Electric Circuits

Electric Current Electromotive Force Resistance Ohms Law

Electric Current
The flow of electric charge is called current. Charges flowing could be positive, negative or both. Electric current in wires is due to the flow of electrons in the conductor. Current flow in solutions could be positive or negative ions and electrons.

Electric Current
Measure the total charge, q flowing passed an area perpendicular to the charge velocity in time, t.
I=
q t

Unit of electric current: 1 Ampere = 1 A = 1 C/s

In the modern SI system of units, the ampere is the fundamental quantity while the Coulomb is derived from the ampere. The ampere is defined in terms of the magnetic force between two parallel wires carrying electric current (later in the course).

Actual Velocity of Electrons in Wires is very Small

Copper wire has an approximate concentration of conduction electrons of ne = 1.13 x 1029 electrons/m3. If electrons have velocity v in a wire of cross-sectional area A, the number of electrons passing through A in time t would be
n =

ne Av( t )
=

I=

q t

e n = ene Av t
2

For I = 10 A and A = ( .5 x 10-3 ) = 7.07 x 10 -6 m 2 1 v = 7.81 x 10 -5 m/s = 0.0781 mm/s

Q: If the electrons in a wire move so slowly, how come the light turns on almost instantaneously when you turn on a light switch? A: The wire is full of electrons. When the switch is turned on, the electric field moves all the charges together! The signal speed propagates at the speed of electromagnetic waves -- about 2/3 c in wires and cables!

Conventional Current
Most current flow is due to negatively charged electrons. The conventional current is assumed to be the flow of positive charges. Conventional current is opposite the actual electron flow direction.

Electric Circuit
A system that allows the flow of electric current by providing paths for the charges to flow in a complete loop. To drive an electric current there must be a driving electric field or we may say that there is a source of potential difference (analogous to a pump in fluid flow in pipes). Historically, this source is called a source of electromotive force (emf) although it is not a force.

Electric Circuit

Sources of EMF
Sources of emf convert others forms of energy to electrical potential energy. It has two terminals at different potentials. Through some process (chemical, magnetic, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, photoelectric, etc.) charges are separated with one terminal with excess positive charges and at a higher potential than the other terminal with excess negative charges. EMF is electric potential so it is in units of volts (V).

Examples of Sources of EMF

Battery Generator or alternator Fuel cells Photovoltaic cells Piezoelectric crystals Pyroelectric crystals

Resistance
Electrons gain kinetic energy from the electric field that accelerates them. Electrons lose most of the gained kinetic energy during collisions with the massive atoms. The energy is dissipated in the form of heat. Thus electron velocity does not run away but remains a very low value. This energy dissipative resistance to flow is called electrical resistance or simply resistance.

Resistance and Ohms Law

The relationship between voltage V, current I and the resistance R is expressed by Ohms Law.

V = IR
The unit of resistance is the ohm ( ) (V in volts and I in amperes) in honor of Georg Simon Ohm.

Schematic symbol for resistance

Resistivity and Resistance

Resistance depends on size, shape and composition of the resistor. Material properties such as free electron concentration, collision frequencies, etc. are lumped together in a macroscopic quantity called resistivity, (Unit: m) For a material with uniform cross-sectional area A and length L :
R= L A

Temperature Dependence of Resistance

For most materials resistance increases with temperature.
= 0 [ + (T T0 )] 1

R = R0 [1 + (T T0 )]

is the temperature coefficient of resistivity in units of reciprocal temperature.

Some materials have a negative temperature coefficient of resistivity. Their resistance decreases with temperature and are sometimes used as temperature sensors. Still other materials lose resistance completely below some temperature near absolute zero. These are the superconductors. Once a current is established in a superconductor it can persist indefinitely without the need for an emf source. Superconductivity is a quantum effect.

#8, Ch. 20, p. 619 A car battery has a rating of 220 ampere-hours (Ah). This rating is one indication of the total charge that the battery can provide to a circuit before failing. (a) What is the total charge (in coulombs) that this battery can provide? (b) Determine the maximum current that the battery can provide for 38 minutes. C s Q = 220 A h = 220 h 3600 = 792000 C s h Q 792000 C I= = = 347 A s t (38 min ) 60 min #16, Ch. 20, p. 620 A tungsten wire has a radius of 0.075 mm and is heated from 20.0 to 1320 C. The temperature coefficient of resistivity is = 4.5 x 10-3 (C)-1. When 120 V is applied across the ends of the hot wire, a current of 1.5 A is produced. How long is the wire? Neglect any results due to thermal expansion. Determine resistance at T = 1320 C. Use Ohms Law. V 120 R= = = 80 I 1.5 The textbook only has values of the resistivity at 20 C. Hence, determine resistance at T0 = 20 C. R = R0 [1 + (T T0 )] 80 = R0 1 + 4.5 x 10 3 (1320 20)

R0 = 13.68 Finally, calculate length using table value of = 5.6 x 10-8 m. L R0 = A A 11.69 0.075 x 10 -3 L = R0 = 5.6 x 10 -8

= 3.69 m

#20, Ch 20, p. 620 An aluminum wire is hung between two towers and has a length of 175 m. A current of 125 A exists in the wire, and the potential difference between the ends of the wire is 0.300 V. The density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3. Find the mass of the wire. We can calculate the resistance using Ohms Law. Then determine the area of the wire from the resistance/resistivity formula. Finally determine the volume from the area and the given length of wire. Mass is density times volume.

V I L R= A L LI = A= R V R= Volume = AL = L I V
2

Note that V is voltage, not volume.

m = (density )(Volume ) = m = 972 kg

dL2 I 2700 2.82 x 10 -8 (175) (125) = V 0.3

2