Cellular Mobile Concept

Cellular Mobile Communication Concept
Advanced Technology Center Computer & Communications Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute
Ray-Guang Cheng crg@atc.ccl.itri.org.tw
Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute
Content
Background
Statistics Maximum path loss and link budget
Radio wave propagation

Path loss Shadowing Diffraction Multipath propagation Delay spread and coherent bandwidth Doppler Ducting
Cellular networks and frequency allocation Calculation of the traffic capacity per cell
Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI
Statistics
Many effects in the mobile radio channel cannot be modeled deterministically but can only be described using statistics.
Shadowing and diffraction by small obstructions Multipath propagation Doppler
Statistics
The standard deviation is a measure for the deviation of a random variable from its mean value m1 Shadow fading results in a log-normal distribution of field strength values (normal distribution of levels in dB)
f(x) F(x)
1 0.84
m1- m1 m1+
sig (dB)
m1- m1 m1+
sig (dB)
Maximum path loss and link budget

Calculation Loss/Gain:
LP=10 log (P/10-3) dBm, reference Pr = 1mW -6) dBV, reference Ur = 1V LU=20 log (U/ 10 Loss A = 10 log (Pin/ Pout) dB Gain G = 10 log (Pout /Pin) dB P = U2/R, LU=20 log (U/ 0.775) dBU, reference = 775 mV, 600 Fading: 6dB Glass: 5dB Wall: 12 dB Shopping Mall: 25 dB House: 15 dB
Typical loss values:

The maximum radius of a cell depends on the maximum possible path loss between transmitter and receiver. It depends on:
Maximum output power level EIRP (emitted isotropic radiation power) at the transmitter Required input power level (RIPL) at the receiver antenna
Output BTS:
EIRPBTS=Power Amplifier Output - Combiner Loss - Downlink Cable Loss + Antenna Gain Power amplifier output: 25 Watt

Combiner loss:
Combiner Type Duplexer Hybrid combiner 1:1 2.7 dB 2.0 dB 2:1 3 dB 5.2 dB 4:1 5.9 dB 8.4 dB
Downlink antenna cable loss (example): 3 dB Antenna gain (example): 16 dB

Output MS: Not need to combine different carriers Cable loss and antenna gain reduce to zero EIRPMS depends on the power class of the MS Power class (GSM 05.05) :
Power class 1 2 3 4 5 Max. O/P power (GSM 900) 8 W =39 dBm 5 W =37 dBm 2 W =33 dBm 0.8 W =29 dBm Max. O/P power (DCS 1800) 1 W = 30 dBm 0.25 W = 24 dBm -

Input BTS: the RIPL at the BTS antenna is given by
RIPLBTS = Receiver Sensitivity Level - Antenna Diversity Gain + Uplink Cable Loss - Antenna Gain Receiver Sensitivity Level < -104 dBm Antenna Diversity Gain: 4 dB (typical scenario)
the gain strongly depends on
propagation environment the velocity of the mobile frequency hopping is applied or not
Uplink Cable Loss

3 dB, without tower mounted preamplifier RXAMOD 0 dB, with tower mounted preamplifier RXAMOD
Antenna gain (example): 16 dB


Input MS:
Neither antenna gain nor antenna diversity gain Cable loss can be neglected RILP is given by the MS receiver limit sensitivity RIPLMS
104 dBm for Class 2 and 3 (GSM 900) 102 dBm for Class 4 and 5 (GSM 900) 100 dBm for Class 1 and 2 (DCS 1800)

Maximum allowed path loss (Link Budget)
Downlink: Ld (dB) = EIRPBTS - RIPLMS Uplink: Lu (dB) = EIRPMS - RIPLBTS
Symmetric link budget should be achieved

The reference senstivity levels specified in GSM Rec. 05.05
GSM900
-104 dBm (Base station) -102 dBm (Class 4 and 5 Mobile Stations) -104 dBm (Class 1, 2 and 3 Mobile Stations)
DCS 1800
-102 dBm (Base station) -100 dBm (Class 1 and 2 Mobile Stations)
These already take into account the effects of multipath fading on moving mobiles (Rayleigh Fading and Doppler Effect).
Radio wave propagation

There are three main components of radio propagation:
mean path loss: loss due to distance attenuation shadowing: long term fading multipath propagation: short term (Rayleigh) fading
Path Loss
standard path loss model are of the form Lm (dB) = A + B log d (km)
A: unit loss at 1 km B: propagation index or loss per decade
A & B depends on:

transmit frequency MS and BS antenna height topography and morphology of the propagation area
Path loss
Path Loss
standard path loss model are of the form Lm (dB) = A + B log d (km)
A: unit loss at 1 km B: propagation index or loss per decade
A & B depends on:

transmit frequency MS and BS antenna height topography and morphology of the propagation area
Path loss
Path attenuation is usually proportional to the logarithm of the mobile to base station distance (if there is no terrain obstacles)
Signal level (dB) Signal level (dB) Slope is 20 for free space Slope is between 30 and 40 over plane earth, over urbanized terrain
distance
Log (distance)
Path loss
Radio propagation scenarios
No reflections or obstructions free space, slope=20
Ground reflection and line of sight plane earth, slope=40
Diffraction over many building tops multi-screen diffraction, slope=38 Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI
Path loss
Free space loss:
L0 = 32.4 + 20 log f (MHz) + 20 log d (km)
Hata model:
describes the mean propagation effects for large cells, distances d > 1km For urban environment:
A = 69.55 + 26.16 log f - 13.82 log Hb - a(Hm) B = 44.9 - 6.55 log Hb
Frequency: f (MHz) 1501000 MHz BS antenna height: Hb (m) 30200 m a(Hm) = 0 for Hm = 1.5 m MS antenna height: Hm (m) Ex. Hm=1.5 m, Hb=50 m, f=900 MHz, we have
A=123.3, B=33.8
Path loss
Path loss
For other environments (suburban, rural-quasi-open), the path loss per decade remains the same, but the unit loss is reduced by a certain amount. The smaller the cells, the more important are the details of e.g. the building structure within the cell.
Path loss
Free space propagation rarely occurs in reality, due to:
Obstructions in the propagation path.
This is particularly frequent in the case of mobile propagation because of the low height of the mobile antenna.
Obstructions in the first Fresnel zone.

Since the mobile station is so low, the first Fresnel zone is almost always interrupted by the ground, even if line of sight conditions apply.
Reflections from the ground and other objects.

Reflections combine in and out of phase to vary the signal received.
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Shadowing
Shadowing
The Fresnel zone is the space bounded by an ellipsoid, which has the focus at the transmitter and receiver.
s+n/2 s
The sum of the distance from the transmitter to a point on the ellipse and from there to the receiver is n/2 wavelengths longer than the direct transmitter to receiver distance, for the n-th Fresnel zone. Shadowing occurs if an obstruction lies within the first Fresnel zone.
Shadowing
Obstructions in the first Fresnel zone cause shadowing.
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Shadowing
Shadow fading
Arise due to shadowing by obstacles
Hills, buildings, trees
Signal level (dB)
Local median 10 percentile distance
Shadowing
Shadowing by large obstructions (larger than the terrain database resolution) can be predicted by propagation models in computerized planning tools. Shadowing by obstructions smaller than the database resolution, such as individual buildings, can only be dealt with statistically.
Local mean signal levels are distributed around the pixel median with a log-normal probability distribution. The Pixel median is the value predicted by the propagation model, it is the median of local mean values within the pixel, which are measurements averaged over about 10m
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Shadowing
Shadowing - Long term fading Details of the environment near the MS are responsible for a variation of the received level around the mean value calculated by the models discussed above. Usually, this variation of level - caused by obstacles near the MS - is described by the statistical model. The path loss Ltot is given by the mean distance path loss plus a random shadowing Ltot = Lm + S
S < 0: free line of sight S > 0: strong shadowing
Shadowing
S has a Gaussian distribution with mean 0 and a standard deviation s which typically lie in the range s=410 dB. The length scale for variation of the long term fading is in the range 5100 m, i.e. the typical size of shadowing obstacles.
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Shadowing
Log-normal fading
Standard deviation normally around 7 to 9 dB (urban and suburban). Distribution applies to locality of about 50m x 50m to 500m x 500m Add a margin to local median so that probability of coverage better than 50%
0 .0 5 0 .0 4 5 0 .0 4 0 .0 3 5
Standard deviation =9 dB
84% of locations in local area are above sensitivity
Probability
0 .0 3 0 .0 2 5 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 5 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 5 0 -2 5 -2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
sensitivity median signal
Shadowing
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Diffraction
Diffraction/shadowing
When obstructions lie in the path of the radio waves, they bend around it to a certain extent - called diffraction. The signal is attenuated depending on the diffraction angle. Various empirical and theoretical formula exist to model this.
Diffraction
Knife edge diffraction
P0
h P d1 d2
P 1 = 22h 2 P0 0 d1,d2 >> h >>
h02= h2*2/*(1/d1+1/d2)
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Multipath propagation
Multipath or Rayleigh fading
The result of multipath propagation Constructive and destructive interference Location dependent Time dependent Frequency dependent
Multipath propagation - Short term fading The superposition of several reflected waves arriving at the receiver on different paths cause peaks and deep fading dips of the received level. The length scale of variation (e.g. peak to peak) is given by the half of the transmission wavelength
~ 15 cm for GSM 900 ~ 7.5 cm for DCS 1800
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Rayleigh fading can only be taken into account using statistics
A deterministic calculation of all propagation paths is not possible in a reasonable time on available computers. Terrain and building databases are not available with the required resolution, and if they were, the storage space required would be far greater that currently available on standard work stations. Rayleigh fading is so called because the probability distribution of the amplitude is a Rayleigh distribution.
Rayleigh fading: Consider the received level due to the path loss and long term fading which is called the local mean LLOC (dBm). The received local mean power is given by Ploc (mW) = 10 LOC/10 The probability density function for the received power P is given by f(P) = 1/Ploc*exp(-P/Ploc) which means that the probability function for the signal amplitude P = A2 is given by a Rayleigh distribution.
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Using the formula, we can calculate the probability that the received level L (affected by Rayleigh fading is x dB below the local mean level Lloc: Prob(L-Lloc < x dB) = 1 - exp(-10x/10) Ex.
x = 3 dB, Prob=86.5% x = 0 dB, Prob=63.0% x = -3 dB, Prob=39.5% x = -6 dB, Prob=22.0% x = -10 dB, Prob=9.5% x = -20 dB, Prob=1.0%
Methods to combat Rayleigh fading:
Averaging of Rayleigh fading over speech frames (interleaving of 8 bursts)
Frequency Hopping
spacing between frequencies in hopping sequence >> coherence bandwidth
Motion
Ex. V=50 km/h, TDMA frame length=4.6 ms Distance between MS positions at subsequent bursts D=6.4 cm Distance for 8 burst ~ 50 cm > 3 * wavelength
Combining of signal received at positions of mutually uncorrelated fading

Antenna diversity
spacing between RX antenna >> half wavelength
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Change the transmission frequency will change the position of Rayleigh peaks and dips. At a given position, the received level affected by Rayleigh fading differs for different frequencies. The higher the frequency difference, the lower is the correlation for the received signal for the different frequencies.
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Delay spread and coherent bandwidth

Coherence bandwidth Bcoh is defined as the frequency difference at which this correlation has decreased to 0.5.
Coherent bandwidth is the defined bandwidth in which either the amplitudes or the phases of two received signals have a high degree of similarity.
Coherent bandwidth depends on the spread, called delay spread T, of arrival times of the different multipath components of the received signal.

Coherent bandwidth and delay spread 1 Bcoh= 2T The higher the delay spread, the lower the coherent bandwidth. Delay spread depends on the propagation environment.
10 s for hilly terrain (corresponding to path length between difference of 3 km 0.11 s for urban area (corresponding to path length between difference of 30300m
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Intersymbol interference (Time dispersion)
P (dB)
P (dB)
t (sec)
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t (sec)

Intersymbol interference (ISI)
Arise in the case of strong signal components separated by a bit period or more
P (dB) Bit 1 Bit 2
t (sec)
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Doppler
Doppler is a frequency shift, cause by movement of the mobile antenna relative to the base station
f = V/ (at 250 km/h and 900 MHz, f = 208 Hz)
f + f
f - f
f + f
Ducting
Ducting occurs due to reflection of waves along channels which reflect well.
Valleys with steep sides Building canyons Tunnels Different layers in the atmosphere
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Cellular networks and frequency allocation

One important characteristic of cellular networks is the re-use of frequencies in different cells. By re-use frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved. However, the re-use distance has to be high enough, so that the interference caused by subscribers using the same frequency (or an adjacent frequency) in another cells is sufficiently low. To guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the carrier-tointerference-power-ratio CIR has to exceed a certain threshold CIRmin which is 9 dB for the GSM system (GSM Rec. 05.05).
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C/I tot (Watt) = C/(I1+I2++IN) C/NI C/I tot (dB) = C (dB) - I tot (dB) B log(D/R) - 10 log N > CIRmin + LTFM (x%)
LTFM (x%) is the long term fading margin for a required coverage probability of x%, the effect of shadowing is taken into account.
For homogeneous hexagonal networks, frequencies can be allocated to cells in a symmetric way. Defining the cluster size K as group of cells in which each frequency is used exactly once, the following relations between Cluster Size, Cell Radius, and Re-use Distance are obtained.
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Therefore, we have
0.5 * B log 3K > CIRmin + LTFM (x%) + 10 log N
which gives a lower bound for the cluster size For a given cluster size K and total number of frequencies Ntot, the number of frequencies per cell Ncell is given by: Ncell = Ntot/K The capacity of a cell can be increased by reducing the cluster size. A reduction of cluster size can be achieved by
reducing the no. of interferes -> Sectorization reducing the interference from co-channel cells -> Power Control, Ray-Guang Cheng Discontinued Transmission, ...
ATC/CCL/ITRI

The capacity of the radio network depends on the available number N of radio channels per area F (e.g. F=1 km2) N NBTS Ntot 1 Ntot 1 = Ncell * = CPF * * = CPF * * F F K F/NBTS K CA
NBTS: number of BTS CA: cell area CPF: channels per frequency
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Calculation of the traffic capacity per cell

Erlang B formula: Consider an m-server loss system M/M/m/m
m servers, mean service time 1/, mean arrival rate
0 1 2 2
...
m
pn-1 = npn, for n=1,2,,m, then we have pn=(/)n/n!
(/)m/m!
The blocking probability pm=
(/)n/n!
n=0

The percentage of allowed congested calls defines the quality of the service and is called the Grade Of Service (GOS). Normally, 2~5% GOS are used. To calculate the number of channels needed to serve a certain number of subscribers, the Erlang-B formula is used. A = n * T / 3600 (Erlang)
n: number of calls per hour T: average conversation time A: offered traffic from one or several users in the system
For n=1000 and T=120 seconds, we have A=33 Erlang. If 2% GOS should be achieved, we need 43 channels.
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Cellular Mobile Concept

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Cellular Mobile Communication Concept

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Radio wave propagation

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Typical loss values:

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Downlink antenna cable loss (example): 3 dB Antenna gain (example): 16 dB

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Uplink Cable Loss

Antenna gain (example): 16 dB

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Symmetric link budget should be achieved

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Maximum path loss and link budget

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Radio wave propagation

A & B depends on:

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

A & B depends on:

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ground reflection and line of sight plane earth, slope=40

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Obstructions in the first Fresnel zone.

Reflections from the ground and other objects.

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Signal level (dB)

Local median 10 percentile distance

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI

Computer & Communication Research Laboratories Industrial Technology Research Institute

Ray-Guang Cheng ATC/CCL/ITRI