CHAPTER 11 AREA CHANGE, WALL FRICTION AND HEAT TRANSFER 11.

1 CONTROL VOLUME
Assume a calorically perfect gas, ( p = ! RT , C p and C v constant) is owing in a channel in the absence of body forces. Viscous friction acts along the wall and there may be heat conduction through the wall but there is no mass addition. Consider a differential length of the channel.

P T
!

P+dP T+dT !+ d ! s+ds Pt +dPt Tt +dTt U+dU M+dM A+dA

Cf
x

s Pt Tt U M A

"qw

Figure 11.1 Differential changes along a channel

The area-averaged equations of motion are, d ( ! UA ) = 0

2 4C f d x 1 dP + ! UdU = -- ! U % ---------------- & # D $ 2

(11.1)

C P dT + UdU = " q w = C p dT t For convenience lets put these equations into fractional differential form,

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Stagnation pressure and entropy

dA d ! 1 dU ----- + -- ---------- = ------ 2 U2 A !

2 2 2 ' M % 4C f d x& dP ' M dU ------ + ---------- ---------- = ---------- ---------------2 U2 2 # D $ P (11.2) 2 2 dT t dT ( ' 1 )M dU ------ + ------------------------ ---------- = -------2 2 T T U

dP d ! dT ------ ----- ------ = 0 ! T P As noted when we developed the quasi-one-dimensional equations, the spirit of this analysis is that A ( x ) , C f ( x ) and T t ( x ) are specied input functions along the channel. The problem is to use the equations of motion to determine how the various (output) properties of the ow change along the channel particularly the Mach number.

11.2 STAGNATION PRESSURE AND ENTROPY

At any point in the ow the static and stagnation states of the gas are related by T Pt % ----t& ---- = #T$ P
' ----------'1
. (11.3)

This relationship essentially denes P t . If we take the log of this equation and differentiate, the result is Gibbs equation in terms of stagnation quantities.

' dT t dP t ' % -----------& -------- -------- = % -----------& dT dP = ds . - ------ --------# ' 1$ T # ' 1$ T Pt P R t

(11.4)

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Stagnation pressure and entropy

Now use the fractional differential form of the area averaged equations to replace dT T and dP P in Gibbs equation. The result is a differential form describing the effect of heat transfer and friction on the stagnation pressure.
2 2 dP t ' M % dT t& ' M % 4C f dx& -------- = ---------- ( --------) ---------- ---------------2 # Tt $ 2 # D $ Pt 2 (11.5)

Stagnation pressure losses are proportional to M indicating that the losses due to both heat transfer and friction are very small in a low Mach number ow and, conversely, very large in a high Mach number ow. The entropy relation is,
2 dT t ' ' M 4C f dx ds % -----------& % 1 + % ' 1& M 2& % --------& + ---------- % ----------------& . -------------- = # 2 $ # ' 1$ # $( T ) 2 # D $ R # t$ (11.6)

Which describes the 1-D variation of entropy due to viscous friction and heat conduction effects. It would appear from this result that one can increase the stagnation pressure of a ow by cooling through the wall. Lets investigate this possibility. Consider the combined effects of friction and heat transfer through the wall on the stagnation pressure. The heat transfer process is characterized by the Stanton number dened as Qw St = ---------------------------------------------! U C p ( T wall T t ) where T t = the adiabatic wall recovery temperature; equal to the stagnation temperature of the free stream for a recovery factor of one ( P r = 1 ). T wall = the actual wall temperature. Q w = the heat transfer rate to the uid (energy/area-sec).
(11.7)

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Velocity, density, temperature, pressure

The total heat per unit mass transferred to the uid is,
% & 4S t dx Q w * Ddx ( * Ddx) dh t = ---------------------- = S t C p ( T wall T t ) ( ------------- ) = C p ( T wall T t ) % ------------- & # D $ ! UA ( * D2 ) # ---------- $ 4 (11.8)

Now the stagnation pressure change is

2 dP t ' M % 4C f dx % T wall T t& % 4S t dx& & -------- = ---------- ( ---------------- + ( -------------------------) ------------- ) . # D $$ Tt 2 # D Pt # $ (11.9)

A careful study of boundary layer ows with heat transfer leads to the recognition that heat transfer and viscous friction are coupled. This is expressed in terms of the well known Reynolds analogy discussed in Chapter 5 which states that, 2S t = C f .
(11.10)

Using this, the fractional differential equation for the stagnation pressure becomes,
2 dP t ' M % T t + T wall& % 4C f dx& -------- = ---------- ( --------------------------) ---------------- . 2T t $ # D $ 2 # Pt (11.11)

which is always positive, implying a loss of stagnation pressure regardless of whether Q w is positive or negative. Cooling the wall does decrease the rate at which the stagnation pressure drops in the direction of the ow.

11.3 VELOCITY, DENSITY, TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE

Now lets examine the effects of dA , C f dx and dT t on the other properties of the gas. In Equation (11.2) replace each term in the ideal gas law using the mass, momentum and energy equations. The result is an equation for the differential change in velocity
2 2 2 dT t 1M ' M 4C f dx % ---------------- & dU = dA + ---------- % ----------------& + -------- . - --------------# 2 $ 2 2 # D $ A T U (11.12)

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The Mach number

Now the velocity equation is used in each of the mass, momentum and energy equations in turn to generate equations for the differential changes in density, temperature and pressure.
2 2 2 dT t 1M ' M 4C f dx M % ---------------- & d ! = % -------& dA ---------- % ----------------& 1 -------- ------- - ----# 2 $ A # 2 $ ! 4 # D $ 2 T
2 2 dT 4C f dx ' t % 1 M -& dT = % ' 1& M 2 dA -- % ' 1& M 4 % ----------------& + % 1 'M -& --------------------------------- ----------- - ----------------------------# 2 $ # 2 $ T # D $ # A 2# 2 $ 2 $ T 2 2 2 2 dT 4C f dx t % 1 M -& dP = ' M - dA ' M - ( 1 + ( ' 1 )M 2 ) % ----------------& ' M ----------------------- --------------- ------ ---------- ---------- # 2 $ P # D $ 2 T 2 A 4

(11.13)

(11.14)

(11.15)

These equations provide some insight into how various inputs affect the ow but they are not particularly useful for solving problems because, as they stand, they cannot be integrated.

11.4 THE MACH NUMBER

Lets determine the differential equation for the Mach number. Recall U Take the derivative, dT dM dU ---------- = ---------- -----2 2 T M U
2 2 (11.17) 2 2

= M ' RT .

(11.16)

Replace the differentials on the right-hand-side of (11.17) using (11.12) and (11.14). % & 2 2 2 ( ) d M2 1M dA ' M % 4C f dx& % 1 + ' M & dT t ( ---------------------------------------) ---------- = ------ + ---------- # ----------------$ + # --------------------$ -------- . (11.18) 2 D Tt 2 A ' 1 2& ) M 2 ( 2 % 1 + ----------- M # # $$ 2

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Mass flow, area-mach-number function

When only one effect occurs at a time, the above equation can be integrated exactly and this is the basis for the gas tables relating Mach number to friction (Fanno line - C f assumed constant), heat addition (Rayleigh line) and area change. When two or more effects are present, it is generally necessary to specify A ( x ) , T t ( x ) and C f ( x ) in detail and to integrate the equations numerically. Notice that when heat transfer and or friction are present the sonic point does not have to occur at the minimum area point. In (11.18) let M = 1 . The relation becomes

' 4C f dx 1 + ' dT t dA ------ = -- % ----------------& + % ------------& -------2# D $ # 2 $ T t A

If we introduce the Stanton number 1 + ' % T wall T t& 4S t dx ' 4C f dx dA ------ = -- % ----------------& + % ------------& ( -------------------------) % ------------- & # D $ Tt 2# D $ # 2 $ # A $ and the Reynolds analogy 2S t = C f then the sonic point occurs where % ( ' 1 )T t + ( ' + 1 )T wall& % 4C f dx& dA ------ = ( --------------------------------------------------------------) ---------------# D $ 4T t A # $

(11.19)

(11.20)

(11.21)

According to (11.21) in a real ow the sonic point will always occur slightly downstream of the throat in the diverging part of the nozzle where dA is slightly positive.

11.5 MASS FLOW, AREA-MACH-NUMBER FUNCTION

Note that the heat addition and friction terms on the right hand side of (11.18) can be rearranged with the use of (11.5) to yield % & 2 ( ) d M2 1M dA dP t 1 dT t - ( ---------------------------------------) ---------- = ------ -------- + -- -------- . 2 Tt Pt A ( 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ) M 2 ----------# # $$ 2

(11.22)

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Integrated relations

Equation (11.22) can be integrated to, P t2 T t1 A 2 f (M1) ------- ------- ------ = ---------------P t1 T t2 A 1 f (M2) where, A f ( M ) = ------ = -----------# 2 $ A
* (11.23)

'+1 ------------------2(' 1) % ' + 1&

M -----------------------------------------------------%1 + ' 1 M ----------# $ 2

'+1 ------------------2(' 1) 2&

(11.24)

is the area-Mach number function introduced in Chapter 9 and A is a reference area where M = 1 . Between any two points in a channel in the presence of frictional and heat transfer we can equate mass ows. m1 = m2 P t2 A 2 P t1 A 1 -------------- f ( M 1 ) = -------------- f ( M 2 ) T t1 T t2
(11.25)

This simple equality, used so heavily in Chapter 9 to analyze a channel with two throats, is one of the most important in all of gas dynamics. It is amazingly useful in solving seemingly very complex problems as we shall see again in several examples.

11.6 INTEGRATED RELATIONS

11.6.1 1-D FLOW)
ADIABATIC, CONSTANT AREA FLOW WITH FRICTION

(FANNO

LINE

The relationship between Mach number and friction from (11.18) is, % 2 & 2 4C f dx 1M dM % ----------------& = ( ------------------------------) ---------- . # D $ ( ' 1 2) ' M 4 # 1 + ----------- M $ 2
(11.26)

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Integrated relations

Assume the friction coefcient is constant (or equal to some mean value averaged over the length of the duct in question). Let the nal state correspond to the reference value M = 1 .

L max 4C dx f & %

---------------- = D $

% 2 & 2 1M dM ( ------------------------------) ---------- . ' 1 2) ' M 4 2( M # 1 + ----------- M $ 2

(11.27)

Carrying out the integration, % & 2 4C f L max ( ( ' + 1 )M 2 ) '+1 1M ----------------------- = ---------------- + % ------------& ln ( ---------------------------------------) . # 2' $ ( 2 D % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ) 'M ----------# 2# $$ 2

(11.28)

The length of duct L required for the ow to pass from a given initial Mach number M 1 to a nal Mach number, M 2 is found from, 4C f L max 4C f L max 4C f L ------------- = % -----------------------& M % -----------------------& M . # $ 1 # $ 2 D D D In each of the following,
2 2 2 1M ' M 4C f dx % ---------------- & dU = ---------- % ----------------& - ---------# 2 $ 2 2 # D $ U 2 2 ' M 4C f dx 1M % ---------------- & d ! = ---------- % ----------------& - ----# 2 $ ! 4 # D $ (11.29)

(11.30)

4C f dx 1M ' % ---------------- & dT = -- % ' 1& M 4 % ----------------& - ----------- -----# D $ # 2 $ T 2# 2 $

2 2 4C f dx 'M 1M % ---------------- & dP = ---------- ( 1 + ( ' 1 )M 2 ) % ----------------& - -----# D $ # 2 $ P 2 2 ' 1 2 dM replace 4C f dx D with % ( 1 M ) % 1 + ----------- M & & ---------- and carry out the # # $$ 4 2 'M integration. The result is the so-called Fanno line relations. 2

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Integrated relations

% & -2 2 * ( ( ' + 1 )M ) U ! ------ = ( ----------------------------------------) = ----* ! ( 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ) U ----------# # $$ 2

'1 2 2 % 1 + ----------- M & # $ 2 T ----- = ---------------------------------------T (' + 1)

* -% 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& & 2 ----------* $) ( # 2 P ----- = M ( ----------------------------------------) (' + 1) P ( ) # $ 1

(11.31)

Pt ' + 1 2(' 1) M ---------------------------------------------------------- = % ------------ & # 2 $ '+1 Pt -------------------2(' 1) % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ----------# $ 2

'+1 --------------------

Recall that friction does not affect the stagnation enthalpy. The various Fanno line relations (11.28) and (11.31) are plotted below for ' = 1.4 .
4C f L max ----------------------D P ----P
* *

4 3 2 1

T ----T U -----* U

Pt Pt

M
Figure 11.2 Fanno line relations

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Integrated relations

11.6.2 EXAMPLE - FRICTIONAL FLOW IN A LONG PIPE The gure below shows Air at constant stagnation pressure and temperature, P t , T t exhausting from a very large plenum to the surrounding atmosphere through a long straight pipe. The gas temperature in the plenum is T t = 300K and P t P a = 10 .

Pa

Pt Tt

The friction coefcient in the pipe is C f = 0.01 and the pipe is 10 diameters long. 1) Determine the Mach number at the entrance to the pipe M 1 . Solution Begin with the assumption that the ow is choked at the exit. Solve for M 1 using (11.28). The result is 4C f L max ----------------------- = 0.4 , M 1 = 0.625 D 2) Determine P te P t and P e P a . Solution The Fanno line relations (11.31) give the stagnation pressure drop along the pipe.
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(11.32)

Integrated relations

P te P t = 0.862

(11.33)

Alternatively, we could get the same result using (11.25) evaluated at the entrance and exit of the pipe where the Mach numbers are known. Thus at the pipe exit P te P a = 10 0.862 = 8.62 Since the exit Mach number is one P te P e = ( ( 1 + ' ) 2 )
' (' 1)
(11.34)

= 1.2

3.5

= 1.893

(11.35)

and the static pressure ratio at the exit is P e P a = 8.62 1.893 = 4.554 .
(11.36)

The fact that the exit static pressure comes out so much larger than the ambient, solidly conrms our assumption that the exit is choked. 3) Suppose the pipe is lengthened. What value of L D will produce Pe Pa = 1 ? Solution At this condition the exit is choked, M e = 1 and the exit pressure is no longer above the ambient pressure, P e = P a . Note the identity, Pe % P t & % P te& % P e & ----- = ( ----- ) ( -------) ( -------) Pa # P a$ # P t $ # P te$
(11.37)

The condition P e P a = 1 implies that the stagnation pressure drop along the pipe must be P te % P te& 1 1.893 1 1 = ( 10 ) ( -------) % ------------ & , ------- = ------------ = --------Pt 10 5.28 # P t $ # 1.893$
(11.38)

From the Fanno line stagnation pressure relation in (11.31) we nd that this stagnation pressure ratio corresponds to M 1 = 0.11 . Using this entrance Mach number (11.28) gives the length of the pipe.

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Integrated relations

4C f L max ----------------------- = 54.32 D The value of L D that unchokes the exit is, L 54.32 --- = ------------------- = 1358 . D 4 0.01 11.6.3 INTEGRATED
RELATIONS

(11.39)

(11.40)

- 1-D

FRICTIONLESS, CONSTANT AREA FLOW

WITH HEAT TRANSFER

(RAYLEIGH LINE FLOW)

In the presence of heat transfer, the relationship between Mach number and stagnation temperature from (11.18) is, & 2 dT t % 1 M2 & % 1 dM ( ------------------------------) ---------- . -------- = ( ---------------------) 2$ ( ' 1 2) M 2 Tt # 1 + ' M # 1 + ----------- M $ 2 Let the nal state correspond to M = 1 .
(11.41)

T t dT t

-------- = Tt Tt

& 2 % 1 M2 & % 1 dM ( ------------------------------) ---------- . ( ---------------------) ( 2$ ' 1 2) M 2 2# M 1 + ' M # 1 + ----------- M $ 2

(11.42)

Carry out the integration indicated in (11.42). % & * 2 2 Tt ( ) (1 + ' M ) ----- = ( ------------------------------------------------------------------) . Tt ( 2 ( 1 + ' )M 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ) ----------# # $$ 2

(11.43)

The stagnation temperature change required for the ow to pass from a given initial Mach number M 1 to a nal Mach number, M 2 is found from, T t2 % Tt& %Tt & ------- = ( ----- ) ( ----- ) . *$ T t $ M1 T t1 #T M # t 2 In each of the following relations,
* (11.44)

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Integrated relations

2 2 dT t 1M % ---------------- & dU = -------- ---------# 2 $ 2 T U

(11.45)

dT t 1M % ---------------- & d ! = 1 --------- - ----# 2 $ ! 2 T and

2 2 dT 1M t % ---------------- & dT = % 1 ' M -& -------- -----------------------# 2 $ T # 2 $ T

1M % ---------------- & dP = ---------- -------- -----# 2 $ P 2 # T $ replace dT t T with ( ( 1 M ) ( 1 + ' M ) )d M M and carry out the integration. The result is the set of Rayleigh line relations
U ( ' + 1 )M ! ------ = -------------------------- = ----* 2 ! 1 + 'M U (1 + ' M ) T ----- = ----------------------------2 2 T (' + 1) M 1 + 'M P ----- = --------------------1+' P
* Pt '+1 % & ---------------(' 1) -----------2 ) 2 1 + 'M ( ----- = % ---------------------& ( ------------------------------------ ) # 1 + ' $( Pt % ' 1& 2) # 1 + # ----------- $ M $ 2 * 2 * 2 2 2 *

2 ' M % dT t& 2 2 2

(11.46)

.
'

(11.47)

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Integrated relations

The various Rayleigh line relations (11.42) and (11.47) are plotted below for ' = 1.4 .
T ----T
*

2.5 2 1.5 *

P ----P

T ----T

U -----* U

Tt ------1 Tt U -----* U
0.5 1

0.5

Pt ------Pt
1.5 2 2.5 3

Tt ------Tt

M
Figure 11.3 Rayleigh line relations

11.6.4 EXAMPLE - DOUBLE THROAT WITH HEAT ADDITION In Chapter 9 we studied the ow in a channel with two throats. Here we will revisit the problem and add heat to the ow. Lets recall the ow situation. The gure below shows a supersonic wind tunnel that uses Air as a working gas. A very large plenum contains the gas at constant stagnation pressure and temperature, P t , T t . The ow exhausts to a large tank that is maintained at vacuum P a = 0 . The upstream nozzle area ratio is A 2 A 1 = 6 and the ratio of exit area to throat area is A e A 1 = 2 . The test section has a constant area A 3 = A 2 . A shock wave is stabilized in the diverging portion of the nozzle. Neglect wall friction.

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Integrated relations

Pa=0
1

3
e

Pt Tt

Suppose heat is added to the ow between stations 2 and 3. 1) Does the shock Mach number increase, decrease or remain the same? Explain. Solution The mass balance between stations 1 and e gives P te A e Pt A1 ----------- = -------------- = cons tan t Tt T te
(11.48)

As heat is added, the shock must move upstream to a lower Mach number so that the ratio P te T te remains constant. This is essentially a constraint imposed by the xed mass ow through the upstream throat. Through the shock movement upstream, the stagnation pressure at the exit goes up as the temperature goes up. The mechanism for stagnation pressure loss between stations 1 and e is a combination of shock loss and heat addition. 2) What happens to the Mach numbers at stations 2 and 3 as the heat is added? Solution

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Integrated relations

The Mach number at station 3 is xed by choking at the exit and because of the geometry constraint must remain constant during the heat addition process. With the Mach number at 3 xed the heat addition between 2 and 3 must lead to a decrease in Mach number at station 2. This is consistent with the upstream movement of the shock. 3) Suppose sufcient heat is added between 2 and 3 so that the throat at Station 1 just barely becomes unchoked. Determine the Mach numbers at stations 2 and 3 for this condition. How sensitive are these Mach number values to the choice of working gas? If the gas were changed to Argon (atomic weight = 40) would the Mach numbers at 2 and 3 be much different? If not, why not? Solution As noted above, the Mach number at station 3 is xed by choking at the exit. For A e A 3 = 1 3 the Mach number at station 3 is M 3 = 0.197 . The Mach number at station one is very close to one and the section from 1 to 2 is shock free thus the Mach number at station 2 for an area ratio A 1 A 2 = 6 is M 2 = 0.097 . Note that the subsonic branch of f ( M ) is practically the same for various values of ' . Thus the Mach numbers at 2 and 3 would not be expected to change much when the test gas is changed from Air ' = 7 5 to Argon ' = 5 3 . The factor ( ( ' + 1 ) 2 ) out in front of f ( M ) evaluates to 1.893 for ' = 1.4 versus 1.77 for ' = 1.66 .
((' + 1) (2(' 1)))

4) Recall the relationship between stagnation pressure loss and heat addition. Argue whether the stagnation pressure loss between stations 2 and 3 is large or small? Solution At the point where the upstream throat barely chokes, the Mach number at station 2 is M 2 = 0.097 . The stagnation pressure loss between stations 2 and 3 is proportional to the Mach number squared and would be expected to be very small, to a pretty decent approximation at this Mach number, P te - P t .

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Detonations and deflagrations

5) At approximately what ratio of T te T t does the unchoking of the throat at station 1 occur? Solution Since there is no shock and the heat addition takes place at low Mach number and we are asked for an approximate result, the stagnation temperature ratio at which the ow unchokes can be determined from the mass ow balance. T te A1 Ae --------- = ----------- , ------- = 4 Tt Tt T te
(11.49)

11.7 DETONATIONS AND DEFLAGRATIONS

To complete this chapter, we will consider an important class of 1-D ows with heat addition where the source of heat is a combustible gas mixture of fuel and oxidizer. The 1-D governing equations are d (!U ) = 0 d (P + !U ) = 0 1 d % C P T + -- U 2& = " q # 2 $ The ows governed by these equations are characterized by waves that combine the features of shock waves and heat addition. Consider a channel lled with a combustible mixture as shown below.
2 . (11.50)

gas at rest

source of * ignition

gas at rest

Figure 11.4 Compression waves created by a source of ignition in a combustible mixture.

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Detonations and deflagrations

Upon ignition with a spark, the subsequent process of heat release and expansion of hot gases is energetic enough to produce pressure disturbances that propagate along the tube away from the source forming a self-sustaining combustion wave. One of two things may happen. 1) A weak deagration wave may occur in which heat is transferred to the upstream gas by conduction. In this case the wave speed is generally very low, a few tens of centimeters per second for hydrocarbon-air mixtures up to some tens of meters per second for a mixture of Hydrogen and Oxygen. The speed of the wave cannot be determined from the heat of reaction and jump conditions alone. It can only be determined by a model that treats the details of the wave and includes the effects of heat conduction and viscosity. This is the sort of combustion wave one observes when a gas ame on a stove is ignited. 2) If the reaction is sufciently energetic and heat loss mechanisms such as radiation and conduction to the channel walls are sufciently small then the pressure waves preceding the ame front can catch up to one another in a process of nonlinear steepening due to the dependence of acoustic speed on gas temperature. The steepening of the pressure front quickly forms a shock wave. The shock preheats the unburned gas causing the reaction to proceed at an even faster rate. Eventually the ow behind the combustion wave becomes thermally choked and the shockcombustion wave combination, called a detonation, moves along the pipe at an extreme speed on the order of thousands of meters per second. In this case the wave speed can be determined from the heat of reaction and the jump conditions across a region of heat addition.

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Detonations and deflagrations

M1>1

Ma<1

M2=1

shock U

strong deflagration

x T

x P

x Figure 11.5 Chapman-Jouget detonation wave structure.

The gure above somewhat articially decomposes the detonation into a conventional shock followed by a thermally choked region of heat addition called a strong deagration. Depending on the speed of the reaction and the mean free path of the gas, the whole region of change is extremely thin (a fraction of a millimeter) and the intermediate zone a is an idealization of a state that only exists at one point in the wave if at all. The equations of motion can be integrated to form the jump conditions

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Detonations and deflagrations

!1 U 1 = !2 U 2
P1 + !1 U 1 = P2 + !2 U 2
2 2 C p T 1 + U 1 2 + . ht = C p T 2 + U 2 2 2 2 . (11.51)

P = ! RT where .h t is the stagnation enthalpy change per unit mass across the wave. Now we need to determine the possible states of motion that can occur and the Mach number of the wave for a given enthalpy change. First combine the mass and momentum equation to form the equation

! 1& % P2 & 2% ( ----- 1) = ' M 1 ( 1 -----) . ! 2$ # P1 $ #

The energy equation can be rearranged to read T2 . ht !1 U 1 U1 ---------------- + 1 + ------------- = ----- + ----------------------2C p T 1 C pT 1 T 1 2 !2 C T 2 p 1 or
2 2 2

(11.52)

(11.53)

!1 2 P2 !1 . ht & % % ' 1& M 2 % 1 % -----& & = % ----- & % -----& . -) ) - 1( 1 + ------------- ) + ----------( ( ( -) ( -) ! 2$ $ C p T 1$ # 2 $ # # # # P 1$ # ! 2$
Use (11.52) to eliminate M 1 in (11.54). The result is

(11.54)

!1 . ht 2' % -----------& % ------------- + % 1 -----& & -) ) - ( # ' 1$ ( C T ! 2$ $ # p 1 # % P2 & ( ----- 1) = ------------------------------------------------------------------ . !1 # P1 $ % ' + 1& ----- 1 ------------ # ' 1$ ! 2

(11.55)

Equations (11.52) and (11.55) are two functions relating pressure and density that are both satised simultaneously and fully dene the state of the gas.

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Detonations and deflagrations

P2 % !1 & ----- 1 = F ( ' , ----- , M 1) P1 # !2 $

. (11.56)

P2 % !1 . ht & ----- 1 = G ( ' , ----- , ------------- ) ! 2 C p T 1$ P1 # If . h t C p T 1 = 0 (11.55) reduces to the Hugoniot relation for a normal shock. Equating (11.52) and (11.55) leads to a quadratic equation for ! 1 ! 2 the roots of which are
2 2 % 2 2 . ht & 1 + ' M 1 ( ( M 1 1 ) 2 ' ( ' + 1 )M 1 ------------- ) C p T 1$ #

!1 ----- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 2 !2 ( ' + 1 )M 1

2

(11.57)

For . h t C p T 1 = 0 the roots are ! 1 ! 2 = 1, ( 2 + ( ' 1 )M 1 ) ( ( ' + 1 )M 1 ) which are the normal shock wave values. Note that the upstream Mach number M 1 may be either subsonic or supersonic. A cross-plot of (11.52) and (11.55) will dene the state of the gas for a given . h t C p T 1 . Several different types of combustion waves can occur. 1) A weak deagration where M 1 < 1 and M 2 < 1 . 2) A strong deagration or thermally choked wave where M 1 < 1 and M 2 = 1 . 3) A weak detonation where M 1 > 1 and M 2 > 1 . 4) A thermally choked detonation where M 1 > 1 and M 2 = 1 . This is also called a Chapman-Jouget detonation. Virtually all stable detonations are of ChapmanJouget type. In this case the wave can be decomposed into a shock wave and a strong deagration as shown in the gure above.

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Detonations and deflagrations

The Mach number of a Chapman-Jouget wave for a given value of . h t C p T 1 can be determined using the Rayleigh line equation for stagnation temperature change. Note that

. ht % T t2 & T t1 ------------- = ( ------- 1) ------- . T1 C pT 1 T t1 # $

Now substitute (11.43) into (11.58) to get % & 2 2 . ht ( ) (1 + ' M ) '1 2 ------------- = ( ------------------------------------------------------------------ 1) % 1 + ----------- M & . $ 2 C pT 1 ( 2 ( ' + 1 )M 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& )# ----------# $ # $ 2 or

(11.58)

(11.59)

. ht (1 M1) ------------- = -------------------------------- . 2 C pT 1 2 ( ' + 1 )M 1

Equation (11.60) can be solved for the Mach number to give M1
2

2 2

(11.60)

( ' + 1 ) . h t& % % ( ' + 1 ) . h t& 2 % &1 2 = ( 1 + -------------------------- ) ( ( 1 + -------------------------- ) 1) . C pT 1 $ ## C pT 1 $ # $

(11.61)

The subsonic and supersonic roots of (11.61) are plotted below.

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Detonations and deflagrations

M1

4 3 2 1

Chapman-Jouget detonation Thermally choked deflagration

0.5 1 1.5 2

( ' + 1 ) . ht --------------------------C pT 1

Figure 11.6 Mach number of a detonation wave determined by heat release.

11.7.1 EXAMPLE - DETONATION IN A MIXTURE OF FLUORINE AND HYDROGEN

DILUTED BY NITROGEN

As an example, consider a stoichiometric mixture of 5% H 2 and 5% F 2 in 90% N 2 where the percentages are mole fractions. Let the initial temperature of the nitrogen be 300K . For uorine reacting with hydrogen the heat of reaction is 1.35 10 5 calories per mole or 1.36 10 7 M sec per unit mass. The stagnation enthalpy change across the wave compared to the enthalpy of the free stream gas is approximately
2 2

. ht 1.36 10 7 ------------- = ------------------------------------ = 4.88 C pT 1 929 300 10

(11.62)

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The extra factor of ten in the denominator comes from the 90% dilution of the reactants with nitrogen. Using (11.61) and (11.62) with ' = 1.4 gives M 1 = 5.0 , M a = 0.41 . This latter result is consistent with the normal shock value. Using normal shock and Rayleigh relations the conditions through the detonation wave in the rest frame of the wave are shown below.
1 a 2

M 1 = 5.0 T 1 = 300K P 1 = 1 atm U 1 = 1750 M/sec

M a = 0.41 T a = 1740K P a = 29 atm U a = 346 M/sec

M 2 = 1.0 T 2 = 2700K P 2 = 15 atm U 2 = 1050 M/sec

Note that the drift speed of the gas behind the detonation in a frame of reference at rest with respect to the upstream gas is U 2 U 1 = 700 M/sec . The high pressure and strong wind generated by the detonation is responsible for the extreme destructive force of this type of explosion.

11.8 PROBLEMS
Problem 1 - Frictional ow of a compressible gas in an adiabatic pipe is sketched below. The gas comes from a large plenum at rest at constant P t and Tt .
Pt Tt Pa

Show that the maximum Mach number must occur at the pipe exit, that the maximum possible Mach number is one and that supersonic ow cannot occur in the pipe.

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Problem 2 - Natural gas, which is composed almost entirely of methane (molecular weight 16, ' = 1.3 ) is to be pumped through an insulated pipe one meter in diameter connecting two compressor stations 60 kilometers apart. At the upstream station, the stagnation pressure is 7 atmospheres and the stagnation temperature is 300K . The mean friction coefcient is C f = 0.001 . Calculate the maximum mass ow rate that can be pumped through the pipe by the downstream station. Problem 3 - Air ows from a large plenum through an adiabatic pipe with L D = 100 . The pressure ratio is P t P a = 1.5 and the friction coefcient is C f = 0.01.
1 Pt L D e Pa

Determine M 1 , M e and P te P t . Problem 4 - A heater is used to increase the stagnation temperature of a compressible ow of Air exhausting from a large plenum at constant P t and T t to vacuum.
Pt Tt Pa = 0

1) When T te T t is increased does M 1 increase, decrease or remain the same ? 2) Consider the case where the increase in stagnation temperature is very large, T te T t 1 . What is the value of P te P t in this case ?

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Problem 5 - The gure below shows air at constant stagnation pressure and temperature, P t , T t exhausting from a very large plenum to the surrounding atmosphere through a long straight pipe surrounded by a heater.
P0

1
Pt Tt

The gas temperature in the plenum is T t = 300K and P t P 0 = 10 . The heater increases the stagnation temperature to T te = 400K . Neglect the effects of friction. 1) Determine the Mach number at the entrance to the pipe. 2) Determine P te P t and P e P 0 . Recall (11.25). 3) Suppose the amount of heat added is increased. What value of T te ,if any, will produce P e P 0 = 1 ? Problem 6 - The gure below shows a supersonic wind tunnel supplied with Carbon Dioxide ( ' = 4 3, Molecular weight = 44 ) from a very large plenum. The CO2 passes through the test section and exhausts to a large vacuum chamber, P a = 0 . A high power, infrared laser tuned to one of the absorption lines of CO2 is used to heat the gas between stations 2 and 3.

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Pa 1 Pt Tt window laser 2 3 e

Relevant areas are A e A 1 = 3 , A 2 = A 3 , A 2 A 1 = 5 . Neglect wall friction. 1) The laser is initially turned off and supersonic ow is established in the test section. Determine M 2 and M e . 2) The laser is turned on and the stagnation temperature is increased slightly between 2 and 3 so that T t3 T t2 = 1.01 . Determine M 2 . Estimate P t3 P t2 and M e . 3) How much stagnation temperature increase can occur between stations 2 and 3 before the wind tunnel unstarts? 4) Suppose the stagnation temperature increase between stations 2 and 3 is such that T t3 T t2 = 4 . Determine P te P t . Problem 7 - Include the effects of friction and heat addition in a problem similar to Problem 2. The gas temperature in the plenum is T t = 300K and P t P 0 = 10 . The exit temperature T te is not specied, rather a model for the wall temperature will be specied and T te will be determined for a given length of pipe. Let C f = 0.01 and L D = 10 . The differential change in stagnation temperature in terms of the Stanton number is
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dT t % T wall & 4S t dx -------- = ( ------------- 1) % ------------- & # D $ Tt Tt # $

(11.63)

To solve the problem you will need the constant area Mach number relation
% & 2 2 2 & 4S t dx ( ) d M2 1M ' M % 4C f dx& % 1 + ' M & % T wall ( ----------------------------------------) ---------- = ---------- # ----------------$ + # -------------------- $ ( ------------ 1) % ------------- & 2 2 D ( 2 % 1 + ' 1 M 2& ) M 2 # Tt $# D $ ----------# # $$ 2 (11.64)

Let the wall temperature be distributed such that T wall ------------- = 3 Tt all along the wall. 1) Use (11.63) to determine T te . 2) Use the Reynolds analogy (11.10) and integrate (11.64) to determine the Mach number at the entrance to the pipe. 3) Use mass conservation in the form of (11.25) to determine the stagnation pressure ratio across the pipe and conrm that the exit ow is choked. 4) What value of L/D (if any) would cause the exit ow to unchoke? Problem 8 - Consider the frictionless ow of a calorically perfect gas in a channel with heat addition. The wall is shaped so as to keep the static pressure constant. The ow enters at condition 1 and departs at condition 2. Let the ratio of stagnation temperature between the entrance and exit be / = T t2 T t1 . (a) Find an expression for M 2 in terms of ' , M 1 and / . A2 (' 1) 2 (b) Show that ------ = / + ---------------- M 1 ( / 1 ) 2 A1
(11.65)

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% P t2 / (c) Show that ------- = ( ----------------------------------------------------) ( ) (' 1) 2 P t1 # / + ---------------- M 1 ( / 1 )$ 2

' ----------&' 1

Problem 9 - Plot the temperature versus entropy of a calorically perfect gas in a constant area ow with friction. This is done by creating a chart of temperature versus Mach number and a chart of entropy versus Mach number. When the two variables are plotted versus one another with the Mach number as a parameter along the trajectory (ranging, say, from zero to 4), the resulting curve is called the Fanno line. Repeat the process for the case of constant area ow with heat transfer to produce the Rayleigh line. Problem 10 - The gure below shows a supersonic wind tunnel supplied with Air from a very large plenum. The air passes through the test section and exhausts to a large vacuum chamber, P a = 0 . A sphere is placed in the test section between stations 2 and 3. The tunnel and sphere are adiabatic. The effect of wall friction on the ow can be neglected compared to the effect of the drag of the sphere.
Pa 1 Pt Tt 2 3 e

Relevant areas are A 2 A 1 = 5 , A 2 = A 3 and A e A 1 = 3 . A reasonable model for the stagnation pressure drop due to the sphere is

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' M 2 % A sphere& P t3 ------- = 1 ------------- ( ------------------ ) C d 2 # A tunnel $ P t2

Let C d = 1 and A sphere A tunnel = 0.04 .

1) Supersonic ow is established in the test section. Determine, M 2 and M 3 . 2) Suppose A e is decreased. At what value of A e A 1 does the wind tunnel unstart? 3) Is there a normal shock between 1 and 2 after the tunnel unstarts? If so estimate the Mach number of the normal shock. 4) With the tunnel unstarted suppose A e is increased. Estimate the value of A e A 1 at which the wind tunnel starts.

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