voltage v
t
is th
the voltage drop across the coil
:
t
(t) = :
x
(t) - Ri(t)
With the terminal voltage an
output power, P
out
, can be
integrating the terminal volt
simulated time period, namely
P
out
=
1
1
] :
t
(t)i(t)Jt
1
0
The input power may be calc
P
n
=
1
1
] :
x
(t)i(t)Jt
1
0
The SQP optimisation al
analytically calculated mass a
output power value as a cons
minimise the mass while ma
above a certain minimum value
VI. RESULTS OF MA
Three optimisations were pe
the design requirements listed b
Table 1: Optimisation input parameters
Design parameter
Frequency
Stroke length (peak to peak)
Output power
Efficiency
Magnet material and rating
Electric steel laminations

In order to quantify the i
freedom of the optimisation has
optimisations were performed
freedom. This is illustrate
dimensional parameters illustra
Table 2: Geometric freedom of the opti
Dimensional
parameter
Opt. 1
1 free
2 free
3 free
4 from dimen. 5
5 free
6 free
7 free
8 = stroke length =
9 = stroke length =

The resulting electromagne
from these three optimisations a
determine the slope of the flux
noted that the flux linkage
e of the inductance. The
determined from the FEM
accomplished by dividing the
tor with the derivative of the
be determined by subtracting
ned under no load conditions.
hen calculated by subtracting
Ri from v

, i.e.
(4)
nd the current now known, the
calculated by numerically
tage and current over the
(5)
culated similarly with
(6)
lgorithm then receives the
as the goal function and the
straint and tries to iteratively
aintaining the output power
e.
ASS OPTIMISATION
erformed in accordance with
below in Table 1.
.
Value
50 Hz
30 mm
3000 W
0.96
Rare earth, N36
M-19
nfluence that the geometric
s on the design, three different
d with increasing geometric
ed in Table 2, using the
ted in Fig. 5.
imisations performed.
Opt. 2 Opt. 3
free free
free free
free free
free free
free free
free free
free free
= stroke length free
= stroke length free
etic active masses obtained
are shown in Table 3.
641

Table 3: Results obtained from the optimisations perf
Optimisation results (kg)
Mass Opt. 1 Op
Steel 12.0
Copper 5.9
Magnets 1.4
Total 19.3

Fig. 9 shows 3D representations of the t
with one quarter sectioned.
Fig.9: 3D representations of the optimisations with on
From left to right: Opt. 1, Opt. 2 and Opt. 3.
The optimised dimensions (from Fig
optimisations are listed in Table 4.
Table 4: Optimised dimension of the three optimisati
Dimensional
parameter
Opt. 1 Opt. 2
1 [mm] 18.2 37.
2 [mm] 37.6 21.
3 [mm] 9.3 9.
4 [deg] 44.0 43.
5 [deg] 36.0 32.
6 [mm] 40.1 36.
7 [mm] 25.2 22.
8 [mm] 30.0 30.
9 [mm] 30.0 30.

While the single additional degree of
second optimisation slightly reduced th
improvement was obtained when freedom
the z direction or direction of motion. Th
from the third optimisation yielded an ac
58.5 % of Schuttes previous design w
identical performance measures over a si
stroke length.
One reason for this substantial improve
to the thinner core thickness (dimension
diameter of the third optimisation is also
that of the first and second optimisatio
compared to 307.8 mm and 302.4 mm
second respectively).
To increase confidence in the optimi
third, 13.1 kg optimisation (Opt. 3
dimensional freedom) was re-run twice
different initial values but with iden
parameters. This was done to further e
space and address concerns regarding lo
convergence. Fig 10 illustrates the pro
minimisations and Fig 11, the output pow
their iterations. The results show
probability that the third, 13.1 kg optim
upon a global or near global optimum.
formed.
pt. 2 Opt. 3
10.5 6.2
6.4 4.9
1.4 2.0
18.3 13.1
three optimisations

ne quarter cut-out.
g. 5) of the three
ons.
Opt. 3
1 17.0
0 31.3
2 9.9
9 44.0
2 32.5
5 38.7
5 26.5
0 18.1
0 44.5
f freedom for the
he mass, the real
m was allowed in
he final dimensions
ctive mass of only
while maintaining
ignificantly shorter
ement is attributed
n 8). The overall
o slightly less than
ns (i.e. 289.0 mm
for the first and
isation results, the
with the most
e with completely
ntical optimisation
explore the design
ocal, sub-optimum
gress of the mass
wer with regard to
with satisfactory
misation converged
Fig. 10: Mass minimisation of t
optimisation parameters but from comp
Fig. 11: Power constraint of three optim
parameters but from completely differe
VII. TRANSIENT
A static simulation method
time that an optimisation requi
Considering that a single optim
of computational time, the us
technique is justified if it yields
Schutte employed a virtuall
technique in the design of his f
tests of this prototype yielded
with the simulation data [4]. H
to an operating frequency of
limitations. He also could not
mechanical power and cou
determine the efficiency of the
at 10 Hz the losses associated w
the flux linkage, e.g. eddy cur
much lower than at 50 Hz.
magnitude of core losses and
therefore exists and as a conse
the accuracy of a magnetostatic
A detailed transient simulat
on the final 13.1 kg design. Fi
the flux linkages and Fig. 13 of
for the magnetostatic and transi

three optimisations with identical
pletely different initial values.

misations with identical optimisation
nt initial values.
T SIMULATION
was employed to reduce the
ires to successfully converge.
misation requires several days
e of such a simplified static
s accurate results.
ly identical static simulation
first prototype. Experimental
d results that correlated well
However, Schutte was limited
f 10 Hz due to mechanical
accurately measure the input
uld therefore not properly
generator. Even if he could,
with the time rate of change of
rrents in the core, should be
No real indication of the
ohmic losses in the magnets
equence no real indication of
c approximation exists.
tion was therefore performed
ig. 12 shows a comparison of
f the derived terminal voltages
ient simulations.
642

Fig.12: Flux linkage of one of the coils for the magne
simulations.
Fig.13: Terminal voltages for the magnetostatic and t
The flux linkages of the two simulat
identical as is the terminal voltages ob
processing.
The instantaneous input mechanical
from the product of the total instantaneous
of the magnets) is shown in Fig. 14.
output electrical power (calculated as th
instantaneous current and terminal voltage
15.
Fig.14: Instantaneous mechanical input power from th
transient simulations.

etostatic and transient

transient simulations.
tions are close to
btained from post-
power (calculated
s force and velocity
The instantaneous
he product of the
e) is shown in Fig.

he magnetostatic and
Fig.15: Instantaneous electrical output p
transient simulations.
An increase in the average v
power obtained from the
compared to the mechanical
magnetostatic simulation is cle
electrical power remains fairly
increased losses obtained from t
The instantaneous copper lo
magnets (due to eddy currents
copper losses derived for the m
for reference purposes. The cor
plot against time, i.e. only
provided.
The ohmic losses in the
substantially higher than the c
present a significant problem
magnets may increase to le
occurs, even under normal ope
could be partially addressed by
proposed by Wills and Kam
manufacturing technique reduc
presents certain mechanical dif
is compromised since the magn
in motion. Further investigatio
issue.
Fig.16: Losses from the magnetostatic a
of time.
The values of the different lo
the magnetostatic and transient

power from the magnetostatic and
value of the mechanical input
transient simulation when
l power obtained from the
early visible, while the output
y similar. This is a result of
transient simulation.
osses and ohmic losses in the
) are shown in Fig. 16. The
magnetostatic case is included
re losses were not available to
time averaged values are
magnets are shown to be
copper losses and are sure to
m. The temperature in the
vels where demagnetisation
erating conditions. This issue
y segmenting the magnets as
mper [10]. While such a
ces losses in the magnets, it
fficulties. Structural integrity
nets are the only components
on is required to resolve this

and transient simulation as a function
osses are listed in Table 5 for
case.
643

Table 5: Losses from the transient and magnetostatic simulations.
Simulated output Magneto-
static
Transient
Copper losses [W] 125 158
Ohmic losses in the magnets [W] - 230
Core: Hysteresis losses [W] - 15
Core: Eddy current losses [W] - 6
Total losses [W] 125 409

While uncertainty exists regarding the accuracy of the
simulated losses, it is clear that the efficiency of the
generator will be degraded by several percentage points to
below 90 %. The main loss mechanism that needs to be
addressed is that of ohmic losses in the magnets.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The process of optimising a transverse flux linear
generator by means of a 3D FEM in combination with an
optimisation algorithm has been demonstrated. One of the
advantages of such a process is that it often yields counter-
intuitive results that can, in turn, lead to design changes
which previously would not have been envisioned.
Unfortunately it is a computationally expensive method.
A single optimisation can run for days or even weeks on
well capable computers. This relatively long optimisation
time makes debugging a tiring process. The stability of the
analytical mass calculations as well as the scripting process
requires careful consideration, as all possible combinations
of the geometric dimensions need to be realised in all three
physical dimensions.
Overall satisfactory results have been obtained.
Optimised designs of this generator topology compare well
with other topologies with regard to the mass.
Further investigation is however required to address the
issue of excessive losses related to the time rate of change of
the flux linkage. As a first step an efficient method should
be developed to include the influence of these losses as part
of the optimisation process, without having to run transient
simulations during optimisation.
IX. REFERENCES
[1] I. Boldea and S.A. Nasar, Linear Electric Actuators and Generators.
Cambridge University Press, New-York, 1997, pp. 210-223
[2] J. Schutte and J Strauss, Optimisation of a transverse flux linear PM
generator using 3D Finite Element Analysis, in Proc. ICEM 2010,
Rome, 19
th
International conference on Electrical Machines.
[3] W.M. Arshad, A Low-Leakage Linear Transverse-Flux Machine for
a Free-Piston Generator, Doctoral dissertation, Dept. Elec. Eng.,
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2003. pp 70 73.
[4] J. Schutte, Optimisation of a transverse flux linear PM generator
using 3D Finite Element Analysis, Masters thesis, University of
Stellenbosch, 2011.
[5] A. Cosic, Analysis of a Novel Transverse Flux Machine with a
Tubular Cross-section for Free Piston Energy Converter Application
Doctoral Thesis, KTH School of Electrical Engineering, Stockholm,
2010. pp. 43 51.
[6] S. Qiu, D.L. Redinger and J.E. Augenblick, The next generation
Infinia free-piston Stirling engine for micro-chip applications, in
Proc. 12
th
International Stirling Engine Conference and Technology
Exhibition, 2005. pp. 158 160.
[7] N. W. Lane and W.T. Beale, Free-piston Stirling Design Features,
Proc. 8
th
International Stirling Engine Conference, Ancona, Italy,
1997.
[8] G. Venter, Review of Optimization Techniques, Encyclopedia of
Aerospace Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Edited by R.
Blockley and W. Shyy, 2010.
[9] K. Schittkowski and Y. Yuan, Sequential Quadratic Programming
Methods, Academic article, Dept. of Computer Science, University
of Bayruth, Germany & AMSS, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China, 2010.
[10] D.A. Wills and M.J. Kamper, Reducing PM Current Rotor Losses by
Partial Magnet and Rotor Yoke Segmentation, in Proc. ICEM 2010,
Rome, 19
th
International conference on Electrical Machines.
X. BIOGRAPHIES
Louis H. Joubert received the BEng degree in Mechatronic
Engineering from the University of Stellenbosch in 2010. He is currently
doing a MScEng in the field of linear electric machinery at the University of
Stellenbosch.
Jacques Schutte received the BEng (Electrical and Electronic
Engineering with Computer Science) and MScEng (Electrical and
Electronic Engineering) degrees from the University of Stellenbosch in
2008 and 2011 respectively.
Johannes M. Strauss received the BEng (cum laude) and MScEng
(cum laude) degrees in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from the
University of Stellenbosch in 1996 and 1998 respectively. In 1999 he was
appointed as research engineer in the field of power system dynamics and
synchronous generator modelling at the university and in 2001 he became a
fulltime lecturer at the university. His main fields of interest include
generator modelling and dynamic behaviour and efficient energy
conversion. He is currently busy with his PhD in the field of linear
generator technology for high speed short stroke applications.
Robert T. Dobson received a National Diploma (Mechanical
Engineering) from Pretoria Technicon in 1965, BScEng (Mechanical) from
the University of the Witwatersrand in 1969, MScEng (Nuclear
Engineering) from the University of Cape Town in 1970 and an MBL from
the University of South Africa in 1985. In 1988 he took up a post as
lecturer in the Thermodynamics Division of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at the University of Stellenbosch. In this capacity he has
specialised as undergraduate lecturer in Heat Transfer and Food
Engineering. At postgraduate level he has specialised in two-phase flow and
heat transfer and thermal management and control. He has published both
locally and internationally on heat pipes, thermosyphons and two-phase
flow devices and is a founder member of the South African Heat Pipe
Association SAPHA.

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