HEALTH HAZARDS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES

Editors: RM. STERN, A. BERLIN, A. C. FLETCHER ANDJ.JARVISALO

Regional Office for Europe ; International Agency for Research on Cancer

ealth Organizanon

commission of the European Communities . The Danish Welding Institute

EXCERPTA MEDICA
International Congress Series 676 I

HEALTH HAZARDS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES

Uoidtf JOiltli

HEALTH HAZARDS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES

Proceedings of the International Conference on Health Hazards and B iological Effects of Welding Fumes and Gases, Copenhagen, 1821 February 1985
organized jointly by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC, Luxembourg); the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (WHO/EURO, Copenhagen); the Danish Welding Institute (Svejsecentralen (SVC), B rndby); and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, Lyon). Editors:

R.M.STERN
The Danish Welding Institute Brndby, Denmark

A. BERLIN
Health and Safety Directorate Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg

A.C. F LETCHER
International Agency for Research on Cancer Lyon, France

J. JRVISALO
World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe C Copenhagen, Denmark p\

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 1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (Biomedical Division) World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels - Luxembourg All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Biomedical Division, P.O. Box 1527, 1000 BM Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulations for readers in the USA - This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970, USA. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside the USA, should be referred to the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., unless otherwise specified. International Congress Series No. 676 ISBN 0 444 80784 5 Publication No. EUR 10042 of the Commission of the European Communities, DirectorateGeneral Information Market and Innovation, Luxembourg Published by: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (Biomedical Division) P.O. Box 211 1000 AE Amsterdam The Netherlands Sole distributors for the USA and Canada: Elsevier Science Publishing Company Inc. 52 Vanderbilt Avenue New York, NY 10017 USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

International Conference on Health Hazards and Biological Effects of Welding Fumes and Gases (1985 : Copenhagen, Denmark) Health hazards and biological effects of welding fumes and gases. (international congress series) Includes index. 1. WeldingHygienic aspectsCongresses. 2. Welding fumesToxicologyCongresses. I. Stern, R. M. II. Commission of the European Communities. III. Title. IV. Series. CDNLM: 1. Air Pollutants, Occupational adverse effectscongresses. 2. Gasesadverse effects congresses. 3. Weldingcongresses. W3 EX89 / WA 1*50 C59h 19853 RC965.WI+I58 1985 616.9'803 86-1*1*55 ISBN 0-l*l*l*-80781*-5 (U.S.)

Printed in The Netherlands

PREFACE
This interdisciplinary conference, which was organized jointly by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC, Luxembourg); the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (WHO/EURO, Copenhagen); the Danish Welding Institute (Svejsecentralen (SVC), Brndby); and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, Lyon) was held at the WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen. Its aim was to establish the current state of knowledge concerning the assessment of exposure and of the resulting health effects of welding, and to discuss priorities for reduction of health risks and for future studies within this widely practiced industry. More than 220 occupational health specialists, research scientists, engineers, industrial managers, trade union representatives and health policy managers from 24 nations attended. WHO/EURO'S involvement with welding began in 1980 with the United Nations Development Programme on international control of toxic substances when it was recognized that quantitative risk assessment and risk management of exposure to welding fumes had been neglected. The involvement of CEC in the health and safety of welders is preventive and action oriented in the framework of the Action Programme on Safety and Health at Work and research-oriented in the context of the ongoing Coal and Steel Medical Research Programme. SVC has a long tradition in the development of welding technology and has a mandate to assess new techniques with a view to prevent the introduction of hazardous technologies. The meeting was co-organised by IARC, which has a particular interest in the potential carcinogenic effects of welding exposures. The joint organization of this first International Conference has reflected the interests of the four organizations in these different aspects of welding. The Organizers

VI

EDITORIAL NOTE
This interdisciplinary conference considered the following main topics: the nature and quantity of welding fumes and gases produced by the various welding processes; evaluations of the effects of welding fumes on cells in vitro and in animals, and epidemiological evaluations of welders' health; methods for minimizing the respiratory risks faced by welders. The above objectives were established by the Programme Committee who met on three occasions to select the topics for invited reviews, to review submitted abstracts and establish the scientific programme. The editors wish to thank the following par ticipants in the Programme Committee meetings: Professor G. Cecchetti, Rome, Professor G. Gerhardsson, Stockholm, Professor J.M. Haguenoer, Lille, Professor A. Lafontaine, B russels, Professor S. Langrd, Porsgrunn, Dr T. Norseth, Oslo, Dr P. de Plaen, B russels, Dr P.S.J. Reuzel, Zeist, Dr . Schaller, Erlangen and Dr G. Sorde, London. These proceedings are based on the reports presented at the conference. The sum mary report which reflects the consensus of ideas which emerged from presentations and discussions during the conference, was initially prepared by the rapporteurs. The signed texts are the sole responsibility of their authors. Camera ready copies provided by the authors have been used in the preparation of this volume.

Vil

CONTENTS
Summary Report A^. Hemminki, J. Pe to and R.M. Ste rn

OVERVIEW OF WELDIN G Welding in the world R. We e k Technical history and future development of the welding industry J. Skriniar

15

23

CHARACTERISTICS OF WELDING FUME AN D GASES Process-dependent characteristics of welding fume particles K.G. Malmqvist, G. Johansson, M. Bohgard and K.R. Akse lsson Exposure monitoring and chemical analysis of welding fume E. Thomse n, R.M. Ste rn and B. Pe de rse n Welding fumes emitted during welding of high-alloyed materials Evaluation of amount, chemical composition and morphology, including the influence of welding parameters F. Eichhorn and Th. Olde nburg Pollution caused by hand arc electric welding G.P. Gambare tto and G. Rausa Fume emission rate measurements and fume analysis on four stainless steel welding consumables J. More tn, S. E. Day and . Je nkins Measurement of the welding fume quantities and analysis of the fume composition during resistance welding H.-J. Krause and H. Pre ss Investigation of crystalline materials in welding fumes of covered electrodes M. Kobayashi and S. Tsutsumi

31

47

51

55

61

65

77

Vill

XRay diffraction and Xray emission spectroscopy in chemical compound analysis of welding fumes V.P. Tanninen, H .K. H yvrinen, A. Grekula and P.L. Kalliomki Quantitative energy dispersive Xray microanalysis of welding fumes A. Grekula, R. Peura and S.J. Sivonen Assessment of the use of electron spectroscopy and sputtering for studies of solid fume particles E. Minni Scanning electron microscopic studies on flame cutting and welding fumes in a steel foundry TE. Gustafsson, A. Tossavainen and A. Aitio Methodological investigation of pollutants in welding fumes E. Ansoborlo, R. Bertrand, J. Chalabreysse The growth of a welding fume as a function of relative humidity M.S. Ahlberg, H .C. H ansson and I. Fngmark Ozone and nitrogen oxides in gas shielded arc welding L. Sipek and E. Smrs Test program to determine whether nickel carbonyl forms during the welding of nickelcontaining alloys. A progress report. L.G. Wiseman and .T. Chapman

81

85

89

93

99

103

107

111

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Environmental monitoring of welding fumes and gases G. Cecchetti Air contaminants involved in welding in Swedish industry Sources of variation in concentrations U. Ulfvarson Worker exposure to welding fumes and gases during hydraulic plant turbine repair J.F.K. Froats, P.J. Mason and J.C. To Stainless steel welding: Atmosphere monitoring in French factories F. Diebold and J.C. Limasset

117

133

137

141

IX

Exposure of welders to fumes, Cr, Ni and Cu and gases from the welding of stainless and high alloy steels J.F. van der Wal Exposure to welding fumes in the workplace with regard to nickel and chromtes W. Coenen, I. Grol he and G. Khnen Welding fumes concentration in heavy carpentry working environment and trial to correlate same with gas and powdered fluorides G. Casciani, F. Ruspolini, U. Verdel and G. Cecchetti Measurement of welding fume at hyperbaric conditions O. Bjrseth, E, Brresen and . Malvik On site ozone measurements in welding shops B. Engstrm and M. Viriamo

145

149

153

159

163

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Levels of welding fume components in tissues and body fluids A. A it io and J. Jrvisalo Determination of nickel, cadmium and chromium in whole blood and urine by zeeman atomic absorption spectrophotometry J.M. Christensen and M. Kirchhoff Stainless steel manual metalarc welding and chromium in blood C. Gustavsson and H . Welinder Kinetics of chromium in biological materials during one week of stainless steel welding K.H. Schaller, A. Zober, D. Wei tie and H . Valentin Manganese in stainless steel welding fumes: External exposure and biological monitoring W. Zschiesche, E. Wilhelm, A. Zober, K.H . Schaller, D. Welt le and H. Valentin

169

181

185

189

193

MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPHY Magnetopneumography as a tool for measuring lung burden of industrial aerosols M. Lippmann

199

A mobile magnetopneumograph with dust quality sensing K. Kalliomki, P.-L. Kalliomki and M. Moilanen Alternating current susceptibility bridge magnetopneumography K. Drenck and R.M. Stern Stability of remanent magnetism of different welding fumes K. Kalliomki, P.-L. Kalliomki and M. Moilanen

215 219 223

OVERVIEW OF TOXICOLOGY Kinetics and biotransformation of nickel and chromium F. W. Sunderman Jr Genetic toxicology of chromium and nickel compounds S. Venitt Respiratory toxicology of nickel and chromium L.S. Levy Toxicology of ozone and the oxides of nitrogen G. von Nieding Reproductive effects of welding fumes: Experimental and epidemiological studies with special reference to chromium and nickel compounds K. Hemminki and M.-L. Lindbohm 229 249 267 285

291

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF TOXICITY IN VITRO AND IN VIVO Nickel and chromium compounds and welding fumes in mammalian cell transformation bioassay in vitro R.M. Stern and K. Hansen In vitro cytotoxicity of welding fume particles to bovine alveolar macrophages R.N. Hooftman, P. Roza and C. W.M. Arkesteijn Mutagenic activity of fumes produced by gas-cutting during refitting operations in oil tankers F. Varlerio, R. Puntoni and A. Lazzarotto

305

311

315

XI

Cytotoxic effects of welding fumes in human embryonic epithelial pulmonary cells in culture H.F. Hildebrand, M. Collyn-d'Hooghe and R.M. Stern Long-term inhalation studies with NiO and As203 aerosols in Wistar rats U. Glaser, D. Hochrainer, H. Oldiges and S. Takenaka Carcinogenicity and in vitro genotoxicity of the particulate fraction of two stainless steel welding fumes P.G.J. Reuzel, R.B. Beems, W.K. de Raat and P.H.M. Lohman Possible bronchocarcinogenic effects of welding and thermal spraying fumes containing chromium N.O. Berg, M. Berlin, M. Bohgard, B. Rudell, A. Schtz and K. Warfvinge Acute and subchronic effects of intratracheally instilled nickel containing particles in hamsters //. Muhle, W. Koch and B. Bellmann In vivo and in vitro incorporation of Ni and Cr in lung and liver H.F. Hildebrand, J.F. Mercier, M.C. Herlant-Peers and J.M. Haguenoer Lung clearance, transportation, and excretion of metals in rats after intratracheal instillation of activated welding fumes P.-L. Kalliomki, A. Ait io, H.-K. Hyvrinen, K. Kalliomki and E.-L. Lakomaa Manganese distribution in rats after three types of welding fume exposures P.-L. Kalliomki, E.-L. Lakomaa, A. Aitio and K. Kalliomki Structure and composition of inhaled welding fumes in rat lung S. Anttila and S. Sutinen Starling equation adapted to oxidant gas injury T.L. Guidotti

319

325

329

333

337

341

345

349

357

XII

EPIDEMIOLOGY Epidemiological Studies of Respiratory and Other Diseases Among Welders Respiratory functional impairment in metal welders: An interpretation of current data K.H. Kilburn Effects of long term exposure to arc welding fumes on respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function. Results of epidemiological surveys conducted in three factories J.M. Mur, Q. T. Pham, C. MeyerBisch, F. Diebold, S. Salsi, . Massin, J.J. Moulin, D. Teculescu, C. Cavelier, J.C. H enquel, V. Baudin, M. Betz and J.P. Toamain Airway obstruction, volume loss and respiratory symptoms in shipyard welders in Los Angeles: B aseline values and cross shift changes K.H. Kilburn, R. Warshaw and CT. Boylen Pulmonary disease survey among union pipefitters/welders in California B.P. Dolan and D.C. Dolan Exposure and state of health in electric arc welders using different technologies W.D. Schneider, R. Liebich, G. Maintz, G. Schmidt and W. Wiesener Cardiorespiratory association with shipyard welding and burning J.E. Cotes and F.M. ElGamal Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function among Danish welders O. Lyngenbo, M. V. Groth, S. Groth, O. Olsen and H . Dirksen Health, occupational exposure, and thoracic magnetic moment of shipyard welders R.M. Stern, K. Drenck, O. Lyngenbo, H . Dirksen and S. Groth Lung retention of welding fumes and ventilation lung functions A followup study of shipyard welders P.L. Kalliomki, K. Kalliomki and O. Korhonen

363

379

383

387

391

395

399

403

409

XIII

Controlled welding in patients with neurological symptoms B. Rudell, B. Kolmodin-Hedman and B.-I. Wenngren Acute pneumonitis progressing to pulmonary fibrosis in a welder M. Silberschmid Changes in the respiratory and cardiovascular systems of alloyed steel welders E.P. Krasnyuk, I. P. Lubyanova and N.T. Timofeyeva Epidemiological Studies of Mortality and Cancer Incidence Among Welders Cancer morbidity and mortality studies of welders J. Peto An epidemiological study on health of stainless steel welders with special reference to the risk of respiratory cancer. Design and implementation K.S. Hansen Confounding and effect-modifying factors in epidemiological studies in welders 5. Langkrd Lung cancer among welders in Seattle, Washington (USA) J.J. Beaumont and N.S. Weiss Cancer risk in arc welders exposed to chromium-nickel-containing fumes N. Becker, J. Claude, R. Frentzel-Beyme Mortality among Swedish welders and gas-cutters B. Sjgren, J. Weiner, L.-G. Hrte and J. Carstensen Cancer morbidity among Swedish welders and gas-cutters B. Sjgren and J. Carstensen Mortality study of dockyard welders G. McMillan

413 415

419

All,

435

439 445

449 457 461 465

XIV

Mortality study among autogenous and electrical welders in the port of Genoa (Italy) R. Puntoni, M. Vercelli, F. di Giorgio, F. Valerio, S. Bonassi, M. Ceppi and L. Santi Mortality of welders and other craftsmen at a shipyard in the northeast of England M.L. Newhouse, D. Oakes and A.J. Woolley Mortality of a 100 arc welders A. Esnault, D. Henry, D. Riet and C. Yhuel HEALTH SURVEILLANCE, RISK ASSESSMENT AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES Environmental and health surveillance G. Gerhardsson Health effects and medical wastage due to combined exposure in welding R.L. Zielhuis and S.P. Wanders Assessment, management, and reduction of risk for welders R.M. Stern Technical and industrial hygiene preventive measures in welding G. Khnen 'Wall jet' use in the reduction of exposure to welding fumes G. Ripanucci, P. Altarocca and G. Bocchicchio Need for harmonizing measurement strategies for monitoring at welding workplaces E. Lehmann Process dependent threshold limit values in welding E.B. Hansen Respiratory hazards resulting from toxic gases and fumes during welding processes: What possible approach? M. Stupfel Some approaches to the establishment of permissible levels of welding aerosols in the air Y. Kundiev and L. Gorban

469

473 All

483 497 535 553 567

571 575

579

583

XV

Welders' health surveillance G. McMillan A simple, atraumatic sampling method for screening of precancerous and toxicological lesions by cytology in the upper respiratory tract A. Reith, R. Voss and S. Reichborn-Kjennerud Index of authors

587

591 595

SUMMARY REPORT INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HEALTH HAZARDS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES

COPENHAGEN, 18 - 21 FEBRUARY 1985

K. Hemminki, J. Peto and R.M. Stern

I.

INTRODUCTION Welding has been practiced as a technology for joining metals throughout

the 20th century, and in industrialized countries more than 1% of the labour force is engaged in welding. applications. steels. Major new developments have occurred since 1940, accompanied by a spectacular growth in the variety and extent of There exist many different types of welding processes which enable the joining of most metals e.g. mild steel, aluminium, stainless New technologies are continuously being developed to join new materials such as high performance steels and light alloys. Most techniques and applications are now almost universal although different methods have traditionally predominated in certain countries. Welding consists of those processes where the metals to be joined (parent metal) are melted by an electric arc or flame, in most cases using as filler materials, coated electrodes or wires (the consumables), which are designed to contribute metal to the joint area resulting in a weld with the proper metallurgical and mechanical properties. Joining techniques that utilize low melting point alloys to make the joint, without melting of t i parent material, called brazing and soldering, te are not utilized by welders and hence are not discussed below. Recause of frequent inhalation exposures to high concentrations of fumes and gases during welding, interest in potential health problems has centered around respiratory effects including lung cancer, especially related to the presence of chromium and nickel in the fumes of stainless steel welding.

II.

WELDING TECHNIQUES AND EMISSIONS

Types of technologies One of the most common processes, manual metal arc welding (MMA), is performed with hand-held electrodes coated with suitable slag-forming flux to protect the arc. One process, (tungsten inert gas welding: TIG) uses only an A more recent development has been the electric arc produced by a tungsten electrode, where the joint is protected from oxidation by an inert gas shield. use of continuous wire with inert or active shielding gas in a semiautomatic process of high productivity (Metal inert gas (MIG) or metal active gas (MAG) welding. These four techniques account for 60-80% of all welding activities, but a number of other technologies are also in use or in development including oxyacetylene (autogen) welding, submerged arc welding, laser beam welding and electron beam welding. The material most commonly welded is mild steel (MS), which in the shipbuilding industry is frequently coated with an anti-rust paint or shop primer, but stainless steel (SS) and aluminium (Al) welding is also widely practiced. Characteristics of emissions High concentrations of particulate fumes and gases are produced whenever an arc is struck or a flame is used to melt the parent metal, and many systematic studies have been conducted on the characteristics of fumes and gases produced in the laboratory when different methods and parent metals are used. A number of factors affect the total amount of fume produced per unit time by a given process and application (fume formation rate, FFR). In MMA welding the FFR is proportional to both welding current and, at constant current, voltage (or arc length), but it is also significantly affected by the geometry of the joint. In MIG welding the FFR is a complex function of the current, voltage and shield gas, and depends primarily on the turbulence in the arc, which determines the degree to which air is mixed with the arc gases. The composition of the fume is determined primarily by that of the consumable, which contributes 80-95% of the fume. The type of consumable used is, however, determined largely by the chemistry and metallurgy of the parent

material (e.g. aluminium alloy wire is only used on aluminium parent metal). The fume consists mostly of the condensed vapour of the core wire, but the oxidizing potential of the arc, which depends on various factors, particularly the type of shielding gas or flux, determines the relative amount and composition of the fumes and gases. The presence of flux-forming coating on The relative MMA electrodes, or within flux-cored wire (FCW), also contributes significantly to the non-metallic components of the fume. concentration of elements in the fume is very different from that in the consumable since some elements are preferentially vapourized, and elements with lower boiling points such as F, Mn, Zn, Pb, As, Ca, Si are significantly enriched in the fume over their (sometimes trace) concentrations in the consumable and parent metals. Each welding technique and application produces a characteristic range of particulate composition and morphology. MMA fumes consist of particulates which are either condensed metal vapour or a mixture of metal and slag condensed from the slag-forming coating, which decomposes, melts and vapourizes during welding. For MMA/MS the primary constituents are Fe, Mn, The use of stainless steels introduces Cr and Si, Na, Ca, and especially F. coating.

Ni into the fume. MIG fumes are less complex because of the absence of flux MIG/MS fume consists primarily of Fe, Mn, Si and their oxides, while MIG/SS fume also contains Cr and Ni and their oxides. Electron microscope studies show that the particulates are morphologically complex. Long chains of similarly sized particulates are frequently formed which may collapse into spherical or raft shaped agglomerates in the high humidity of the respiratory tract. MIG and MMA processes produce fumes with mass median aerodynamic diameters in the range 0.1 to 0.5 microns which are predominantly deposited in the lower respiratory tract, but larger particles may also be produced by spray from the arc or by spatter from slag from the flux. These larger particles consist largely of light elements such as Al, Si, K, Na, F and water-soluble compounds, while the smaller particulates are predominantly composed of heavy metals such as Fe, Ni, Mo, Mn, Cr and their oxides. X-ray diffraction studies indicate that a significant fraction (20%-9020 of the fume is crystalline. spinel). The composition for MMA fumes is complex, but the predominant compound in all MS fumes is a magnetic iron oxide (Fe,0.) (a Other crystalline substances which have been tentatively identified are NaF, CaF, KCaF3> MgO, K 2 C0 3 , Na2CC>3, M n F e ^ .

The fumes from MMA/SS and MIG/SS welding contain Cr and Ni in a wide range of oxidation states and solubilities. MMA/SS fume contains approximately 3-4% Cr, almost all of which is in the hexavalent state (CrVI) and is water-soluble, while MIG/SS fumes contain 14-18% Cr. reactive, and is often rapidly reduced to Cr (III). Cr(VI) is highly The relative Cr(VI)

content of MIG/SS fumes is apparently very low for spray arc (20-25 volts) conditions (0-0.5%), but has only recently been shown to be higher for short arc fumes (15-18 volts) collected in a liquid rather than on paper filters (0-5-5%). A wide range of methods have been used to analyse the fumes, but quantitative analysis of certain fumes e.g. MIG/SS, is still difficult. Welding produces a number of gaseous pollutants, either through the thermal decomposition of the electrode coating (CO, C0, F, HF, etc.) or the pyrolytic decomposition of organic substances such as paint, anti-rust coating, etc. present on the workpiece. the surrounding air. NO and N0_ are also produced from The inert gas welding of aluminium and stainless steel Production rates and

is accompanied by the production of significant concentrations of ozone due to the interaction of ultra-violet radiation and oxygen. breathing zone concentrations of gaseous pollutants are process and process parameter dependent (current, voltage, shielding gas, consumables, etc.).

III.

ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE

Ambient air measurements A number of sampling strategies have been developed for the monitoring of workplace concentrations of fumes and gases for the determination of time weighted average (TWA) concentrations in the breathing zone (BZ) of the welder. Individual BZ measurements of particulates are made by placing the Gas sampling is most frequently performed by Background particulate samplers behind the face mask.

the use of sampling tubes in front of the mask.

measurements are made with stationary (high volume) samplers. Although many processes have a similar fume formation rate for a given application, workplace monitoring shows that there exists an extremely wide range of TWA BZ levels, either for different workers or for the same worker on consecutive days. Variations of an order of magnitude are common, and peak concentrations of both fumes and gases measured over short periods can vary by a factor of several hundred above the background level.

A large number of factors effect the instantaneous and average BZ concentrations. One major factor which affects the TWA BZ concentration is of course the amount of time which a welder actually welds (the arcing time or intermittance) which can vary from under 30% for difficult MMA jobs to more than 90% for certain MIG applications. In addition, effective general ventilation may greatly reduce background steady state fume levels and hence TWA's, while the effective use of local exhaust and point extraction (when available) will reduce both TWA and peak BZ levels. There are large and consistent differences between methods, with TIG/SS producing the lowest and MIG/Al the highest average TWA levels. Individual work practice are also important, however, and 10% or more of the welders in any technology/application may have TWA exposures more than four times the average for that technology. Biological monitoring Animals and cell culture studies demonstrate that chromium and nickel are the most toxic metallic elements in stainless and high alloy steel welding fumes; blood and urine levels of these metals are useful indicators of the extent of recent occupational exposure of individual workers. Aluminium and fluoride levels in blood and urine are also useful measures of individual exposure in aluminium or other welding applications. There is also some evidence that among mild steel welders manganese levels in blood and urine are higher than those of the general population. Lung burden assessment Inhalation of welding fumes causes lung deposition of metals and metallic compounds some of which can be magnetized (e g Fe.,0, , gamma Fe 0 , Mn-iO, , etc.). Magnetopneumographic techniques are now being developed for In these the measurement of lung burden of these magnetic dusts in welders.

techniques the individual is either subjected to a uniform and constant external field which magnetizes the lung burden resulting in an external remanent field proportional to the content of magnetic dust in the lungs, or is subjected to an alternating magnetic field which permits a determination of the net magnetic susceptibility of the thorax. Preliminary results confirm that long- term welding causes accumulation of dust in the lungs and indicate that this non-invasive technique can detect such deposition at its early stages. Different metals are removed from the lungs at different rates, however, and this complex process which apparently depends on the type of fume has not been adequately studied.

IV.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF WELDING FUME

Genotoxic effects Welding fumes have been studied in a large number of in vitro bioassays. In these assays, fumes from the welding of mild steel and aluminium show relatively low cytotoxicity, although they show some chemical reactivity. There is some evidence that particulates produced by welding alloyed or stainless steels are genotoxic to bacteria and transform mammalian cells in culture. The presence of Cr (VI) and Ni in various solubility states appears other fume to be responsible for the biological activity of these fumes:

types e.g. from mild steel or aluminium welding do not contain Cr and Ni. Hexavalent chromium compounds possess genetic activity, damaging DNA and causing mutations in bacteria, cultured mammalian cells and experimental animals in vivo. plating works. They have also caused chromosomal aberrations in cultured cells, in fish and in workers occupationally exposed to chromic acid in By contrast, tests for genetic activity with trivalent chromium compounds have given either negative or equivocal results. Hexavalent chromium readily crosses biological membranes, whereas trivalent chromium penetrates them poorly. acids. Tests for genetic toxicity of nickel compounds have given inconsistent results, and the positive responses reported have usually been weak. Mutagenicity has been reported for soluble nickel compounds in a few bacterial tests and in a single test for cytogenetic activity. compounds enhance lipid peroxidation. DNA breaks, DNA protein and DNA-DNA crosslinks were noted in experimental animals. Nickel Both soluble and insoluble nickel compounds have induced transformation of cultured cells. A single study has shown chromosomal aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes of nickel refinery workers. Carcinogenic and teratogenic effects Carcinogenicity of welding fume particles has been studied in two experiments with inconclusive results. In one study repeated intratracheal No such tumours had been seen in instillation of MMA stainless steel welding fume particles caused two malignant pulmonary tumours in 70 hamsters. Hexavalent chromium is reduced in cells and biological fluids to the trivalent form, which binds to protein and nucleic

791 historical control animals, and this difference was statistically significant. In another study, in which MMA stainless steel fume particulates were implanted intrabronchially one tumour was noted in the 100 treated animals, although it was found in the untreated lung and no tumours were found in 100 untreated controls. Experimental studies on chromium have demonstrated respiratory tract carcinogenicity of hexavalent chromium compounds. solubility are the most active. Among nickel compounds nickel subsulphide and nickel carbonyl have caused lung cancer in experimental animals, and several other nickel compounds have produced cancers at the site of application. Both trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds have been found to cause fetal deaths in experimental animals, and hexavalent chromium compounds have induced malformations. Nickel compounds have also caused fetal deaths and malformations in experimental animals. Comparative studies of intrabronchial implantation suggest that hexavalent chromtes of sparing

V.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA ON CANCER Welders constitute between 0.5% and 2% of the general working population,

and a higher fraction in certain industrial sectors such as ship building. Very few epidemiological studies have been specifically designed to assess the effects of welding on health, but a number of epidemiological studies of cancer incidence among working populations have included large enough numbers of welders for their cancer incidence or mortality to be examined separately. The major concern is the consistent observation of an excess of lung cancer among welders. The results of almost all studies, including national or regional occupational mortality data, case/control studies and cohort studies, are consistent with an increase in relative risk of the order of 30% to but among welders. An excess of this magnitude could be due to smoking if there were a systematic difference in smoking habits between welders and the reference populations, and/or could be related to exposure to other occupational carcinogens, particularly asbestos. It could, however, reflect a progressive and substantial risk caused by welding fumes among workers exposed for many years, diluted by the inclusion in most studies of workers who have

been exposed less heavily or for shorter periods, or who have not been followed up for long enough. A few studies have also suggested that cancers of the nose, kidney, bladder or larynx may be somewhat more common than expected among welders, but these require confirmation. Some epidemiological studies among workers in Chromate and chrome pigment production have shown an increased risk of lung cancer. sinus cancer. Studies on nickel refinery and electrolysis workers have shown elevated risks of lung and nasal Insoluble dusts of nickel subsulphide and nickel oxide, aerosols of soluble nickel compounds and nickel carbonyl vapor have been suspected as causative agents. Fumes generated by stainless steel welding contain certain components, particularly hexavalent chromium, which have carcinogenic potential. The suggestion that the lung cancer risk is higher among welders of stainless steel than among other welders is neither supported nor refuted by the epidemiological evidence. Historical exposure levels to the various components of welding fumes can however be estimated approximately, as for many manual techniques current exposure levels are not very different from those that occurred 20 or 30 years ago. Further follow-up and case-control studies comparing lung cancer and other deaths in existing cohorts, together with the results of further retrospective cohort studies of mild steel and stainless steel welders that are now being established, should provide definitive answers to the above questions, within a few years.

VI.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA ON NONMALIGNANT RESPIRATORY DISEASE Many components of welding fumes have effects on the respiratory system.

High concentrations of chromium and nickel compounds, ozone and nitrogen dioxide damage bronchial and alveolar epithelium; compounds may elicit asthmatic responses; respiratory irritants. Mortality studies Welders may suffer some excess mortality from chronic bronchitis or pneumonia, but the incidence of these diseases differs widely between countries and social classes, and it is difficult to select an appropriate comparison group. National and regional occupational mortality studies based chromium and nickel and ozone and nitrogen dioxide are

on the occupation recorded on death certificates have given inconsistent results, and both these data and recent cohort studies suggest that any specific occupational hazard for respiratory diseases may be less now than it was in the past. Morbidity studies Conventional measures of respiratory function may sometimes be reduced in welders. These include forced expiratory volume (FEV ) , forced expiratory flow (FEF), peak flow (PF) , carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (TL CO) and vital capacity (VC). Acute respiratory effects such as cough, phlegm production, dyspnea and respiratory infections have also been more common in welders than among other workers in some studies. Respiratory effects appear to be most marked in stainless steel welders. Most of these effects become more prevalent in the general population with increasing age and are also more common among smokers. An effect of welding has been suggested based on some studies in which these confounding variables have been taken into account. The severity and prevalence of respiratory effects among welders varies and in several studies there was little difference between welders and matched controls, although this may only reflect different levels of fume exposure. The interpretation of these findings is complicated by selective drop-out of the least healthy workers from the study group(s) (healthy worker effect) or by the fact that many welders may also have been exposed to asbestos.

VII. OTHER HEALTH RELATED EFFECTS Analysis of absentee statistics, although notoriously unreliable, do indicate that the major recorded cause of lost time among welders is accidental injury. Pilot studies suggest that psychosocial and ergonomie problems, including those due to static and dynamic stress, and the effects of physical factors such as heat, ultra-violet light and noise, may result in significant health effects, including lost time, among welding populations in certain industrial situations. There are no reports of systematic studies of the impact of all aspects of the working environment on the health of welders, and little evidence on which to base a decision on the relative importance of respiratory vs non-respiratory effect. However, only problems related to welding fumes and gases could be treated comprehensively in this conference.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS 1. 2. Both acute and chronic respiratory effects occur among welders. Sufficiently stringent measures should be introduced and enforced

immediately to prevent these effects. 3. Approaches to reduce the established and potential health risks due to

welding fumes and gases should include: - identification of high exposure situations and their immediate reduction; - development of appropriate monitoring programmes using simple and rapid response indicators of ambient air concentrations; - development of a worker education programme and active participation of the workers in their own protection; - establishment of necessary health assessment programmes and evaluation of the effectiveness of the existing ones. 4. Because of the possible importance of high-level short-term exposures,

short term monitoring should be introduced for both aerosols and gases in addition to standard working shift exposure monitoring in the breathing zone and in the shop background. Such measurements are essential in better estimating the exposure of an individual welder. 5. Biological monitoring of Cr, Ni, Al, F, and possibly also of Mn using They can and should be used in the

urine or blood specimens can provide additional information about the exposure to these metals of individual welders. assessment of current uptake but should not be a substitute for reduction of exposure, or for exposure monitoring of the working environment. 6. Magnetopneumography appears to be a new promising technique in the

estimation of body burdens of magnetic dusts, but it requires validation and further development.

11

7.

In vitro studies indicate that most welding fuems are cytotoxic and that

those from stainless steel welding are genotoxic as well, primarily due to their content of hexavalent chromium and of nickel (which in certain forms are carcinogenic). Further research may help to identify the extent of toxicity and carcinogenicity of stainless steel and other welding fumes under experimental conditions. 8. There is consistent evidence of a moderate increase in lung cancer risk Available evidence does not permit a determination if this

among welders.

reflects a moderate excess lung cancer risk for all welders or if this is due to a high occupational risk among a subgroup, or is due to a higher than average exposure to other carcinogens, particularly cigarette smoke and asbestos. Retrospective cohort studies of both stainless steel and other welders who have been exposed for many years and followed up for at least 20 years are therefore urgently needed. 9. Special consideration should also be given to non-respiratory health and

safety problems related to welding and the need to prevent them. 10. Exposure reduction strategies should consider in particular; - the possibility of using the flexibility of welding technology to provide for minimum fume exposures from the use of old and new processes; - a better use of mechanical ventilation appropriate for each process and application; - the enabling and encouraging of workers to make effective use of available ventilation.

12
11. There is a need for research in the following areas; - technological assessment of welding processes from the point of view of reducing emission levels. - development of better methods for speciation techniques for the various chemical components of welding fumes and for their toxicological evaluation. - continued development of biological monitoring for the assessment of internal dose to welding fume components in the framework of workplace health surveillance.

OVERVIEW OF WELDING

15
WELDING IN THE WORLD R. Week Abbington Hall, Cambridge, U.K.

A NEW TECHNOLOGY For hundreds of years, ever since metals were used by man, joining metal parts was accomplished by riveting, screwing or bolting. It is only in relatively recent times, within the last decades, that these traditional methods have been replaced almost entirely by welding, except in situations where, as in certain parts of the motor car such as the engine, repair and maintenance require joints that may have to be undone and remade. THE ADVANTAGES For parts to be joined by riveting or bolting they must either overlap or if this is impractical additional material is required overlapping both parts to be joined in the form of straps or gussets. Joints, quite similar in appearance can of course also be made by welding and were in fact quite frequently made in this way in the early days when the new technology was first applied. However, as time went on, overlapping plates, essential when using riveting became unnecessary as the plates forming the hull were butted end to end against each other and joined by making welds between the edges called butt welds (Fig. 1). This not only improved appearance and reduced friction in the water but also produced weight savings which lowered costs. In shipbuilding weight savings of up to 10% could be produced allowing a ship of the same overall size to carry 10% more cargo weight. There were, however, unsuspected problems which became evident when a few welded ships failed catastrophically by breaking in two. One or two early welded ships in fact disappeared without trace on their maiden voyage. This served as a warning that the use of welding is not as straightforward as riveting or bolting and that there were problems to be understood and solved. The cost of electricity generation by steam is inversely related to the pressure and temperature at which the steam is produced. The higher the temperature and pressure at which steam is generated the thicker must be the pipes and vessels used to contain and conduct it to the turbines driving the electricity generators. Before welding was used in the construction of steam boiler drums the maximum operating temperatures and pressures that could be employed were limited by the thickness of the plates that, when rolled into cylinders could still be reliably joined by riveting and this did not exceed 25 mm.

16

Figure 1 The possibility of producing vessels with leak-proof joints was possibly of equal importance to progress in the chemical industry. Without thick walled and leak-proof pressure vessels and pipelines we would be deprived of most polymers, highly concentrated artifical fertilisers, and many other products of today's chemical industry we have come to depend on, not to mention liquid fuels for aircraft jet engines and rockets. Also, many types of weapons including the heavily armoured battle tank would not have been produced without the development of techniques for welding armour plate. PROCESSES To most people the word 'welding' will convey a man wearing dark glasses wielding a hissing torch or someone with his face covered by a headshield producing vivid blue flashes. These images are characteristic of the welding processes, oxy-acetylene welding and manual electric welding that can be observed occasionally by members of the general public outside a factory. These are only two out of some fifty different processes used in industry for welding. In the first, the material to be welded is locally liquefied by an intense heat source, the flame produced by the combustion of acetylene in oxygen; this process is now largely confined in its use to the motor car repair trade. In the second, the heat source is an arc produced by an electric discharge between either a non-consumable electrode in the form of a small pointed stick of tungsten

17

and the work piece or a wire and the work piece. This wire, melted and consumed in the process, is made from a metal similar to the metal to be joined and added in its liquid form to the joint to bridge any gap between the two pieces of metal to be joined. In one of its most modern forms the heat source producing liquefaction is not a flame or an arc but a sharply focussed beam of electrons like those used in a television tube, only millions of times more powerful and capable of drilling holes in solids. This process is 'electron beam welding'. When a powerful electron beam impinges on a metal surface liquefaction occurs almost instantaneously and if the electric power of the beam is high, like several kilowatts, a small quasi cylindrical shape of metal concentric with the beam axis will be molten. If how ever the beam is switched off in time or moved away the liquefied metal will re solidify again almost instantaneously. If the beam is moved at an appropriate constant speed exactly along the joint line separating two parts in tight contact, they will then be joined by a weld formed from the molten and resolidified over lapping cylinders. The capacity of electron beam welding machines now industri ally available varies from a few hundred milliwatts power for the welding of materials in sheet thickness to 200 kW which could weld steel sections in thick ness up to 0.5 m and aluminium alloys in the thickness of over a meter. lis a fusion welding method electron beam welding has numerous advantages but is not widely used because of the high capital cost of the equipment. The whole welding operation must be carried out in a vacuum, and the large vacuum chambers and the necessary vacuum pumps required if the method were to be used for example in the manufacture of pressure vessels form a substantial proportion of the large capital investment required. I am quite confident however that eventually electron beam welding, because of its fundamental technical and economic advantages, will increasingly replace other welding methods, even if only a few really large installations in different parts of the world will be required to supply the entire world demand for heavy fabrications. At present electron beam welding of low power is extensively used by many industries in the manufacture of instruments of all kinds, surgical implants, aircraftengines and rocket components. The potential field of applications is very wide. If the electron beam is replaced by a laser, the same type of deep penetra tion and even higher welding speeds can be achieved. Unfortunately high power lasers which can operate in the atmosphere and require no vacuum chambers for the welding operation are themselves even more expensive than electron beam equipment. At present laser welding is limited to material only a few millimeters in thick ness. Since lasers are easily deflected by mirrors, welding by remote control is possible in locations such as inside highly radioactive environments. Solid phase welding is another group of processes in which the material to

3 &&* ro

?,

18
be joined is not liquefied but may merely be heated to a high temperature at an interface in close contact. In one of these solid phase welding processes, known as friction welding, heating of the surfaces to be joined is produced by rotating one of the parts which is usually cylindrical against the surface of the other part to which it is to be welded under pressure. The heat produced by friction heats the surfaces to a high enough temperature so that they soften. Any surface impurities such as oxide films which would prevent welding are broken up by the rotation and expelled when pressure is applied to squeeze the softened surfaces together to form the weld. PROBLEMS

The combination of desirable properties (weight, strength, d u c t i l i t y , toughness, corrosion r e s i s t a n c e , e t c . ) in any metal or alloy i s achieved by a composi t i o n which includes deliberate additions of alloying elements and the effects of hot or cold forming processes such as r o l l i n g , forging, extruding, drawing. The beneficial effects of these working processes are of course destroyed i f subsequently the material i s melted again by welding and allowed uncontrolled r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n as happens in most of the fusion welding processes. Even if the weld i s made without adding f i l l e r metal and the chemical composition of the weld i s i d e n t i c a l to the parent metal, differences in composition within the weld a t different regions may occur as a r e s u l t of segregation on r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n or as a r e s u l t of element loss from vapourisation in the intense heat of the weld. Oxidation by the atmosphere of some elements may occur and nitrogen from the a i r may dissolve in the metal whilst in the liquid s t a t e . Various different sources of moisture may r e s u l t in the production of atomic hydrogen by dissociation in the a r c . This i s readily soluble in metal and may dissolve in the molten weld pool, and diffuse thereafter into the parent metal adjacent to the weld proper and affect the properties of the material in a d e t r i mental and usually unacceptably d r a s t i c manner. These few examples i l l u s t r a t e t h a t fusion welding in i t s different forms i s a highly complex thermo-mechanical, electra-chemical process, imperfectly understood even today. The number of problems t h a t may occur in the application of welding as a joining method i s indeed formidable. They have to be understood and close control over many variables may have to be exercised i f setbacks and f a i l ures are to be avoided. The i n t e g r i t y and s t a b i l i t y of welded structures, whether simple or complex, i s determined by the r e l i a b i l i t y of the weld. A number of mechanisms contribute to failure of the weld or the adjacent metal. These mechanisms of failure include weld cracking due to impurities, cracks forming in the heat affect zone near the weld, lamellar tearing due to s t r u c t u r a l weaknesses in rolled s t e e l , b r i t t l e

19
fracture especially due to loss of ductility at low temperatures and metal fatigue due to cyclical loading and unloading. For example, weld cracking is related to impurities in the form of non-metallic compounds which may be present in all commercially produced alloys. Compounds of manganese and sulphur for instance are always present in steel. These have a lower melting point than the metal and when the liquid weld pool solidifies they may form liquid films round solidified metal grains because of their lower melting point. On further cooling the solid grains of metal, separated by liquid films, will contract and separate from each other with the result that the finished weld will be cracked and useless (Fig. 2).

Figure 2

CONSEQUENCES Recognition of the numerous ways that welds can potentially fail has had several important effects. The first consequence of note has been that not only cracks but virtually any type of defect in a weld has become unacceptable for an increasing number of products turned out by the fabricating industry. To guarantee freedom from defects has engendered an enormous expansion in what might almost be classed as a new and separate industry; that is non-destructive examination of every millimeter of every weld made by either radiography or ultrasonic inspec-

20

t i o n n e c e s s i t a t i n g of c o u r s e , when d e f e c t s a r e found, removal of t h e

defective

weld and r e - w o r k i n g . This type of i n s p e c t i o n has now s p r e a d t o a l m o s t every type of c o n s t r u c t i o n f a b r i c a t e d by w e l d i n g and has l a r g e l y n u l l i f i e d t h e c o s t s a v i n g s t h a t were o r i g i n a l l y a c h i e v a b l e . A second consequence has been t h a t t h e technical r e q u i r e m e n t s l a i d down i n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s which form t h e b a s i s of a c o n t r a c t have become so d e t a i l e d t h a t t h e y can be s a t i s f i e d by t h e s u p p l i e r only w i t h g r e a t difficulty, p a r t i c u l a r l y when, as i s i n c r e a s i n g l y t h e c a s e , t h e r e a r e conflicting r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t cannot p o s s i b l y be s a t i s f i e d a t t h e same time for p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s . The t h i r d consequence h a s been t h e n a r r o w i n g of t o l e r a n c e s i n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n . In s t e e l s increasingly narrow l i m i t s had t o be imposed on t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of many chemical e l e m e n t s t h a t may be p e r m i t t e d t o be p r e s e n t . Carbon, for i n s t a n c e , i s by f a r t h e c h e a p e s t a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of s t e e l b u t t h e r i s k of h e a t affected accidforced still zone c r a c k i n g i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y once t h e carbon c o n t e n t goes beyond 0.2%. A s i m i l a r l i m i t a t i o n has been g r a d u a l l y imposed on o t h e r chemical e l e m e n t s , e n t a l l y p r e s e n t o r d e l i b e r a t e l y added. The b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e problem h a s remain d u c t i l e even i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a c r a c k . Most n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l s t o b e g i n w i t h were d i f f i c u l t t o w e l d . I t was n o t u n t i l t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e new gas s h i e l d e d p r o c e s s such as t u n g s t e n a r c welding and s h i e l d e d m e t a l a r c w e l d i n g t h a t most of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s could be f a b r i c a t e d t o t h e h i g h s t a n d a r d s r e q u i r e d . Even t h e n , many of t h e a l l o y s t h e n a v a i l a b l e , such as t h o s e most w i d e l y used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of aircraft s t r u c t u r e s , could n o t be welded w i t h o u t c r a c k i n g and even u n c r a c k e d welds i n many a l l o y s e x h i b i t e d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t r e n g t h . W h i l s t t h e demand f o r aluminium m a t e r i a l f o r welded s t r u c t u r e s was s m a l l i n comparison w i t h t h e m e t a l used i n s t r u c t u r e s o r c i g a r e t t e p a c k e t s and c h o c o l a t e w r a p p i n g , t h e i n d u s t r y aircraft nevertheless

t h e s t e e l i n d u s t r y t o d e v e l o p s t e e l s which even a t a r c t i c t e m p e r a t u r e s w i l l

found i t worthwhile t o d e v e l o p q u i t e new a l l o y s i n which s t r o n g and r e l i a b l e j o i n t s could be made w i t h o u t any s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k of c r a c k i n g by t h e p r o c e s s e s developed i n t h e p o s t war e r a . There a r e a v a i l a b l e today r e a d i l y and r e l i a b l y w e l d a b l e a l l o y s i n v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e m e t a l groups w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t i t a n i u m , z i r c o n i u m and even b e r y l l i u m . THE FUTURE I t i s c l e a r t h a t f o r w e l d i n g t o be used s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e and wide r a n g i n g e x p e r t i s e i s n e c e s s a r y . There a r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o reduce t h e problem a r e a of j o i n i n g t e c h n o l o g y by a much g r e a t e r e f f o r t i n t h e f u r t h e r development of s o l i d p h a s e w e l d i n g . Xiite a number of problems would d i s a p p e a r i f liquefaction all and t h e v e r y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s used now could be done away w i t h . Welding a f t e r industrial

21
only requires the migration of atoms across an interface and one welding method, not very widely used now called diffusion bonding does just this. The slender resources for research available however are absorbed by work directed towards finding solutions to the urgent problems of immediate concern so that practically nothing is available to explore alternatives for the future. Whilst welding is important to many different industries, it is not the prime and principal interest to any of them, leaving aside the few relatively small companies producing nothing but welding equipment and consumables. These companies are not strongly motivated to provide innovation which would make their products and much of their capital equipment obsolete at least as long as there is, as there has been for many years, an expanding market for their existing products as the applications of welding have expanded into new fields and existing fields have grown with general industrial growth. It is also interesting that compared with other industrial activities the production and sale of welding consumables and equipment is not very profitable and an increasing number of companies have abandoned the business altogether in recent years. This is not a scenario encouraging innovation which may be a long time in coming. Yet experience has shown that technology does not stand still and it is clear that a branch of technology that has become an indispensable tool for numerous industrial activities has not attained its final stage of development in spite of being encumbered by hazards and problems. There is still scope for innovation and new thinking.

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TECHNICAL HISTORY AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WELDING INDUSTRY JAN SKRINIAR Welding Research Institute, Bratislava (Czechoslovakia) Welding can be traced back into the far distant past. When speaking anecdotally about welding as a method of producing joints, then it is possibly as old as life itself. For instance, the uniting of fractured bones, and maybe some time in the future we may develop an industrial application of this natural method. The knowledge and experience of natural phenomena can be very revealing, though their practical incorporation into industrial processes still requires a considerable amount of ingenuity. If, however, we follow the more simple definition that welding is a way of metallurgically joining metals, then its beginnings are traceable in the Bronze and Iron Ages with the first production of metals. In museums all over the world you can see archeological findings proving the use of welding in the Bronze and Iron Ages. When prehistoric man learned how to produce metals, he also needed to find a way to join them. At that time he invented the first welding process hammer welding. This is still one of the basic processes of solid state welding to the present day. However, the beginning of the development of modern welding technology can be dated only from the end of the last century. It was made possible by the discovery of the electric arc in 1802 by Petrov, and the use of this for electric arc welding in 1882 by Bernardos. The second classic method of welding - gas welding and its related process - oxygen cutting - also had its development in the last century due to the discovery of a chemical method of oxygen production by Bousingould in 1851 and to the invention by Cailletet and Pietst of the process of air liquefaction in 1887. The simple liquefaction method discovered by Linde in 1895 enabled the development of an economic industrial production of oxygen. Another decisive factor was the production of acetylene from calcium carbide which by a more economic process contributed to the extensive use of gas welding and oxygen cutting in industry. Despite the early invention of the arc welding process, more dynamic development and practical applications were seen in the field of gas welding. Maybe the reason was that the latter could be directly observed by the human eye (through coloured glass). Progress in arc welding development can be traced to the beginning of the 20th century, but was accelerated greatly during World War I. At that time a lot of significant research work was done in the USA, the United Kingdom

24
and Germany. Remarkable results were attained in the USA and were spread to other industrial countries. The foundation of the American Welding Society in 1919 reflects the fact that welding was widely used in the USA by that time. The dominant welding process of the twentieth century was nevertheless gas welding. But the subsequent series of inventions brought the electric process into prominence. All the variants of resistance welding were appearing due to the development of the automobile industry. Manual arc welding was also making a big step forward due to the coated electrodes developed by Andrews and Stresau and improved by Kjellberg. It is often the case that technological research ideas precede industrial utilization by many years. This was the case of gas-shielded electric arc welding. Already in the year 1883 Bernardos constructed a torch with a carbon electrode in the middle surrounded by a series of gas nozzles, creating the tool for combined electric arc/gas welding and the idea of the gas-shielded process. Industrial application of the process was accelerated by the needs of World War II. Riveting of all the aluminium parts for the aircraft industry was too time-consuming and there was an urgent demand for a more speedy process. The argon gas-shielded welding with tungsten electrode (the TIG or more recently GTAW process) filled this gap. This was a very good method for relatively expensive base materials but not economical for common construction steels. The tungsten electrode was replaced in 1948 by the consumable electrode resulting in the process, that had been called Sigma welding, that is today known as MIG or GMA welding. Productivity was increased but the costs for the wasted argon were relatively high, although still bearable for austenitic steels and non-ferrous metals, but not for common structural steels. Unsuccessful attempts were made to replace the inert gases argon and helium. Finally, in the period 1950-1952 Ljubavskij and Novozhilov patented the filler wires for C02 shielded arc welding process. The problem, in fact, was not in gas-shielding but in avoiding weld metal porosity. It was solved by the alloyed wire containing antioxidants. The bare solid filler wire was partly replaced by flux cored electrodes which could be used with or without shielding gases. A further development in arc welding was the replacement of coated electrodes by another form of arc shielding. The disadvantage of coated electrodes is that they cannot be fed into the arc other than by hand by the welder. Mechanical feeding of the bare wire is a relatively easy task and the role of the coating can be taken over by a granulated flux surrounding the arc and fusion zone from outside. This is the principle of submerged arc welding, first patented in the USA in 1936, which was extensively used in the

25
production of tanks in the final years of World War II. The next step in this development was elaboration of the electroslag welding process in the early fifties in the Kiew Institute. The electric arc is extinguished by the molten slag and a new form of resistance welding created, but with features more resembling the automated arc processes and specially suitable for thick wall constructions. The predominant role of traditional electric arc welding processes has not yet been superseded by the development of new processes. However, two directions can be observed here: solid phase welding processes and fusion welding processes. Among the solid phase welding processes, friction welding has reached the widest field of application - there exists also areas for the use of explosive and ultrasonic welding and diffusion bonding. The best known concentrated energy beam processes are the electron beam welding and the laser welding. Today electron beam welding is a well-established technology not only in the aircraft and nuclear industries, but it is penetrating into automobile production and much effort is aimed at its introduction into heavy machinery engineering. Laser welding holds a major promise but still is in its infancy. All these special processes are not new but have a period of two or three decades of development already behind them. Welding is a substantial technology for industrial countries all over the world and this represents a very brief resume of its history. Some statistics from Czechoslovakia can serve as an example. Over 30 per cent of the rolled steel produced and used in Czechoslovakia is welded. It was believed, a few years ago, that the amount of steel provided produced the main index for the level of use of welding technology. In industrial countries when steel production declined, welding has not followed this trend. The explanation is a very simple one - materials replacing steel - non-ferrous metals, plastics, etc. are also welded. Therefore it can be estimated that nearly half of the national industrial production is affected by welding. Welding can be executed only if the means are available - equipment, and consumables. The production of these is an industrial branch of some economic importance. As an example the welding industry's dollar sales in the United States was 1 billion 300 million dollars in 1983 and in the Federal Republic of Germany 1 billion 415 million DM - and these were low figures following the recession. It is hardly possible to enumerate all the actual uses of welding processes, they are so diversified. As to base materials, steels of all grades are welded, beginning with low carbon constructional steels, ending

26
with high alloyed materials with predominant nickel or other base. All kinds of non-ferrous metals, copper, alluminium, titanium based alloys, silver and gold can be and are welded in different processes. The joints are formed between similar or even very different base metallic materials. All the thermoplastic materials can be welded including glasses and some combinations of metals and plastics, or of metals and glass can be welded by special processes. In a broader sense we count also the processes of brazing, soldering and bonding. These methods are enlarging the area of base materials which can be joined. With a "ypical welding heat source, the laser beam, we can join a detached retina: is this welding in the strict sense? Other biological organic materials, or better to say, structures, are joined with the help of ultrasonic waves : is this welding? There is no doubt that the thermal cutting processes related to welding can be applied not only to metallic, but also to non-metallic and organic materials. Nearly all industrial branches use welding in their manufacture. Research and development for the future in welding and related processes represent a very complicated system of interconnected problems. Within the framework of the International Institute of Welding (IIW) a provisional Technical Commission working with these terms of reference was recently transformed into a Study Group. The tasks are so enormous and require so much research capacity and funds that they cannot be undertaken by a single enterprise or even by a single nation. So we are now seeing the formation of regional international groupings for welding research, as for example the European Research Institute for Welding, or the European Council for Cooperation in Welding with the European Community countries, and the Coordination Centre for Welding Research in Kiew for the member countries of the CMEA - Common Mutai Economic Assistance. Also outside of these economic and political groupings purely regional groupings exist, as for example the Nordic grouping with its organizations. The recent International Congress on Welding Research in Boston in July 1984 helped to form a general view on the actual problems of research and development. From all regions of the world some clearly distinguishable general problems are being defined: - Behaviour of materials when welded - Mechanical and other properties of welding joints - Welding processes (including automation, robotics) - Health and safety aspects

27
New materials are currently being developed. It is important that from the start the aspect of their weldability is also considered as one of the decisive features in their development. Weldability is naturally seen not as a pure material property but as a combination of material properties, the condition of a defined welding process and the required properties of the welded joint. For many of the sophisticated materials resistance welding, electron beam welding or friction welding, must be considered. Closely linked to the problems of weldability are all the problems of mechanical and other properties of welded joints. The general requirement of high quality is no longer valid: it has been replaced by a more limited concept of 'fitness for purpose'. Heterogeneous welded joints in dissimilar materials are accepted even if they contain defects if it can be sufficiently proved that the safe behaviour of the joint in service conditions can be guaranteed until the end of the calculated lifetime of the construction. Welding processes are developing rapidly. The intensification of the processes is limited physically and is approaching saturation. Combinations of similar or even different processes can be very useful. An example is the submerged arc process variant using a cold or hot doubled thin wire in the same arc, resulting in increasing productivity, saving energy and filler material. The use of unconventional energy is today also being examined. For example, the solar energy is just on its threshold. For space vehicles and stations solar energy is possibly one of the solutions. Very much effort is concentrated now on the full automation of the production process, eventually to its robotization. Automation gives problems of follow-up. Seam tracking and process sensors are developed. The control system on the basis of sensor data has to regulate many parameters and microprocessors are taking over the task of the central controlling place. The duty of operational manipulation is often transferred to the robot. Versatile fully automatic working places are introduced, where different assemblies can be welded with the same equipment, serve as a means of increasing productivity and assuring high and uniform quality, and help to place the operator relatively far from the dangerous process and its products. With new welding processes, new health hazards may occur. Prevention of the adverse health effects of noise, radiation, fumes and aerosols is an essential part of the development of any new process.

28

REFERENCES

1. Sremko VA: Vozniknovenie i n a c h a l n y i p e r i o d r a z v i t i a s v a r k i . Svarka SSSR. Nauka, Moskva, pp 9-18 2 . Chrenov KK, Kovnenko AN: Svarka m e t a l l o v d o r e v o l u c i o n n o i R o s s i , idem as 1 pp 13-35 3 . Chrenov KK, Marijko NM: Osnovnye n a p l a v l e n i a r a z v i t i a s v a r o c h n o i t e c h n i k i i nauky o s v a r k e SSSR 1946-1958 gg, pp 77-102, book idem as 1 4 . Thomas RD: Welding r e s e a r c h i n t h e Western h e m i s p h e r e . P r o c e e d i n g s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of Welding Research, pp 74-93 5 . F al t u s F : P r i r u c k a s v a r o v n i , SNTL P r a h a , 1955

CHARACTERISTICS OF WELDING FUME AND GASES

31

PROCESS-DEPENDENT CH ARACTERISTICS OF WELDING FUME PARTICLES KLAS G MALMQVIST 1 , GERD JOH ANSSON 2 ' 3 , MATS BOHGARD1 '2 AND ROLAND AKSELSSON2 1. Department of Nuclear Physics, Lund University Institute of Science and Technology, Box 118, S 221 00 Lund, SWEDEN 2. Department of Working Environment, Lund University Institute of Science and Technology, Box 118, S 221 00 Lund, SWEDEN 3. Department of Enviromental H ealth, University of Lund, Sblvegatan 21, S 223 62 Lund, SWEDEN INTRODUCTION In electric-arc welding operations more or less hazardous particles are generated. Thus there is a need for actions against health effects such as changes of welding techniques and welding parameters, changes of joining technique, local exhausts, respiratory protective equipment, job rotation and robotization. To give priority to actions involving economic as well as health factors, there is a need for reliable dose-response relations and for good exposure data. For both of these needs extensive data on process-dependent characteristics of welding fume particles are of utmost importance. This paper describes a comprehensive investigation of the total mass emission, particle size distribution and elemental composition for 13 different welding methods at different currents and voltages. The oxidation state of chromium was also investigated where applicable. See ref. 1 for an extensive report of this work performed at the Lund Institute of Technology. The results are discussed in the light of some recent results from the literature. EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENTS Sampling equipment Figure 1 shows the design of the sampling arrangement. The welding takes place beneath the aluminium hood. The velocity of the air is low (<0.15 m/s) around the welding point to ensure that the welding process and the aerosol formation are not significantly affected. To obtain the size distribution the welding aerosol was sampled by a Battelle-type single orifice cascade impactor drawing 1 litre/min. For an accurate investigation of the elemental composition of the welding aerosols, a membrane filter arrangement was used. The flow-rate was 1-3 1/min. To determine the total mass of the welding aerosol a glass fibre fil ter was used. Analytical methods In this elements. Emission, A nuclear investigation more than 3000 samples have been analysed for many The multi-elemental analysis method PIXE , Particle Induced X-ray was used for quantification of all elements heavier than phosphorous. reaction, F(p,a,) 0, was used for fluorine analysis . An analytical

32

to fon

total filter to pump membrane filter

curtain

= 15cm/s

welding place

Fig. 1. Sampling equipment for the characterization of welding aerosols. The arrows indicate the air velocity in different parts of the system. procedure was developed to quantify the masses of soluble and less soluble Cr(III) and Cr(VI) (ref. 5 ) . This procedure includes the PIXE method, electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), a spectrophotometric method and trans mission electron microscopy (TEM). EXPERIMENTS Sampling procedures Table 1 shows the electrodes used in this investigation. For each of the electrodes the welding current was varied within the intervals recommended for each of the electrodes by the manufacturer, while the welding voltage was varied in an interval significantly larger than the recommended in order to enhance any systematic effect on the fume production. For the direct current SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding) methods reversed polarity (positive electrode) was used. The welding was performed manually by

33

Electrode

Type SMAW SMAW SMAW SMAW SMAW b) SMAWb' SMAW ' GMAW GMAWb' GMAW ' GMAWC) GMAWC)
b b

Coating/Gas iron powder, low hydr. zirconium added iron powder, low hydr. rutile iron powder, low hydr. zirconium added iron powder, low hydr. rutile low hydrogen low hydrogen-rut"ile C0 2 Ar Ar/C02

3SS. AWSa,-cl

Diam.(mm) 3.25

1 OK 38.65 2 OK 38.85 3 OK 38.95 4 OK 48.00 5 OK 61.41 6 OK 63.35 7 OK 69.21

8 9 OK 12.51 OK 16.32

E 7028 E 7028 E 7028 E 7018 E 308 L- 15 E 316-15 E 70 S-6 EF! 316 I Si

5 4
2,3.25,4 3.25 2.5,3.25,4.5 3.25,4,5 1.2 1.2

10 OK 16.32 1 OK 18.01 1 12 OK 18.13

Ar Ar

E 316 I Si F Er 1260 E ! 5154 F

1.2 1.2 1.2

a) AWS-class. = American Welding Society classification b) welding on stainless steel; c) welding on aluminium Table 1. A list of the welding methods included in this study. The numbers are used for identification in the various figures. a skilled welder exerting himself to maintain constant welding conditions. For the GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) methods the welding gun was mounted in a fixed position perpendicular to the work piece, which was fixed onto a wagon running on rails. The speed of the wagon could be varied to simulate the normal welding speed. For each set of welding parameters three to five measurements were carried out. The results are given as averages. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Total Fume Emission For the comparison of fume production from different welding techniques, two entities can be defined, viz. the total fume emission rate, E (g/min), and the relative fume formation index, R, which is the total mass of emitted fume normalized to the mass of the deposited consumable (excluding slag) in mg/g. In Table 2, our experimental values of E and R are summarized. The total fume emission rate is dependent on electrode dimensions and electric power. Due to variations in these parameters, E varies in the interval 0.2 to 2 g/min for the methods in the present study (except for GTAW). As can also be seen

34

Electrode K 38.65 OK 38.85 OK 38.95 OK 38.952 OK 48.00 OK 61.41 OK 63.35 OK 69.21 OK 12.51 C0 2 OK 16.32 Ar OK 16.32 Ar/C02 OK 18.01 Ar OK 18.13 Ar

Diam.(mm ) 3.25

1(A)1

U(V)1

E(g/min) 0.58 1.30 0.93 0.75 0.45 0.383 0.39 0.29 0.234 0.20 0.293 0.49 0.91

R(mg/g) 16.73 15.7 21.7 19.2 26.0 11.3" 15.63 12.4 5.44

5 4 4
3.25 3.25

160 300 210

2052

35 34 32 302 23 33 24 22 30 26 26 22 24

140 115 140 140 180 180 180 180 160

4 4 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

3.8 5.7
20.5 24.1

1) 2) 3) 4)

Direct current; reversed polarity (electrode as anode). Alternating current. Standard error of the mean: 5-10/. Standard error of the mean: 10-15%.

Table 2. The welding situations referred to in the text as "normal" welding, implying that the welding currents were chosen to be in the middle of the intervals recommended. E and R denote the total fume emission rate and the relative fume formation index respectively. The standard errors on the mean were less than 5% if not explicitly given. from Table 2, large variations in the relative fume formation index are found between the different methods (3-35 mg/g). It may also be inferred that, with the one exception of GMAW on aluminium, the SMAW methods generally give higher values than the GMAW methods for both E and R. The results in Table 2 can be compared with those obtained in the systematic study presented in ref. 6. The differences are normally smaller than 10%. The discrepancies might be explained by somewhat different sampling and welding conditions as well as by variations in different brands of welding consumables of the same classification and between different conditions and ages of the covered electrodes. Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Despite their different dimensions, coatings and core compositions, the seven SMAW methods in this study seem to have approximately the same current dependence (see fig. 2 ) . These results are in good agreement with those of refs. 6 and 7.

35

welding current (A)

Figure 2. Total fume emission rates for all the SMAW methods in this study plotted versus welding current (r2 = 0.88). The number at each symbol refers to the corresponding welding method in Table 1. For the relative fume formation index, the influence of welding current is normally low. In figs. 3 and 4 the total fume emission rate, E, and the relative fume formation index, R, for three SMAW methods are plotted versus welding voltage. Increases in both E and R are observed with increasing voltage. A high voltage, i.e. a long electric arc, implies an increased residence time for the transferred melted material before reaching the weld pool, thus increasing the fume formation. The covering forms a protective crater for the arc hindering oxygen penetration into the arc region. When the arc length is increased this protection may be less efficient and oxygen may interfere in the arc region. This normally promotes fume formation (ref. 8 ) . The long arc also suffers from more severe wire explosions and bubble bursting of boiling material. The instantaneous evaporation in wire
Q

explosions and the spatter from bubble bursting have been shown by Gray et al

36

welding voltage

(V)

Figure 3. Total fume emission rates for three SMAW methods (stainless steel welding) and for the GMAW method with COj as protective gas (mild steel welding) plotted versus welding voltage. The number at each symbol refers to the corresponding welding method in Table 1. The welding currents were 115, 160 and 140 A for methods 5,6 and 7 respectively, and 200 A for method 9. The error bars show one standard error on the mean. to be significant sources of fumes. In GMAW the spatter produced up to 30% of the fume and is probably also important in SMAW. The increase in the emission rate with voltage as seen in fig. 3 is very similar to that observed in other studies (10,11). From fig. 4, it is evident that the influence of the welding voltage on the fume formation index is dependent on the type of coating on the electrode in question. Part of the explanation for this finding may be the coating dependent relation between voltage and arc length. A significant impact from coating composition on fume formation has been demon12 strated by Kobayashi et al Gas Metal Arc Welding. In semi-automatic gas metal arc welding the influence of the protective gas on the electric arc and on the metal transport process makes the fume emission a complex function of the welding parameters. With pure COg the transfer of the melted metal from the electrode tip to the work piece is characterized by large globules (diameter: 2 to 3 mm). If, however, the protective gas is argon or mixtures of argon and COn, different modes of transfer will occur. For low voltage and very low current the transfer will be short-circuiting and for somewhat higher current the transfer will be globular with decreasing size and increasing number of globules for increasing current. In these modes the tendency towards wire explosions and bubble bursting

37

30 > s y 20

e
c 2

/ -

"
E o

/^^

'

,0
OJ

-+---

"i :7 9 10

> a
OJ

vv
t

-~~\

'
(V)

welding voltage

Figure 4. Relative fume formation index plotted versus welding voltage for the same SMAW methods as in figure 3 and for the GMAW method with pure argon ( ) and an argon/CC^ mixture ( ) as protective gas respectively. The number at each symbol refers to the corresponding method in Table 1. The welding current in method 9 and 10 was 180 A. The error bars show one standard error on the mean. Note the shift of scale on the ordinate axis. is rather high with spatter yielding significant fume emission as was shown by g Gray et al . For high voltage and high current, metal transfer becomes a spray of smaller droplets (diameters between 0.5 and 1 mm). The drop size remains essentially constant when the current is increased. The detachment of the small droplets from the electrode is due partly to the magnetic "pinch effect" and 13 transport along the arc is due mainly to the plasma jet . The value of the current at which this transition occurs is proportional to the diameter of the electrode and dependent on the material and electrode extension In fig. 4 the relative fume formation index, R, is plotted versus welding voltage with pure argon and with a mixture of 80% argon and 20% C 0 2 as protective gases. While for pure argon, R is almost independent of the welding voltage, there is a well-defined minimum at a specific voltage for the Ar/C0 ? mixture. The magnitude of R is higher for all voltages when C 0 ? is mixed in the gas. The oxides of several elements have higher vapour pressure than the pure elements, thus promoting fume formation in an oxidizing atmosphere (oxygen enhanced evapora-

Elements

No1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

F 7.1 11 11 14 16 21 24 16

Cl

8.8 15 15 19 16 18 22 22

Ca 2.6 .62 2.0 1.8 9.5 1.3 10 3.5

Ti

Cr .07

Fe 32 24 23 11 19 3.7 3.3 3.4 45 28 31

.12^

Ni

Cu .08

Zn
.17 .29
3

As
.06
3 4

Rb

lr

Mo

Pb
.103 .073

.26

3 3 3

.54

.33 .54

5.9 4.7 3.4 2.8 3.7 2.4 2.7 14 7.3 5.3 4.8 .14

.54
.233 .36
3

.043 .04
3

.07

.34 .20

.45 2.1 .62 2.3

.04 3.4 3.1 3.0

.07
4

.01 .22 .24

.44
3

.01

.13 .25 .11 .14

.03

.02 .01
4

.03
.09
3

.03
.043

.26

.04

10 12
.024

4.5 4.8

.06 .09 .03

.17 .18 .02

.95 .92

.04

.06

1) See Table 1; 2) Alternating current; 3) Standard error of the mean: 1020% 4) Standard error of the mean: >20% Table 3. Relative elemental compositions (expressed as per cent of the total mass of aerosol) of the welding fumes from the welding situations described in Table 2 as determined in this study. The standard errors of the mean are less than 10% if not explicitly shown.

39
tion). This effect has been discussed in detail in refs. 8 and 15. The welding current for the GMAW methods in fig. 4 (1 = 180 - 5 A) is above ^ the transition level for spray transfer for this particular electrode . The minimum of R for the Ar/C0 ? mixture coincides with the lowest voltage at which a stable spray arc can exist. Once a stable spray arc is established, R will increase with voltage in the case of Ar/C0 ? gas but remain constant for pure argon. The increased voltage corresponds to a longer electric arc with a consequently longer residence time for the droplets in the oxidizing atmosphere while being transferred to the work piece, and hence, according to what is stated above, an increased probability for fume formation. The inert argon atmosphere, which surrounds the arc, protects the droplets from oxygen during transfer. In pure CO^ welding the fume emission rate increases strongly with voltage, as can be seen from fig. 3. This dependence is in good agreement with the results of refs. 17 and 18, where the same or very similar welding parameters have been used. Part of this increase with voltage is due to increased oxygen penetration into the arc but since the oxidizing C0 ? is used as a protective gas the instability and high degree of spatter is probably a more important source of increased fume production. If, instead, the welding current is increased at constant voltage, the wire feeding speed increases with decreasing length of the welding arc . Due to the decreasing time for the globules in the CO,, atmosphere,
o ^

R decreases with increasing current . As an example, for method 8 (see table 1) at 30 V the relative fume formation index decreased from 10 mg/g to 5 mg/g and further to 3.5 mg/g when the welding current was increased from 150 A to 200 A and further to 300 A. Elemental Composition In Table 3, the elemental compositions of welding aerosols including fluorine and elements heavier than sulphur are given for the different welding processes for the same parameter values as those given in Table 2. Basically, the elemental composition of a welding aerosol reflects the composition of the consumable electrode used but often with an altered relative abundance. In the electric-arc column the highest temperature is found at the axis 19 near the melting tip of the electrode . Consequently, fumes will come mainly from the welding electrode and from the surface of the droplets being transferred in the arc. This statement is supported by the findings in ref. 20. Table 4 gives fractionation factors of the different metals in the welding aerosol relative to the welding consumable for four different welding methods. Noticeable are the high factors for manganese (2-7) while the factors of the other elements are well below unity. This is in good agreement with the results 20 from Kobayashi et al . Since manganese has a much higher vapour pressure than, e.g. chromium and iron, it will also have a high tendency towards fume formation.

40
Shielded metal arc welding Low alloy electrodes (n=4) Stainless steel electrodes (n=3) 0.170.21 2.33.8 0.0550.066 0.0250.040 0.0270.052 (n= 2) Gas metal arc welding

co 2 gas
Low a H o y steel (n=1)

Cr Mn Fe Ni Mo

2.26.1 0.220.33

6.9
0.49

Argon gas Stainless steel (n=Z) 0.680.70 4.25.2 0.470.50 0.360.41 0.240.32

Table 4. The elemental concentrations in the fume divided by the elemental con centrations in the welding consumables. The intervals are defined by the minimum and maximum values, = the number of methods included. Shielded Metal A rc Welding. The voltage dependence of the relative abundances of elements in the fume is varying between different electrodes. Nevertheless, potassium and fluorine constitute one group and the core metals another group with intergroup covariations. In our results the elements of typical flux origin, e.g. fluorine and potassium, show a decrease with increasing arc voltages at low voltages. These results may seem to be contradictory to the findings by Gray et al . However, the discrepancy might be explained by differences in welding parameters and electrodes used in the two investigations. 12 In a systematic study, Kobayashi et al have shown how the concentrations of the elements in the covering are reflected in the fumes. Generally, a positive linear relation holds for all elements except fluorine and iron. The coefficients of regression depend on the vapour pressures of the respective elements. The con centrations of alkaline metals, such as potassium, are much higher in fumes from electrodes with a limetype covering than in fumes from nonlime electrodes. The presence of calcium, especially CaFo, in the covering seems to be the main source of this special characteristic. The contribution to the fume from the elements in the metal core will depend on the arc voltage and on the flux composition in the covering. Generally, when the voltage is increased elements with low vapour pressures, e.g. iron, are enhanced relative to those with high vapour pressures, e.g. manganes (see fig. 5 ) . For the electrodes OK 48.00 and OK 63.35, which have relatively equal flux compositions, this effect is pronounced. The main reason for this dependence is a relative increase in the unfractioned fume production due to increased severity of wire explosions followed by instantaneous nonfractionated vaporisation of the elements As seen in Table 3 a change from DC to AC may cause a drastic change in the relative composition. The temperature at the electrode tip depends on the

41

welding voltage (V)

20
25

aj

aj

e
3 C O

c o
d ai

c o

aj LJ

c o

30

U0

50

60

welding voltage (V)

Figure 5. Iron (filled symbols), and manganese (unfilled) concentrations in the welding fume versus welding voltage for seven SMA W methods. The numbers refer to the methods given in Table 1. The ordinate axis corresponding to each symbol is indicated by the symbols close to origin of each axis respectively. polarity and consequently the use of an alternating current is expected to change the conditions for fume production and hence the chemical composition. Gas Metal Arc Welding. In the semiautomatic GMA W methods the composition of the welding fumes is determined by the composition of the metal wire and by the character of the protective gas. For mild steel a CG^ atmosphere is normally used giving globular transfer. When the welding parameters are varied, no significant variation in the elemental com position has been observed in the present study. This observation is in good
i

agreement with the results from other studies ' In fig. 6, the concentrations of five elements in the fumes versus voltage for an argon GMAW method are shown. When comparing with an argon/CO, mixture (80/20) all elements except manganese have higher abundances with the mixture than with

42

welding voltage (V)

Figure 6. Relative elemental abundances from stainless steel welding with GMAW (OK 16.32, 100% argon, 1 = 180 A) plotted versus welding voltage. The errors indicated are one standard error on the mean. the pure argon. For both protective gases, the general trend for chromium and manganese is an increase with voltage, while the iron concentration is essentially constant and nickel and molybdenum concentrations decrease with increasing voltage. However, in pure argon, a dip in the relative abundance is observed (at 30 V) for all elements except manganese. This minimum voltage is the lowest for which stable spray transfer can be sustained. A tentative explanation for this may be that the very stable arc, essentially free from spatter and turbulence, significantly reduces oxygen-enhanced vaporisation in the inert argon gas. When the voltage is further increased the increasing arc length makes the arc less stable again. Since C0 2 is oxidizing the same effects are not observed for argon/C0 2 as shielding gas. In fig. 6 it can be seen that the concentration of molybdenum decreases rapidly with voltage, disappearing when the material transfer changes. Apparently the major mechanism for molybderum to produce a fume is non-fractionated instantaneous vaporisation in connection with wire explosions which are more frequent for

43
globular transfer. The voltage dependence of molybdenum is in good agreement g with the results obtained in a study by Gray et al . Oxidation State of Chromium See Table 5. In aerosols from the three SMAW methods for stainless steel welding, more than 5CU of the chromium was found to be soluble and hexavalent. Between 60 and 100% of the chromium in the particle surface layers was hexavalent as determined by ESCA analysis, but decreases after washing the aerosol with a buffer solution (pH 7.4). Apparently most of the hexavalent chromium on the particles surfaces leaches out during washing. TEM studies have shown that after washing, the core particles consist of smaller homogeneous particles with diameters of about 0.01 urn. The ESCA results are representative of about 80 of the volume of the particles of this size. The formation of hexavalent chromium depends on which elements have been added to the coating and it has been shown by 22 Kimura et al that it is possible to reduce the amounts of hexavalent chromium by changing the additives to the coatings and still perform technically acceptable welding. For argon gas metal arc welding only about 2% of the total chromium is soluble and hexavalent and for both the unwashed and washed aerosol samples the concentrations of hexavalent chromium on the particle surface are below the detection limit of the ESCA method (< 15%). within the uncertainties of the differences in welding conditions and parameters, the results concerning the content and oxidation state of chromium in welding aerosols found here are consistent with those of other studies 23-25

Method numberl

Diam. (mm) 3.25 3.25 3.25

KA)
100 100 105 180

U(V)

Cr-tot (%)

A .50 .73 .52

.019

B .60
1.00 1.00 <.15

C .27
<.15 <.15 <.15

5 6 7 9 1) A) B) C)

35 22 21 26

3.4 4.4 2.9 12

1.2

see table 1 Cr(VI)-soluble/Cr total Cr(VI)/Cr-total on the particle surfaces Cr(VI)/Cr-total on the particle surfaces after washing

Table 5. Results from the determination of oxidation state and solubility of chromium in welding aerosols from stainless steel welding.

44
Particle Size Distribution The mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMAD) were calculated for each element. For SMAW and GMAW methods the MMAD is between 0.35 and 0.6 ym. The variation with element is small. A typical value of the geometrical standard deviation of the distribution is 1.5. Thus the particles in all welding aerosols studied are respirable and have a rather high probability of being deposited in the lower parts of the respiratory tract. The results of refs. 6, 8, 18, 26-28 are essentially in agreement with those of the present study. The particles emitted in SMAW methods contain significant concentrations of highly soluble and hygroscopic compounds derived from elements such as fluorine, potassium and sodium in the electrode coating. The high relative humidity of the 29 human respiratory tract, RH > 99% in the subglottic region , enables the particles to rapidly absorb water, which may significantly alter the pattern of regional lung deposition. Particle size determinations have been carried out for all methods and sets of parameters. Only negligible variations (< 10%) in the particle diameter occured. The variation in the MMAD between elements for a certain method is also negligible. SUMMARY Several welding methods were characterized using a specially designed collection apparatus which has been found to be reliable and to yield accurate and representative sampling of welding aerosols. The results are compared with some recent results from the literature. The highest fume emission in this study is found for SMAW methods and for GMAW methods on aluminium followed by GMAW methods on steel. The fume emission rate (E) is determined primarily by the welding current. Similar current dependence is found for all SMAW methods if used at normal voltage. The voltage also effects E but to a smaller extent. The relative fume formation index (R) varies drastically among the methods and is dependent on the welding parameters. For gas metal arc welding of mild steel with pure CO^ as the protective gas, R essentially decreases with increasing current. The composition of the shielding gas in GMAW is important for the fume production. The fume formation index is higher in the case of argon/C0 ? mixture than in the case of pure argon. The influence of the welding parameters on the fume formation is altered by mixing COo into the argon. This study supports the findings of earlier works, viz. that the oxidizing potential of the gas surrounding the electric arc is of considerable importance in determining the fume production, with increased fume production when the oxidation potential of the protective gas is increased.

45

The fume contains the same elements as the consumable but with the relative abundances changed due to fractionation effects. This is explained by the different properties of the elements, e.g. with regard to vapour pressures of the pure elements and their compounds. For SMAW only minor variations occur when the current is changed. Welding voltage and current mode (A C/DC) have drastic effects on the elemental composition of the fumes. This is probably due to changes in electricarc length and arc characteristics. The elemental composition of a GMAW aerosol is also dependent on the protective gas. Thus, a relative de crease in several elements is noted when the transition from globular to spray transfer takes place in the argon atmosphere. While the chromium in the SMAW aerosols is almost entirely hexavalent (and soluble), only trivalent chromium is found in the GMAW aerosols. The particles in the welding aerosols are below 1 in diameter and conse quently respirable. Mass median aerodynamic diameters vary from 0.35 to 0.6 urn and seem to be essentially independent of the welding parameters. Hygro scopicity may be an important factor in evaluating lung deposition of aerosols from SMAW methods. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to Dr Folke Brundin for many stimulating discussions throughout this work and for putting welding equipment and other resources at our disposal at the Department of Production and Material Engineering. The skilled and patient welding of hundreds of welding joints by Mr Alex Simonsson is gratefully ack nowledged as is much good advice throughout the course of this study. We have also highly appreciated the equipment built by Mr Knut Sjberg. This study has been supported financially by the Swedish Work Environment Fund. REFERENCES 1. G.I. Johansson, K.G. Malmqvist, M. Bohgard and K.R. A kselsson, "Characteristics of Welding Fumes", in "Proton Induced Xray Emission mass calibration, computer analysis and applications to work environment aerosols", (thesis, 1981); Department of Nuclear Physics, Lund University Institute of Science and Technology, Box 118, S 221 00 Lund, Sweden 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. R.I. Mitchell and J.M. Pilcher, Ind. and Eng. Chem., Jjj (1959) 1039 S.A .E. Johansson and T.B. Johansson, Nucl. Instr. and Meth., K37 (1976) 473 K.G. Malmqvist, G.I. Johansson and K.R. Akselsson, J. of Radioanal. Chem., 74 (1982) 125 M. Bohgard, B.L. Jangida and K.R. Akselsson, Ann. Occup. Hyg., 22 (1979) 241 Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment, American Weldinq Society, Miami (1979) M. Kobayashi, S. Maki and J. Ohe, Inst, of Welding, Doc VII 167076 (1976) R.F. Heile and D.C. Hill, Welding Journal, 54 (1975) 201s

46 9. C.N. Gray, P.J. Hewitt and P.R.M. Dare, Welding and Metal Fabrication, (okt 1982) 393 10. C.N. Gray, P.J. Hewitt and P.R.M. Dare, Welding and Metal Fabrication (jan/ feb 1983) 52 11. F. Eichhorn and F. Trsken, Technical Report DVS Berichte 1977 (in German) 12. M. Kobayashi, S. Maki, Y. Hashimoto and T. Suga, Welding Journal, 62 (1983) 190s 13. J.C. Needham, C.J. Cooksey and D.R. Milner, Brit. Weld. J., 7 (1960) 297 14. A. Lesnewich, Welding Journal, (sept 1958) 418s 15. I.R. Patskevich and O.A. Rykov, Avt. Svarka, 8 (1971) 15, in Russian 16. L.F. Defize and P.C. van den Willigen, Brit. Weld. J., ]_ (1960) 297 17. B. Haas and H.V. Pomaska, Proc. of Coll. on Welding and Health, (1980) No 10 18. F. Eichhorn and F. Trsken, Industrie Anzeigen, 101 (1979) 31, in German 19. L.A. King and J.A. Howes, Proc. Physics of the Welding Arc, (1962) 180 20. M. Kobayashi, S. Maki, Y. Hashimoto and T. Suga, Weld, in the World., 16, No 11/12 (1978) 238 ~ 21. M.J. Ertnan, E.E. Raiskiy and A.G. Potapevskiy, Autom. Weld., 21, No 4, (1968) 65 22. S. Kimura, M. Kobayashi, T. Godai and S. Minato, Proc. of Coll. on Welding and Health, (1980) No 16 23. G.M. Lautner, J.C. Carver and R.B. Konzen, Am. Ind. Hyg. Ass. J., 39 (1978) 651 24. S. Kimura, M. Kobayashi, T. Godai and S. Minato, Weld. Journal, 58 (1979) 195 s 25. E. Thomsen and R.M. Stern, Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 5 (1979) 386 26. The Welding Environment, American Welding Society, Miami (1973) 27. R.M. Stern, "The production and characterization of a reference standard welding fume", Part 2, SVC/SF 78-08, The Danish Welding Institute, Copenhagen (1978) 28. I.M. Naumenko and L.V. Ferdman, Svar.Proizvod., 8 (1974) 50, in Russian 29. J. Postendrfer, J. Aerosol Science, 2 (1971) 73, in German

47

EXPOSURE

M O N I T O R I N G A ND OF W E L D I N G

CHEMICA L FUME

A NA L Y S I S

E. T H O M S E N . C h e m c o n s u l t . O l d v e j e n 7, R g e r u p , DK 4 0 5 0 S k i b b y . P M . STERN, Danish W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e , Park A lle 345, DK 2600 Glostrup. . PEDERSEN, Danish Institute of Occupational Health, B a u n e g r d s v e j 7 3 , DK 2 9 0 0 H e l l e r u p .

INTRODUCTION and analysis Stand a r d i z e d and quality assured sampling efforts to p r o c e d u res Tor welding fumes are essential e xpos ures a nd demons t rate causality between occupational but frequently possibi e health effects. Three important reactive o v e r 1 o ked sources of s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r s are: L_o ss of species d u r i n g c o l l e c t i o n and s t o r a g e . L o s s e s du e t ricompie te d i g e s t i on of Changes refractory matricies. in species 'solubility, oxidation state) during analysis. el ec t r o d e and In the case of metal inert gas ( MIG) that show (MMA)welding of stainless s t e e l ( S S ) , it h a s be e over 9 0 * of the Cr c o n t e n t of M M A / S S f u m e of 5 8 * i i n t he f o r m 1113% of stable w a t e r s o l u b l e C r ( V I ) , M I G / S S f u m e m a y c o n t ai aqua Cr, of which o n l y 5 0 7 5 % is d e t e c t e d by s t a n d a rd regia digestion procedures. C o m p l e t e d i g e s t i o n w i t h e r c h lori c acid ol at i le ran lead to significant l o s s due to formatio of Cr02Cl2 M ) . The w a t e r s o l u b l e C r ( V I ) c o n t e n t , t h o u ght to be fume 0, 1 0 , 5% decays towards z e r o in the s o l i d MIG/ SS after collection on m e m b r a n e f i l t e r s i n d e p e n d e n t of fl I t e r t y p ( 2) . When c o l l e c t e d in an i m p i n g e r f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r s h o r t arc M I G / S S fume a p p e a r s to c o n t a i n of the o r d e r of 3% s t a b l e wat e r soluble Cr(VI) (3). This ample e v i d e n c e that m o n i t o r i n g an d a nalysis dependent e f f e c t s c a n l e a d to s e v e r e u n d e r r e p o r t i ng f ex p o s u r e s to t o x i c s p e c i e s s u c h as C r ( V I i s u g g e s t the need for e t ab11 s h g standardized and appropiate protecols for use th welding f u m e s , as r e p o r t e d b e l o w . MATERIALS A ND METHODS.

MIG/SS Welding Fumes are p r o d u c e d in downhand welding on stal n i e s s p l a t e w i t h the aid of a r o b o t ( E S A B 3 R S 1 7 1 . 2 m m wire, 20 1'mi A r or A r<2%02, 30 cm bead, 10 c m / m i n ) . The f u m e s are collecte d via a 20 c m d i a m e t e r 1.5 m c o l u m n on W a t m a n 41 paper filters, a n d / o r in an i m p i n g e r ( 0 . 2 0 . 5 mm or f i c e , 11.2 1/min. 50 ml liquid volume (destilled water) having parallel filter cassette for absolute d e t e r m i n a t i o n of fume densities: fume concent ations are t y p i c a l 2 0 0 m g / m 3 w i t h f i l t e r p l a c e d in top col u mn. A l i q u o t s are r e m o v e d c o n v e n i e n t at intervals for analysis C h e m i c al A n a l y s i s is p e r f o r m e d e i t h e r on t o t a l fume scraped from th m e m b r a n e f i l t e r s or c o l l e c t e d in the i m p i n g e r , or on water s oluble species ( 3 0 min. at 2 0 C u n d e r agitation) and p r e c i p i t ate s e p e r a t e l y , u s i n g a t o m i c a b s o r p t i o n ( A S) . A In some cases t he f i l t e r is c a r r i e d a l o n g w i t h the s a m p l e to determine fi 11 e-ma t r i x effects if any. C r ( V I ) is d e t e r m i n e d using the standard diphenylcarbazide techniqe (DPC). F ume D i g e s t i on is performed using a series of methods to enable a determination of procedures dependence if any as

48

follows: For total fume analysis, 1) A qua regia, 2) A series of HJPOWH2SO ratios (100/0, 80/20, 60/40, 20/80, 0/100, / concentrated acids), For Cr(VI) analysis: soluble fraction in water and ^% NazCO3, total and insoluble fraction in 7% Na;C0j or 2 NaOH + 3% N a 2 C 0 3 . RESULTS A ND DISCUSSION. The results of systematic variation in digestion techniques are summarized in bargraphs of Fig. 1, where the composition of MIG/SS welding fume is given by the representative elemental content of Fe, Cr, Ni and Si. A ll methods, with the exeption of digestion in 40% H 2 S04/60% H3PO leave a refractory residue which can contain upwards of 3, 5 6 out of the 12, 5% Cr 5 in this fume sample, presumeable in the form of a silicate complex. The high Si level found for the digestion with conc. H3PO4 indicates possible attack on the glassware.

Fig.l:

Composition of welding fume (MIG/SS)

aqua regia, and H3P04/H2SO4 systems

l~7ISSI Results of a determination of the Cr(VI) content of the Turne are summarized in bargraphs of Fig. 2. A nalysis by either A A S or DPC can be compared on either the soluble/insoluble species seperately, or for a determination of total Cr(VI) content. Values for A A S determination of the soluble Cr content, or DPC determination for the soluble Cr(VI) content are identical in these (and all other) measurements of short arc MIG/SS fume, indicating that the only soluble Cr species is Cr(VI). The NIOSH recomented NaOHNa2COi mixture results in an significant high Cr(VI) value if used directly. Cr solubilety in 1% NajC0 3 is twice that in water. In order to verify the possible oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) during analysis, Cr(VI) measurements were made on aqueous

49

Cr(III) standards. U s e the 2 % N a O H ^ 3% N a : C 0 3 r e s u l t e d in a oxidation of 1% of t h e C r I I I I s t a n d a r d w h i l e 7 1 Na 2 Cr> 3 r e s u l t e d in <0, 1 oxidation. T h e d e g r e e of o x i d a t i o n c o u l d be enhanced by aereation ( up to 2%'> and reduced towards zero by coprecipitation of Cr(III) with Mg(II) ( 4 ) . Significant to complete reduction of C r ( V I ) was f o u n d if cellulose membrane f i l t e r s w e r e c a r r i e d a l o n g w i t h the fume in the DPC a n a l y s i s .

Fig.2: 08 .

Determination of Hexavalent chromiur

MK3/SS elding fume

0.6 0.5

E o . r. O M

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

li li II Ml
@
Fractional AAS (A) and DPC (D) analysi

wot er

V7~X 7* Caro.

71 1X Cart).

"NIOSH"

total of Analysis t he conc e n t r a t i o n of t o t a l Fe, s o l u b l e Fe, Cr and s o l b l e Cr (as C r ( V I ) ) , as c o l l e c t e d in a w a t e r m p i n g e r , as a f u n e 11 on are hence cone entra tion) of col leet ti me ( a n d s hown Fig. 3 Fe curve The u p w a r d c ur va t ure of the t o t a l reflects t he in c reas c o t c e n t r a t i o of fume the c o l 1 eet i o n g i system as loading filte r air flow ra te d e c r e a s e s a s the p a p e r increases, r e m a i ns a p p roxi m a t e i y the Cr/Fe r atio Alt hough constant d uring content Cri VI ) the r e l a t i ve coll ec 11 on, continuos1 y are dec re as e s. F l o w r a t e s t h e c o l l e c t i o n s ys t e m such that i mpi n g e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y the fume i s de pos 11 ed in the 1.52 s e c o nds taken al i quot after r o d u c t i o n at t he a r c . T h e after weld ng 15 bead s is a p p r o x i m a t el y 50 m i n . but the old, Cr(VI) c o n centr a11 on s h o w s no d e c a y w i t h ti me aft er c o l l e c t i on. This i m p l es t hat with initial reduction of Cr ( V I ) th e increasing to the du e mpi n g e r s in the coll ec 11 11 me increasing the fume and that ( and h e n c e Fe( I D ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n true value by can only b ratio of Cri VI)/Cr ob t ai ned e t r a p o i at zero: on o f the Cr( VI) c o n c e nt rati o n c u r v e t o w a rds the i n i t i a 1 Cri VI)/Cr is in the o r d e r of 5 0 % i m p l yi ng t h a t f r e s h fume c o n t a i ns of the o r d e r of 67 Cri VI) , ( 1 1 1 3 % t otal C r ) , rather t ha the usuali y a s s i g n e d v a l ue of 0 . 2 0 . 5 %, as f o u n d f o r filter col lete d MIG/ S S f u m e or 3% f o u n d f r o m pre vi o u s i m p i n g e me a s urerne t s c o n t ent The insoluble Cr(VI) ( 3 5) . , MIG/SS

50

fumes (and MM 'SS A fumes as well) is always of 0.40.5% independent of collection method.

the

orde r

of

Fig.3:

Impinger collection of welding fume

MIG/SS in water

CKeol)

CONCLUSIONS. Contrary to the usual assumption that fumes from the metal inert gas welding of stainless steel contain little (0.10.5%) Cr(VI). it is found that collection fresh fume via a liquid filled impinger indicates that the Cr(VI) content at the time of inhalation is most likely of the order of 67%, and that traditional collection and analysis techniqes result in significant underreporting of Cr'. VI) exposure. A simple standard method utilizing 60% H3PO/40% H; S0< is proposed which permits the total digestion of MIG/SS fume matrix for elemental analysis. The only water soluble Cr species is found to be Cr(VI) so that a determination of the soluble Cr(VI) content can be simply made via A A S measurements. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Van Bemst A . Beaufils D.. Hewitt P. J.. Stern R. M. : Helding in the Wold 2J_ (1983! 1014 Thomsen E., Stern P . M.: S:V:C: publication 81.0'! (1981) . Stern R.M., Thomsen E. Frst E.: Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 8 (1984) 95108 _ at ka V.J., INCO Ltd.: Personal communications Gray C. M. . Goldstone . , Dare P. R. M. , Hewitt P. .1. : A m. Ind. Hyg. A ssoc. J. 44. (1983) 384388

51
WELDING FUMES EMITTED DURING WELDING OF HIGH-ALLOYED MATERIALS - EVALUATION OF AMOUNT, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MORPHOLOGY, INCLUDING THE INFLUENCE OF WELDING PARAMETERS F. EICHHORN AND TH. OLDENBURG Institut fr Schweitechnische Fertigungsverfahren der RWTH Aachen, Pontstrae 49, 5100 Aachen (West Germany) INTRODUCTION An important objective of investigations into the problems of welding fumes is the attempt to reduce the emission or to alter the composition of welding fumes through changes in the welding process. The measures to be taken consist above all in choosing the appropriate welding process, appropriate filler metals and welding agents and appropriate welding parameters. To enable welding technology users to translate the results into practice, investigations should be carried out only within the parameter ranges normally employed in practical welding applications. Due to manufacturing differences (different types of coating, different manufacturers), even electrodes of the same or similar type do not always behave in the same way during the welding process. It is thus difficult to make general statements on the behaviour of all high-alloyed covered electrodes and MIGwires. A comprehensive analysis must take the form of an interpretation of individual results. MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING The requirement that any variation in welding parameters should remain within the normal range of variations used in practice means that welding current and welding voltage may not vary independently of one another during welding fume emission measurements. A combination of the two values is therefore altered within the range of welding current values recommended by the manufacturer. The shortest possible arc must be struck in each case. The influence of the various parameters on fume emission with high-alloyed covered electrodes is similar to that observed when working with unalloyed or low-alloyed electrodes, except that the fume amount produced during a given unit of time is smaller. The fume emission can be reduced by roughly 20% if type 19/9 Cr-Ni basic coated electrodes are substituted for the rutile type. No serious influence of the current type on the fume amount is defectible for rutile electrodes of this sort. Welding fume emission can also be affected by altering the type of coating. The E 19 9 R26 160 coated electrode is a high-efficiency electrode with 160%

52
recovery. Being an alloy powder electrode, it has an unalloyed core with high Cr and Ni content in the coating, whereas the other variant has an austenitic alloyed core and a coating content of Cr and Ni proportionate to its recovery. Both electrodes produce an austenitic metal deposit of the same composition. Fume emission for the alloy powder variant is less than that for the alloyed core and alloy powder electrode (Table I ) . TABLE I: WELDING FUME COMPOSITION OF ELECTRODES WITH ALTERED TYPE OF COATING coated electrode: variant
alloy powd<;r core 0,02% Cr 0,48% Mn 0,04% Ni coatinq 30,6% Cr 2,6% Mn 12,4% Ni

E 19 9 R26 160, 0 3,25 mm, DC+ current (A) 110 120 130 140 voltage (V) 20 fume emission (mg/s)
3,06 4,07 5,25 5,78

Cr Mn Ni CrVI (%) (%) (%) (%) 3,0 2,3 0,8 1,8 3,5 2,4 0,9 2,0 5,0 2,2 1,3 1,8 5,3 2,6 1,3 2,0

20,5 21,5

22

alloyed core plus alloy powder core 20,30% Cr 1,40% Mn 10,68% Ni coating 16,8% Cr 3,2% Mn 5,6% Ni

110 120 130 140

32,5 33,5 34,5 35,5

3,39 4,44 5,54 6,30

4,0 3,9 0,3 4,0 3,9 0,4 3,9 4,0 0,3 4,0 3,9 0,3

3,5 3,4 3,9 3,9

The decisive difference between these two types occurs in the chemical composition of the welding fumes. The values for total Cr and Ni content in the fumes produced by the alloy powder electrode are somewhat larger than for the other variant. The CrVI content is reduced by about 50% as against the alloyed core and alloy powder electrode. The element content analysed for the two types of electrode roughly reproduces the spectrum for the proportion of Cr, Ni, Mn and CrVI in the welding fumes determined for similar electrodes without increased recovery. The higher values for the Cr, Mn and CrVI proportions are, however, attained only by basic coated electrodes. Type E 18 8 Mn6 covered electrodes with an increased Mn content of 6% produce between 12 and 18% Mn in welding fumes, depending on the combination of welding parameters and type of coating in each case. Investigations using a low-pressure cascade impactor display scarcely any differences in the size distribution of fume particles for different types of electrode or different welding parameter combinations. The maximum distribution curve values are between 0.23 pm and 0.52 pm. Investigations of the fume amounts

53
separated out at various levels of the impactor show that, for an aerodynamic diameter of 0.9 pm, the fumes are separated out more or less as single particles, with slight deposits of extremely small particles. In the small diameter range agglomerations of fine particles occur almost without exception. Distribution curves determining the geometrical diameter of single particles with the aid of REM or TEM are thus irrelevant for the separation behaviour of the fumes. GAS-SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING In the case of MIG-welding, it is likewise appropriate to measure fume emission as a function of I /U welding parameter combinations. The requirement for a stable welding process in this case permits alteration of the welding-current/welding-voltage ratio only within extremely narrow limits. Fume emission determined as a function of current/voltage values follows a typical course for this process, representing short arc in the lower current range with 8 mg/s a bead transfer at short-circuit and a spray arc with non-short-circuit bead transfer in the upper current range (Fig. 1 ) . Depending on the type of shielding gas used, significantly larger fume amounts are released at low welding currents during the explosive detachment of beads at short-circuit than 200 300 A 350 welding current I s during high current operation. Under argon especially, the fume emission I = " at low welding current values is clearly higher than under mixed .. 1 gases, due to the uneven short-arc 300 A 350 200 welding current I s process. For non-short-circuit bead transfer with the spray arc the oxidisation potential of the shielFig. 1: Influence of shielding-gas ding gas is primarily responsible composition on welding fume for fume emission. A significant emission reduction of welding fume emission, by up to 80% as against the short arc, is attainable using the pulsed arc process (Fig. 2 ) . With the pulsed arc,

54

the bead is transferred without short circuiting, in much the same way as for the spray arc, avoiding increased fume emission due to explosive bead detachment at short circuit. As with the emission values, the results of welding fume analysis for MIG welding show the same clear distinction between the shortarc and sprayarc ranges. Fume emission during MIGwelding may be regarded as less critical than that during covered electrode welding, prinarily due to the extremely low CrVI content of 1%. When filler metal of the SGX 15 CrNiMn 18 8 type, with 6% Mn content, is used, however, very high Mn emissions with roughly 50% con tribution to total fume emission occur.In contradistinction to manual metalarc welding, the particle size distribution of welding fumes emitted during MIGwelding displays a maxi maximum in the aerodynamic diameter range between 0.11 pm and 0.23 urn.
wire |mg/s) SGX5CrNiMoNb1912
/

1,2mm diameter 98%Ar.2%02 l0 16mm pulsedarc

s h o r t and sprayarc

/ A

/ / 1

_
^^

. ^ l '

-^ ^ ^ 1
25

J?
I
100

80 120 160 2O0 mean welding current 50

Ip = tOOA Up = 30V IQ proportional ff 240 Im Hz

125 150

pulse frequency ( = droplet frequency! fp

Fig. 2: Fume emission during gas shielded metalarc welding. Comparison of short, spray, pulsed arc SUMMARY In order to provide welding technology users with useful 1 data for early identification of welding fume emission problems and for fume reduction, a broad spectrum of filler metals requires investigation within the normal range of welding parameters, since as a rule no general statements can be made regarding fume emission with different types of highalloyed filler metal or even filler metals of the same type produced by different manufacturers. The examples pre sented here indicate the possibility of influencing fume emission and composi tion favorably by taking suitable measures.

55

POLLUTION CAUSED B Y HAND ARC ELECTRIC WELDING

G.P.

GAMB ARETTO, G. RAUSA and I n s t i t u t e of Hygiene

I n s t i t u t e of I n d u s t r i a l C h e m i s t r y , U n i v e r s i t y of P a d u a , and P r e v e n t i v e M e d i c i n e , U n i v e r s i t y of F e r r a r a ( I t a l y )

During the l a s t y e a r s p a r t i c u l a r s h i p s between the e l e c t r o d e fumes

attention

has been given t o the

relation the

and c o a t i n g c o m p o s i t i o n electrodes. the r e l a t i o n

and t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of

following welding with these Table 1 lists and i t s for

23 e l e c t r o d e s

between

t h e w e i g h t of produced.

the

electrode

c o a t i n g on o n e h a n d and t h e a m o u n t o f smoke b e t w e e n t h e smoke c o m p o s i t i o n in Table 2 for eleven and t h a t

The c o r r e l a t i o n composition i s given

of t h e

electrode

elements.

TABLE

POLLUTING QUA NTITY Welding smokes caused by various electrode fusion

Electrode type

mm

Weightgr. elee. cov.

Welding smokes gr. elect. 0.8008 1 .33 1 .029 1 .080 0. 780 0.7056 0.700 0.440 0.551 0.7973 0. 169 0.0964 0.560 0.7244 0.980 0.830 0.523 0.443 1 . 100 0.740 0.726 0.353 0.133

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Philips C 75 Philips S 35 Philips S 35 Philips C 16 S Philips 50 S Philips pH 75 S Philips pH 35 Citobasico Novoe itobasico Supereitobas.6 0 Citoflex CitoflexA CitomarA Tenacito Ni 25 Ductilend R/CA Ductilend R/CA Ductilend E11018 Ductilend E11018 Esab OK 485 Esab OK 485 Arcos Nikend 2 Acc Inox A ISI Acc Inox A ISI

5 5 4 5 4 3. .25 3. .25 3. 25 4 3. 25 3. ,25 2. ,25 3. ,25 3. ,25 5 4 4 3. ,25 5 4 3. .25 3. .25 2. .5

155 108
71 .8 143.6

84.4

51
28.8

74
23.4 13.2 22. 1 17.7 15.2 18.2

67
35. 6 50.9 44.9 57.8 44.8 26.6

13
47.7

43 101

5.6 2.6 20 16

33.4 27.2 53 18.2 11.4 33.6 31 . 0 99.6 68.6 25.0 41.2 13.4 38.98 18.2 17.91 7. 1 69.6

TABLE 2,
RELATION B ETWEEN SMOKE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION AND ELECTRODE COVERING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Element

Electrodes

Concentration % Fumes

Correlation r-+ r

Significativity

Regression

Nr. Cases

Iron Calcium Magnesium Manganese Chrome Nickel Zinc Copper Lead Silica Fluorine

33. 11*15.81 13.21*7.55 0.747*1.226 3.58*1 .37 0.226*0.293 2. 125*2.61 0.041*0.023 0.045*0.019 0.0561=0.066 12.01*4.59 5.28*3.31

33.13*8.74 10.50*5.01 0.00*1.22 7.15*2.71 0.067*0.072 0. 193*0. 197 0.5424*0.68 0.234*0.318 0. 146>0.059 9. 176*5.85 13.33*6.95

0.304*0.207 0.464*0.208 0.76*0.148 0.625*0.17 0.099*0.222 0.514*0.208 -0.236*0.28 -0.298*0.275 -0.147*0.312 0.543*0.187 0.930*0.084

>0.05 <0.05 <0.001 <0.01

23 x=6 .31+0.316y
x = 0.315+0.756y .72+1.237y x = 2.

20 21 23 22 19 14 14 11_ 22 21

<0 . 01

. x = 0, 0 0 4 + 0 . 0 6 9 9 y

<0 . 01 <0.001

x = 4. 0 4 5 + 0 . 4 2 7 y . x = 3. .034+1.95y

TABLE 3 ELECTRODE COVERING COMPOSITION (WEIGHT %)

n Fe Ti Ca Mg Mn Cr Ni Zn Pb Cu Si02 F-

1 2,3,4 5,6 8 9 10 1 1 12 13-14 15* 16 17-18 19 20 21-22 23 24

54.6 36.5 58.4 16.8 35.4 43.95 13.56 58.8 22.55 3.9 24.2 31 . 4 3 27.54 24.4 33.41 51 . 0 9 6.66

1 0 ,. 2 4

1 .77 10.97 3.55 20. 1 8.85 8.79 16.76 7 .. 5 8 1 1 .72 < 0 . 01 0.14 17.61 8.11 20.01 19.44 13.9 20.27 33.42

1 .91 0.145 0.09 0.27 0.18 0.06 0.58 0.17 0.21 0.088 0.25 2.59

2.93 3.57 2.70 6.02 2.22 3.81 2.94 6.86 6.37 5.56 5.28 1 .70 4.22 2.99 1 .50 2.86 3.65

0.074 0.056 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.02 0.318 0.058 0.04 0.29 0.066 0.13 0.27 0.28 0.028 0.067 1 .02

3.21 0.042

0.038 0.032 0.02 0.06

0.085 0.068 0.04 0.08

0.053 0.018 0.05 0.07

8.73 1 1 .38 9.41 1 3 . 97 12.04 10.5 17.93 10.91 12.92 16.41 19.3 10.19 4.51 6.41 8.69 12.8 13.95

1 ..4 1 8 . . 17 1 . 73 1 0 ,. 5 6 ,. 6 1 6 .. 2 7 2 .. 3 5 5 .. 0 3 0 .. 1 1 6 0 .. 0 0 8 .. 4 1 7 .. 8 9 7 .. 9 7 .. 5 8 6 ., 7 5 6 .. 3 7 1 2 ., 3 9

4.75 0.202 0.048 0.038 3.66 ass. 0 . 16 6.39 0.85 5.29 3.24 0.084 6.07 6.77

11 ,. 6 9

0.027 0.07 0.022

0.021 0.06 ass.

0.034 0.05 0 . 034

0 . 10

0.07

0.05

0 .. 4 3 3 .. 7 8

0.05 0.05

0.04 0.05

0.03 0.03

0.15 1 .03 4.75

6 ., 2 9 4 .. 6 0

^indicates cellulosic electrode, containing cellulose covering (30-35%) Order numbers are those of Table 1 and allow to identify electrode type

TABLE 4 POLLUTION CAUSED BY HAND-ARC WELDING USING VARIOUS TYPES OF ELECTRODES nr. determinations 26 means.d. Corre!lation r 0.855 0.105 0.674 0.15 0.792
Jtt. 1 3 6

y . Fumes quantity (g) Elect:rode weight (g) Fumes quantity (g) Coat ' weight (g) Fc fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mq) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g) fumes (mg) electrode (g)

Regression

0.6570.33 55.6032.8 0.6570.33 22.4017.2 178.0100.6 46.96*24.8 65.5&'44.8 2.581 . 14 33.2722.2 0.7340.51 4.646.36 221 . 1413.9 0.3780.42 27. 123.47 1 .0861.147 388.2662.4 56.3226.8 1 3.0651.944 1 19.558.86 1 .4450.901

0.001

y = 0. 178 + 0.0086x

26

0.001

y=0.367+0.0129X y=30.56+3.21x y=19.89+17.7x y = 5. 1 + 38.3x y=2.45+0.0099x y = 0. 114 + 0.0098 y=0.517+0.00134

22 21 22 19 22 18

0.01 0.05 0.001 0.01 0.01 0.001

Ca

0.454 0.204 0.7845 0. 138 0.647 0.19 0.548 0.187 0.776 0.157 0.973 0.051 0.826 0. 126

Mn Mg Cr Ni

SiO

22

0.001

y=26.03+9.62x

22

0.001

y=41.6+53.9X

59

As a g e n e r a l r u l e we can say t h a t for i r o n , c a l c i u m and magnesium t h e smoke c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e c o a t i n g ; manganese, z i n c , copper and l e a d a r e more c o n c e n t r a t e d c o a t i n g composition i n t h e smoke, w h i l e n i c k e l and chromium a r e l e s s in has c o n c e n t r a t e d . This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s v a l i d d e s p i t e t h e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s (Table 3 ) . (high o r remarkable R v a l u e ) As can be s e e n , a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n n i c k e l , f l u o r i n e and s i l i c a . The more simple p a r a m e t e r , t o which t h e h e a l t h r i s k of a r c w e l d i n g p r o c e s s can be r e l a t e d , i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e q u a n t i t y of p o l l u t i n g a g e n t s (smoke and p a r t i c l e s ) e m i t t e d d u r i n g t h e use of t h e e l e c t r o d e . Based on our e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and t h e (gr/electindividual r e g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n s have been c a l c u l a t e d between t h e smoke q u a n t i t y rode) and the weight of t h e e l e c t r o d e and of t h e c o a t i n g and f o r e i g h t components (Table 4) . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e very s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r a l l components, e x c e p t Ca. We a r e t h e r e f o r e able t o p r e d i c t with a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e r a t e of e m i s s i o n due t o t h e e l e c t r o d e s i n g l e components when t h e q u a n t i t y p r e s e n t i n t h e e l e c t r o d e i t s e l f i s known.

been o b t a i n e d f o r v a r i o u s components as the c a l c i u m , magnesium, manganese,

61

FUME EMISSION RATE MEASUREMENTS AND FUME ANALYSIS ON FOUR STAINLESS STEEL WELDING CONSUMABLES JANET MORETN, SALLY E. DAY AND NORMAN JENKINS The Welding Institute, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridgeshire, U.K. For AGA AB Inovation, Sweden

INTRODUCTION Fume from stainless steel welding consumables is of particular interest because of the recent debate concerning possible carcinogenic hazards of chromium in wel ding fume, and, in particular, of hexavalent chromium (Cr VI) (1,2). The Swedish

Fume Box provides a wellestablished technique (3) for the measurement of fume emission rates from MMA electrodes. For the MMA process, the technique has the

status of a standard in Sweden (3), an is widely used in Europe as a routine tes ting method (4). For solid wire (GMA ) and fluxcored wire (FCW) processes, although there is considerable practical demand for a fume emission rate test method, no standard exists. However, it has been shown possible to use the

Swedish Fume Box reliably for GMA and FCW applications (4), enabling comparative betweenprocess assessments of fume emission rates (FER) and fume composition. Analytical methods used to obtain the Cr VI content of the resultant fume are wellestablished (5) using a diphenylcarbazide colorimetrie technique following differential alkaline extraction.

EXPERIMENTAL Arc welding and sampling Fume emission rate measurements were made by the Swedish Fume Box technique on four austenitic 18/12/3 stainless steel consumables. A. B. C. D. Manual metal arc (MMA) electrode Gas shielded solid wire (GMA ) consumable Fluxcored wire (FCW) selfshielded consumable Metal cored wire gas shielded consumable.

Horizontal vertical fillet welds were made on 10 50 250mm, 3 16 stainless steel testpieces in the fume box, and the particular fume emitted extracted onto a 240mm diameter preweighed filter. The weight of fume collected per unit arcing

time (or per unit weight of deposited metal) gives the fume emission rate of the consumable. Consumable specification and welding details are given in Table I,

and fume emission rates presented in Table 2.

62
TABLE 1 CONSUMABLE SPECIFICATION AND WELDING CONDITIONS

Consumable

Specification and Grade AWS A5.4.8I E316L-I6 AWS A5.9.77 ER316L Si AWS A5.22.80 E316LT-3 AWS A5.22.80 E316LT, 1,2,3

Dia.

Current

Voltage V.DC +

WFS m/min

Gas

Stickout mm

4.0 1.2 2.0 1.6

145

10

28-29 70 0/C 19-20 35 0/C 24 37 0/C 24-25 32 0/C

190 10 250 10 290 10

6.0 5.5 7.2

Ar 2%0 2 161/min

15
20-25 15-20

Ar 2%C0 2 161/min

TABLE 2 FUME EMISSION RATES

Consumable

g/kg deposit

g/hour 13.9 13.3 27. 1 20.8

A C D

7.9 3.9 5.3 3.5

TABLE 3 CHROMIUM CONTENT OF FUME, PER CENT

Total Cr 5.0 13.4 5. 1 11.7

Cr VI (1) 3.8 0.2 2.5 0. 1

Cr VI (2) 0.3 less than 0.I 0.2 0. 1

Total Cr VI 4. I 0.2 2.7 0.2

TABLE 4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS I Consumable

Consumable Plate Core A D 0.046 0.014 0.027 0.015 0.014 0.005 0.005 0.016 0.04 7 0.013 0.024 0.01 I

Si
0.70 0.06 0.71 0.78

Mn
2.01 1.32 1.89 1.43

Ni
10.5 12.8 12. I 1 1.5

Cr
17.0 18.5 18.4 18.5

Mo
2.38 2.68 2.53 2.23 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.01

Cu
0.38 0 . 10 0.22 0.03

Nb
<0.0I <0.01 <0.0I <0.01

Ti
<0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01

Co
0.25 0.05 0.05 0.01

II Fume

Fume A C D Coating A Notes: (1) (2) (3)

Si
10.0 1 .7 4.0 3.6 9. 1

Ti
2. 1 0. I 2.7 0.2 17.9

Zr
<0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 0.2

Al
1.4 0.2 2.4 0.8 2.0

Fe
5. 1 33.3 13.4 31 .9 9.8

Mn
5.0 12.6 4.8 9.3 4.8

Ca
0.4 <0.2 1.9 <0.2 4.3

Mg
<0.2 <0.2 0.9 <0.2 0.4

Na
7.3 0.2 17.0 0.4 1 .4 19.9 <0. 1 3.0 <0. 1 2.3

Li
<0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 14.9

Ba
<0. 1 <0. 1 <0. 1 <0. 1 2.3 0. 1

Ni
0.4 4.9 1.3 4.7 1.0

Cr
5.0 13.4 5.1 11.7 ll.l

Mo
<0.2 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.3

Cu
<0.l 0.6 <0. I <0. 1 <0. 1

15.5

Consumable C was not analysed, since it was not possible to separate the flux core Coating A contained 2.8%C0 2 All results weight per cent

64
ANALYSIS Analysis of plate, consumables and welding fume are reported in Tables 3,4. The following techniques were used for fume analysis:i) ii) Fluorine (samples A and D only) by pyro-hydrolysis, using a volumetric finish with thorium nitrate on the distillate. Hexavalent chromium (in two fractions Cr VI (I) and Cr VI (2)) by the method described by Moretn et al. (5) iii) Sodium and lithium by flame emission spectrophotometry. iv) X-ray fluorescence analysis was performed for the remaining elements. For each sample, lg was fused in a mixture of 2g of lanthanum oxide and 9g of lithium tetraborate at I2C0C for 12 min. The resulting fusion mixture was then cast into a bead of suitable size for X-ray fluorescence analysis.

CONCLUSIONS The results for FER values lie within the range encountered previously for these processes (6). Fume analyses were as anticipated from previous experience, with the chromium contents of the fume being of greatest occupational hygiene significance. About 4% and 2.77, respectively of the more toxic Cr VI has been found in fumes from the MMA and FCW processes, whereas the gas shielded solid-wire and metal cored wire processes produced fume containing negligible amounts of Cr VI. There appears to be no technical problems in carrying out fume emission rate measurement in the fume box for all the above processes. REFERENCES 1. Cancer fears for welders (1984) New Scientist Jan. 12:7 2. 3. Stern R (1983) Assessment of risk of lung cancer for welders. Environmental Health 38:148-155 Archives of

4. 5.

Welding electrodes - covered electrodes - fume classes. Swedish Standards SS 06 2801, SS 06 2802 (Swedish). Draft English translation IIW Doc. IIE-285 A and B. Also Doc. 11-826-77, Doc. IIE-242-77, 1977 Moretn J (1982) Assessment of welding fume hazards. Annals Occupational Hygiene 25:421-430 Moretn J, Bettelley J, Mathers H, Nicholls A, Perry RW, Ratcliffe DB and Svensson L (1983) Investigation of techniques for the analysis of hexavalent chromium, total chromium, and total nickel in welding fume: a co-operative study. Annals Occupational Hygiene. 27:137-156 Moretn J, Carter GJ, Worrall DA (1981) Flux-cored wire welding - fume emission rates and fume composicin. The Welding Institute Research Bulletin, 22:35-39

6.

65

Measurement of the welding fume quantities and analysis of the fume composition during resistance welding

H.-J. Krause and H. Pre Report published by the Sub-Department Joining Techniques of the Federal Institute for Materials Testing

1. Aim of the investigation During resistance welding of overlapping sheets welding fumes may form by splashing or evaporation of the base material as well as by electrode wear. During welding of coated sheets other foreign substances are generated in addition to the fumes. The aim of this investigation was to establish the factors giving rise in the first place to the fear that they are responsible for the contamination of the breathing air during welding of uncoated sheets made of different materials.

2.

Test equipment, test conditions

For a fundamental investigation it is necessary to detect the absolute quantity of fumes being produced for each welding spot. This implies that the measuring results are independent of working place geometries or ventilation conditions. Fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of an appropriate test equipment. The welding electrodes are surrounded by the walls of a chamber installed to collect all the fumes which are produced. The fumes are extracted by a fan through a host pipe. The fume particles are deposited on a glass fibre filter. By means of weighing out the filter before and after the fume deposition it is possible to determine the collected quantity of fume and to bring it into relationship with the number of welding spots.

66

Fig. 1 : schematic test equipment spot welding machine welding electrode sheet uncoiler chamber for the collection of foreign substances filter box with fume filter fan for fume extraction

67

Tables 1, 4, and 5 contain details of the test conditions for welding of unalloyed steel, pure nickel as well as Cr- and Ni-alloys.

Test results 3.1 Unalloyed steel The results are compiled on table 2. As reference quantity is indicated the nascent fume quantity for each welding spot during spot welding of greased sheets. The spot sequence amounted to 40 spots/min. Variation of the spot sequence within the range of 15 up to 90 spots/min. as maximum had no significant influence on the measuring results. The following influences on the nascent fume quantities are recognizable : 1. 2. 3Welding conditions for welding with and without splashing Welding conditions for short-, medium-, and long-time welding Electrode material

The influence mentioned under 1. is considarably strong. The measuring results with the copper-chromium-zirconium electrode under short-time conditions reveal that with splashing the fume emission is higher by a factor of about 00 compared with the welding conditions without splashing. In welding with splashing the emitted fume quantities are the highest under short-time conditions, but in contrast to that smaller under medium- and long-time conditions. The influence of the electrode material (influence mentioned unter 3.) is neglectable as compared with the two other influences. The copper-cobalt-beryllium electrode is to be excluded from this consideration, as it is mainly applied for sheet materials containing chromium-nickel, and not for unalloyed steel as in our case.

68

Table 1 : Conditions for resistance spot welding of unalloyed steel M l St 3 according to DIN 1624 with the dimensions i 0.8 40 ram2

Electrodes Electrode material according to DIN 44 759 Group A Class A 1/3 CuCd 1 Class A 2/1 CuCr Class A 2/2 CuCrZr Class A 3/1 CuCoB e 1 .2 Electrode shape according to DIN 44 750 Sheet 1 Shape with or without cylindrical attachment of 1 mm height and convex working surface 20 mm ' 1 7 , 5 mm R 75 mm 2. 2.1 Welding conditions Resistance spot welding according to DVS instruction sheet 2902, part 4 ihort-time Medium-time Long-time Welding current I s in kA Welding time t s in Per Electrode force Fg in daN

12 3 380 200

7 20 140

Spot sequence: 40 per minute in the mean.

69

An influence of the grease film on the fume formation does exist. In welding without splashing approx. 30 % more fumes are produced with greased sheets than with ungreased sheets. Welding of greased sheets is to be considered as the normal case in practice. The grease film on the sheets as delivered amounted to 1.3 mg per cm2 of the sheet surface. Thickening of the grease film to 5.7 mg/cm2 by additionally deposited drawing grease resulted in an increase of the fume emission from 0.15 to 0.65 mg/spot. The composition of the fume produced during spot welding was determined using the x-ray fluorescence analysis for the elements Fe, Cu, Cr, Zr, Cd, and Co, and the emission spectography for the beryllium portion. The results in table 3 show that relatively few components from the electrode material are carried to the breathing air. No hazard is to be expected from alloying elements of the electrode materials. Namely the fear of some users that carcinogenic substances such as beryllium occur in considerable concentrations when using a CuCoBe-electrode can be regarded as unfounded. The detection limit for beryllium was about 0.003 mg for a total fume quantity of 100 mg. As the fume concentration in mg/m3 in working rooms even with extremely unfavourable conditions is not allowed to exceed 6 mg/m 3 , which represents the general limit value for fumes valid in the Federal Republic of Germany, the maximum concentration of beryllium to be expected is in any case below 0.000 mg/m3. The main portion of the fumes is emitted from the sheet to be welded. During welding of unalloyed steels the fume contains basically iron oxides for which a relatively high MAK-value of 6 mg/m3 is applicable to the breathing air.

Table 2 : Welding fume quantities for each welding spot during resistance spot welding of unalloyed steel (0.8 ram), greased sheets, grease film of 1.3 mg/cma on the sheet surface Welding fume in mg/spot CuCrZr CuCr

Electrode material Welding conditions M with splashing without splashing with splashing with splashing and thickened grease film (5.7 mg/cm 2 ) without splashing with splashing without splashing

B e CuCo

CuCd 1

0,1)3 (9) 0,002 (1) 0,15 (6)

0,38 (1) 0,32 (3)

0,51 (2) 0,16 (1)

0,27 (3) 0,17 (2)

0,65 0,002 0,20 0,20

( (1) (1) (1)

0,17 (2)

0,05 (1)

In brackets: number of experiments = Short-time (see table 1) M = Medium-time (see table 1) L = Long-time (see table 1)

71

3.2 Pure nickel Experiments with 1 ran thick sheets of pure nickel were carried out in order to find out if a hazard is to be expected owing to nickel furae in the breathing air. Splashing, as it is frequently observed during welding of unalloyed steel, did not occur in spot welding of nickel sheets. Even with high welding currents, shortly before reaching the limit of electrode freezing, sparking is comparably rare. Nevertheless, the frequency of sparking exerts an essential influence on the formation of welding fumes. Table ' indicates the adjusting data and results. During welding ) with low current without sparking a minor fume quantity of only 0.008 mg/spot is generated. In case of occasional sparking (for example every 2 0 t n spot) the fume formation increases by the factor of 5. If sparking occurs more frequently - achieved by higher current with a CuCrZr-electrode - the fume quantity may increase by the factor of 37 as compared with welding without .splashing. In order to guarantee that the nickel concentration is surely below the TRK-value of 0.5 mg/m3 a local exhaustion should be applied, in the first place during welding of a great number of spots/time unit.

3.3 Cr- and Ni-containing materials Two types of material were welded on the conditions with and without splashing, respectively: X 5 CrNi 18 9, sheet thickness 0.8 mm, and X 8 CrNb 17, sheet thickness 0.6 mm. Table 5 contains the welding conditions and the results of the analysises. During welding with splashing the total fume quantities per welding point may exceed those produced in welding without splashing by more than a power of ten. In welding the material X 5 CrNi 18 9 the main components of the fume are iron, chromium, and nickel, in welding the material X 8 CrNb 17 the fume is composed essentially of iron and chromium. The content of copper which may arise from the electrode material was below the detection limit

72

Table 3 : Analysis of the fume composition in weight per cent

CuCrZr
Fe203 CuO Cr Cd Co Zr Be 96,0 3,8 0,04 0,4 -

CuCr

CuCoBe
99,6 0,4 0,03 0,003

- CuCd 1
99,4 0,5 0,1 -

detection limit in mg

99,3 0,6 0,1 -

0,5 0,1 0,05 0,05 0,1 0,003

Table 4 : Welding conditions and fume quantities during resistance spot welding of pure nickel

without sparking Number of experiments Electrode material Welding current (mean value) in kA Welding time in Per Electrode force in daN Welding fume in mg/spot 5 Cu Cr 17,0 5 440 0,008 (0,005)

occasional sparking

frequent sparking 1

CuCr 18,3

CuCrZr 20,5 5

440 0,040 (0,013)

440 0,293

73 of the process. The determination of the portion of hexavalent chromium compounds in the fume was accomplished, as mentioned in /I/, in observance of the working regulation 121. Scanning electron microscopic exposures of the fume deposited on the filters revealed that the size of the individual particles was mainly smaller than 3 um. In order to make possible the evaluation of the fume concentrations occurring in the breathing air due to welding, additional concentration measurements were carried out in a height of 1.60 m and with a distance of approx. 0.50 m from the welding place (material X 5 CrMi 18 9 ) . The room volume was 134 m 3 , ventilation was not applied. After a test time of 30 min. with a spot sequence of 40 spots per minute the fume concentration amounted to about 0.3 mg/m3. This value is fairly in accordance with the total fume concentration of O.36 pg/m3 calculated from the value of emission (table 5: 40.5 pg/spot, welding with splashing). In practice, a natural air exchange always takes place twice an hour in a room, even without technical ventilation equipment. If the spot sequence applied in the experiments is not exceeded, a hazard due to too high fume concentrations can be excluded. Nevertheless, welding without splashing should be the aim in any case, representing a suitable measure to reduce the formation of fume essentially.

4. Optimization of spot welding aiming at_reduced_formation_of fume The test results show which measures can be taken to optimize spot welding aiming at reduced formation of fume: 1. Reduction of splashing. This measure brings about an essential reduction of the fume emission which allows to weld uncoated unalloyed steels as well as Cr- and Ni-alloyed steels completely without taking other additional measures.

Table 5 : Welding conditions and fume quantities during resistance spot welding of materials containing Cr and Ni Material with/without splashing kA X5CrNil89 with without with X8CrNb17 without 6,5 5,5 8,9 7,5 Per 9 9 5 5 FE daN 350 350 280 280 total fume Fe2 0 3 quantity ug/spot ug/spot 10,5 3,3 36,6 6,2 24,0 0,3 0,06 3,4 1,6 24,0 Cu pg/spot 0,3 NiO pg/spot 2,5 Cr2 0 3 pg/spot 3,1 Cr03 pg/spot 4,0

electrodes applied for welding of X5CrNil89: CuCoBe Class A3/1 according to DIN 44 759 X8CrNb17: CuCrZr Class A2/2 according to DIN 44 759

always mean values from 4 to 5 test series with 200 to 1300 welding spots in each test series in dependence on the fume quantity

75

2.

Spot sequence to be kept moderate. A further advantage of this measure is that it lengthens electrode life. Short-time condition to be avoided, changing over to mediumtime conditions. This is also a suitable measure offering the advantage to reach longer electrode life.

3.

In principle it was stated that spot welding - owing to the comparably low fume emission - is not harmful to the environment compared with the competitive processes MMA - welding with covered electrodes and MIG- and MAG-welding.

LITERATURE IM Verfahren zur Bestimmung von sechswert igern Chrom. Hauptverbind der gewerbl. Berufsgenossenschaften, ZH 1/120.5 Ausg. 11.1981 Ar bei t svor schrift zur Bestimmung von Gesamt-Chrom und Chrom-VI in Schweirauchen. Schriftstck des Instituts fr Arbeits- und Sozial-Medizin und Poliklinik fr Berufskrankheiten der Universitt Erlingen-Nrnberg vom 1.9.1983

111

77
INVESTIGATION ON CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS IN WELDING FUMES OF COVERED ELECTRODES MINORU KOBAYASHI AND SHINSUKE TSUTSUMI Technical Department, Welding Division, Kobe Steel, Ltd. 100, Uragochi, Miyamae, Fujisawa, Kanagawa (Japan) INTRODUCTION In order to research the biological effect of welding fumes, the chemical composition is, of course, the most important information. However, crystalline Therefore, we materials in fumes are also useful and basic information. MMA) welding fumes by means of X-ray diffraction method. MATERIAL AND METHODS Tested welding materials were shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. Classification Type of Electrode Non-Lime Mild steel Lime Trial Non-Lime Stainless steel Lime TESTED WELDING MATERIAL Type of Covering Ilmenite Lime-titania Iron powder - Iron oxide Conventional lime Modified lime Mn02 covering Fe23 covering S1O2 (Quartz) covering Conventional lime-titania Modified lime-titania Conventional lime AWS Specification E6027 E7016 E7016 Diameter mm 4.0 4.0 4.0 E308-16 (20Cr-10Ni) E430-16 (17Cr) ER308 5.0 5.0 1.6

investigated crystalline materials in covered electrode (hereinafter called

Solid wire for MIG welding

MMA and MIG welding were carried out on 180A AC and 300A DC (electrode positive) respectively. Ar-2%02 was used for shielding gas on MIG welding. Welding was done in the Japanese fume box. Fumes were collected on filter paper at the top of

the box and collected fumes were swept off by a brush. Chemical analysis and X-ray diffraction analysis of fumes were carried out after drying at 110C for one hour. The X-ray diffraction was performed using monochromatic CuKct obtained by a monochrometer at 50KV and 180mA. RESULTS Chemical composition of these fumes were shown in Tables 2 and Z(, each element is shown as a single oxide form regardless of its v<^laj>. The X-^ diffraction patterns of the fumes were shown in Figs. 1 to 4.

78

Mild steel MMA welding fumes Nonlime type fumes. The feature of these fumes is that iron oxide content was Fe30, was detected in

about 50% of the total without reference to covering type. all fumes.

In ilmenite fumes, whose manganese oxide content was higher than the

others, MnFe204 was also detected. Crystal structure of both Fe3U4 and MnFe204 is spinel. was not formed in the fumes. But the solid solution The proportion of these two spinel materials

TABLE 2. CHEMICA L COMPOSITION OF MILD STEEL WELDING FUMES Type of Covering Ilmenite Limetitania Iron powder Iron oxide Conventional lime Modified lime Fe 2 0 3 46.54 53.81 42.82 13.69 19.55 Si02 19.35 18.15 32.10 3.70 5.95 MnO 11.24 5.16 7.97 3.82 4.49 CaO 1.72 1.39 1.37 12.25 13.35 MgO 0.53 2.18 1.32 0.97 6.76 Na20 6.20 7.01 7.75 10.11 24.90 K20 6.44 7.77 4.40 25.20 3.65 F Cl

(%)
C0 2

17.50 11.54

1 .00 1.06

8.3 6.5

a) IJmerlte

J : MtlFe20<

) 2 covering

\AAJ

v.

20

30 F

i|0

50

60

c) L i m e t l t a n l a

20

_i

30

KO

50

60

20

30

IO 2 (deg.)

50

60

(deg.)

F i g . l Xray diffraction p a t t e r n of nonlime type M A welding fumes. M

Fig.2 Xray d i f f r a c t i o n pattern of t r i a l M A welding fumes. M

79
seemed to change depending on manganese content in fumes. Therefore, the for-

mation of spinel material was checked using the trial electrodes covered with single component material. In Mn2 covering fumes, whose MnO content became In Fe23 covering fumes, which contained Therefore, as manganese content

about 25%, only MnFe20, was detected.

little manganese, only Fe-jO^ was identified.

in fumes increased, spinel type material changed from FeO^ to MnFe0,. In quartz covering fumes, Fe^O/ was detected. As a broad peak was observed in

this chart, other elements seemed to form amorphous materials together with SiG^. Lime type fumes. In conventional type fumes, K2O content was about 25%. The

modified type, which is designed to contain no potassium in the covering, showed a Na2 content of about 25%, and acute biological effects of the fumes can be considerably lowered. The feature of lime type fumes was that Fe2o content was In lime type fumes, F -O^, e

less than 20% and F content was remarkably high.

MnFe2,, NaF, CaF2, KCaF}, and MgO have been reported before.

In addition to

these crystalline materials, K2CO3 and Na2CC>3 were detected in conventional and modified type fumes respectively. The water soluble portion of the lime type

fumes is remarkably higher compared with nonlime type fumes, and we believe that this is an important factor of the difference of their biological effect.

c) Conventional type
F J A C
E L K2C0j Fej04 MiiFeiO E

Kf

|
b

NaF
CF 2 KCcFj KC 1 L c; ta,

f fl
3

L J

cl
.

Nc2C0j Fe4 Nr.Fe204 NaF CaF2 L C 0 KCl J A^\

60

: F: J: A: C: : L:

" '
jF J
F

/
CJ

1
A

Ml
I
1

Nl

ti IN

20

50

20

30

50

UI
60
1 1

(eg.)

(d 9.)

Fig.3

Xray diffraction pattern of lime type MMA welding fumes

Stainless steel welding fumes The feature of lime type fumes was that alkali content was remarkably high. is noteworthy that the chemical composition of the stainless steel fumes is similar to lime type fumes even if the covering type was limetitania; high alkali and low heavy metal oxides. Commercially available E308 and E430 fumes contained Modified E308 fumes But soluble chromium It

5 to 7% Cr23 and the majority of which was water soluble. contained higher chromium content than conventional fumes. in modified fumes was extremely low.

In MIG welding fumes, chromium content was

the highest, but no soluble chromium was contained. In conventional fumes, F e 3 0 ^ , NaF and C a F 3 were identified. We detected ^ C r O ^

80

TABLE 3. Welding Material E 308 E 430 Modified E 308 ER 308 Total Soluble Total Soluble Total Soluble Total Soluble

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STAINLESS STEEL WELDING FUMES Cr203 7.26 5.44 4.85 4.41 11.84 0.66 23.31 tr.

() %
F
17.66 17.5 17.46 10.9 10.52 3.80

NiO
0.59 0.02 0.03 <0.01 0.87 tr. 3.97 <0.01

Fe203 6.89 0.14 10.57 0.31 13.70 tr. 52.12 0.13

MnO
9.04 0.59 1.52 <0.01 13.81 tr. 15.81 0.17

Na 2 0 2.87 2.80 29.99 26.64 1.79 0.98

2
22.14 22.04 1.64 1.56 0.96 0.66

Li 2 0

4.73 3.33

b) EH3016

Fig.4

Xray diffraction pattern of stainless steel welding fumes

and Na 2 Cr0 in E308 and E430 conventional fumes respectively, and the existence of these compounds is the most important when considering biological effects. modified E308 fumes, N a 2 0 and K 2 0 content was reduced as far as possible, Fe^A was the principal crystal component, and water soluble crystal containing Cr was not detected. Modified E308 fumes were similar to MIG welding fumes, and Further, these fumes In

showing that the biological effect may also be similar.

consisting of spinel type crystal may be similar to nonlime type mild steel fumes.

CONCLUSIONS In nonlime fumes, Fe3^ and MnFe 2 0, were the principal crystalline materials. In limetype fumes, FejO/, MnFe20,, NaF, CaF 2 , and KCaF3 were identified. and NajCOo were detected in conventional and modified fumes respectively. In stainless steel fumes, K 2 C r 0 , and Na.,Cr0; were detected in conventional E30816 and E43016 fumes respectively. fied in the fumes. Fe30,, NaF, and CaF 2 were also identi 2 0

Fe30^ was the principal crystalline material in modified

E30816 and MIG welding fumes.

81

XRAY DIFFRA CTION AND XRA Y EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY IN CHEMICA L COMPOUND ANALYSIS OF WELDING FUMES V.P. TANNINEN, K. HYVRINEN, A. GREKULA, and PL. KA LLIOMKI Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, 00290 Helsinki 29, Finland

INTRODUCTION The chemical composition of welding fumes is determined with numerous instrumental methods. The contents of different elements, and their variations in different welding processes, can be considered well established; however, knowledge of chemical1 compounds is inadequate. This is mainly because of the complexity of the sample that contains many particle populations with amorphous and crystalline phases , the low concentrations of different compounds and the complexity of the compound structure. Conventional instrumental methods are therefore insufficient and should be replaced by specific modifications or combinations of different analysing techniques. Xray diffraction is a well standardized method that is widely used for the compound analysis of welding fumes. Low concentrations and large particle size distribution of a sample typically cause a very indistinct diffraction pattern with diffuse overlapping peaks. The first step in overcoming this problem is to find the optimal resolution of the method. This can be done using an effective monochromator device if highly monochromatized synchrotron radiation is not available /l/. In addition the improved experimental data can be handled by the analytical profile fitting method which can finally reveal the real peak positions and relative intensities. Xray spectroscopy is not applicable to direct compound analysis. However, from the fine structure of emission it is possible to determine the average valence of transition metals /2/.This method is particularly promising for studying the spinel compounds, which contain atoms capable of being present in different oxidation states. We have used high resolution Xray diffraction to demonstrate its advantages in revealing overlapping diffraction peaks in the diffraction pattern of welding fumes generated by manual metal arc welding of mild steel.In order to determine the valence of

82
iron and fumes. EXPERIMENTAL Xray diffraction set up The spectral broadening caused by the , component of the , , doublet
11

thereby

to aid

compound

analysis, we have

applied

the

Xray emission fine structure studies to four different welding

radiation

is

eliminated

using

curved

and

ground

quartz crystal as the monochromator crystal. The crystal disperses the doublet, and radiation is then separated with a device that permits the fine adjustment of the special slit system. Furthermore, instead of the conventional copper Xray tube we used a chromium one. This widens the distance between the diffraction peaks because its wavelength is longer than that of copper. The equatorial cross section of the main parts of the diffraction geometry is seen in Fig.l. Fig.l Equatorial cross section of the main parts of the diffraction geometry: 1) Xray source, 2) monochromator, 3) collimator slit, 4) incident beam Soller slit, 5) specimen, 6) diffracted beam Soller slit 7) receiving slit, 8) counter, 9) diffTactometer circle and 10) focusing circle. Profile fitting The overlapping of peaks is very typical of the diffraction patterns obtained from welding fumes. Mathematical methods are, therefore, needed to enable us to find the true peak positions and relative intensities. We used the profile fitting procedure in which Voigtian shapes, i.e., convoluted Gaussian and Lorentzian profiles, were fitted to the diffraction patterns. The parameters, such as the Gaussian and Lorentzian widths and the peak positions, were varied until the difference curve (measuredfitted) attained statistical tolerances. Xray spectrometry The Xray were emission using measurements electron beam were made with (12 a demountable spectra 5 mA ) kV Xray tube connected to a flat crystal generated spectrometer. The

excitation

83

and an LiF analysing crystal of second order. Here, too, the spectra measured were submitted to a profile fitting procedure using the Voigt function fit. The principle of the measurement is illustrated in Fig.2.

ro DATA HANDLING 'SYSTEM

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION X-ray diffraction generated

Fig.2 Principle of X-ray spectroscopy.

A strip of the diffraction pattern of the welding by manual metal arc welding of mild steel

fume

sample

is seen in

Fig.3. The upper curve in the figure was obtained using conventional measuring geometry with a graphite monochromator and a copper X-ray tube. As seen, there are two diffraction maxima. The lower curve shows the gain in resolution when the measurement is performed with optimal instrumentation, i.e. a special monochromatization device and a chromium X-ray tube. In this case seven diffraction maxima are resolvable.

Fig. 3. Strip of the diffraction pattern generated by manual metal arc welding of mild steel. The measurement was performed using (a) conventional and (b) improved instrumentation (see text).

0.30 d value (nm)

The experimental curve obtained by the modified X-ray diffraction geometry described above was then processed by the profile fitting method. Figure 4 shows the Voigtian shape fit. It gives the exact positions of the peaks and their relative intensities.

84

S " ^ ~ 3.Q

!
'1'" '', 'il'li.i

(0 5K 'w
C

2J

1 1 /*\
1
\ /

** 1 c '

1/

\ \
\j

'/ '/ \V/

I

Fig.4 Voigt function fit to the measured data of curve (b) in Fig.3.
Valence of iron by Xray The average valence spectroscopy iron in welding

0.29

0.30 d value (nm)

0.31

of

fumes

is

determined

by

detailed analysis of the that is sensitive of Kg to the , _ and

emission fine structure. The is the the energy profile

parameter between fitted, from the

valence

separation has been

the peaks

3 '. Once

the energy separation can be calculated with good accuracy experimental curves. The differences welding fumes in the average valences of iron in four in Fig.5. The valence inert gas welding is of by low lowest

different (2.16) in

fumes are given by

generated

metal

stainless the manual avarage

steel metal

(MIG/SS) and highest arc welding of to

(2.74) in fumes generated steel (MM A /SS). The

stainless the

valence

corresponds

spinel

structure from Xray diffraction

(Fe, , Ni)(Fe, Cr, Mn)_0. diffraction. results, It is high concluded average such

which can also be inferred that with the aid of the

the

valence of iron found in MMA /SS fumes indicates as KFeF, and FeO,.
3

iron compounds
Fe 3

^\
2.5

MMA/SS

MMA/MS | MIG/MS

Fig.5. Energy separation and the average valence of iron in standard samples and four welding fumes.

-i

Fe

(eV)

REFERENCES 1. V.P. Tanninen, Nuclear Instruments and Methods 206, 587 (1983). 2. A .S. Koster and H. Mendel, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 31, 2511 (1970).

85

QUANTITATIVE ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY MICROANALYSIS OF WELDING FUMES AALE GREKULA (1), RAIJA PEURA (2) AND SEPPO J. SIVONEN (2) (1) Laboratory of Measurement Technology, (2) Institute of Electron Optics University of Oulu, SF-90570 Oulu, Finland INTRODUCTION Welding fumes consist of solid chemistry. particles varying in size, morphology and Not even a single sub-micron-sized particle is homogeneous but often

consists of core crystals in an amorphous matrix or a shell structure etc. (1-3). When fume particles in lung tissue or in a cell after in vitro cytotoxicity testing are analysed, relevant conclusions on the biochemical processes involved can only be made if the original physico-chemical structure of the particles is known. MATERIALS AND METHODS Manual metal arc (MMA) and metal inert gas (MIG) welding fumes from mild and stainless steels (MS, SS, electrode coat basic and rutile, shield gas C0 and Ar + 2% O-,, respectively) produced with optimum welding parameters were characterized using a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS). Samples for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were collected on carbon-coated Formvar film on copper grids directly from the fumes generated during welding. The fume particles were classified into populations on the basis of the morphology of the agglomerates and the sizes of the individual particles. These populations were then studied by quantitative energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis using a STEM/EDS at 100 kV, a method which enables elements from Na to U to be detected. The characteristic peak intensities (I) of the elements were converted to weight fractions (C) by the Cliff-Lorimer ratio method:

in which k , is the relative sensitivity factor between elements a and b. k . values were determined experimentally for the elements from Na to Si, whereas the factors used by Cliff (4) were adopted for elements heavier than Si. An absorption correction was applied to all analyses. RESULTS The main particle populations observed are illustrared in Figures 1 and 2 and the corresponding EDS analyses shown in Table 1.

86
MIG fumes The morphology of the particles was fairly similar with both types of material, but some differences were still found. All the cluster particles in MS case were The spherical but in SS welding clusters of angular crystals were also observed. silicon content of the angular crystals was 3 - 5 % by weight, whereas the spherical cluster particles in the same fumes contained about 15 % Si. The manganese content was always lowest in the smallest particles in the granular networks (type b in Table 1), while the reverse was often true for nickel. The composition of the large spheres (diam.~ 1 p m , not seen in the illustrations) was very close to that of the original filler metal. MMR fumes The morphology of the particles in the MMA/MS (basic electrode) and MMA/SS fumes (rutile electrode) was virtually the same. The clusters of globules (D in Fig. 2) were superior in numbers to the other types and had a metal content between 20 and 30 %. The granular networks in these fumes resembled those in MIG fumes, but the -metal content varied between 70 and 85 %. The semi-transparent blobs possessed

Fig. 1. TEM micrograph of MIG/MS welding fumes showing clusters of globules (A), granular network (B) and a chain (C) .

87

TABLE 1 CHEMISTRY OF PARTICLE POPULATIONS WELDING FUMES IN W%

Fumes

Population

Na Si

K Ca Ti Cr Mn Fe Ni

Ref. to figures

cluster of globules granular network type a MIG/MS " chain large sphere granular network MIG/SS cluster large sphere b

3
3 3

20 4 18 3 21 4 10 2

28 52 1 5 12 70 4 5 79 4 8 82 3 6

9 A, Fig 1
6 10 , Fig 1 , Fig 1

2 1 4 3 1

11 C, Fig 1

1
18 9 10 7 1 <1 3 10 27 2 6 12 7 4 2 71 2 16 3 10 3 7 13 19 43 4 10 17 18 5 29 9 7 7 23 6 2 2 5 4 35 4 64 8 17 9 22 9 2 8 3 11 3 2 2 2 5 3 29 9 7 6 1 1

1 98
23 10 9 7 41 8 5 10 4 2 14 1

3
18 like B 28 like A

22 25 40 9 18 14 16 1 69 2 7 22 3 11 3 9 3 10 1 85 2 11 7 6 15 8

cluster of globules semitrans parent blob MMA/MS granular network large sphere

5 3 2 1

30 D, Fig 2 14 E, Fig 2 14 F, Fig 2

cluster of globules ** semitrans parent blob MMA/SS granular network large sphere**

5 3 2 1

5 9 1 3

1 11 like D 9 like E
11 6

2 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 11 4 7 8 1 48 1 15 9 16 5 11

6 like F
17

9 24 6 12

* Incidence of population in fumes of each type Rating: 1 = very few, ... , 5 = predominant ** Al = 2...3 % = number of particles analysed

Fig. 2. TEM micrograph of MMA/MS welding fumes shewing clusters of globules (D), semi-transparent blobs (E) and a granular network (F). various core structures and were easily degraded under the electron beam. composition to the clusters. The figures in Table 1 indicating the incidence of the various populations in fumes of each type should be related to the particular sampling method used and are probably not representative of the types in general (1). REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. R.M. Stern (1977) Publication 77.05, The Danish Welding Institute P.J. Hewitt and C.N. Gray (1983) Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:727-732 B. Loberg and R. Harryson (1980) Lgesrapport 29/1, Hgskolan i Lule G. Cliff (1984) University of Manchester, private communication The

large spheres (diam. ~ 1 um, not seen in the illustrations) were quite similar in

89

ASSESSMENT OF THE USE OF ELECTRON FOR STUDIES OF SOLID FUME PARTICLES

SPECTROSCOPY AND

SPUTTERING

ERKKI MINNI Turku Regional Institute of Occupational Health Hmeenkatu 10, SF-20500 Turku, Finland

INTRODUCTION In addition to the total particle yield and particle size distribution the elemental contents of the particles are essential for characterization of the fumes. Sometimes the information of the chemical states of the constituent elements are important, e.g. in the case of chromium. The acute toxicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of hexavalent chromium compounds seem to be more pronounced than those of trivalent chromium compounds due to different capabilities for penetrating biological membranes . The surface chemistry of the fume particles is also essential for determination of the toxicity of the fume because the surface composition and oxidation states normally differ remarkably from the bulk properties. METHODS The electron spectroscopic methods used for applied work are X-ray p_hotoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). In XPS the sample is bombarded with soft monochromatic X-rays, normally AlKa- or MgKa-radiation causing photoelectric effect in atoms of the specimen i.e. electrons are removed from bound energy levels. By measuring the kinetic energies of emitted electrons and knowing the energy of the excited radiation it is possible to determine the binding energies of the emitted electrons before ionization. One emission line in the spectrum is obtained for each occupied level which can be ionized by the primary radiation used. XPS spectrum is therefore relatively simple to analyze. The vacancy created by photoelectric effect has two ways to till by an outer electron of the atom: one is filling

90

associated with photon emission (Xray fluorescence) another is filling associated with emission of one extra electron called Auger electron. The A uger spectra are quite complicated in comparison to the XPS spectra because of the many possible combinations of the two vacansies appearing after A uger emis sion. A uger spectra are normally excited by electron beam. A typical electron emission spectrum of metallic chromium is presented in Fig. 1. The spectrum is measured using AlKceradiation and the deexcitation process, A uger spectrum is, of course, also seen in the spectrum.

Cr
5 o O _| <

\
CM CM

CM

S
Q. <*

tM

r%vV'

T3

Q. (ft

CO " O U

VN^

l i l

fl
i

600 B.E.(eV)

1000

Fig. 1.

The photoelectron spectrum of metallic Cr,

Both of these spectroscopies suit for qualitative elemental analysis for all elements except H and He. The areas of the emission lines are proportional to the compositions of the elements making the elemental quantitative analysis possible. Especially XPS is usually employed in oxidation state deter mination by observing the socalled chemical shifts, i.e. small changes in energies of XPS lines. The 2p . line of metallic chromium, trivalent and hexavalent chromium oxides are pres ented in Fig. 2; chemical shifts are clearly resolved.

91

One of the most important properties as a spectroscopy surface sensitivity of electron spectroscopies.

is the have

Electrons in the typically

very short mean free paths region atomic normally layers analyzed means

in solid materials and mean that free paths all are

energy five comes

which

almost

information

from the few outermost atomic layers from the surface. By causing possible states combining etching) to sputtering and electron (normally A r ion bombardment it is

spectroscopic in

measurements and

study

the

changes

compositions of

oxidation (depth

perpendicularly

to the surface

the particles,

profiling, D P ) .

Cr2p 3 2 / / 1 / I

; (

I >

\
\ \ ' l

> Cr Cr,O3 2U CrO,

'
V
\

'

575 B E (eV)

580

Fig. 2.

Cr2p3/2 photoelectron line measured from Cr, trivalent 0 ^ 0 3 and hexavalent C r O . 2

metallic

DISCUSSION As stated before electron spectroscopies and DP seem to be an answer ty of to very many problems; one advantage the sample: some atomic layers on is also the quanti Unfortu

the

filter.

nately these methods have also disadvantages. The structure of A uger many make interferences the spectra the is complicated and lines (e.g. A lso OCr, the there MnFe) exist which of

between

interpretation

difficult.

information

chemical states in A ES is generally poor.

92
In electron spectroscopic measurement the sample must be in principle conducting material which is not the situation with fumes (on filter). This sometimes requires extra preparation. The measuring time of a A uger spectrum is short, some min utes, but the time for measuring of a XPS spectrum is, depend ing of the content of the element, from some minutes to about half an hour. Both XPS and A ES need high vacuum which takes always time. This means that XPS and A ES will newer come routine techniques for a large number of samples, they will always be methods for special applications. If the DPtechnique is needed it results in some extra prob lems. The sputtering process is always selective: different elements have different sputtering yields. A lso the same metal has normally different sputtering yields in different alloys and compounds. This means enrichment and depletion of some elements on the surface. Sputtering destroys very often the crystalline structure and makes the surface amorphous. In some cases it causes the reduction of the material on the surface to lower oxidation state. If sputtering is used for characteriza tion of the surface always must be known the effects of the sputtering in that particular case. CONCLUSION Due to many problems electron spectroscopic results must be treated with adequate caution, especially if sputtering has been used, taking into account all possible pitfalls of the interpretation. In addition to electron diffraction studies these methods, however, often give quite a good picture of the chemical structure of the fume particles . REFERENCES 1. 2. IA RC monograph series (1980) 23:205 Minni E, A itio A , A laLaurila (1981) In: Mansikka K, Hietarinta J (eds) Proceedings of the XV A nnual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, Department of Physical Sciences, Report Series No R15, University of Turku, SF2500 Turku, Finland, p. 7:3 Minni E, Gustafsson TE, Koponen J Aerosol Sci 15:5766 M, Kalliomki PL (1984)

3.

93

SCANNING ELECTRON

MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON FLAME CUTTING AND

WELDING FUMES IN A STEEL FOUNDRY

TOM E. GUSTAFSSON, ANTTI TOSSAVAINEN and ANTERO Institute of Occupational Health, Finland INTRODUCTION In steel foundries cast cleaning is performed by three methods flame cutting, arc gouging, and grinding. The purpose of flame cutting and arc gouging is to cut off excess material from the casts before surface grinding. Manual metal arc welding is used to add material in places, where cast dimensions are less than the desired. The manual metal arc welding process uses slag (K, Nasilicate, rutile, and fluorides) to protect the weld against oxidation. These slagforming compounds are present in the fumes originating from steel welding. Chemical composition of different types of welding fumes and fume particle analyses with automatic particle analysis systems have been reported extensively(1,2). Airborne dusts from these processes contain fumes in the size ranae of 0.01 to 1 y m, which tend to form chain agregates, and U larger spherical particles in the size range of 1 to 1/j m from the molten phase. The enrichment of chromium, manganese, and nickel in to these particles was studied with scanning electron micros copy and Xray microanalysis. MATERIAL and METHODS Arc gouging, flame cutting and welding was applied to acid resistant steel cast cleaning (23% Cr, 5% Ni, and 1% M n ) . Fumes were collected on Nucleporepolycarbonate filters (pore size 0.2,um) with sampling pumps operating at 2 L/min. Secondary elec tron images were obtained with a scanning electron microscope (JEOL 100CX, AS1D4). Analysis of Cr and Ni contents was done with a Xray microanalyser (PGTIII system) linked to a microcomputer (HP 216). In the analysis K,peaks were measured at Xray count rate of 1000 counts per second. The net peak areas and particle diameter were collected in the microcomputer for further statis tical analysis. Fortyfive particles of each sample were analysed and in total 16 elements from each particle were measured.

94

The criterion for the classification of nickel enriched particles was that the Ni/Fepeak ratio is 3 times higher than the corres ponding Cr/Fepeak ratio and vice versa for the chromium enriched particles. For total chromium and nickel analysis in the fumes ( atomic absorption analysis), samples were collected on Millipore A A WP037 cellulose esther filters. Acid dissolution was performed with nitric and hydrochloric acids. The residue particles were also studied with scanning electron microscopy and Xray microanalysis for their chromium and nickel contents. RESULTS and DISCUSSION In Figure 1a is presented a typical arc gouging fume sample containing larger spherical particles in addition to the aggregates. The corresponding Xray spectrum is presented in Figure 1b. Most of the fume particles are less than 1/m in diameter, but the sample contains also larger (1 to 1pm) spherical particles with high chromium and nickel content. Electron microscopic studies showed that fumes from arc goug ing, welding and flame cutting contain spherical particles with size distribution as shown in Figure 2. In these particles chromium and nickel can be enriched in to separate particles. About 10% of the spherical particles were either chromium or nickel enriched, Figure 3. The airborne dust concentrations measured by personal sampling during three consecutive work days varied from 3 to 20 mg/m and the acidsoluble chromium and nickel concentrations ranged from 60 to 790>ig/m and from 50 to 1100 /tg/m respectively.

Figure 1a. Arc gouging fumes Figure lb. Xray microanalysis from acid resistant steel,3000x. spectrum of the fumes.

95

Ldi m

.
Figure 3. Chromium and nickel enriched particles in the fumes.

Figure 2. Size distribution of the analysed spherical particles.

The detection limits for chromium and nickel in iron dust matrix with Xray microprobe analysis are about 3% an 10%, res pectively. In case of arc gouging fumes of acid resistant steel the microprobe results for chromium varied from 8 to 10% and the AASresults from 2 to 3%. This indicates that the residue partic les after acid dissolution contain chromium. In Figures 4 ac are presented the secondary electron image of residue particles and the iron and chromium dotted map images over the specimen area. In Figure 4d is presented a Fe,Cr,Ni,Mn particle, which has undergone dendritic solidification. This type of solidification occurs when the molten particle is considerably undercooled below its solidification temperature. The shape of the residue particles range from spheres to hollow shells, Figure 5. The hollow Cr containing shells indicate that partial disso lution had occured and that these particles have originally consis ted of two or more Crphases of which the Fe,Cr,,phase was not acid soluble. In contrast to the chromium analysis of manual metal arc welding fumes of stainless steel a more elaborate dis solution technique is needed for the chemical analysis of chromium in arc gouging and flame cutting fumes of acid resistant steel (3).

96

Figure 4a. Residue particles after AAS.

Figure 4b. Fe-K_/ dot map.

Figure 4c. Cr-K, dot map.

Figure 4d. Fe,Cr,n,iparticle.

Figure 5a. A sphere-type Fe,Cr,Mn,Ni-particle.

Figure 5b. A shell-type Fe,Cr,Mn,Ni-particle.

97
CONCLUSIONS Scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis can be applied in industrial hygiene to study the element enrichment in particles. Also it can be used to study residue particles after acid dissolution. Ten percent of the spherical particles in cast cleaning fumes from acid resistant steel are highly chromium or nickel enriched. From arc gouging and flame cutting of the steel arises chromium containing particles, which are not acid soluble. REFERENCES 1. 2. Ulfvarson U (1981) Scand j work environ health. Vol 7, supplement 2, pp 1-28. Fasiska EJ, Wagenblast HW, Nasta M (1983) Characterization of arc welding fumes. Report. Safety and Health Committee. American Welding Society, Miami, Florida, USA, PP 1-11. Moretn J, Betteley J Mathers H, Nicholls A, Perry RW, Ratcliffe DB, Svensson L (1983) Ann. occup. Hyg., Vol 27, No. 2, pp 137-156.

3.

99

METHODOLOGICAL INVESTIGA TION OF POLLUTANTS IN WELDING FUMES ERIC ANSOBORLO, RAYMOND BERTRAND, JACQUES CHA LA BREYSSE DPS/SHI, CEA , Pierrelatte, .P. 38, Pierrelatte, 26701 Cedex, France INTRODUCTION This study of shielded Metal arc welding (SMA W) using two solid electrodes provides a methodological investigation of pollutants and toxicity of welding fumes. This paper describes several methods for pollutants assessment as (a) the sampling procedures for the SMAW process and the particle size distributions (b) the elemental composition for the two solid electrodes and a thermodynamic pattern of different elements, performed by the study of vaporization flows (c) the biolo gical behaviour of two compounds Chromium and Manganese by means of an in vitro model using a synthetic liquid and giving a good approach to the lung System (see ref. 6 ) . MATERIAL A ND METHODS Sampling procedures and particle Size distributions Sampl ing procedures. Samples for analytical procedures and weight measurements are collected by filtration on glass fiber absolute filters with high capture ef ficiency. To indentify the granulometrie characteristics, a cascade impactor Andersen Mark II is used. Particle size distributions. Particle size determination has been carried out on fumes from SMAW process with a SAF 18.8 electrode (rutile, basic coating). The mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMA D) is calculated and found to be around 1.5 pm with Andersen Sampling see Ref 9.1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is also used to study the particles morphology and reveals agglomerates made up from smaller spherical particles with a geometric median diameter of 0.2 jjm. Results are shown in Table 1. TABLE I MASS MEDIAN DIA METER FROM 3 DIFFERENT PA RTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS Counter Coulter A ndersen MMD (50 %) \ tf'g * 5.5 2.5 1.5 2.4 SEM 0.2 1.5

* (Tg is the geometric standard deviation.

100
Elemental composition and thermodynamic investigation Elemental composition. Chemical properties are performed on electrodes and fumes in order to compare the elements development. Table 2 gives fractionation factors of different metals either in the solid electrodes or in the welding aerosols. This elemental analysis is practised on SAF 18.8 and OK 48.10 electrodes with the SMAW process. TABLE II
RELATIVE ELEMENTAL COMPOSITIONS {expressed as percent of the total mass of aerosol)

OF ELECTRODES AND WELDING FUMES OK 48.10 Electrode FUMES

Fe
65.2 4.5

Cr
17.3 4.5

N i
12.1 0.4

Mn

Si

SAF 18.8

Fe

Cr

Ni

Mn

Si 0.08 6

0.8 0.5 4.5 4.6

Electrode 49.1 FUMES 4

16.6 6.5 2.7 4 0.3 6

The results show a weak amount of Fe, Cr, Ni and an important rate of Mn and Si compared to initial composition of the electrodes See Ref 12.5.9. The X Ray analysis gives the main compounds in the fumes : KCa F3, CaF2 coming from the electrode coating, K2 Cr04, Mn02, S1O2 and Fe23. Thermodynamic investigation. This paper provides a concise resume of a thermodynamic study realised on the electrode OK 48.10. The main Hypothesis is the presence of two interfaces [Stainless steel - Oxide] and [Oxide - Oxygen]. The most important for calculation is the interface [Oxide - Oxygen]. Following this hypothesis, vaporization flows 0 are estimated using oxides pressure values as function of activities and thermodynamic dissociation energies see Ref 2.3. Table 3 gives the results for different elements and the most probable compounds appearing. TABLE III VAPORIZATION FLOWS (given 2000K 0 g/cm2/j in g/cm2/hour) FOR DIFFERENT ELEMENTS

Cr
Cr03 910-1

Fe

Mn

Si

N i

FeO Mn02 SiO Ni H T 1 3.4102 1.6102 0.4

These results confirm the elemental composition and show that Fe, Cr, Ni have low vapour pressure and Mn and Si have high vapour pressure. Dependence of fume generation rate on welding current is very important because it can change vapo-

101
rization temperature and all thermodynamic parameters see Ref 4.9.10. It is generally agreed that the principal mechanism is elemental and oxide vaporization, followed by extremely rapid condensation to form particles. For example FeO becomes Fe23 and SiO gives S1O2 see Ref 9.11. In vitro solubility test of Manganese and Chromium In vitro work pattern, (parallel through flow system). The device used consists of a leaching solvent which is Gamble solution see Ref 6.7, a peristaltic pump assuring an optimal flow of 0.1 ml/mn, a thermostated bath at 37C and a cell which is a lucite cell with a volume of 5 ml. Inside this cell, fig 4, is placed a dust sandwich, held between two filters of 0.22 urn. The solvent leaches the dust through the lower filter, similar to the lung tissue and is collected at the out put on a fraction collector.

Compressed

. .

dust sandwich

Solvent out 1 cm Fig.4. In vitro solubility cell containing dust sandwich

Analytical methods. Two analytical methods are performed : atomic absorption for Cr, Ni and Fe and a colorimetrie method to determine Cr (VI) using diphenylcarbazide see Ref 8. Results. Nine tests are carried out on Chromium and Manganese for a period between 5 hours to 20 days. Varying parameters are the dust weight (from 4 mg to 60 mg depending on the sampling time) the apparent surface of the deposited dust 2 2 (from 2 cm to 9 cm ) , the flow (0.1 ml/min and 1 ml/min) to determine the fast kinetics of Cr. Quantitative analysis of Cr and Mn is practised on the fraction collector and on the remaining filter when the test is finished. These experimental results allow to establish average dissolution kinetics of Cr and Mn as function of time fig 5 - 6 . The Chromium curve has an asymptote and indicates that 80 % of Cr is quickly dissolved (around 1 day). The dissolved Chromium is Cr (VI) and the 15 % of Cr found on the filter after the test is probably Cr (III) see Ref 9. The Quicker kinetic of Cr Fig 6, has been practised for 5 hours and shown that 50 % of Cr is dissolved in 25 minutes. In regard to Mn the solubility is lower and the regression calculation can be presented as the following power formula Y=6.32 t n 0.401 where Y is the curulative dissolved Mn and t the elapsed time in days.

102

100

>
o

10

15

20

time (days)

time (hours)

Fig 5.

Average k i n e t i c o f Cr and Mn

Fig 6. Average k i n e t i c of Cr (5 hours)

REFERENCES
1. B oulaud D, Madeleine G, Vendel J Study of M u l t i s t a g e s cascade Impactors CEN/Fontenay aux Roses. 2. B rewer L, Rosenblatt G (1960) D i s s o c i a t i o n energies o f gaseous metal dioxides M Department o f chemistry and Lawrence R a d i a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Berkeley 4 3. 4. Janaf (1971) Thermochemical Tables, Dow Chemical Company. 2nd ED Midland Michigan

Malmquist KG, Johansson G I , B omgard M, Akselsson KR (1985) Processdependent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of welding fume p a r t i c l e s . Danish welding I n s t i t u t e . Int. conference Koponen M, Gustafsson T, Kalliomki P.L, Pyy L (1981) Am. pp 596 601 Cooke , Holt F.B (1974) Healt physics Vol 27 pp 6977 Ind. Hyg. Ass Vol 35 n4 pp 229233 Ind. Hyg Ass J (42)

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Kanapilly GM, Raabe OG, Goh CHT (1973) Health physics Vol 24 pp 497507 Abell MT, Carlberg JR (1974) Am.

American Welding Society (1979) Fumes and gases i n the welding environment Miami Florida I n s t i t u t e of welding Doc V I I I

10. Kobayashi M, Maki S, Ohe J , (1976) I n t e r n a t i o n a l pp 670 676 11. Heile RF, H i l l

D (1975) Welding Journal 54(7) pp 201s 210s C

12. Notes S c i e n t i f i q u e s et techniques de 1'INRS (1980) Note 25

103

THE GROWTH OF A WELDING FUME AS A FUNCTION OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY MATS S. AHLBERG1, HANSCHRISTEN HANSSON2 AND INGRID FNGMARK1 National Defence Research Institute, NBCdepartment, S901 82 Ume, Sweden " Department of Nuclear Physics, Lund Institute of Technology, Slvegatan 14, S223 62 Lund, Sweden

INTRODUCTION In order to better understand health hazards of welding fumes it is important to know the amount of material deposited in the lungs during inhalation. Welding fumes are usually characterized by determination of their mass median aerodynamic diameter (NMA D) (1) and the amount of lung deposited material is then estimated from lung models giving lung deposition as a function of NMAD (2). Such models, however, are only valid for spherical particles and welding fumes are not spheres but chain aggregates of up to several thousands of primary par ticles, 0.01 0.1 m in diameter (3). The lung deposition of these aggregates is mainly in the alveolar region where it depends on both sedimentation and diffusion (4). Thus it is important not only to know the aerodynamic diameter, D ^ , for a welding fume particle but also its equivalent mobility diameter, DL_, which may differ considerably from D.p for a nonspherical particle (5). A further complicating factor is that some welding fumes contain hygroscopic material. Such hygroscopic particles will take up water and grow when exposed to the high relative humidity in the respiratory tract (=99.51. r.h.) during inhalation. Since the hygroscopic material then will be dissolved the particles may also undergo shape changes which will affect both D._ and Dwp. In this paper the effects of these processes on the lung deposition is discussed based on measurements of a welding fume from manual metal arc welding on mild steel (MMA /MS).

THEORY Several authors (56] have derived the following equation for the aerodynamic diameter, ,.., for a chain of primary particles with a count median diameter I), and geometric standard deviation ,

= k

"e/Po'172 D l

ex

P(2

ln2

g)

nl/6

which gives the equivalent mobility diameter

/

l\K

= k Dj exptO.5 lnog) C C ^ / C f D ^ )

(2)

is the density, C is the Cunningham correction and k is a constant.

104

For an exploded wire aerosol, which is similar in shape to welding fume par ticles, k is less than for more linear chains (56). Mien is in the order of several thousands and higher, the aggregates are more spherical in shape and then D.p and T W in equations (1) and (2) are functions of (6).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Manual metal arc welding was performed on mild steel using the electrode ESAB OK 48:00. The primary particle size distribution was determined by trans mission electron microscopy. Welding fume material from filter samples was dis solved in water. By centrifugation the nonsoluble fraction was removed, and after drying the percentage of soluble material was determined. The densities of the two fractions were then determined by pyenometer in xylene. The growth in size as a function of relative humidity was determined with two electrostatic classifiers in series in a setup similar to that described by Ahlberg and Hansson (7). Provisions were made to bypass the neutralization step in the second classifier. The relative humidity of the sheath air in the second classifier could also be varied. Thus the first classifier extracts a certain mobility fraction of the aerosol and the change in mobility as a func tion of relative humidity is then determined with the second classifier. To determine the amount of water uptake by the water soluble fraction of the welding fume a solution of that material was nebulized, dried in a diffusion drier, and passed through the system. The relative humidity in the second classifier was varied between 3 and 92. In order to investigate if the welding fume particles changed in shape when humidified, welding fume was sucked in through the first classifier, humidified over a water surface and then measured in the second classifier using dry sheath air.

RESULTS The welding fume consists of chain aggregates of different types (3). For the most frequent type the count median diameter and geometric standard devia tion were found to be D, = 0.068 ym and =1.5.

The soluble fraction constituted 25 by weight and the densities of the soluble and the nonsoluble fractions were 2.5 g/cm which gives a mean density of 3.0 g/cm and 3.2 g/cm , respectively,

for the dry welding fume.

For this type of welding fume the aerodynamic diameter, D.p, and the equiva lent mobility diameter, DUp, have been calculated as a function of number of primary particles, n, in a chain aggregate by equations (1) and (2] using constants from Kops (6). The results are given in Table 1. The growth of the soluble material as a function of relative humidity is given in figure 1. An equation of the type D/D = a (1f) , as suggested by

105

Table 1. Aerodynamic and equivalent mobility diameter for a dry welding fume and a welding fume humidified to 99.50 r . h . assuming collapse to a sphere. Number of primary particles, 10
7

Dry welding fume

D , p Dwp

Welding fume at 99.5 r . h .

D . p

D^ip

0.19 0.28 0.40 0.82 1.77

0.41 1.77 9.18 25.4 60.0

0.43 0.90 1.95 4.14 8.92

0.57 0.79 l.v0 5.67 7.91

io li)' 10J 105

Kasten (8), was fitted to the data and the result is also shown in fieure 1. The dry welding fume particles decreased their equivalent mobility diameter after humidification and subsequent diying. This decrease must be interpreted as a change in shape to more spherical f o ITTI. It is thus plausible to assume that the hygroscopic welding fume particles studied here have collapsed to spheres at a relative humidity of 99.5, since they at this humidity consist of almost 900 by volume water. Using this assumption the aerodynamic diameter, D.F, and the equivalent mobility diameter, D ^ , have been calculated at 99.5 r.h. They arc compared with the diameters of the dry welding fume in Table 1.

Dae "

40

Um
p=1g/cm 3 p=3g/cm3

sphere sphere

ILI

ti mo
<
LU LU
. OC

Welding fume 1O0O * dry 9 humidified t o 99.5% rf collapse t o sphere

LU 50 WO RELATIVE HUMIDITY, I (%)

l ' g 1. ' i increase in diameter for the i. He water soluble fraction of the welding fume as a function of relative humidity.

il

2e

17 18 19

lig. 2. Deposition efficiency per airway generation for solid spheres and for dry and humidified welding fume particles, each with initial aerodynamic diameter D^j. = 0.40 gm.

20
m

-r 21

AIRWAY GENERATION NUMB ER (alveoler region)

106

DISCUSSION In Table 1 it is seen that dry welding fume particles have very large equiva lent mobility diameters compared with their aerodynamic diameters. This means that their deposition due to diffusion is very low compared with that for spherical particles of the same aerodynamic size. If the particles contain hygroscopic material they will take up water and may collapse to spheres when inhaled. The aerodynamic diameter will then increase while the equivalent mo bility diameter will decrease, which results in a considerably higher alveolar deposition both due to increased sedimentation and increased diffusion. To estimate this effect, the deposition efficiencies per airway generation were calculated for a welding fume particle of our type with 1000 primary par ticles, corresponding to an aerodynamic diameter of 0.40 . In the calcula tions we used the equations derived by Yu and Diu (4) and the lung model of Yeh and Schum (9). The results are shown in figure 2 for the airway generations representing the alveolar region of the lung. It may be concluded that the lung deposition is lower than predicted from the aerodynamic diameter for a nonhygroscopic welding fume and higher than pre dicted for a hygroscopic welding fume. To get a more correct estimation of the total lung deposition for a welding fume, determinations of both the aerodyna mic and the equivalent mobility diameters are needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This investigation was supported by the Swedish Work Environment Pund.

REFERENCES 1. Malmqvist KG, Johansson GI, Bohgard M, Akselsson KR (1985) Processdepen dent characteristics of welding fume particles. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Health Hazards and Biological Effects of Wel ding Fumes and Gases. Elsevier, Amsterdam pp 31. Task Group on Lung Dynamics (1966) Health Phys 12:173 Grekula A, Peura R, Sivonen SJ (1985) Quantitative energy dispersive Xray microanalysis of welding fumes. In: Proceedings of the International Con ference on Health Hazards and Biological Effects of Welding Fumes and Gases. Elsevier, Amsterdam pp 85. Yu CP, Diu CK (1983) J Aerosol Sci 14:599 Kasper G (1982) Aerosol Sci Technol 1:187 Kops J, Dibbets G, Hermans L, van de Vate JF (1975) J Aerosol Sci 6:329 A hlberg MS, Hansson HC (1983) J Aerosol Sci 14:499 Kasten F (1969) Tellus 21:631 Yeh HC, Schum GM (1980) Bull Math Biol 42:461

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

107
OZONE AND NITROGEN OXIDES IN GAS SHIELDED ARC WELDING LADISLAV SIPEK, ERIK SMRS AGA AB Innovation, S-181 81 Liding, Sweden INTRODUCTION This paper summarizes briefly the results of the company's extensive research on the formation of ozone and nitrogen oxides in gas shielded welding which was initiated already in 1975. The results are presented in more detail in ref 1. The most important result of the investigation was the discovery of the interaction between ozone and nitric oxide at the boundary between the shielding gas envelope and surrounding air. It turned out that this reaction plays a crucial role for the amount of ozone generated in most of the arc welding methods. It also turned out that in gas shielded welding ozone produced at that boundary represents a major part of the total ozone. In practice therefore the amount of ozone generated can be reduced by additives to shielding gas, e g nitric oxide (2). GENERATION AND TRANSPORT OF OZONE The welding arc radiation spectrum extends from far UV to far infrared. The far UV (range 100-200 nm) is most effective in splitting oxygen molecules and producing ozone (3, 4 ) . The radiation in the wavelength range 200-240 nm produces much less ozone. We have found that the inert components of the shielding gas affect the arc spectrum only to a limited extent. The dominating role is played by the elements vapours (mostly metals) from the welding pool in the case of GTA welding and from the melting electrode in the case of GMA welding. The oxygen has very high absorption coefficient for radiation in far UV range and therefore this radiation is practically stopped within few millimeters in the transition boundary shielding gas-air. Because the proportion of this short wavelength UV radiation is usually high compared with longer UV wavelength range consequently most of the ozone is produced in this region. The plume of warmed up mixture of shielding gas and air then transports this ozone upwards frequently directly into the welder's breathing zone. The net amount of ozone produced during welding depends not only on generating radiation solely but also to a high extent on processes decomposing and disintegrating ozone. As first but probably as least important might be mentioned the photodisintegration of ozone by UV radiation 230-280 nm. Presumably considerably more ozone is consumed in direct oxidation or in catalytic reaction with welding

108
smoke. Thermal decomposition of ozone plays an important role in regions near the arc with temperatures around 500 C or more. In the plume itself and in the room air, the thermal disintegration of ozone is very slow. Another important process influencing the ozone balance is the reaction NO + 0 3 = N0 2 +0 2 . In MMA welding which produces copious amounts of nitric oxide in the arc, this reaction represents a real sink for ozone. In gas shielded welding the NO production is much lower due to better shielding between arc and air and therefore the balance is shifted towards sometimes considerable ozone surplus. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT When trying to characterise and classify the welding processes quantitatively in respect of their capacity of constituting a health hazard, the only realistic method is the measurement of pollutants emission, i.e. the substance production per unit time, e.g. ml /min. For direct comparison the emission measurements can also be presented as the theoretical amount of air needed for dilution of pollutants to TLV concentration levels. This figure sometimes called NHL is calculated by dividing the measured emission rate by TLV's values (in appropriate units). Table 1 presents a summary of emission values found in the investigation, where a figure 0.1 ml/m3 was used as TLV for 0 3 and 2 ml/m3 as TLV for N0 2 . Emission NHL m 3 /min) 03 N0 2

TABLE 1 GTA Welding

SS s t e e l , argon, arc 180 A D C SS s t e e l , helium, arc 100 A D C Aluminium, argon, arc 100-180 A AC Aluminium, helium, arc 100 A DC G A Welding M

2-26 4- 8 2- 5 5-10 4-12 8-28 30-60 10-20 40-60 200-450

0.3 - 0.6 0.1 - 0.2 0.5 - 1 0.1 - 0.2 0.04-0.08 0.03-0.08 0.1 - 1.5 0.1 - 0.3 0.2 - 2 1 - 6

Carbon steel, C0 2 , 80-120 A Carbon steel, Ar + 20% C0 2 , 80-120 A Carbon steel, Ar + 20% C0 2 , 150-250 A Ss steel, Ar + 2% 0 2 or Z% C0 2 , 80-120 A Ss steel, Ar + 2% C0 2 , 200-300 A Aluminium A1S5, Ar or Ar-He, 150-350 A Aluminium AlMg5, argon, 225 A

100

109
The emission measurements were done in a closed, continuously ventilated cabinet with stationary welding gun. The emission values in the table represent the content of pollutants collected from the plume and from the immediate vicinity of the arc. The contribution of the rest of the irradiated cabinet volume to the emission was neglected, because it is considerably lower than the plume part. The characteristic distribution of concentration of both pollutants in the GTA plume is shown in Fig 1. The measurements were done on a stationary GTA torch with arc burning against a water cooled anode. The torch was placed in a cabinet continuously ventilated in horizontal direction. Thus the welding plume was exposed to transverse air draft of 8 cm/s. A remotely controlled sampling probe scanned the space around the torch.

AIR VELOCITY 8 1 cm/s

0.5 ppm

10

20

30 cm

30 cm

Fig. 1. Concentration of ozone and nitrogen dioxide in the plume from a GTA torch (AGA TT 33, water cooled) with continuous 100 A arc against water cooled copper anode. Ceramic shielding gas cup No. 7, electrode dia 2.4 mm, stickout 5 mm, arc length 2 mm, shielding gas flow 10 1/min argon, ozone emission 1.0 ml/min, nitrogen dioxide emission 0.5 ml/min. Horizontal room air velocity 8 cm/s.

110
The ozone plume shape in Fig. 1 clearly demonstrates the ozone transport due to thermal convection. This convective transport paradoxically gives higher ozone concentrations outside the irradiated space than inside. As a continuation of the concentration measurements a similar measurement was performed in the welders breathing zone. The welder was facing the air stream during GTA weldings of stainless steel. TABLE 2
S h i e l d i n g Total emission ml /mi Welding s h i e l d concentrations i n ppm gas In f r o n t B ehind N02 1.2 5.7 N O 0.2 0.3 0j 5.8 1.0 N02 1.4 6.5 N O 0.1 3.6 0j 0.97 0.31 N02 0.21 2.0 N O 0.005 0.44

3
Argon Mi son 12 3.0 0.7

The figures shown in Tab. 2 represent typical concentrations of polutants when the welder is exposed to the plume. For comparison Tab. 2 shows also reduction of ozone emission and concentration which can be achieved in this case with shielding gas Mison 12. Mison is the trade name of argon based shielding gas with additive of less than 300 ppm NO. The ozone reducing effect of this shielding gas is based on already mentioned very fast reaction NO + 0 3 = N0 2 + 0 2 . The reaction converts ozone into nitrogen dioxide which is a pollutant too, but with much lower TLV value. In the case of GMA welding with aluminium or silicon alloyed wire the produced amounts of ozone are normally very high, Tab. 1. The use of shielding gas with NO additive solely would require unrealistic high flow of shielding gas, there fore the use of local exhaust or of a torch with exhaust is advisable.

REFERENCES
1 . Sipek L, Smrs E (1981) Ozone and nitrogen oxides in gas shielded arc w e l d i n g , Rep. GIF1073, AGA AB I n n o v a t i o n , S181 81 L i d i n g , Sweden 2. Fahln L, Selander L, Sipek L (1976) Pat. appi. SE 7612 3553, US Pat. 4 292 493, G Pat 1 594 485 B 3. Ditchburn R (1956) Proc R Soc of London A 236:216226 W Brinkman RT, Dowling I , Green AES, Insick AT (1966) I n : Green AES (ed) The middle u l t r a v i o l e t , John Wiley, New York, pp 4072.

Ill
TEST PROGRAM TO DETERMINE WHETHER NICKEL CARBONYL FORMS DURING THE WELDING OF NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOYS A PROGRESS REPORT LEONARD G. WISEMAN and EDWIN T. CHAPMAN INCO Limited, Copper Cliff, O n t a r i o , Canada INTRODUCTION The presence of nickel carbonyl (Ni(00)4) during welding of nickel alloys is often assumed, but few measurements are available. Hallne and Hallberg (1) found 20 ppb (.02 ppm) or less of Ni(C0)4 from welding of cast iron with nickel electrodes. An unpublished INCO Ltd. (Wales) study showed <.05 ppb for a variety of nickel alloys. The present study was undertaken to determine more conclusively whether Ni(C0)4 is produced and if so, what conditions favour its formation. The work is being done at INCO's Copper Cliff Nickel (carbonyl) Refinery with an analyzer capable of detecting 0.1 ppb Ni(C0)4 by volume in air. CO concentrations and metal contents of fumes will also be measured since these are not available for a wide range of m a t e r i a l s . Deliberate injection of CO and Ni(C0>4 with shielding gases will test their stability in the welding env i ronment. TEST APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES The welding chamber with two glove ports is exhausted through a glass fiber absolute filter. Gas samples for CO and Ni(C0)4 analysis are normally drawn off downstream of the filter but will also be taken nearer the arc. The carbonyl analyzer is based on the chemi 1 uminescence of Ni(C0)4 with ozone in the presence of pure CO. The technology was developed at the University of Michigan (2) and was applied for atmosphere monitoring by INCO Ltd. The CO analyzer, a Gastee Model M 1 0 5 0 , measures CO concentrations up to 500 ppm by electrochemical oxidation. The glass fiber filter and fumes collected from 4 minutes of welding are dissolved and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. All common welding and cutting processes will be tested,

112
viz. gas tungsten arc (GTA or T I G ) , gas metal arc (GMA or M I G ) , shielded metal arc (SMA or M M A ) , submerged arc ( S A ) , flux-cored arc ( F C A ) , arc air cutting or gouging, and plasma arc cutting. Alloys to be tested include Nickel 200, Inconel 600, Incoloy 800, 304 and 316 stainless steels, Monel 4 0 0 , 9% and 1% nickel steels, and cast iron, each in combination with appropriate electrodes or filler metals. Including some variations in shielding gases and the CO and carbonyl injection tests, triplicate testing of 39 combinations of welding conditions are planned. Since there is some concern that Ni(C0)j may adsorb on fume particles, to the point that it is not detectable in filtered gases, desorption tests will be performed. The collected fume and filter will be heated in a nitrogen atmosphere which will be continuously sampled for carbonyl. The technique will be tested with a fume sample and filter which have been deliberately exposed to a known concentration of N i ( C 0 ) 4 . Fume samples will be analyzed for nickel and chromium, and selected procedures will be repeated for analysis of both soluble Cr(VI) (room temperture leaching with sodium carbonate) and insoluble Cr(VI) (hot leaching with sodium hydroxi d e ) . PRELIMINARY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results to date are summarized in Table 1. Results for each case are an average of three tests (4 minutes of arc time followed by approximately 6 additional minutes of fume collection to clear the h o o d ) . The ventilation rate was extremely low; the total flow rate through the hood was estimated to be 10 cubic feet per minute (0.3 cubic meters per m i n u t e ) . As a result, some fume was lost to the interior surfaces of the hood, and the concentration of CO was greater than would occur in a typical industrial situation. Flow will be increased for subsequent tests by addition of another fan. Note that a trace of nickel carbonyl, just at the detection limit of 0.1 ppb, is suggested only for the TIG cases with CO or COg in the shielding gas (#s 2, 4, & 5 ) . These runs will be repeated with more realistic ventilation rates. No trace of carbonyl was indicated for the

TABLE

PRELIMINARY RESULTS (LOW VENTILATION RATE - SEE TEXT) CASE

NO.

WELD PROCESS TIG

BASE METAL NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 NICKEL 200 INCONEL 600 INCONEL 600 INCOLOY 800 INCOLOY 800 304 STAINLESS 316 STAINLESS MONEL 400 MONEL 400

FILLER METAL NONE NONE

SHIELDING GAS

CURRENT (AMPERES) 130

COLLECTED FUME (MG.) Ni Cr TOTAL 4.5 .009 .021 16.2 11.3

PEAK GAS ANALYSES CO(PPM) Nii(C0)4(PPB) NA > 500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12 13 16 17 19 23 29 30

He
He, 4.2. CO

ND

TIG TIG TIG TIG MIG MIG MIG TIG MIG TIG MIG TIG TIG TIG
MIG NA: ND:

130
85

8.7 .69
18.5

0.1
ND
0.11

61 61 61 61 61 61

A
A, 8 A, 3.9 C02 CO

ND
.006 .009

3.0
49.9 19.5

NA 80
> 500

140 130
NA

7.4
78.8

0.1
ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

A
A, 8 A, 3.9 C02 CO

ND
.010 .009

128 263 268 2.8 297 3.1 237 7.4 7.4 6.5 279

NA 40
> 500

260 240 100 200

70 NA 70 70 70
200

183 173 .87 109

.075 80.9

82T 82T 82T 82T

ER308 ER316

A A A A A A A
A

.19
28.8 .045 23.0 .079 .104

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

.12
.084 .264 38.5

67N
67N

ND
.093

NOT AVAILABLE ; NOT DETECTED (<.005 MG of Cr in fume; ' 0.1 PPB Ni(C O M )

114
corresponding MIG cases (#s 7 & 8 ) . Although the TIG process was expected to give lower fume generation rates than the MIG process, the rates were surprisingly low in some cases. We attribute this to the low currents employed, which w e r e , however, within the range of normal practice. Reproducibility of fume assays, total w e i g h t s , and gas analyses for the triplicate t e s t s , has, in g e n e r a l , been good, most individual results falling within 3 0 % of the average. The few rechecks that are planned are not expected to affect any of the above conclusions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INCO Limited and the authors gratefully acknowledge partial financial support from the Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association ( N I P E R A ) . REFERENCES 1. Hallne U, Hallberg, BO (1982) Problems of the Work Environment Due to Welding - Part 21. Nickel Carbonyl, Carbon M o n o x i d e , and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Arc Welding Cast Iron Using Nickel Containing Electrodes. Underskningsrapport 1982 : 11, A r b e t a r s k y d d a s t y r e l s e n , Publikationsservice, 17184 Solna, Sweden Stedman, DH, Tammaro, DA, Branch, DK, Pearson Jr., R (1979) Chemi 1 uminescence Detector for the Measurement of Nickel Carbonyl in Air. Analytical Chemistry 5 1 , 2340

2.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

117

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES GAETANO CECCHETTI Universit Cattolica, Rome (Italy)

INTRODUCTION Environmental monitoring of fumes and gases produced during welding is a key element in the prevention process. Table 1 (1) displays a general classification of welding processes. At present, fusion welding is the most widespread and can be performed either with or without filler metal. In the former case, the weld consists in filler metal obtained from fusion of rods, wires, or electrodes.

POLLUTANTS FROM WELDING PROCESSES Pollutants generated by welding processes are of various kinds. In this review only the pollutants that may be emitted from arcwelding processes will be considered. The classification developed by the Danish Welding Institute (Table

Table 1. General classification of welding processes (from Vallini)

1
oxyacetylene thermi t electronic laser Autogenous we Id ins fire rol1 ing explos i ve / spot \proj eet ion 'by pressure ^resistince/roll 1 forge (flash ultrasonic

Automat ic semiautomt ic twow slag TIG MIC and MAG atomic M

braze welding

Welding fsof \ har

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2) (3), breaks down the pollutants presently contained in arc-welding fumes into classes of toxics, based on t h e i r main e f f e c t s . This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is very similar to the one reported by INRS (2) . Obviously the presence and amount of the different pollutants l i s t e d , and they are not a l l , depend on type of arc-welding (manual, submerged, gas), materi a l s to be welded, electrodes used and t h e i r composition and, above a l l , on that of t h e i r coating: oxidizing, a c i d i c , b a s i c , r u t i l e and c e l l u l o s e . In oxidizing electrodes, the coating contains iron oxide, as well as feldspar- and kaolin-based slagging m a t e r i a l s . Acidic electrodes contain approximately 30% iron oxide, 25% iron alloys and 40% slagging m a t e r i a l s . In basic electrodes, the coating mostly consists cf calcium carbonate, calcium fluoride and f l u o s i l i c a t e s (60-70%), as well as iron alloys and slagging materials. Table 2. Health hazards in welding
WELDING FUHES AND GASES 1 Particulates I Pneumoconiosis
SJ

n_ Pulmonary
1rrltants or Toxic Inhalants
Primarv Pulmonary I Non-Pulmonary |

Relatively Harmless Cadmium 1

I ribrot

I Nonflbrotlc | |

Carbon

Carbon
Monoxide

Beryllium

| |

Tin

| Manganese

O x i d e s of N i t rogen

Carbon Dioxide

tos |

Magnesium Mercury

|Phosgene Phosphlne

_L J_

Copper Carcinogens (suspected) Arsenic I

Aluminum

Molybdenum

Vanadium

Cadmium Chromium I Beryl 1 turn

F r o m : The D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e . R i c h a r d M. Stern, Dr.rer.nat. Report. 81.31. Occupational H e a l t h Risk Assessment.

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Summing up, pollution from welding processes is due to: a. gases, generated by the electric arc (nitrogen oxides, ozone and, possibly, carbon monoxide); b. fumes and particulates, originating from fusion-vaporization-condensation of the constituents of the electrode and of the base metal onto which it welds; these include metal oxides, silicates, fluosilicates, carbonates, etc. (Fe, Ti, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Co, Pb, Si02, F, . . . ) ; c. products from pyrolysis of paints (rust-preventive primers, antifouling agents,

etc.) and other coating substances.

GENERAL COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF WELDING FUMES AND GASES Pollution levels caused by welding processes are highly variable, depending on such factors as : 1) characteristics of work environment 2) geometric characteristics of parts to be welded 3) technological welding process used 4) operating conditions of the welder 5) aspiration and ventillation systems both at local level and, generally, in the work environment. For all these reasons, highly variable concentration levels of fumes: from below 1 rag/m3 to some hundreds of mg/m-^ have been recorded during environmental monitoring (2,3,4,5,6).

These highly variable results with operating conditions alone make it extremely difficult to determine the actual concentration of fumes in ambient air. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that while recording pollution in the work environment as a whole is certainly important, measuring pollutant levels in the breathing zone of the welder is absolutely necessary. The latter measurement, indeed, allows to determine the real exposure of the worker to the pollutant and thus the actual risk. Both measurements are however important to determine the risk of exposure; as is known, welding jobs do not span always over the entire shift period; therefore, in the remaining time, the welder performs auxilliary jobs, during which he is exposed to the pollution levels of the work environment. As a result, the actual welder exposure levels are a combination of the weighted average levels of exposure during the welding process and during auxilliary jobs. Environmental monitoring generally consists of two steps:

1) sampling 2) analysis.

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SAMPLING General In sampling, some general factors (7) should be considered: 1) sampling d u r a t i o n In i n d u s t r i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s , a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may change over time depending on many f a c t o r s etc.); (manufacturing c y c l e s , t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s , concentration c o n s e q u e n t l y , such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f a i l t o have a homogeneous and s t e a d y

p a t t e r n o v e r t i m e . Long sampling d u r a t i o n s can p r o v i d e average a n t s w i t h long b i o l o g i c a l h a l f - l i v e s ;

l e v e l s o v e r a l l t h e sampling time s p a n . These v a l u e s can be of use for t h e p o l l u t c o n v e r s e l y , f o r p o l l u t a n t s , whose t h r e s h o l d c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e v e l s c a n n o t be exceeded a t any t i m e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e peak l e v e l s , even f o r very l i m i t e d time p e r i o d s ; 2) sampling efficiency The v a r y i n g o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e t o view sampling e f f i c i e n c y i n a w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e ; i n some c a s e s , i t does n o t make s e n s e t o t r y t o r e a c h a 100% efficiency, s i n c e t h i s would mean i n t r o d u c i n g such o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s as t o o r t h e use of the s o - c a l l e d b i a s t h e measured v a l u e s . For example, an e x c e l l e n t s o l v e n t i n terms of gas c o l l e c t i o n may make s u b s e q u e n t gas a n a l y s i s d i f f i c u l t ; 3) amount of p o l l u t a n t t o be sampled I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e amount needed f o r a c o r r e c t determination, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p a r a m e t e r t o be measured and t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e a n a l y t i c a l method t o be a p p l i e d . For i n s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r can be d e t e r mined by measuring d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s (weight, number of p a r t i c l e s , different; element a n a l y s e s , e t c . ) . As t o g a s e s , t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n may r e q u i r e i n s t r u m e n t a l o r wet a n a l y s i s and i n b o t h c a s e s t h e amounts needed a r e 4) sampling flow r a t e The sampling flow rate is conditional upon the equipment used. Any piece of equipment has an optimum flow rate to be determined experimentally. The use of a piece of equipment with a different flow rate may lead to significant sampling errors, which are unquantifiable. Flow rate influences all sampling processes. As regards gases, the factors to take into account include the 'contact time', in liquid absorption, adsorbing solid adsorption and cooling trap condensation. Dust sampling flow rate, or better the linear suction velocity is even more constraining, since it may bias granulcmetric composition, which is related, in turn, to material density. However, it is absolutely necessary to establish whether the sampling process is repeatable. a b s o l u t e f i l t e r s cannot e n s u r e c o n s t a n t flow c o n d i t i o n s ;

121

Sampling s t r a t e g y In sample c o l l e c t i o n , a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g y i s u s e d , depending on whether sampling i s t a r g e t e d t o m o n i t o r : a) p o l l u t i o n i n work environments as a whole o r t o c o n t r o l t h e p r e v e n t i o n systems u s e d ;

b) the working c o n d i t i o n s of and t h u s their t h e i n d i v i d u a l w e l d e r s o r homogeneous group to p o l l u t a n t s with reference to specific of welders exposure levels. samples are c o l l e c t e d in case of a t a p o i n t which can be system efficiency, systems which

technical

threshold

concentration first

In t h e defined close used. as

instance, area'

'central

or,

control or suction

to the p o l l u t i n g Sampling d u r a t i o n

source,

with or without

the technical prevention

s h a l l b e b a s e d on t h e a m o u n t o f s a m p l e s analyses.

collected,

h a s t o be s u f f i c i e n t

for subsequent

In t h e s e c o n d i n s t a n c e , during his various breathing with jobs:

i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y

to keep t r a c k of close

the to

welder the consistent TLV-TWA;

in e f f e c t ,

samples w i l l be c o l l e c t e d of e x p o s u r e specified

z o n e and b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e values (for instance,

t i m e s which a r e t o be

threshold

long or short exposure

TLV-STEL).

SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND ANALYSES Owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n t analysis of principles and p r o c e d u r e s from t o be u s e d , sampling and

fumes w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y

gases. or concentration levels

D e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r g r a n u l o m e t r i e of fumes are t o be d e t e r m i n e d ,

characteristics

s a m p l i n g w i l l be c o n d u c t e d w i t h a characteristics,

different a

p r o c e d u r e . To i d e n t i f y cascade

the granulometrie

a conimeter or

i m p a c t o r may b e u s e d . The s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s w i l l m e e t some of o v e r l a p p i n g p a r t i c l e s , prevention prevention

requirements, breakage collection centimeters like are

such as n o n - a g g r e g a t i o n when an i m p a c t o r i s

of sample Sample cubic

used;

of specimen d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

w i l l have a l i m i t e d d u r a t i o n , at most. This involves all dusts,

w i t h s a m p l i n g o f some h u n d r e d s o f repeated sampling; As i s k n o w n , nature fumes,

the need for

in effect,

are low-diffusion

pollutants.

these measurements assessment. the

subject

t o t h e d i f f i c u l t y and s u b j e c t i v e

of m i c r o s c o p i c to determine

At a n y r a t e , nature of

t h e s e methods a r e only a p p l i e d

physical size, studies, to the

the p a r t i c u l a t e capacity,

m a t t e r e m i t t e d d u r i n g w e l d i n g and t h u s i t s and t h i s applies to the latest

aggregating check i t s

b u t above a l l , capacity (8)

adsorption state of

and,

in electron microscopy,

to establish

superficial

particles. and/or determination of c o n c e n t r a t i o n in most cases. of

Samples for w e i g h t measurements total or individual p o l l u t a n t s are

c o l l e c t e d by f i l t r a t i o n

Table 3 . General c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some f i l t e r

media Weight/ Surface area (mg/cm2)

5 +7

Type of

filter

Pore s i z e (|Um) <1 + 1 + a 0 : 025+10.0 0.45+5.0 0.2+5.0 0.03+10.0

Thickness () 200+500 130+150 ~150 ~180 ~10

Max T (C) 500 125

50 c m / s (mm O) 500+1750 500+7600 b 690 .D. 75+76000

6

Max e f f i c i e n c y Atm.dustc DOPd (t) (t) 67+99.1 99 .9 .D. .D. .D. 98.9+99.9

- Fiberglass - Mixed cellulose ester membrane - PVC/ polyacrylonitrile - Teflon (reinf.)

4+5 3.5+0.12
2 + 2 .5

99 . 9 9 9 99 . 9 6 + 9 9 . 9 9 9 >99.99 1 + 99 . 9 9 e

80 130 140

- Polycarbonate (Nucleopore) a. b. c. d. e.

~1

Void s i z e . O r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o b t a i n e d on f i l t e r s with p o r o s i t y = 0 . 8 and 0 = 25 mm. Dust p a r t i c l e s of 1pm and below; v e l o c i t y = 0.1 m / s e c ; d e t e r m i n a t i o n by c o u n t . S p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s o f d i o c t y 1 p h t h a l a c e with s i z e < 0 . 3 ; v e l o c i t y = 1 m / s e c . F unction c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o pore s i z e .

123
The sampler can be more or less sophisticated (use of digital flowmeters, of automatic temperature control or the aspirated aerosol to correct the volume meter readings, etc.), but it is generally made up by a suction pump, which is sealed, a filter holder and a gas volume meter. In many respects, filtration is the most suitable method for dust and fume collection. In effect, filtration occurs in the same way as dust deposition in the respiratory system; in other words, it involves impact, sedimentation, diffusion and deposition. Impact is caused by larger particles, finding the filter fibers and the porefree filter spaces in their path; sedimentation depends on the filter thickness and on the winding pore path and, finally, diffusion is produced by smaller particles in minute channels, where they have a laminar flow and deposit by Brownian diffusion. Nevertheless, filtration calls for the solution of various practical problems. Filter selection For filtration of welding fumes, use is made of the membrane filter, usually manufactured with PVC, PVC/polyacrylonitrile, teflon. Commercial materials are characterized by the indication of the material with which they are manufactured (e.g. cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, PVC, teflon, etc.) and of system porosity (which is the peak point of the pore distribution curve). Filtration efficiency is certainly the first parameter to be evaluated, however present filter manufacturing technology supplies high and very highly efficient products. Therefore, in practice, this is certainly not the parameter on which the decision on the type of filter should be based (9). Table 3 (10) shows some general characteristics of some filter media. The selection of the type of filter should be based on the first and foremost determination: gravimetric concentration of fumes, expressed in mg/m3. In many cases, this determination can be regarded as sufficient for risk assessment (11) . Even if this type of determination may appear at a first glance simple, errors are high. The major error which is made is often due to filter hygroscopicity, since the water exchange between filter and environment is usually high. This is why PVC filters are recommended, which absorb approximately 40-50 times less environmental humidity than mixed cellulose esters (12).Nevertheless, especially when weighing occurs in not adequately conditioned rooms, filters will be selected in such a way to exchange little humi dity with the environment. In this way, filter drying can be avoided provided that control 'blanks' be used to correct small errors due to the different pre- and post-weighing humidity conditions (10).

124
Where the fumes collected on the filter are to be analyzed after weighing, other filter characteristics should be considered in relation to the subsequent type of instrumental analysis selected. In particular, consideration should be given to: a) easy filter dissolution, where this is required during etching for fumes solubilization b) filter purity degree. Based on the literature (13,14) and personal experience, the best results in atomic absorption analysis are obtained with cellulose filters, but also with filters in PTFF reinforced with polyethylene (of the fluoropore type), in PVC/PAN and PVC. Many procedures for elementary analysis by atomic absorption spectrophotometry suggest the use of mixed cellulose esters. Flow rate selection The static system is generally equipped with suction pumps, with flow rates of up to 15-20 liters/min, powered by the electric network; personal pumps should necessarily be fed by batteries (Ni/Cd): these batteries, for practical purposes, should be small-sized and thus have much more limited flow rates, usually 3 liters/min. Filter section being equal, two sampling systems are available, having linear suction velocities, which are very different from each other. This involves the drawback that the materials sampled with the two systems are not identical in terms of aerodynamic diameters. This problem is usually resolved by unifying the linear suction velocities of the two systems at 1.2 m/ sec, by acting either on the filter section or on the inlet cone of the personal sampler membrane-holder. Analysis of fumes Dimensional and granulometrie analysis Fumes can be analyzed dimensionally or granulometrically via light or electron microscopy. For light microscopy, filters are generally selected in such a way as to subsequently become diaphanous using an appropriate organic solvent. For electron microscopy, polycarbonate 'Nucleopore' filters, pre-coated before sampling with coal or gold, are used. A second coating is deposited onto the filter after sampling. Analysis can be conducted by both scanning and transmission electron microscopy. In the latter instance, the coating agent is coal; the Nucleopore filter is solubilized with chloroform. Chemical analysis Considering the high number of elements to be determined, the small amounts of samples available, the high compositional variability of flows, a complex analysis system is needed.

125

A f i r s t approach t o the problem c o n s i s t s of u s i n g o p t i c a l e m i s s i o n s p e c t r o g r a p h s on one of s e v e r a l samples c o l l e c t e d a t t h e same l o c a t i o n and under t h e same o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . By e s t i m a t i n g the o p t i c a l d e n s i t y of t h e t y p i c a l r a d i a t i o n s e m i t t e d by t h e different elements, a preliminary q u a l i t a t i v e s e m i q u a n t i t a t i v e performed. Atomic a b s o r p t i o n s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y p e r m i t s q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . The a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of t h i s t e c h n i q u e f o r many e l e m e n t s s h o u l d be checked i n r e l a t i o n t o the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n used and t o the s p e c i f i c m a t r i x . Table 4 e x e m p l i f i e s t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s t h a t we o b s e r v e d (4) with a P e r k i n E l m e r s p e c t r o photometer mod. 4 0 3 . a n a l y s i s can be

Table 4 . S e n s i t i v i t i e s and a b s o l u t e d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s of flame vs atomic a b s o r p t i o n s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r s "

graphitefurnace

ELEMI:NT

G R A P H I T E FL'RNACE L AM E S e n s j. t i i t y D e tec t i o n S e n s i tivi ty D e t e c t ion

6

Ay Al (d ' Cu Ie Mn Pb Pt Sn V

(in g 10 o. b , 0., q
0 . .25 0 . 1 .

) (in

limit. 1 imi t _12 D g 10 ) (in g 10 ) (in g 10 ) .002 0.030 0 .00 1 0 .002 0 .00 1 0.002 0.02 0. 1 0 .02 0.06 6 80 8 10 60 8 40 500 150 350 10 2 10 3 3 1
O

0.. 1 0 , .05
0 , 5 .

o . 5 .0 3, 1 .5 .

300 10 200

" ' The f i g u r e s " mod. 4 0 J .

r e f e r to measurements made with PerkinElmer

spectrophotometer

Filter solubilization of the f i l t e r s sampled.

D i f f e r e n t p r o c e d u r e s a r e followed f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t

The p r o c e d u r e we used f o r c e l l u l o s e a c e t a t e f i l t e r s i s as f o l l o w s . The f i l t e r i s i n t r o d u c e d i n a 25 ml q u a r t z b e c k e r , c o n t a i n i n g 1 ml of c o n c e n t r a t e d n i t r i c a c i d , p l a c e d on a p l a t e h e a t e d to 150C. The s o l u t i o n i s e v a p o r a t e d d r y , then 0.2 ml of c o n c e n t r a t e d p e r c h l o r i c acid e v a p o r a t e d a g a i n u n t i l dry a t a p l a t e t e m p e r a t u r e of 200C. In case of i n c o m p l e t e c a r b o n i z a t i o n , e t c h i n g i s r e p e a t e d w i t h s u b s e q u e n t 0.2 ml p o r t i o n s of p e r c h l o r i c a c i d . 0 . 0 1 of n i t r i c a c i d r e s i d u e , which i s t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o a 10 ml v o l u m e t r i c i s t h e n added t o t h e flask. until i s added and t h e s o l u t i o n i s

126

Matrix e f f e c t

Some a u t h o r s

( 2 6 , 2 7 ) , l i k e o u r s e l v e s , showed t h a t the f l a m e interferences constit

l e s s atomic a b s o r p t i o n a n a l y s i s with g r a p h i t e f u r n a c e s a m p l e r ,

due t o t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e sample m a t r i x should be c o n s i d e r e d w i t h s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n b e i n g p a i d when m a t r i x e s may v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n terms of u e n t s and r e s p e c t i v e concentrations. 1:1,

I n t e r f e r e n c e s of each e l e m e n t t o be d e t e r m i n e d were s t u d i e d with growing amounts of t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e welding fumes i n t h e r a t i o s 1:10, 1:100 and 1:1000. In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e i n t e r f e r i n g e l e m e n t s c o n s i d e r e d were

c a l c i u m , c o b a l t , chromium, i r o n , manganese, n i c k e l , l e a d , copper and sodium. In view of t h e r e s u l t s , t h e e l e m e n t a r y a n a l y s i s of welding fumes s h o u l d n o t d i s r e g a r d t h e m a t r i x e f f e c t . T h i s e f f e c t p r o d u c e s high c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t i o s of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g e l e m e n t , l i k e i n t h e c a s e of c o b a l t w i t h chromium and of l e a d w i t h manganese; i n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , i t may g i v e r i s e t o low c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t i o s , f o r example manganese w i t h n i c k e l and c o b a l t w i t h sodium. A d d i t i o n a l l y , a n a l y t i c a l s i g n a l may be m i s s i n g , as happens f o r l e a d w i t h n i c k e l i n t h e by compensating f o r t h e m a t r i x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s p e c i f i c fume w i t h t i o n curve s . F l u o r i d e s Chromium VI o t h e r a n a l y s e s F l u o r i n e compounds a r e almost a l l p r e s e n t i n fumes as p a r t i c u l a t e The gaseous component i s i n e f f e c t a minor one analysis. Where a l l t h e f l u o r i n e compounds a r e t o be d e t e r m i n e d b o t h as p a r t i c u l a t e and as g a s , sampling i s made by s c r u b b i n g t h e a i r sample u s i n g one d r e c h s e l and a s o l u t i o n of 0.025 of sodium h y d r o x i d e as a b s o r b i n g liquid. (15). fluoride The sample of t h e p a r t i c u l a t e c o l l e c t e d on t h e f i l t e r can undergo matter. the ratio calibra like

1:1000. As a r e s u l t , t h e e l e m e n t s t o be measured can be a n a l y z e d c o r r e c t l y only

Before a n a l y z i n g t h e sample, f l u o r i d e s a r e s e p a r a t e d p u r i f i e d through m i c r o diffusion (24) . electrode. spectrophotometry The a n a l y s i s i s conducted w i t h a s p e c i f i c

W a t e r s o l u b l e chromium VI and t o t a l chromium VI a f t e r sodium h y d r o x i d e and sodium c a r b o n a t e fume e t c h i n g i s d e t e r m i n e d a l s o through A.A. u r e d through A.A. s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y (16). provide silicates, ( 1 6 ) . T o t a l chromium a f t e r p e r c h l o r i c a c i d o r KHSO4 fume e t c h i n g i s always meas Other a n a l y s e s , such as t h e r m o g r a v i m e t r y and Xray d i f f r a c t i o n c r y s t a l l i n e s t a t e of f r e e s i l i c a , etc.

a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on fume c o m p o s i t i o n : p r e s e n c e of h y d r o x i d e , c a r b o n a t e s ,

127

GAS SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS I t was p r e v i o u s l y indicated that welders are exposed not only t o fumes but

a l s o t o a NO, NO2 a n d o z o n e Stem 19,20,21,22) exceeded From t h e s t a n d p o i n t welder exposure levels, (17) details

mixture. equilibrium reactions; the threshold other authors levels (18, are

the s p e c i f i c

stress

that,

i n many c a s e s ,

concentration

of e n v i r o n m e n t a l the observations

monitoring, made b y S t e r n

aimed a t d e t e r m i n i n g (3) are important: light,

actual 'Ozone a

i s p r o d u c e d by d i r e c t p h o t o d i s s o c i a t i o n relatively short penetration. concentration, If the

o f a i r by u l t r a v i o l e t

which has

NO a n d NO2 a r e p r o d u c e d b y h e a t i n g a n d t h e NO/NO2 r a t i o

the ambient to

air,

the r e s u l t i n g temperature.

increase proportional

the

gases are mixed,

q u a s i e q u i l i b r i u m i s e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n NO, reduce ozone, a n d o x i d i z e NO. An a s t r o n g ozone and fume range

NO2 a n d O 3 : a r a p i d r e a c t i o n w i l l e s s e n t i a l l y e x c e s s of ozone w i l l reaction, with completely eliminate

a n y NO. T h e r e i s

a time c o n s t a n t which s t r o n g l y The p r e s e n c e of

d e p e n d s on t e m p e r a t u r e ,

from 0 . 1 - 1 0 action. As a

seconds.

fume b u f f e r s

t h e NO + O3 = N02 + O3 r e surface.

E x c e s s of

fume e l i m i n a t e s

o z o n e , w h i c h a b s o r b s on t h e p a r t i c l e s

consequence:

- because of t h e fume-ozone i n t e r a c t i o n , measurements of ozone c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the b r e a t h i n g zone of t h e w e l d e r o v e r e s t i m a t e the e f f e c t i v e ozone r e a c h i n g t h e lower r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t , p e r h a p s by a f a c t o r of two. - in c a s e of t h e c o - e x p o s u r e w i t h fume p a r t i c l e s , NO2 i s absorbed on t h e i r f a c e , and t r a n s p o r t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o t h e lower r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t . . . T h i s e f f e c t u n d e r e s t i m a t e s the e f f e c t i v e NO2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e b r e a t h i n g zone of t h e w e l d e r , by a f a c t o r of 2 . 1 0 . ' These o b s e r v a t i o n s s h o u l d guide t h e d e c i s i o n on t h e most s u i t a b l e e v a l u a t i o n of the s u p e r f i c i a l of o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s fume a r e a and of the adsorbed g a s . traces sampling p r o c e d u r e , b u t a l s o emphasize the need for i n t e g r a t i n g t h e measurements w i t h an As r e g a r d s exposure t o carbon monoxide, i t forms by i n c o m p l e t e combustion ( c e l l u l o s e e l e c t r o d e ) , from c a r b o n a t e s and carbon in s t e e l s o r f i l l e r m e t a l s . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s measured i n t h e b r e a t h i n g zone of t h e welder a r e g e n e r a l l y i n the ranga of 5-10 ppm, t h u s below the u s u a l l y limits (5,23). samples a r e c o l l e c t e d by u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e a b s o r b i n g s o l u t i o n s i n accepted surconcentration

I f t h e p r o c e d u r e s e l e c t e d for ozone and n i t r o g e n oxide a n a l y s e s a r e s p e c t r o photometry, drechsels or impingers. For ozone: a i r c o n t a i n i n g ozone i s drawn through a midget impinger c o n t a i n ing 10 ml of 11 p o t a s s i u m i o d i d e i n IN sodium h y d r o x i d e . A s t a b l e p r o d u c t i s formed t h a t can be s t o r e d with l i t t l e l o s s for s e v e r a l d a y s ; t h e a n a l y s i s is

128

completed in the l a b o r a t o r y t y which l i b e r a t e s m e t e r a t 352 nm. For n i t r o g e n oxides, the iodine;

the addition

of p h o s p h o r i c - s u l f a m i c color is read in a

acid

reagent,

the yellow iodine

spectrophoto-

air is

sampled with t h r e e solution,

drechsels,

the

first

and

t h i r d of which c o n t a i n potassium permanganate

a sodium h y d r o x i d e solution

t h e s e c o n d an

oxidizing

t o o x i d i z e NO t o NO2. are analyzed spectrophotometrically a c i d and N(l-naphthyl) on

The t w o NO2 a n d NO a b s o r b i n g l i q u i d s the b a s i s of n i t r o g e n ethylenediamine (24). dioxide

reaction with s u l f a n i l i c

Carbon monoxide and n i t r o g e n u o u s l y and r e a l - t i m e

oxides are presently

sampled by us and systems.

contin-

measured d i r e c t l y with automatic

Some a u t o m a t i c m e t h o d s f o r m e a s u r i n g NO a r e b a s e d on while those f o r m e a s u r i n g NO2 a r e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l ; analyzers. g e n e r a t e d by p y r o l y s i s of p a i n t s for

chemiluminescence, automatic

carbon monoxide,

s y s t e m s u s e IR

As t o p o l l u t a n t s

a n d p l a s t i c s when w e l d i n g agents, the

i s p e r f o r m e d on s h e e t s o r p l a t e s p a i n t e d o r c o a t e d w i t h p r o t e c t i v e problem i s u n d o u b t e d l y a complex o n e . may b e p r o d u c e d , d e p e n d i n g on t h e In e f f e c t ,

many a r e t h e p o l l u t a n t s used. As a g e n e r a l for

which

coating material

rule, suppleby

s a m p l e s s h o u l d b e c o l l e c t e d w i t h t h e same p r o c e d u r e s m e n t e d by o t h e r s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s solution absorption)

described

fumes, and/or

(e.g. with adsorbing materials

capable of c o l l e c t i n g o r g a n i c p y r o l y s i s p r o d u c t s . methods: atomic absorption gas-chromatography etc.

Subsequent to to identify single

a n a l y s e s s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t possible toxic elements

contained in p a i n t pigments: hydrocarbons,

o u t s u c h compounds a s p h e n o l s ,

monomers,

MONITORING RESULTS I t was p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d t h a t fume c o n c e n t r a t i o n levels range from some

h u n d r e d s o f mg/m^ t o few m g / m ^ , d e p e n d i n g on s a m p l i n g a r e a , working procedures, At any r a t e , concentration it general and p e r s o n a l p r e v e n t i o n (25) systems.

welding

techniques,

can be s t a t e d and d i s t a n c e

that a relation

e x i s t s between

fume Pollutand give

levels

from w e l d i n g a r e a

(manual a r c - w e l d i n g ) . source

ant concentration rise

levels

decrease with distance Moreover, shield

from t h e p o l l u t i n g that fume

t o an e x p o n e n t i a l recorded inside t h e same s h i e l d

curve. the

i t was r e p o r t e d

concentration than those

levels outside

face

a r e on a v e r a g e 60 t i m e s h i g h e r

(25). analyses are very v a r i a b l e ; like in the case is the of

The r e s u l t s fumes,

of elementary

they r e f l e c t

the previously of

described variables, t o be w e l d e d ,

b u t a key f a c t o r filler

obviously the nature coating.

the material

of t h e

m e t a l and of

129

For gases, it should be noted that carbon monoxide concentration levels exceeding the specific threshold (TLV) were recorded in the case of carbon dioxide flow welding. As to nitrogen oxides, numerous investigations show that concentra tion levels during welding are moderate, ranging from 0.3 to 3 ppm, i.e. close to the nitrogen dioxide threshold (TLV). The NO/NO2 ratio displays values of 34/1 close to the arc, while it drops to 1/11.5 in the work environment as a whole. The generation of ozone is higher during inert gas (argon and helium) flow welding, especially in TIG and MIG processes. The problem of ozone should be viewed in relation to the restrictive TLV of 0.1 ppm, which is expected to be lowered further.

REFERENCES

1 . Va 1 1 i i Ud i no 2.

(19 7 1) La s a l d a t u r a

ed

i suoi

problemi.

ITI

ed. ,

INKS (Institut N a l i o n a l de R e c h e r c h e et de S c u r i t ) ( 1 9 8 0 ) Les n o t e s s c i e t i f i que s et t e c h n i q u e s . . 2 5 , mal Fepo r t 8 1 . 3 1 . Occupational

3 . ' he D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e . I Ilea 1 I h Risk A s s e s s m e n t

4 . ( i i t l I i ( , r o c c h e t t i l , R i ma t o r i V , 1 a n n a c c one ( 1 9 7 ; ) 'i'' i ' ' 3 S t u d i o de i lumi di saldatui'a: a p p l i c a z i o n e d e l l ' a s s o r b m e n t o al umi C D con c a m p i o n a t o r e a f o r n a c e di g r a f i t e al desatiri di c o h a l l o , c r o m o , f e r r o , m a n g a n e s e , n i c h e l , p i o m b o e r a m e . A nn. 1st. S u p e r . S a n i t 9499 5 . Ca c c 1 r i S , l'on en i e r ' (19 6 9) 11 l a v o r o 1 ' liti clic e M e d . l a v o r o , C'KC.A , L u s s e m b u r g o l. M a g n u s s o n II ( 1 9 7 4 ) The We 1 d i ng Revi ew . 1 problems of fumes di saldatura, t'oli .

in

welding.KSA B

7 . C e c c h e t I i , B e n v e n u t i I , De v i t o f ran c c s c o l (19 7 5) C r i t e i ri e p r i n c i p i di r i l e v a z i o n e e t e c n i c h e a n a l i t i c h e . La Me (tirina del L a v o r o , Voi 66 n 4 , pp 2 7 528.3 8 . De v i t o 1 ra nee seo G et a l . ' of' r e s p i r a b l e d u s t s . S t a u b 9. (1970) 3 0 , pp lhe a b s o r p t i o n 440442 capacity

I iu m i l , Pui D Y K , R u b o w KL ( 1 9 8 3 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a i r s a m p l i n g 1 i 1 t e r M e d i a . In Ma r 1 e VA , Liu B VU : A e r o s o l . Ann A r b o r , A nn A r b o r S c i e n c e , pp 9 8 6 1 0 3 8 ('as c i an i l ( 1 9 8 4 ) C a ra t t e r i s t i c he dei m e z z i di filt r a z i o i ne in igiene i n d u s t r i a l e . La M e d i c i n a del L a v o r o , V o i . 7 5 n" 1, 6 379

10.

130

11

TLV

Threshold of Office

Limit

Values.

1984

Krom

the

A merican

Con

ference tions

Governmental CGIH,

Industrial

Hygienists.

Pubi i c

6500 Glenway

A ve., Bidg. 1 3

Cincin

nati,
2

OH

45211

C h a r r e l PR, H a w l e y RE ( 1 9 8 1 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of W a t e r A d s o r p t i o n on A ir S a m p l i n g K i l t e r s . A m. Ind. H y g . A s s o c . J . 42:353360 N I O S H M a n u a l of A n a l y t i c a l Second Edition Methods (1978) Cincinnati,

13.

14.

R i c c i G, C o l o v o s G, H e s t e r H, S e p h a r d I.S ( 1 9 8 1 ) S u i t a b i lity of V a r i o u s K ilter'ing M e d i a for the C o l l e c t i o n and D e t e r m i n a t i o n of C r g a n o a r s e n ica1 s. In A ir C h e m i c a l H a z a r d s in the W o r k p l a c e . W a s h i n g t o n , A CS S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s 149: 3 8 3 3 9 8 Gambaretto nici d e l l a pp 4 8 6 6 1 GP, Rausa saldatura G, Trev isa R. (197 5) A s p e t t i i g i e ad a r c o e l e t t r i c o . I g i e n e m o d e r n a ,

15.

16.

The D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e . P u b l i c a t i o n 8 3 2 9 t e r l a b o r a to ry C a l i b r a t i o n of a S t a n d a r d i s e d A n a l y t i c a l M e t h o d of He. a v a l e n t a n d T o t a l C h r o m i u m in W e l d i n g F u m e s The p r o d u c t i o n during welding

o

17.

of o z o n e w i t h MIG vid

and other photochemical oxidants ( 1 9 7 8 ) SVC R e p o r t SI" 7 8 2 9 svetsinig

18.

A rbetsmiljoprHblem

Del 4: G a s b a g s v e t s n i n g i a l u m i n i u m och a 1 um i i um1 e g e r i n g a r U l f v a r s o n U, italiane U, B e l l a n d e r , Hayncn.jelm Del 5: S v e t s n i n g i rost f ritt stal med metal lb 'g s v et s in g " och g a s b g s v e t s n i n g U l f v a r s o n U, H a l l a e U, Bellander' A r b e t e och H a l s a , V e t e r n s k a p l i g S k r i f t e s e r i e , 1978:6 og 1978:8 19. O c c u p a t i o n a l E x p o s u r e to O x i d e s of N i t r o g e n ( N i t r o g e n D i o x i d e and N i t r i c O x i d e ) ( 1 9 7 6 ) U . S . D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n and W e l f a r e , M a r c h 20. O z o n e and o t h e r p h o t o c h e m i c a l o x i d a n t s A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , W a s h i n g t o n D.C. (1977) National

21.

The p r o b l e m of o z o n e in TIG w e l d i n g . A report from A GA G a s D i v i s i o n ' s r e s e a r c h u n i t . A GA Gas D i v i s i o n , R e p o r t GM 116e G o l d s t e i n B D , ( 1 9 7 6 ) C o m b i n e d e x p o s u r e to o z o n e and trogen d i o x i d e s , Environmental Health P e r s p e c t i v e s , s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , 1 3 8 , pp 1 0 7 1 1 0 ni Re

22.

11 3

('luhb.'i t o al no 2 16

I , A lessi di

( 19/2) ad

Rilievi arco

sui

rischi

inerenti Uma

procosso

saldatura

elettrico.

Lavoro

l) . . R . zione mente vedimenti al 14 5, del

15

aprile 1 e mie

1971, 1 3

322 . Regolamento 1966, 615,

per

l'esecu prov 1971, limitata

della

luglio

recante iuoni)

c on t settore

l'inquinamento delle

t m o s 'e r i c o , ( G . U . 9

industrie.

siipp 1 . o I'd . ) XI. I I ('cunt r e s s o d e 1 L a v o ro ed Nazionale Igiene della Societ Italiana e Preven

Atti di

M e d i c i na

Indus triale cap.

(1979) II la Sa 1 d a

' r i e s t e , o t t o b re I / i on e t u r ;i J Clark 1', Dannali

[ i scl i , Malattie t i

professionali

e 1 1 ' i d us t r i a

navalmeccanica,

(M , W e s t 63,11

TS

(1973). with a

The

atomic

absorp

t i ori d e t e r t n a t i o n ii A n a 1 . C h i m . Ac t a

of' Z i n c

graphite

fu r n a c e .

133

AIR CONTAMINANTS INVOLVED IN WELDING IN SWEDISH INDUSTRY - SOURCES OF VARIATION IN CONCENTRATIONS

ULF ULFVARSON Research Department, Swedish National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, S-171 84 Solna, Sweden INTRODUCTION Welder's exposure to concentrations of air-contaminants can be measured by a number of rather accurate and precise methods. It is however difficult to know what the measurements represent. What are the important sources of variation in the exposure? Exposure to air contaminants has been investigated at about 500 workplaces at nearly 100 places of employment and in 21 permanent-way departments of the Swedish State Railways. Methods of sampling and analysis have been summed up earlier (1) and are therefore not repeated here. As regards welding, the highest average dust concentrations during the workday, 10 mg/m-' in the breathing air of the welders, occurred in the MIG welding of aluminium and the metal-arc welding of nonalloy steel. The lowest average dust concentrations during the workday, 1-2 m g / m ' , occurred in the TIG welding of aluminium, titan and stainless steel. In the metal-arc welding of stainless steel the investigators found a mean value of more than 0.2 mg/m' of chromium in the breathing air of the welders, nearly all of it in the form of hexavalent chromium. High chromium concentrations were also found in the overlay welding of railway rails out of doors. The hygienic limiting value was exceeded at about a third of the work-places investigated, even though the weld metal contained as little as 3.2 % of chromium (1). The variations in concentrations of particles and gases have been further analysed to elucidate the importance of welding parameters and environmental factors to the exposure to air contaminants in welding. RESULTS In a workroom where welding is going on, the dust concentration throughout the room and the composition of the dust are dependent on the welding operation (1, 2). It is therefore useful to know how places of employment can be grouped according to welding methods and parent metals. The possibilities of studying the effects of uniform exposure can be seen by analyzing types of places of employment. 2,205 places of employment in Sweden, employing fusion welding broke down into 467 types with different combinations of welding methods and parent metals. At the time of the study there were 11,079 welders at places of employment where nothing but nonalloy steel was welded. For stainless steel the corresponding figure was 425 welders and for aluminium 126 welders (3).

134

The exposure to air contaminants during actual welding, when the arc is struck

is

substantially higher of course than the average exposure during the working shift. If the arc time factor is e.g. 20%, the exposure when the arc is struck should be about five times as high as the average exposure. It is shown that the difference between different welding methods is leveled out and is sometimes disappearing if the exposure to dust during periods when the arc is struck is used for comparison. This interesting fact does not invalidate comparisons of exposures based on daily averages, but has to be kept in mind when the conclusions are drawn (1). Thus a comparison between the evolution of particulate air contaminants from TIGwelding and MIG-welding shows that the main source of dust is the electrode, when this is of a melting type. Multivariate data-analysis indicates a relationship between the type of covering on coated electrodes intended for welding stainless or high-alloy steel and exposure to substances of hygienic interest. Rutile electrodes appear to give higher concentrations of iron, chromium and nickel in the breathing air of the welders than do basic electrodes (2). This points at the possibility of decreasing exposure to metals by developing the electrode coating. It has been stated that the welder may decrease his exposure by changing his work posture. The significance of work posture to exposure has been studied. When the welder's exposure was systematically varied in an experimental situation it was found to be of significance to ozone exposure in the gas-shielded arc welding of steel (4). During the welding of non-alloy steel at ordinary workplaces the working posture of the welders as it was observed had no significant effect on their exposure to dust (1). Far more important to the exposure was the time of the year when the operation was studied. It has emerged that exposure to dust during welding is significantly greater during the period February-April than it is during the rest of the year, a state of affairs that is bound up with the poorer ventilation during the coldest months of the year in Sweden (5). It is not thought that spot ventilation is poorer in these months than in other months and therefore it may be assumed that a better general ventilation should be useful to abate the exposure from welding during the winter. The welding of primed steel gave rise to more dust than the welding of unpainted steel, which can only be partly ascribed to the presence of paint on the workpieces. The composition of the welding dust suggested that the way in which welding was done on painted workpieces contributed to the higher dust content, among other things through the use of a higher current (1). For welders who used local exhaust devices the mean dust concentration in their breathing air was significantly lower than for welders who did not use such devices. In metal arc welding the average capture efficiency was 58% (1). In metal-arc welding of stainless steel the devices reduced the mean chromium concentration in the breathing air of the

135

welders in about the same proportion from 0.2 to 0.006 m g / m ' . This is insufficient, in view of the fact that the mean concentration is not brought down below the limiting value even when local exhaust devices are in its place. In gas-shielded arc welding, local exhaust devices cannot be used so effectively without interference to the gas shield. In accordance herewith it was found that the capture efficiency of local exhaust devices in MAG averaged no more than 35% in practical work (1). An experimental investigation into the effectiveness of local exhaust devices shows markedly higher capture efficiencies when conditions are optimal. A precondition is that the devices are used without interruption and are positioned sufficiently close to the source of the contaminants. In metal-arc welding, 15 types of local exhaust devices gave capture efficiencies of 97-99% (6). Just as is found in practical operation, the results were poorer in the case of gas-shielded arc welding. With this form of welding the local exhaust devices were found to give capture efficiencies of 70-90% (6). The capture efficiences in the experimental studies were valid for the particle-size interval from 0.1-1.4 urn. In determinations at workplaces it was found that local exhaust devices reduced the concentration of oxides of nitrogen in metal-arc welding (of stainless steel) (1). The devices did not have any significant effect on ozone exposure in the gas-shielded arc welding of stainless steel (1). In an experimental study of the gas-shielded arc welding of various materials, on the other hand, it was established that local exhaust devices did have some effect on the ozone exposure of welders, with capture efficiencies varying in different series of measurements from insignificant levels to 80% (7). A reason to the frequently found inefficiency of local exhaust ventilation in practical work is the high rate of emission in actual welding. If the local exhaust ventilation is not applied in the best possible way even for a short period when the arc is passing a considerable contribution to the average exposure will result. CONCLUSIONS A list of factors influencing the exposure to air-contaminants in arc-welding must of course include the parent metal and the welding method with details about the electrode used and the current. A number of other factors have also to be considered. In principle local exhaust ventilation may decrease the exposure of most air-contaminants substantially, but in practical work, local exhaust ventilation will be perhaps the most unpredictable source of variation in the exposure. The arc-time factor comes next, the exposure being practically proportional to the arc-time factor. The time of the year has a surprisingly big effect on the exposure, the exposure in the cold months being 2-3 times as high as in the rest of the year. It is easily seen that in the case these factors act concurrently, the bias in the judment of the exposure average over a long time from a few measurements will be considerable. The only way to avoid this is to plan the measurements carefully and specify the work conditions in the observed work places with enough details.

136

REFERENCES 1. Ulfvarson U. Survey of air contaminants from welding. Scand j work environ health 7: suppl 2, 28 pp (1981) Ulfvarson U, Wold S. Grouping by the Clustan computer programme of aircontaminant-concentration data from Welding. National Board of Occupational Safety and Health. Arbete och Hlsa 1982:5. Solna (1982) (Swedish) Hallne U. Problems of the welding environment. Part 23. Type analysis of places of employment that use welding - classification of types of places of employment by welding methods and parent metals. Publication pending. (Swedish) Hallne U. Problems of the welding environment. 24. Determination of gaseous air contaminants in the gas-shielded arc welding of workpieces decreased with methyl chloroform. National Board of Occupational Safety and Health. Study Report 1984:8. Solna (1984) (Swedish) Ulfvarson U. Limitations to the use of empolyee exposure data on air contaminants in epidemiologic studies. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 52, 285-300 (1983) Jansson L. Determination of capture efficiency - Particle-size distribution and concentrations in welding with and without various local exhaust devices; performance of some filters and ventilation systems. National Board of Occupational Safety and Health. Arbete och Hlsa 1978:18. Stockholm (1978) Hallne, U. Investigation of the exposure of arc welders to ozone and oxides of nitrogen in welding with various shielding gases. National Board of Occupational Safety and Health. Arbete och Hlsa 1985:1. Solna (1985) (Swedish)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

137

WORKER EXPOSURE TO WELDING FUMES AND GASES DURING HYDRAULIC PLANT TURBINE REPAIR J.F.K. FROATS, P.J. MASON, J.C. TO Industrial Hygiene Services, Health and Safety Division, Ontario Hydro, 757 McKay Road, Pickering, Ontario, Canada, L1W 3C8 INTRODUCTION Personal and area sampling of welding fumes and gases during hydraulic plant turbine repair was conducted in 1983 as part of Ontario Hydro's assessment of worker exposure to chromium compounds. This paper reports on the concentrations of total welding fume, total chromium, hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] and ozone during in-situ stainless steel MIG welding of hydraulic plant turbines. There have been numerous studies detailing worker exposure to welding fumes, particularly stainless steel welding fumes in general shop environment 1 " 7 . There is however, limited information available on worker exposures in confined spaces such as inside the scroll cases of hydraulic generating stations while stainless steel MIG welding is taking place. This contained environment warrants a closer investigation of worker exposure to welding fumes and aases specifically to hexavalent chromium (CrVI), total chromium, total welding particulate and ozone gas. Two hydraulic stations were identified as representative locations for evaluating worker exposures during turbine repair. One location had Francis type turbines (Otto Holden GS) while the other had propellor type (Chats Falls G S ) . Both are located on the Ottawa River System. A summary of the work environment parameters is shown in Table I. Overall a total of six employees engaged in welding, grinding or both were studied. MIG welding took place using an automatic feed machine with 308 wire. Argon was the covering gas. Standard voltage, amperage and arc length settings were used. Average arc time was about 2.5 hours per 8 hour shift with about 3 hours devoted to grinding, inspection or other activities. METHODOLOGY Ventilation measurements were taken at various locations throughout the scroll case and access areas using a Kurz Model 441 air velocity meter. Air flow directions were determined with the aid of Drager Air Current tubes. Ozone gas was determined in the welders breathing zone using Drager tubes (ozone .05/a). Sampling of welding fumes was achieved by using Dupont P2500A

138
pumps calibrated at a flow rate of 2.0 L/nrin. Collection was on .45 PVC fil ters in 37 mm closed face cassettes. A rea samples were taken at a height of 1.4 m on the work platform below the turbine and between wicket gates. Personal sam pling with the cassettes located on the lapel, started at the beginning of each shift and continued over the entire day. Sample times ranged from 120 to 180 minutes to avoid overloading the filter which could jeopardize the accuracy of the gravimetric analysis as per NIOSH procedure PC&M 262 which followed. Filters were then analyzed for Cr(VI) within two days of sample collection by the modified "INCO" method8 (Modified Blakely Zatka method). Total chromium was determined by atomic absorption.
TABIC I W R ENVIRONMENT P R M T R OK A A EE S

Location Wort Location Parameter Otto Holten GS Runner Type Number of employees Marking on runner Work activities during assessment Francis 2 - welders Chat Falls 65 Propeller 2 - welders 2 - rinders

- stainless steel welding on turbine blide* - stainless steel welding on turbine blades - arlld steel welding on throat rlnq - orinding of propeller blades and throat ring

Average quantity of metal welded kg/welder/shlft Effective volume cubic feet (cubic metres) Effective Ventilation ( I . e . , Intended air Movement rate excluding losses) cubic feet/minute cubic metres/second Losses ( I . e . . Unintended air movement excluding tallrace) cubic feet/mtnute cubic metres/second 80 (0.04)

62.680 (1,775)

32,500 (giti

10,000 (4.7) 22

Air exchange rate/hr

RESULTS Concentrations of Cr(VI) ranged from 0.1 3.4 pg/m 3 while t o t a l chromium con c e n t r a t i o n s ranged from 8.1 108.0 g/m3 . They are well below the Threshold Industrial The concentration of L i m i t Values (TLV) adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Hygienists (ACGIH) of 50 g/m3 and 500 g/m3 r e s p e c t i v e l y . t i o n s ranged from 30210 ppb. 100 ppb r e s p e c t i v e l y .

t o t a l welding fume ranged from 190 g/m3 to 21,600 g/m3 while ozone concentra Total welding fume and ozone exposures are at or s l i g h t l y above the ACGIH TLV Time Weighted Average (TLVTWA) of 5000 g/m3 and These exposure r e s u l t s are d e t a i l e d i n Table I I .

139

TABLE 11 women EXPOSURE ELDIRG FUCS MO GASES oulie HYDRAULIC nur wnim REPAIR

Concentration Particulates lug/ 3 ) Location Staple Type Kwber of Saaejles S 10 Cr(I) TIV - 50 Range .1-.6 .1-.4 Average .3 Total Chrosrlial TL 500 Range Average Total elding Five a - 5,000 Range 330-2,250 190-1,050 Average 1.300 435 Munber of Soples 9 Gases (ppbl Ozone TL - 100 Range 30-140 <10 Average 110 <10

Personal Otto Holden GS Area Personal elders Chats F i l l s G S Grinders Are

'
2.2 2.0 .3 .1-37.7 17.1-108.0 17.6-27.5 17. 65.4 22.6

'
8 1

6 7

1.0-3.4 1.1-3.1 .2-. 5

670-a,3ZO 1.580-21.60) 1.400-2,150

3,475 7,083 1,630

40-210 <10

80 <10

_..

The area concentrations for Cr(VI) total chromium, total weldinq fume and ozone were all well below their respective TLVTWA . The effective ventilation rate in the scroll case areas was determined to be about 40(10 cubic feet per minute (CFM) per welder or (1.8 m 3 /s/wel der).

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION Exposures throughout the welding industry vary widely due to the many environ mental and welding dependent factors which play a major role in determining actu al fume and gas exposures. Generally speaking, the concentrations found for all containments studied were below values auoted in other typical workplace expo sures 9 . This is likely due to the relativley high effective ventilation rate of about 4000 CFM/welder in the scroll case area. The values do however fit into the wide range of exposures which can be encountered in welding environments. The results indicate that workers engaged in hydraulic turbine repair are not exposed to unacceptable levels of Cr(VI) and total chromium. However, the poten tial for overexposure to total welding fume particulate and ozone may exist. This potential for overexposure necessitates the need for supplied air respira tory protection with an assigned minimum protection factor of 100. This will ensure that worker exposure to Cr(VI), total chromium, total welding fume and ozone are well below their respective TLVTWA 's and at a level which is as low as reasonably achievable. The directional flow rate for general ventilation from below the turbine up through the headworks takes advantage of the natural chimney effect present. A ll area samples indicate that a flow of about 4000 CFM/welder (1.8 irrVs/welder) yield acceptable concentrations of welding fumes and qases in the general scroll case environment away from the immediate weldinq and grinding areas.

140

RECOMMENDATIONS Supplied air breathing apparatus with a minimum protection factor of 100 should be worn when welding and grinding during hydraulic plant turbine repair. The directional flow of general ventilation should be from below the turbine up through the headworks at a rate of about 4000 CFM per welder (1.8 m 3 /sec per welder). Further investigations of worker exposure to welding fumes and gases during hydraulic plant turbine repair should be undertaken to further substantiate these findings and refine the exposure profile for these employees.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Jenkins et al (1981) Welding F ume Sources, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s C o n t r o l . Welding I n s t i t u t e , Abington, Cambridge, pp 269-329 Moretn J (1982) Ann Occup Hyg 25:421-430 Stern R (1981) Env Health Perspectives 41:235-253 M Stern R (1981) A Preparatory Study of the Exposure of Welders to Toxic M Substances' and the Resulting Health E f f e c t s . The Danish Welding I n s t i t u t e SVC No 8 1 . 3 1 , Copenhagen, pp 56-59 Stern R (1982) Chromium Compounds: production and occupational M The Danish Welding I n s t i t u t e SVC No 82.03, Copenhagen, pp 33-38 exposure. The

5. 6. 7. 8.

Bland J (ed) (1973) The Welding Environment American Welding Society, Miami, pp 15-35 T i n k l e r MJ, Ditchun A (1983) Evaluation and Control of F umes Produced During Welding. Canadian E l e c t r i c a l Association 000656, Montreal, pp 88-111 Ulfvarson U (1982) Scand J Work Environ Health 7, Suppl 2:1-28

11 4

STAINLESS STEEL WELDING : SPHERE H NI? RING IN FRENCH FACTORIES

F. DIEB LD, J.C. LIMASSET

Service Chimie toxicologique BP 27

Institut National de Recherche et de Scurit 55 V NDOEUVRELESN IICY A A

(France)

The INRS, french organization concerned with problems of occupational hygiene and safety, has attempted to develop a relatively simple method for evaluation

of essential chemical risks at welding workplaces and to guide the choice of the appropriate exhaust and ventilation technique to be used.

This approach will be illustrated here by the case of high alloy steels welders (stainless steel, Inconel, armored steel) in four boilermaking factories manu facturing components for armament and for chemical and nuclear engineering.

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Welding fumes and gases are collected in the breathing zone of the welder with a modified welding helmet including teflon sampling tubes for gases (CO, NO , 0 ' and two filter cassette assemblies positioned inside the helmet at mouth level.

When weight determination for total fume concentration is to be made, a cassette with a 25 mm diameter quartz fiber filter (WHA TMA N GF/C) is used. For the deter mination of sample elements, a cassette with a 37 mm diameter polystyrene fiber filter (MICROSORBA N) is used.

Gases are sampled with continuous monitors : non dispersive infrared spectros copy for CO and chemiluminescence for NO and 0 . The amount of total particulate

fume collected on a quartz fiber filter is determined by weighing to the nearest 0.001 mg. Determination of metallic elements on Microsorban filter is made by

Direct Current Plasma spectroscopy (iron, silicium, manganese, chromium, nickel, m lybdene, vanadium, copper) or flame emission spectroscopy (sodium, potassium) or atomic absorption spectroscopy (lead).

142

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS For the assessment of the possible risk due to the inhaled fumes, the INRS chose

to take into account the specific toxicity of eacli constituent, by calculating the ratio of the measured air concentration to corresponding threshold limit va lues defined by the A.C.G.I.H. in the USA. C Excess index for the element : I. = TLV. Furthermore, the total particulate concentration is compared with the value defi ned by the A.C.G.I.H. for welding fumes (5 mg/m 7 ), by introducing an index :

=_L
5

These indices enable to classify the various workplaces studied in three categories

1.

Ip < 1 and all indices < 1 : workplace can be considered as healthy ;

2.

Index I. > 1 or I element this element

: in this case, the relative prevailing presence of the

determined by the value of its excess index, allows to use as a tracer of the total pollution ;

3.

I > 1 or index I : pollution is characterized by the total generated par P i ticulate concentration.

STAINLESS STEEL WELDERS High alloy steel welding generally corresponds to the category nr. 2 : this is the reason why we have only kept chromium and nickel elements for expressing re sults (see table I). There was no attempt to determine definite chemical species under which the ele ments are exactly in welding dust ; thus, we have decided to take into account, for each of them, the A.C.G.I.H. threshold limit values corresponding to the most and to the least toxic species. So, two indices, a maximal one and a mini mal one, must be proposed.

143

TABLE 1 : Excess i n d i c e s a t workplaces

Manufacture Metal Cas t u r b i n e Hastelloy Cae t u r b i n e Stainless steel A I S I 301 Paddle wheel Stet?l I CO I NO* I I 1 Cr Sol. Insol. I Ni

Welding process

3
0,1

TIG /

NEHTAL

0,1

0,06

M A W

ASOSTA 3044 L t 3,25 S M A W ESAB OK 6 7 6 3

,
0,11 0 0,1 0,23 0,1 0,07 0 0

1,16

3,2/0,32

0,09

0,001

3,12 0,8 0,7

16,1/1,6 3,6/0,36 3,1/0,31

0,01 0,002 0,002

0,01 0,002 0,002 (3)

(3( (1) (I4)

Stainless

10 CMJ 3 6 CDA 12 Tank inside

t >>

0,72 ESAB OK 6 1 3 0 / 5 0,38 ESAB 6 2 3 5 0,18

10,2/1,02 li /,*

1 / 0,02 1 ,3 / 0,02 1 ,3 / 0,026

(2) (1) (2)

Stainless steel 2 CN 1 8 / 1 0 P i p e w e l d e d seam outside Stainless steel 6 CN I B / 0 9 73 fr'

3 O

I4,2/0,142

Shielding Steel Ni/Cr/Mo

G M A W SANDVIK 18/6/MB CAR3AL 1 S M A W ESAB OK 6 3 3 3 t 6 2,76 17 / 0 , 1 7 2 , 9 / 0,06

(S

0,1 0,1

5,148 6,2?

22,2/2,22 35 / 3 , 5 7 /O,7

2 , 6 / 0,05 5 , 2 / 0,1 1 , 1 / 0,02

(2)

Tank i n s i d e Stainless steel Tank o u t s i d e Stainless steel Tank Stainless steel l b MND 5 c b" Surfacing Stainless 20/10 steel Tank inside

S M A W SAfIJTOX B O 1 1 ? 3 . 2 and I

2,5

6,8/0,68

0,6

0,08

(2)

0,5>4

0,144/0,01

0,17 / 0,003

S M A W S0UD0NEL CQ 5

2,4444

6,1/0,61

0,9

0,01

t 5
S M A U S0UI10NLL CQ 5 f 5 S M A W ESAB OK 61I4I t k t 3,2 , 0,2 ",7/0,417 1,22/0,12 0,li2 / 0,008 .7 / 0,009 0,58 1,6/0,16 0,1 0,01 (1) (2)

INCONEL

Tank Stainless

steel

S M A U ESAB OK 6 1 3 0 t 5

0,6!

0,8/0,08

0,20/0,006

(1)

Tank

inside

S M A W SOUTONEI. CQ 5 f li a n d 5 0,0C 0,12 0,6b 1,88 2,4./0,2li 11 / l , 4 1 1 0,01 0,07 0,06 C,? (2) il) O

INCONEL

(1) (2)

Movable l o c a l

exhaul

s\stem

(3) (")

Welder above wheel Welder below wheel

Welding i n confined

space a r c welding

S M A W : Shielded metal C M A W : Gar n e t a ]

a r c welding

144

From these examples corresponding to real working conditions, it can be noticed that : It is generally not important to take into account gases for the assessment of the total risk, which led us to not systematically measure them.

The welder's position in relation to the arc and to the plume can be as impor tant as the presence or not of an exhaustventilation system (cf. welding of a paddle wheel).

Although exhaustventilation devices we saw were efficacious in reducing total particulate concentrations, they did generally not bring down chromium index below 1 (cf. welding inside an INCONEL tank).

In order to favour the

introduction of really efficacious devices, the INRS has

drafted a guide for ventilation practice (%) offering a wide range of ventilation techniques adapted to risk level defined by : The classification of welding consumables according to their nature ;

The measurement of fume generation rate in g/min(or g/q metal).

The INRS has justified its approach using laboratory results obtained with a simulation bench.

f?k)

Guide for ventilation practice n 7 : A welding operations. Cahiers de rc Notes Documentaires JM5, IU3158 ( 198U) ND n 1UT311 58U (INRS, 30, rue 0. Noyer 75680 PARIS CEDEX ^h)

145

EXPOSURE OF WELDERS TO FUMES, Cr, Ni AND Cu AND GASES FROM THE WELDING OF STAINLESS AND HIGH ALLOY STEELS J.F. VAN DER WAL TNO Research Institute for Environmental Hygiene Delft, The Netherlands INTRODUCTION The TNO Research Institute for Environmental Hygiene started in the year 1982 a wide research programme on the exposure of welders to chemical agents (fumes and gases) and physical agents (ultraviolet radiation, noise, heat, air movements and ventilation) in work places and enclosed spaces. Exposure to chromium, nickel and copper fumes from the welding of stainless steel and high alloy steels are also included (1,2). METHODS Air samples were collected in the breathing zone of the welders behind the face guard. When wearing a helmet, two sampling devices were provided inside. One of these devices was a filter holder, the other device was a holder with an adsorption tube for sampling of N0. Welders with a shield were provided with the same devices at the lapels. Samples were also collected at stationary test sites at a distance of about 2 metres from the welder. The sampling and analysis for the determination of Cr and Ni enabled the determination of both the soluble and the insoluble Cr , total Cr and Ni contents. Glass fibre filters without organic binders were used for the sampling of the fumes to prevent the partial or complete reduction of Cr to Cr as occurs by using organic filters or glass fibre filters with organic binders (2). The results of the samples taken at the welding of Cr and Ni alloys indicated that: All the hexavalent chromium was soluble in water. All other chromium was insoluble in water. The Cr content resulting from leaching with aqua regis and from fusing with Na_C0^ were, within the accuracy of the method, identical. All nickel was insoluble in water.

146

The air in the breathing zone of the welders was sampled during two 8hour shifts by personal sampling. Two samples per shift were collected; the sampling period was about three hours. The sampling periods of 6 hours per shift should be considered representative for the whole shift; this means that the activities during the remaining two hours were not essentially different from the sampling period. The same sampling strategy was applied for the stationary sampling site. N0, NO and 0., samples were taken at random with monitors in the breathing zone of the welders and other places. RESULTS The results are summarized in Table 1. All welders and cutters worked in a large room without local exhaust ventilation, with the exception of the Al bronze welders. The Al bronze welders worked in an enclosed welding box with exhaust ventilation. Both welders wore a protective helmet of the airline type. They adjusted the air flow themselves, which could explain the interindividual fluctuations of the concentration. The nuisance experienced by the noise of the air flow into the helmet can be different for the individual welders. The NO, and NO-levels as time weighted averages (TWA) did not exceed 1 -3 mg m in all welding techniques mentioned above, both of alloyed and nonalloyed steels, with the exception of plasma cutting of SS: both up to 2 -3 mg m . The 0_-levels were under the detection limit of 5 pg m in all techniques and steels with the exception of MIG welding of Al bronze (due to the -3 Al content of 10%): up to 50 pg m of 0 3 and microplasma cutting of inconel. This latter was due to the very short distance between the plasma -3 torch and the breathing zone (< 20 cm), where more than 500 pg m was measured. Recent own measurements during MIG welding of Al indicated very high -3 concentrations of more than 1 mg m (0.5 ppm) in the breathing zone during arcing. In this case the welder's head was very close to the arc (10-20 cm). This is also found by others (3). DISCUSSION The concentrations at the stationary test sites, although at a short distance of the welders, were appreciably less than in the breathing zone of the welders. This is usually found in situations where the workers are close to the source of pollutants (the welding arc).

Table 1

TW A

(3 h) concentrations of fumes, Cr, Ni and Cu, without local exhaust ventilation.

Welding Location

Technique

A lloy

Concentration (TWA 3h) in breathing zone ,+ _3 , _3 _3 total dust, Cr ,pg.m Cr.pg.m Ni.pg.m Cu.pg.m mg. m

Number of measur measure ments

MMA MMA MMA MIG TIG TIG MIG MMA TIG PA

Microplasma

A C A
A +D

SS SS SS SS SS
monel Al bronze cum'fer cunifer

A E F F A G
A+B+H+I D+E+K D+E+K

SS
inconel

PC MMA
MIG/MAG
:

SS US US

6 30 2 40 5 11 1.5 3 0.8 3 1.3 5 2 7 2) 0.8 2.0 3 ) 1.2 5.5 0.6 2.0 0.9 1.1 0.2 0.6 0.7 8 1.313 0.913

25 150 551500 25 210 < 1 < 1

30 160 1001600 45 300

40140 10210 15 50

60
10 55

30
10 40 330 M 215 ) 3802700 2 ) 45 215 3 ) 150320 40140

3 8 4 2 48 4
4 8

40120 20 60 < 1 < 1 < 140

20
3 30 440

20
1 6 10260

8 8 4 20 24 30 52

) ) 3 )
2

TW of 4 periods (12 h ) , A Welder unprotected in enclosed box with exhaust ventilation Welder protected with airline helmet in same box as 2 )

148

In MMA

welding of SS similar chromium contents as found by US were

found by (47). In agreement with our results the hexavalent chromium frac tion of the total Cr found by (46) varied between 50 and 100%. (7) found only 15%; this might be ascribed to the use of PVC membrane filters. These filters might reduce partially hexavalent to trivalent chromium (1,2). Simi lar total chromium contents were found in the dust samples collected at MIG welding and TIG welding of SS with argon as a protective gas. Only a small fraction of the chromium less than 2% was identified as hexavalent. (4) VI and Gray (8) indicate that the Cr content in the plume at the moment of the production is higher, but decreases soon after its generation (within a few minutes). We agree, however, with (9) that the plume immediately it is produced does not relate to breathing zone sampling. In all dust samples collected (MMA , MIG and TIG) the nickel was in 3 ). In plasma 3 cutting SS in most cases fume concentrations of more than 5 mg.m were soluble in water (soluble Ni concentration less than 0.01 pg.m found without local exhaust ventilation. This is in agreement with (1012) contrary with (10) we did not find soluble Ni in the fume.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work has been made possible by a grant of the Dutch Labour Direc torate of the Ministry of Social Affaires and Employment. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Wal, J.F. van der, . Knoll, . Pijnappel, C A. van der Star. IMGTNO Report F 201206 (1983). Moons, A.M.M. IMGTNO Report F 1994 (1984). Fagetter, .., V.E. Freeman, H.R. Hosein. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 44 (1983), 316320. Stern, R.M. Chromium compounds: Production and occupational exposure. From: Biological and environmental aspects of chromium Ed. Sverre Langrd, Elsevier Biomedical Press (1982). Vorpahl, K.W., P.T. Jordan, E.J. Mathews. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 37 (1976), 566569. Tola, S. , M. Virtamo, J. Kilpi. Summary of document VII 175477, "Urinary chromium as an indicator of exposite of welders to chromium" (1979). Wilson, J.D., M.R. Stenzel, K. L. Lombardozzi, C.L. Nichols. Am. Ind. Hyg. A ssoc. J. 42 (1981), 431436. Gray, C.N., A . Goldstone, Ph.R.M. Dare, P.J. Hewitt. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 44 (1983), 384388. Moretn, J. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 25 (1982), 421430. Danish Welding Institute. Report SF 7703 (1977). Ulvarson, U. e.a. Arbetarsskydsstyrelsen Report 198141 (1981). Press, H. Welding in the world 16 (1978), 96103.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

149
EXPOSURE TO WELDING FUMES IN THE WORKPLACE WITH REGARD TO NICKEL AND CHROMATES WILFRIED COENEN; INGO GROTHE; GUSTAV KHNEN Berufsgenossenschaftliches Institut fr Arbeitssicherheit, 5205 Sankt Augustin 2, Lindenstrae 80 und Nordwestliche Eisen- und Stahl-Berufsgenossenschaft, 3000 Hannover 1, Hans-Bckler-Allee 26 (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) PROGRAMME OF INVESTIGATION The following contains the report of a field study on the exposure to welding fumes in the workplace. The objective of the field study was to ascertain and investigate the concentration of dusts presenting a health hazard in the workplace to welders and auxiliary personnel. The study's main emphasis was placed on the welding of stainless and acid-resistant steels. Attention was paid to various welding process practised and welding materials used. From 1981 to 1984, 1. 127 dust samples were taken at 289 workplaces in 211 firms while welding was in progress and 3.186 material analyses were carried out. Through the use of results obtained in a field study carried out at actual workplaces under normal working conditions, it is possible to achieve a realistic estimation of the levels of exposure to which employees are subjected. Specific influences affecting the level of pollutant concentration, such as the composition of the welding fillers or other characteristics of welding techniques, however, are more difficult to identify and quantify in field investigations than under model experimental conditions, e.g. in the fume box. To a certain extent, these drawbacks can be balanced by using mathematically statistical evaluation methods. The results of such an evaluation are presented and discussed here. The following abbreviations are used for the various welding processes: (MMA) for arc welding, (TIG) for tungsten inert gas, (MIG) for metal inert gas and (MAG) for the C02-shielded welding process whereby, in addition to C 0 2 , small amounts of oxygen are also added to the inert gas. RESULTS The following dust concentrations were determined: total-weldinn-fume (fume), in West Germany a threshold limit value (MAK) of 6 mq/m3 is in force; respirable Ni-dusts (Nickel), with a limit value for carcinogenic working materials (technical limit value, TRK) of 0.5 mg/m 3 , the sum of chromtes in total dust (Chromates), calculated as chromium trioxide with a TRK value of 0.1 mg/m 3 . The concentration of respirable chromium dusts (Chromium) is also specified for purposes of comparison. Dust sampling was carried out in the breathing zone of the welder behind the welding shield (P). In addition, the level of exposure of auxiliary personnel

150

was also ascertained using background samples (S). A far as the methods of s sampling and analysis are concerned, reference is made to /1;2/. The sample values recorded differed widely even for comparable conditions. For the purposes of a comparative observation, the 90 % value of concentration distribution is used. This 90 % value allows a critical assessment towards "the safe side" as 90 % of the individual sample values recorded are below this value. TABLE I BREATHING ZONE SAMPLING ON WELDERS Weldiiig proce! 90 %values of the concentration of all breathina ;jones amples chromtes fume nickel chromium mg/m3 % G mg/m3 % G mg/m3 mg/m3 % G 13.4

MMA TIG MIG MAG

limit value (G)

5.4
12.8

41

73 220% 51 90% 26 210% 32 680%

0.24 0.07 0.16 0.19

212 170 74 52 TRK

50% 14% 32% 38%

3

0.4
<0.006 0.02 0.03

156 400% 133 <6% 64 20% 46 34% TRK

0, 1 mg/m3 .

0.35 0.04 0.19 0.34

148 140 63 39

MAK
6.0 mg/m
3

0.5 mg/m

Table I specifies the 90 % values in mg/m3 for the various pollutants and welding processes. In addition, the number of samples and also the relation of the 90 % concentration values to the respective limit value is given in "% G". It must be noted that the threshold limit value (MA K) for total welding fume is exceeded for all welding orocesses with the exception of the TIG process. It is to be expected that practically no limit values are exceeded for the nickel concentrations. It can, however, be recognised that the highest values are recorded for manual metal arc welding. However, here too, the TIG process shows particular low values. The Chromate concentration levels, particularly, show extreme differences. Here, the limit values for manual metal arc welding (MMA) are seriously exceeded. TIG and MAG processes are safely below the limit value. For the TIG process, the Chromate concentrations are below the detection limit (<) of the method of analysis. This finding is confirmed by the extremely low chromium concentrations for this process. In the case of chromium, the values recorded for the active gas method are comparable with those for manual arc welding.

151
TABLE II BACKGROUND SA MPLES welding process TIG MIG MAG limit value values of the concentration distribution of all background samples fume nickel chromtes chromium mg/m3 % G mg/m3 % G mg/m3 %G mg/m3 8 1 3.5
14.4

90

48 35 21 26

130,

0.22 0.026 0.08 0.02

Mi 58%
240%

120 75 57 28 TRK 0.5 mg/m3

44% 5% 16% 4

0.06 0.002 0.01 0.003

111 65 57 26

60% 2 10 3.

0.17 0.04 0.08 0.03

100 66 57 26

A K M 6.0 mg/m3

TRK 0.1 mg/m3

Manual metal arc welding yields the highest levels of concentration in the vicinity of the welder whereas the TIG process here too produces on the whole the lowest level of exposure. Although relatively high levels of fume concen trations are registered for the MAG process in the area around the welder, the nickel and Chromate concentrations are lower than for the MIG process. INFLUENCING VA RIA BLES In the analysis of the influencing variables, particular attention was paid to the examination of the properties of weldina fillers used for manual metal arc welding. The results are presented in table III in the form of 90 % values of concentration of breathing zone sampling together with the number of samples (n) and the relation to the limit value ( G ) . TABLE III INFLUENCE OF WELDING FILLERS welding fillers 0<4mm Cr<18% Ni > 0 % Ni 11 * Cr >0 90 % values of the concentration distributionMMA P nickel chromtes chromium mg/m3 % G mg/m3 % G mg/m3 0.07 0.07 0.94 0.57 0.42 10 22 14% 0.03 14% 0.03 10 18 30% 30% 0.21 9

acidic

0.16 17

0 > 4 mm C r > 1 8 % Ni > 0 % alkaline Ni >11 i Cr > 0 % all Ni >90

14 190% 0.72 20 114% 0.98 21 84% ~ 0

12 720% 0.47 10 16 980% 1.2 9

17 ~ 0 % *0.005 14 TRK 0.1 mg/m3

limit value (G)

TRK 0.5 mq/m3

152
The results presented in table III are divided into 3 groups of sheathed electrodes with varying characteristics. The first group includes electrodes of small diameter and acidic cover. For electrodes with both low chromium as well as low nickel content, comparably low concentrations for nickel, Chromate and chromium are detected. The 90 % concentration values for nickel and Chromate are 10 to 30 times higher in the second group of electrodes with larger diameters, alkaline cover and high chromium or nickel contents. Here, the very high, and, if studied closely, complex influence of welding fillers on the level of pollutant concentration becomes particularly evident. The results indicate, for instance, that the nickel concentration in welding fumes is determined to a significant extent, both by the level of the nickel component in the welding filler as well as by its chromium content. The third group only contains electrodes with a nickel content of more than 90 %. The nickel concentrations detected are of a similarly high magnitude to those in the second group. Chromate and chromium concentrations, on the other hand, are practically not detected at all; they fall below the detection limit of the method of analysis. Other possible variables, such as the effective arc duration in particular, have hitherto shown no significant influence on the exposure of the welder. It can, however, be assumed that the welding current has an aggravating influence. As far as exposure of the auxiliary personnel is concerned, effective room ventilation has shown to have positive influence. In the case of natural ventilation through effective ventilation openings, such as open windows, open doors and roof lights, dust concentration levels lay well below average. REFERENCES 1. Khnen G, Pfeiffer W (1982) Schadstoffkonzentration im Atembereich von Schweiern. In: Staub - Reinhaltung der Luft No. 3, pp 111-114 2. Grothe I, Khnen G, Pfeiffer w (1984) Arbeitsschutz in der Schweitechnik. Betriebliche Messungen von Schweirauchen unter besonderer Bercksichtigung von Nickel und Chromaten. In: DSV-Berichte Band 90, Deutscher Verlag fr Schweitechnik, Dsseldorf, pp 65-69

153
WELDING FUMES CONCENTRA TION IN HEAVY CA RPENTRY WORKING ENVIRONMENT A ND TRIA L TO CORRELATE SA ME WITH GA S AND POWDERED FLUORIDES

GERMANO CA SCIA NI*, FEDERICO RUSPOLINI* UBERTO VERDEL*, GAETANO CECCHETTI** * ** L Consulenza Tecnica A ccertamento Rischi Professionali Via No mentana 74 00161 Rome (Italy) Istituto di Medicina del Lavoro dell'Universit Cattolica del Sacro Cuo re L.go A gostino Gemelli 8 00168 Rome (Italy) ~

INTRODUCTION In this work are reported the results of a number of measurements on wel ding fume pollution in the work environment of ten different Italian hard carpentry factories.

MATERIAL A ND METHODS 75 static sampling determinations relating to submerged arc weldings and 95 static sampling determinations concerning coated electrode weldings were

totally carried out;in addition , for the latter operations, 176 personal samples were also collected. A ll measurements generally concerned welding o perations on steels without highly toxic metal components: the total concen tration of aerocondensed fumes was determined. Furthermore, 35 CO measure ments, 45 NO

measurements and 88 determinations of fluoride concentration

were carried out. Sampling and analysis conditions Fumes. Fixed samples at 20 1/min (air velocity, v= about 1.2 m/s) for gene ral area measurements. Personal samples at 3 1/min (v= about 1.2 m/s) for the personal exposure evaluation. A ir inlet diameter: for static samplers=19 mm;

for personal samplers = 7.3 mm. Gelman DM800 filters, 25 mm diameter, 0.8 jjm pore size. Weighings by micro M3 Mettler balance. Carbon monoxide. Ecolyzer direct reading automatic equipment (Energetic Science Inc . ). Nitrogen oxide. Colorimetrie method: NO with absorption in NaOH, NO oxidation

repeated absorption in NaOH; spectrophotometric determination

(Bausch and Lomb).

154

Fluorides. Fluorides were determined according to two different sampling me thods: a) collection of total fluorides (F ) via impinger containing 10cm

of 0.1 M NaOH; dilution with TISAB; ISE analysis (ion selective electrode 0 rion). (Method & CAM 117, 1972) ; b) collection on membrane filter (mixed cellulose esters) for particulate fluorides separation (F de, from the same sample of ); gaseous fluori

air, is absorbed by an al kal iimpregnated cellulose ). Analysis was made gas

pad placed immediately behind the membrane filter (F

?

with ISE. (Method & CAM 212, 1974) .

RESULTS Fumes, CO, NO

Table I reports the fume concentrations measured during the different welding operations. TABLE I WELDING FUMES CONCENTRATION

max Samplings mg/m 3 mg/m

min 3 mg/m

s 3 mg/m

Submerged arc weldings general area samples Coated electrode wel_ dings general area samples personal samples wi thout local exhaust personal samples with local exhaust 150 4.34 7.91 1.31 2.28 26 32.03 90.60 8.80 28.00 95 1.50 3.40 0.34 0.83 75 0.55 2.00 0.16 0.43

As far as concerns the CO concentration, the samples show the following resu lts: = 35; = 6 ppm; x m

= 47 ppm;
Ull

= lppm;

s = 7.9 ppm.
_

For nitrogen oxides, the following values have been obtained: = 45; = 1.09 mg/m3.

6.50 mg/m ; , = 0.00 mg/m 3 ; s = 1.55 mg/m3.

III

155

Fluorides The samples concerned welding operations with acid electrodes and fluxes (n=34, average fume concentration = 1.55 mg/m ) as well welding operations with 3 basic coated electrodes (n = 54, average fume concentration = 8.75 mg/m ). In the first case (acid welding), very low F concentrations were found: 3 3 F , = 0.06 mg/m F = 0.04 mg/m . 3 3 abs part + gas In the latter case (basic welding), the results were: 3 3 F . = 0.83 mg/m F = 0.77 mg/m . J 3 =Kc part + gas abs The correlation between the two sampling methods (via impinger and via filtra tion) is illustrated in Figure 1: regression is fair (K = 0.90) in the case of basic electrodes; not so good for acid electrodes and fluxes (K = 0.60). A confirmation of the poor significance as well as of possibility of analytic errors on low fluoride concentrations, in the case of acid welding, is given by the attempts to correlate the fluoride percentage with fume concentration: in

E 04
IO

.BASIC F UMES : ,= 0.90 x,+0.02 .ACID F UMES : y 2 = 095x+0.03

/. /

XI

~03 ** 0.2-

>

K2 = 0-60 / /

/ / K, = 090

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3 0.4 F part + gas mg/m3

F i g . 1. Correlation between f l u o r i d e concentration obtained by absorption (F" b ) and by f i l t r a t i o n and absorption with alkali-impregnated c e l l u l o s e pads (F " p a r t + g a s ) .

156

OB E 6 0.6. c o u o '" 0.4 V 02. /

=0.89 / / ,0.85

F abs.

Y, = 0.09 , 0.043
=

Fpart+gas

0.11 , 0.134

Welding fumes concentration

10 nng/ m 3

F i g . 2. C o r r e l a t i o n between welding fumes and t o t a l f l u o r i d e concentrations.

2.0.
CD

BASIC FUMES: = 3.11 +0.61 ACID FUMES: not c o r r e l a t e = 0.75

E .1.6.

1.2.

0.8.

0.4

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 F gas m g / ,

Fig. :. r " p a r t / F " q a s ratio in basic electrodes welding Turnes.

157 effect the distribution of points appears to be very scattered and throughly un satisfying regression values of the order of 0.4 * 0.5 are obtained. The case of basic welding is quite different : fluoride concentration in the fumes is much higher (about 9) and this enables more careful correlations (see figure 2) 3 4 . ./ F ratio, fiqure 3 shows a curve relatinq to wel 3 3 part gas ding with basic electrodes that indicate a value of about 5/1. As regards the F 3

CONCLUSIONS For fumes, welding operations with efficient local exhaust give breathing zo ne exposures that are on average lower than the ACGIH TLVTWA. It would however appear that the values obtained are not likely to prove the achievement of a so lution to the problem of exposure to risk. Continuous welding without adequate technical prevention devices is not admis sible. Basic electrodes develop fumes containing about 9 fluorides, more than 80% of wich usually is in form of particulate. The analyses carried out through absorption samples (F tration and impregnation (F part + F gas ) and through fil ) are fairly correlated when basic e

lectrodes are concerned; on the contrary, for low F" concentrations (acid mate rials), results are not reliable, it is confirmed that in these cases fluoride measurements have not to be carried out. REFERENCES 1. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. NIOSH. Manual of Analytical Methods (19771979) Cincinnati. 2. Weinstein LH, Mandi RH (1971) The separation and collection of gaseous and particulate fluorides. VDI Berichte 164: 53 63. 3. Gobbato F, Biava PM, Bovenzi M, Cornelio G, De Zotti R, Fiorito A, Petronio L, Volpe C (1979) Rischi, patologia professionale, infortuni sul lavoro e preven zione nei grandi cantieri navali di costruzione e trasformazione. Atti XLII Congr Naz Soc Ital Med Lavoro. Cluet, Trieste: 1 383 4. Pantucek MB (19/5) Hygiene evaluation of exposure to fluoride fume from basic arc welding electrodes. Ann Occup Hyg 18:207

159

MEASUREMENT OF WELDING FUME AT HYPERBARIC CONDITIONS OLAV BJRSETH, ELI BRRESEN, BJARNE MALVIK, SINTEF, Division of Applied Chemistry, 7034 TrondheimNTH (Norway) KARIN JAKOBSEN, NUTEC Samples of welding fume were collected on glass fiber and Nuclepore filters during unmanned TIG welding at 32 bar He in a laboratory hyperbaric welding simulator. The test chamber was approximately 100 1 and the TIG welding was performed on 20 mm thick rondels with a diameter of 220 mm. The amount of welding fume per g weld deposit at 1 and 32 bar He is shown in figure 1. As shown in the figure, the fume production is 510 times greater at 32 bar He compared to 1 bar He. The Mn: Fe ratio was also greater in the hyperbaric situation compared to monobaric conditions. This is probably due to the difference in heat and heat distribution.

H
+j

c o

3 O M

Q.
OJ

a
IM

1 bar He, 3 mm land 3 2 bar He, 3 mm land 32 bar He, 5 mm land

2 3 4 welding speed mm/sec Figure 1. Fume production with TIG welding at 1 and 32 bar He

Normally, W and small amount of Th was detected on the filter samples at 32 bar He. These elements originale from the tungsten electrode which typically contains 2wt\ Th. At hyperbaric conditions, the electrode seems to be less inert than at monobaric conditions.

160
Some exposed filters are examined using electrone microscopy. A typical picture shown in figure 2 indicates that the particles are spheric and in the same particle size range as monobaric welding fume. The concentration of welding fumes in a hyperbaric work chamber at NUTEC (figure 3) during a qualification test dive is given in table 1. The work chamber at NUTEC is 50 m and the welding test was performed with two welders working on a 36 inches piece of a pipeline at 16 bar He. Both welders used local extraction (-140 m /hr).

Figure 2.

TEM picture of TIG welding fume at 32 bar He.

Figure 3.

Welding chamber at NUTEC.

161 With the local extraction system in operation, the fume concentration at fixed positions near the welders breathing zone, could be kept below 5 mg/m Some of the exposed filers were analyzed for a range of elements (table 2 ) . Some filters were also examined using electron microscopy (figure 4 ) . These results correspond with the laboratory experiments. Welding fume were also sampled during real welding on pipeline at 150 m depth. Again two welders were welding on a 36 inch pipeline (MMA welding), and they both used local extractor.';. The fume t f. I

Figure 4.

TEM Pitures of MMA welding fume at 16 bar He.

162
were collected on glass fibre and Nuclepore polycarbonate filter:: placed inside the welding facescreen. With precise use of the extractor, the fume concentration could be kept below 5 mg/m in fume the breathing zone. Table 1. Concentration of welding fume in a welding habitat at 16 bar He. NO OF SAMPLES CONCENTRATION (mg/m3) RANGE 44 0.5-10.3 MEAN 3.4

Table 2.

Element analysis of MMA welding fume at 16 bar He.

ELEMENT Fe Ca Mn Zn Ni Cr Mg Pb Cu

CONCENTRATION (wt%) 22.1 7.6 4.5 0.3 0.2 0.14 0.12 0.01 0.01

163
UN SITE OZONE MEASUREMENTS IN WELDING SHOPS

BERNDT ENGSTRM 1 ' and MATTI V I R T A M 0 2 ) 1) Institute of Occupational Health, Regional unit, Hmeenkatu 1 0 , 20500 Turku, Finland 2) Institute of Occupational Health, Regional unit, Atinatie 3, 00370 Helsinki, Finland

INTRODUCTION Although full tions several about laboratory its hygienic information zone study ozone was in based role studies there real the in on ozone in gas-shielded welding are available agreement tions. Therefore more (1,2,3,4) about to is still not condineeded. on difthe gas concentrais

working

ozone the

in the breathing the present of significance

in "on site" conditions evaluate gas-shielded conditions.

The aim of hygiene

occupational

welding

ferent materials (adding of NO)

in real working on the ozone

Furthermore, shielding the in

influence of local ventilation and ozone zone of the welder

reducing

concentrations

breathing

(inside face guard) was evaluated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The ozone concentrations were measured shops a during different meter 560. were in the breathing gas-shielded from The drawn the meter before In zone of welding Analytical was a each order dust the welder "on site" inside the welding helmet in 24 welding processes. using to a Instrument collecting period. sampling adsampling stronglaborathe calibrator Different (5-15 minutes) were performed connected sampling to

118 short-time measurements chemiluminescent Inc. All Development recorder. teflon time model was to in The

samples

through

filter, which restricted of ozone air. a

changed

To avoid error caused by interfering dust, the maximal was 15 the minutes. sorption ly measurement was system, with each a

minimize

period was preceded by flushing ozonized using system from AID Inc., which tory welding parameters itself and had

the 'sampling calibrated iodide which been

lines with in the

calibrated may

colorometric

potassium

method.

ventilation,

influence

ozone concentration during welding, were also recorded.

164

TABLE I DISTRIBUTION OF OZONE CONCENTRA TIONS IN THE A IR INSIDE GUARD FOR WELDERS WORKING WITH DIFFERENT WELDING PROCESSES Welding process MIG, on Al MIG, MAG on MS TIG, MIG on SS TIG on Al TIG on MS TIG on Titanium FCAW on CMnS Number of Median measurements (ppm) 52 34 18 2 6 4 2 0.060 0.024 0.019 0.010 0.005 0.0035 0.009 Min. (ppm) 0.004 0.001 0.006 0.001 0.010 Max. (ppm) 0.700 0.220 0.100 0.011 0.040

FACE

90th %ile (ppm) 0.260 0.070 0.054

MIG = metal inert gas welding, MA G = metal active gas welding, TIG = tungsten inert gas welding, FCA W = fluxcored arc weld ing, A l = aluminium, MS = mild steel, SS = stainless or acid resisting steel, CMnS = carbon magnese steel.

The effects of the reducing methods on the ozone tions are presented in table II. The use of local markedly reduced the ozone concentrations, whereas of nitrogen oxide containing shielding gas seems to than that found in laboratory studies (1) .

concentra ventilation the effect be smaller

TABLE II INFLUENCE OF REDUCING METHOD ON AVERAGE OZONE CONCENTRA TION Concentration before reducing method applied Effect of local ventilation Effect of shielding gas

0.020.1 ppm > 0.1 ppm

13

0.033 0.283

12

0.013 +0.010

= number of paired measurements

165

The arithmetic mean of the recorded shorttime ozone concen trations was calculated. The distribution of these average ozone concentrations are presented as geometric means for different welding methods and materials. Paired measurements (n=37) were made in "on site situations" so that only the measurable variable, local ventilation (with or without) or shielding gas (with or without a small amount of nitrogen oxide (0.03 %) ) , was changed. The results were grouped in two concentration intervals (0.020.1 ppm and > 0.1 ppm). The average effect was calculated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fluctuations in ozone concentrations in the breathing zone air of the welder were very common as is shown by a typical recorded curve in figure 1. The changes with time can be ex plained by variable welding conditions, i.e., arc on/off, posi tion of face guard or air movements. The measured shorttime average for the ozone concentrations was usually low. For all welding processes, the geometric mean of the average concentra tions was below the Finnish exposure limit, 0.1 ppm (table 1 ) . The highest concentrations occured during MIGwelding on alu minium with a geometric mean of 0.06 ppm. In this case, peak values up to 7 ppm were recorded in welding without local ven tilation. The present results agree well with those obtained by Ulfvarson (5) in a similar study.

o
(E
Q!

0.5

ui

TIME

(min)

Fig. 1. A concentration profile of ozone aluminium without local ventilation.

in MIGwelding

on

166 CONCLUSION For most welding processes, the concentrations of ozone in the breathing zone of welders rarely exceed the exposure limit 0.1 ppm, which is adopted in most countries. In MIG-welding on aluminium, average concentrations over 15 minutes may exceed the exposure limit, especially in confined spaces. With good local ventilation, ozone concentrations in the breathing zone can be significantly reduced. The use of ozone reducing shielding gas does not always reduce the ozone concentrations in real working conditions. REFERENCES 1. Sipek L, Smrs E (1980) The problem of ozone in gas-shielded arc welding. Aga Report GM144e. Aga Gas Division Tby Sweden Jenkins N, Moretn J, Oakley PJ, Stevens SM (1981) In Welding Fume, Sources, Characteristics, Control Volume 2. The Welding Institute, Cambridge, pp 211-267 Stern RM (1978) The production of ozone and other photochemical oxidants during welding with MIG. SF 78.09. The Danish welding Institute, Copenhagen Press H, Florian W (1980) Formation of toxic substances in gas shielded arc welding. Part 2. 11S/11W Colloquium on Welding and Health Estoril Ulfvarson U (1981) Survey of air contaminants from welding. Scand J Work Environ Health, volume 7, supplement 2, pp 21-25

2.

3.

4.

5.

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING

169

LEVELS OF WELDING FUME COMPONENTS IN TISSUES AND BODY FLUIDS ANTERO and JORMA JRVISA LO Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, 00290 Helsinki, Finland INTRODUCTION A wide range of metal alloys are welded today. They may contain eg aluminum, iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt and molybdenum, together with a wide variety of elements at low concentrations. The electrode coatings may add still other, even highconcentration components to welding fumes. The number of welding techniques has increased steadily, and techniques other than the classic manual metal arc welding have gained a wider and wider use. Different welding techniques generate remarkably different fumes: the amount of fume generated, the particle size distribution, elemental composition, crystalline structure, nature of chemical compounds and solubility show marked differences. Therefore, it is quite evident that the absorption, distribution and elimination of the different fume components in the body will vary between different welding materials/techniques. The information on the kinetics of even the main components of welding fumes in the body is very scanty, though, both in man and in experimental animals. The purpose of the present paper is to summarize available information on the kinetics of iron, chromium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, aluminum, barium and fluoride after exposure to different welding fumes, in man and in animals. The main emphasis will be on the evaluation of occupational exposure from analyses of biological fluids, ie., biological monitoring. Magnetopneumographic studies will not be dealt with, as other papers in this volume concentrate on these techniques. STEEL WELDING The two metals that have been studied most intensively, are nickel and chromium, the major alloyed compounds in stainless steel. The reason for this interest is evident: both chromium and nickel have been shown to cause cancer in man, chromium primarily in Chromate production, nickel primarily in nickel refineries (13).

170

Chromium The fumes generated in the manual metal arc (MMA) welding of stainless steel contain approx 5 per cent chromium (4), out of which 70-90% are hexavalent and water soluble (5). In exposure to MMA welding fumes, the concentration of chromium in urine (5-11) and blood (10) is increased. As estimated from decay curves of urinary chromium concentrations, chromium is distributed in at least two different compartments. The half-time of the fast compartment is approx 5-40h (9,12), that of the slow compartment more than 2 weeks (10, Rahkonen et al, this volume). Thus the urinary concentration of chromium of MMA/SS welders shows clear cut peaks in response to the daily exposure, and on the other hand, an accumulation during the working week. Concentrations of chromium in the urine immediately after the work shift reflect mostly the daily exposure; the available studies agree rather well that an 8-h exposure to a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of 50 ug/m water soluble chromtes causes an approximate average concentration of chromium in the urine of 0.6 umol/L (5-11). In metal inert gas (MIG) welding fumes, the concentration of chromium is usually higher, approx 10% (4), but very little of it is in water soluble form (5,13). In welders who use exclusively the shield gas welding techniques, the concentration of chromium in the urine and blood (5, Rahkonen et al, this volume) are hardly above the levels found in non exposed populations. Thus it is not surprising that in welders that use both MMA and MIG techniques, the concentrations of chromium in the urine closely resemble those seen in pure MMA welders (13, Rahkonen et al, this volume). On the other hand, the apparent change in the renal clearance of chromium in mixed MMA & MIG welders, with changing estimate body burden of chromium (13), might in part be caused by the composite exposure. Flame cutting of stainless steel seems to generate still another type of chromium-containing fume (14, Gustafsson et al, this volume); very high concentrations of chromium were seen in the urine of flame cutters of acid-resistant steel. In contrast to MMA welding, no clear cut peaks of urinary chromium were seen related to the daily exposure. Even changes during the week-end were minor. In an average, a 30% drop was seen in the urinary chromium concentration during a 4-week vacation. Even the serum chromium values were clearly elevated in the flame-cutters (14).

171

Presence of welding fumes in the lungs of welders has been clearly documented (15,16), and excess chromium has been detected in the lungs of a UMA/MS welder (17), but no quantitative data are available on the effects of stainless steel welding on the chromium contents of the organs or tissues of man. From studies using magnetopneumography, it can be inferred that the lungs show highest chromium concentrations (eg 18,19). It has been suggested that even in persons not occuptionally exposed to chromium, its concentrations increase in the lungs with age, while they show a decrease in other tissues (see 20). An old study has reported (21) that in exposure to both soluble and insoluble chromium compounds (chromite, chromtes) in a Chromate manufacturing plant, chromium concentrations in the lungs of deceased workers were very markedly elevated up to 23 years after cessation of the exposure. Experimental studies on the accumulation, distribution, and disappearance of chromium have been performed in rats exposed to welding fumes (22-26, Kalliomki et al, this volume). When rats were exposed in a nose-only exposure chamber to fumes generated by a robot performing MMA welding of stainless steel, chromium rapidly accumulated in the lungs (24-26). After a rapid initial phase of disappearance, the bulk of the accumulated chromium disappeared with a half-time of 40 d. Thus the initial fast clearance resembles the disappearance of water soluble chromtes from the lungs, but the bulk of the MMA/SS fume chromium disappears more slowly than water soluble chromtes (27-29). The chromium content was increased even in the spleen, kidney and liver. The highest concentrations in the liver and kidney were found 1-3 weeks after the 4-week exposure. In the spleen, the concentration of chromium increased after the exposure for 60 d. The maximal concentrations of chromium in the lungs were, however, approx 70 times higher than those in the other tissues. (24-25). When neutron-activated MMA welding fume, suspended in physiological saline, was instilled in the trachea of rats, the disappearance of chromium from the lungs was roughly similar: after an initial rapid loss through the gastrointestinal tract, the bulk of the chromium disappeared from the lungs with a half-time of approx 50 d . Even in these exposure conditions, elevated concentrations of chromium were detected in the blood, liver, kidney and spleen. The spleen exhibited an accumulation over the whole experimental period of 106 d.(Kalliomki et al.

172
this volume) The results from studies on the fate of MIG fume chromium in rats are somewhat contradictory (22,23,26,Kalliomki et al, this volume).Al-Shamma and coworkers studied the disappearance of chromium from the lungs after exposure of rats to welding fume generated on the spot (22), or of guinea pigs to welding fumes, which were neutron activated, and suspended in physiological salt solution (23). In both cases, they detected a fast disappearance of most of the chromium within a few days, approx. 99 percent in the faeces, 1% in the urine. This loss, although qualitatively similar (ie., through the gastrointestinal tract), was much smaller in the studies by the group of Kalliomki performed using similar techniques (26, Kalliomki et al in this volume). The apparent difference might be explained by the much heavier exposure Al-Shamman and coworkers used (400 mg/m fume content, in contrast to 45 mg/m in the studies of the Kalliomki group). There were marked differences even in the composition of the fumes. After the initial loss, however, both groups found that the rest of the chromium is removed from the lungs only very slowly. Valence state of chromium. There are no studies on the valence states of chromium in man after exposure to welding fumes. In the urine of workers exposed to chromtes (30) or trivalent chromium compounds (30,31), chromium in the urine was trivalent. In the rat, hexavalent chromium was rapidly reduced after an intravenous injection, provided that the dose was not very high (32). Because trivalent chromium is mainly transported in the plasma (31, see 20), but hexavalent chromium primarily in the erythrocytes (20), separate analysis of blood components for chromium might give clues on the question whether heavy exposures to hexavalent chromium have taken place, overriding the capacity of chromium reduction. Nickel The content of nickel in stainless steel is only 1/3-1/2 of that of chromium; especially in MMA/SS fumes, the Ni/Cr ratio is even lower (4). It is not surprising, therefore, that amounts of nickel in the urine or blood of welders have generally been low. The average concentrations of nickel in the urine of MMA welders of nickel-alloyed steels were approx two-fold ofer the control levels (7,10,33-35). Nickel plasma sprayers had urinary nickel levels

173

approx 3-fold over those of the welders (33). In tungsten inert gas (TIG) welders, the concentration of nickel in the urine was not elevated (7). The plasma concentration of nickel in MMA welders of stainless steel were not elevated (10). Though the urinary concentrations of nickel in the MMA welders were only moderately elevated, it seemed that there was a relationship between the TWA concentration of nickel in the air, and in the post-shift urine (10). This is in contrast to flame cutters in stainless steel cast-cleaning (14): In this case, the urinary nickel concentrations were rather high, but did not show any exposure-related fluctuation. In flame cutters, the urinary nickel concentrations thus did not reflect recent exposure, but probably more the body burden (14). When rats were exposed to MMA/SS fumes (24-26), nickel accumulated in the lungs much more slowly than did chromium; a 4-week exposure (1 hour 5 days a week) did not result in significant increases of the nickel concentrations in the brain, liver, spleen, or kidney. The slow accumulation was evidently in part due to the smaller nickel content in the fume (3.6% chromium, 0.4% nickel), in part to the rapid clearance of nickel (T. / 20-30 d from the lungs after the exposure) (25,26). Nickel from MIG/SS fumes disappeared from the lungs much more slowly; two half times, 3d and 86d could be discerned (23). When comparing the disappearance of nickel from the rat lungs, originating from MIG and MMA welding fumes, one should remember that even in case of MMA fume, there might exist a fast component in the disappearance: the number of data points in the early phase of the disappearance was small. (25-26). Results using neutron activated fumes, (Kalliomki et al, this volume) are difficult to interprete in the case of nickel, as the activation procedure leads to transformation of nickel to cobalt; behaviour of cobalt may only in part reflect that of nickel. Manganese Stainless steel welding fumes contain approx 3-8% manganese (4). Manganese has been reported to cause a pneumonitis, and also a Parkinson-type disease in long term exposure (36). Recently, it has been even suggested that manganese in welding might cause neurological damage (37,38). Estimation of manganese exposure from biological specimen analyses has been reported recently (38-41, Jrvisalo et al, in preparation). It has been shown that the

174

concentration of manganese in the blood and urine of welders were higher than in the controls. However, the increase was rather small, with remarkable overlap of the exposed and nonexposed people. In addition, concentrations of manganese in the urine vary remarkably even in the same individual (10-fold changes within a day) both in exposed and non-exposed persons (36, Jrvisalo et al, in preparation). This is probably due to variable dietary intakes of manganese, and large - and probably variable - excretion of manganese in the faeces (36,40). It is thus evident that measurement of manganese in the blood or urine may be used as an indicator of exposure only on a group basis. Data on concentrations of manganese in tissues and organs of people exposed to manganese-containgin fumes are lacking. When rats were exposed to MMA/SS or MIG/SS welding fumes, manganese was slowly accumulated in the lungs. Manganese from MIG/SS fumes disappeared from the lungs after the exposure showing two successive half-times, 2d and 125d. In contrast, in exposure to MMA/SS welding fume, only one compartment with a half-time of 40 d could be discerned. However, presence of a compartment with a fast clearance may not be excluded, because too few data points in the early phase of the disappearance. (26) Iron No data are available on the effects of welding fume exposures on the iron balance of man. Exposure of rats to MIG/SS welding fumes led to a linear increase in the content of iron in the lungs (22,26). After the exposure, the total iron content of the lungs hardly changed during 100 d (22,26); however, the iron derived from the fume - measured by its magnetic properties - disappeared with a half time of 40d (26). A roughly similar decrease was seen in the extrinsic iron content in guinea pig lungs after intratracheal instillation of neutron-activated MIG fumes (23). Thus there was evidently a concurrent increase in the intrinsic iron of the lungs (26). The recent results of Kalliomki and coworkers (this volume), are somewhat different from these data: Practically no clearance of extrinsic iron was detected from the lungs of rats after intratracheal instillation of neutron activated MIG welding fumes. Cobalt Cobalt is a minor component of welding fumes. No data are available on cobalt concentrations in tissues or body fluids of

175
welders. When Al-Shamman and coworkers (22) exposed rats to 400 mg/m MIG fumes, the amount of cobalt found in the lungs immediately after the exposure was 0.5% of that of chromium (but 40 times higher than in the control animals). There was an initial fast clearance during the first few days; thereafter practically no decrease could be detected in the cobalt concentration during 56 d (22). The results that Kalliomki and coworkers report in this volume, after intratracheal instillation of MIG fumes suspended in saline are very similar: the half time of cobalt in the lungs was 220 d. A rather minor increase of cobalt in the liver and kidney was seen after nose-only exposure to MIG fumes (26). Exposure to MMA fumes did not elevate the cobalt content of lungs (Kalliomki et al, this volume.). Fluoride Basic electrode coating contains fluoride, usually as calcium fluoride; this represents approx 20% of the total welding fumes. Several studies have indicated that welding with these electrodes results in increased concentrations of fluoride in the urine (42-43, Engstrm K, unpublished). A linear relationship seems to exist between the time weighted average concentration of fluoride in the air, and post shift urinary fluoride concentration: TWA exposure of 2.5 mg fluoride/m for 8 h resulted in an average fluoride concentration of approx 200 nmol/L (42,43, Engstrm K, unpublished). On the other hand, TWA exposure of 2 mg/m to hydrofluoric acid and fluorides in aluminum production has been reported to give rise to 500 umol/L fluoride concentration in the urine (44, 45) . No data are available on fluoride concentrations in other tissues of welders, or in experimental animals after exposure to welding fumes. Barium Compounds of barium are used as flux components in certain welding processes; barium appears in the welding fume in a readily water soluble form (46). Recently it was shown that high concentrations of barium may be found in the urine of welders using barium-containing welding electrodes. The clearance of barium was rapid: the bulk of barium had vanished from the urine by the next morning (46).

176

ALUMINUM WELDING Toxicity of aluminum has been the focus of increased interest during the last few years, because it has become evident that aluminum from dialysis fluids and from antacid preparations is the causative factor of the dialysis dementia in chronic renal failure. A case of encephalopathy has been reported in connection with heavy exposure to aluminum in the work place (47). Aluminum has also been linked to pulmonary fibrosis (47) and alveolar proteinosis (48). It was recently reported (49) that shield gas welders of aluminum had elevated concentrations of aluminum in the urine, and slightly elevated concentrations even in the blood (50,51). In a thorough recent study (51) it was shown that in workers not previously exposed to aluminum, exposure to inert gas aluminum welding fumes (TWA concentration of aluminum 2.4 mg/m in an average), resulted in rapid and marked elevations of the urinary aluminum. After the exposure, the urinary aluminum decreased with a half-time of approx 8h. On the other hand, welders with a long welding history showed elevated urinary aluminum concentrations which decreased little if at all during the week-end. This indicated that a part of the aluminum is retained in the body. It is probable that this slowly excreted aluminum is located in the lungs, because in the patients referred to above (47,48), the lungs contained high concentrations of aluminum. It is to be noted that although the urinary concentration of aluminum in the welders were clearly elevated in all the cited studies (49-51), the concentrations in the blood were hardly higher than in non-exposed people, and orders of magnitude lower than in dialysis dementia patients. CONCLUSIONS The data on the distribution of the element components of welding fumes in the exposed worker are very limited. It has been shown that the concentration of chromium, nickel and manganese are increased in the blood and especially urine of stainless steel welders, those of aluminum in aluminum welders. Practically no data is available on the distribution of these elements in other tissues. However, the lungs certainly are the primary deposition site. It is evident from data on humans and experimental animals that practically always the fume components are distributed in at least two different compartments in the body; these compartments

177

have different kinetic characteristics. Therefore, a measured concentration of an element in a body fluid is generally a reflection of these two different compartments, and conclusions on the extent of exposure have to be drawn carefully. The material welded and the technique used have profound effects on the kinetics of the different fume components. Specifically, metal species in the shield gas welding fumes are only very slowly cleared from the lungs, whereas MMA welding fume components are cleared inore rapidly. REFERENCES 1. IA RC Monographs Supplement 4 (1984), 292p 2. IA RC Monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Vol 23 chromium and chromium compounds.(1982) IA RC, Lyon, France, 205323 IA RC Monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risks of chemicals to humans. Vol 11. Nickel and nickel compounds (1976) IARC, Lyon, France, , 75112 Stern RM (1977) The Danish Welding Institute Publication 77.05 Tola S, Kilpi J, Virtamo M, Haapa (1977) Scand J Work Environ Health 3:192208 Gylseth B, Gundersen , Langrd S (1977) Scand J Work Environ Health 3:2831 Kalliomki PL, Rahkonen E, Vaaranen V, Kalliomki , Aittoniemi (1981) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 49:6775 Sjgren B, Hedstrm L, Ulfvarson U (1983) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 51:347354

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Welinder H, Littorin M, Gullberg B, Skerfving S (1983) Scand J Work Environ Health 9:397403 10. Rahkonen E, Junttila ML, Kalliomki PL, Olkinuora M, Koponen M, Kalliomki K (1983) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 52:243255 11. Littorin M, Welinder H, Hultberg B (1984) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 53:279282 12. Tossavainen A, Nurminen M, Mutanen , Tola S (1980) Br J Ind Med 37:285291 13. Mutti A, Cavatorta A, Pedroni C, Borghi A, Giaroli C, Franchini I (1979) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 43:123133 14. Aitio A, Tossavainen A, Gustafsson T, Kiilunen M, Haapa K, Jrvisalo J (1985) In: Progress in nickel toxicology, Blackwell, in press 15. Guidotti TL, DeNee PB, Abraham JL, Smith JR (1978) Arch Environ Health 33:3:117124 16. Stettler LE, Groth DH, MacKay GR (1977) Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 38:7682 17. Kalliomki PL, Sutinen S, Kelh V, Lakomaa E, Sortti V, Sutinen S (1979) Br J Ind Med 36:224230

178

18. Kalliomki , Aittonierai , Kalliomki PL, Moilanen M (1981) Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 42:234238 19. Kalliomki PL, Kalliomki , Rahkonen E, Aittoniemi (1983) Ann Occup Hyg 27:449452 20. Langrd S (1982) In:Langrd S(ed) Biological and environmental aspects of chromium. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 149169 21. Baetjer AM, Damron C, Budacz BA (1959)A MA Arch Ind Health 20:136150 22. AlShamma KJ, Hewitt PJ, Hicks R (1979) In IAEA Nuclear activation techniques in the life sciences 1978. IAEA, Vienna, pp657666 23. AlShamma KJ, Hewitt PJ, Hicks R (1979) Ann Occup Hyg 22:3341 24. Kalliomki PL, Kiilunen M, Vaaranen V, Lakomaa EL, Kalliomki , Rivela R (1982) J Toxicol Environ Health 10:223232 25. Kalliomki PL, Lakomaa E, Kalliomki , Kiilunen M, Rivela R, Vaaranen V (1983) Br J Ind Med 40:229234 26. Kalliomki PL, Tuomisaari M, Lakomaa EL, Kalliomki K, Kivel R (1983) Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:649654 27. Weber H (1983) J Toxicol Environ Health 11:749764 28. Bragt PC, van Dura EA (1983) Ann Occup Hyg 27:315322 29. Wiegand HJ, Ottenwlder H, Bolt HM (1984) Toxicol Lett 22:273276 30. Minoia C, Cavalieri A , D'Andrea F (1983) In: Brtter , Schramel (eds) Trace Elem Anal Chem Med Biol Vol 2. deGruyter, Berlin, pp 623626 31. Kiilunen M, Tossavainen A, Rivisto , AlaLaurila , Aitio A (1983) Scand J Work Environ Health 9:265271 32. Richelmi P, Baldi C, Minoia C (1984) Intern J Environ Anal Chem 17:181186 33. Bernacki EJ, Parsons GE, Roy BR, MikacDevic M, Kennedy CD, Sunderman FW Jr (1978) Ann Clin Lab Sci 8:184189 34. Grandjean , Selikoff IJ, Shen SR, Sunderman FW Jr (1980) Am J Ind Med 1:181189 35. Polednak AP (1981) Arch Environ Health 36:235242 36. World Health Organization (1981) Environmental Health Criteria 17: Manganese. WHO, Geneva, pp 1110. 37. Siegl , Bergert RD (1982) Ges Hyg 28:524526 38. Chandra SV, Shukla GS, Srivastava RS, Singh , Gupta VP (1981) Clin Toxicol 18:407416 39. Pantucek MB (1982) Czech Med 5:225227 40. Bergert RD, Voigt H, Holler U (1982) Ges Inn Med 37:504507 41. Jrvisalo J, Olkinuora M, Tossavainen A, Virtamo M, Ristola , Aitio A (1983) In: Brown SS, Savory J (eds) Chem Toxicol Clin Chem Metals, Academic Press, pp. 123126 42. Hodge , Smith F (1970) J Air Pollut Contr Ass 20:226232 43. Sjgren B, Hedstrm L, Lindstedt G (1984) Br J Ind Med 41:192196

179

44. Hogstedt C (1984) In: Aitio A, Riihimki V, Vainio H (eds) Biological monitoring and surveillance of workers exposed to chemicals. Hemisphere, Washington, pp 177-186 45. Dinman B, Boward W, Bonney T, Cohen J, Colwell M (1976) J Occup Med 18:7-13 46. Dare PRM, Hewitt PJ, Hicks R, van Bemst A, Zober A, Fleischer M (1984) Ann Occup Hyg 28:4:445-448 47. McLaughlin AIG, Kazantzis G, King E, Teare D, Porter RJ, Owen R (1962) Br J Ind Med 19:253-263 48. Miller RR, Churg AM, Hutcheon M, Lam S (1984) Am Rev Respir Dis 130:312-315 49. Sjgren B, Lundberg I, Lidums V (1983) Br J Ind Med 40:301-304 50. Mussi I, Calzaferri G, Buratti M, Alessio L (1984) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 54:155-161 51. Sjgren B, Lidums V, Hkansson M, Hedstrm L (1985) Scand J Work Environ Health 11: 39-43.

11 8

DETERMINATION

OF

NICKEL, CA DMIUM

A ND

CHROMIUM

IN

WHOLE

BLOOD

A ND

URINE

BY

ZEEMAN A TOMIC A BSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

J. MOLIN CHRISTENSEN* A ND M. KIRCHHOFF** * Danish National Institute of Occupational Health, DK2900 Hellerup, Denmark. ** Department of Internal medicine C, Glostrup Hospital, University of Copen hagen, DK2600 Glostrup, Denmark.

INTRODUCTION Biological monitoring exposed of nickel, chromium and and cadmium at low level in

nonoccupational

reference

persons

in occupational

exposed

work

ers, require analysis of blood and urine by an accurate, sensitive and precise analytical method. Several methods have been published. Most of the techniques involve depro teinization with nitric acid. However, our experience is, that these methods

are difficult to reproduce due to contamination and cipitation. Earlier published high and low values

inhomogeneous of chromium,

proteinpre nickel and

cadmium in blood and plasma

illustrate

this. From recent publications

(1, 2, than and

3) the normal level for chromium, nickel and cadmium in blood previously believed. The median values are approximately

are lower 1.5 g/1

19/1,

1 tlg/l for chromium, nickel and cadmium. This paper describe a new reproducible electrothermal atomic absorption cadmium

spectrophotometric method, for analysis of blood chromium, nickel and in sequence. The method is based on enzymatic digestion of blood and

is suitable

as a

general procedure for analysis of trace elements in whole blood and serum.

MATERIALS A ND METHODS Materials Chromium, England); Pronase nickel HNO and cadmium standard solution 65% (Merck, 0.01 g/ml Suprapur); Minisorb Pronase , (Boehringer tubes Mannheim); and Cryo 1.00 g/1 (BDH chemicals,

solution

polyethylene

polypopylene tubes from Nunc (Denmark). Apparatus and Instrument Settings. A PerkinElmer Model 5000 atomic absorp tion spectrophotometer equipped and with a ZEEMA N graphite furnace HGA 500 pro used. dis

grammer, A S40 autosampler High speed

pyrolytically

coated

furnace

tubes were station and

data were collected

by a PerkinElmer

7300 data

played using a PR100 printer.

182

The instrumental settings were: Wave length 357.4 nm for chromium, 232.0 for nickel and 228.8 nm for cadmium; Spectral bandwidth 0.2 nm for chromium and nickel, and 0.7 nm for cadmium; scale expansion 5 for nickel. Furnace settings for chromium and nickel; drying at 90 C to 250 C in 75 sec; charring at 1200 C for 40 sec. and atomization at 2600 C for 8 sec. Fur nace settings for cadmium: drying at 90250 C in 30 sec; atomization at 2100 C for 6 sec. Maximum power and Argon gastop mode. Sample handling. Polyethylene, polypropylene tubes and sample cups were cleaned 1 hour in a 1 M HNO solution and rinsed with ultrapure water just

before use. Heparinized blood was obtained by venepuncture using "metal free" Vacutainer tubes and polyethylene cannula. The cannula was flushed with 23

ml of blood, which was discarded. Whole blood was stored at 80 C in Cryotubes. Sample pretreatment for whole blood. Into a set of four Minosorb tubes

0.5 ml of blood and 50 1 of pronase solution were pipetted. Each tube was stopped and allowed to stand approximately 2 hours. To each tube 50 citrate 3.8% and 1500 1 IM HNO . containing chromium, nickel and cadmium in final (standard addition). Samples

concentrations of 1.5, 3 and 6 g/1 were added

were vortex mixed immediately for 10 sec. and allowed to stand at room temp, for 20 min. The samples are centrifugea at 3000 g for 10 min and the super natant recentrifuged. Chromium, nickel and cadmium, were analysed in sequence. Sample volume

50ul, 40 , 20 , respectively. Results were plotted and the Cr/Ni/Cd con centration in blood calculated from peak height using linear regression on the four samples. Greater analytical sensitivity could be obtained by reducing the dilution of blood. The detection limit for chromium, nickel and cadmium in blood was 0.1 g/1. Sample pretreatment for urine. The well mixed urine specimen was ultrasonic treated. Four 0.5 ml aliquots of urine were pipetted in sample cups. Each ali quots was than spiked with 0.5 ml IM HNO solution containing 0, 1.5, 3.0 or

6.0 g/1 chromium, nickel and cadmium. 20 were pipetted into the graphite tubes and the samples analysed in sequence. Calculation as for whole blood. RESULTS There are no certified reference materials for blood and urine chromium, nickel and cadmium. Therefore as control material pool samples of blood and

183

urine were collected. A high pool was made by spiking the whole blood/urine with chromium/nickel/cadmium standard in the concentration of 6 ^g/1. The

controls kept at 80 C, were run every day of analysis. Precision The between run precision for chromium, nickel and cadmium in blood are shown in table I. The between run precision was estimated on different pool samples over a period of 2 months.

BETWEEN RUN PRECISION CADMIUM IN WHOLE BLOOD

OF

ZEEMA NA A S

MEA SUREMENT

OF

CHROMIUM,

NICKEL

A ND

Mean values g/l

Standard deviation M9/1

Coefficient of f variation

%
Chromium Nickel Cadmium 0.76 1.58 1.81 0.09 0.13 0.16 11.8 8.2 6.4

Analytical recovery. The recovery tests were determined by adding chromium, nickel, cadmium standard solutions (0.02 0.06 ml) to 10 ml samples of blood. The blood samples analysed by standard addition. Preliminary results indicate, that enhanced pronase treatment increases the recovery for chromium. The overall recovery for chromium, nickel and cadmium at various concentra tions was in the range of 67 to 101% (table II). Standard addition curves of nine different parallel. specimens of whole blood were

TABLE II RECOVERY OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND CADMIUM ADDED TO HUMAN BLOOD.

Compound

Spiked
Vg/1

Recovery + SD
*

Chromium Nickel Cadmium

2.1 6.3 4.3

77+10 92+7 95 + 6

184
Reference values. The normal values for chromium, nickel and cadmium in whole blood of unexposed healthy humans are listed in table III. TABLE III REFERENCE VA LUES OF CHROMIUM A ND NICKEL AND CADMIUM IN WHOLE BLOOD FROM THE GENERAL POPULATION OF DENMARK.

MEAN
\Lg/l

Range
g/l

Chromium Nickel Cadmium * nonsmokers ** heavy smokers CONCLUSION

1.0 1.8 0.6* 1.7**

0.31.7 0.82.2 0.30.8* 1.41.8**

A new sensitive, reproducible method for analysis of chromium, nickel and cadmium in whole blood was developed using enzymatic digestion of the red blood cells and ZEEMA Natomic absorption equipped with data system. Compared to previous published procedures the method is simple with low risk of con tamination and easy to repeat. The method is well suited for biological monitoring of trace elements in body fluids.

REFERENCES

1. Sunderman FW, Crisostonio MC, McReid, Hopfer SM, Nomoto SN (1984) Annals of Clin Lab Science 14: 23240. 2. Stoeppler M (1983) Chemical Toxicol and Clinical Chem of Metals Brown SS, Savory J. eds. London, Academic Press 3. Christensen JM, Kirchhoff M (1985) Lts "Progress in Nickel Toxicology", Blackwell.

185

STAINLESS STEEL MANUAL METALARC WELDING AND CHROMIUM IN BLOOD

CECILIA GUSTAVSSON AND HANS WELINDER Department Occupational Medicine, University Hospital, S221 85 Lund, Sweden INTRODUCTION Biological monitoring of risk or exposure in connection with chromium (Cr) ex posure lias been focused mainly on the determination of chromium in urine (UCr) ' . Information on the levels of chromium in blood (BCr) is limited. The lack of data is probably due to analytical obstacles. The level of UCr after a working shift is highly dependent on the intensity of the exposure during the shift. 2 Hpxavalent Cr penetrates the erythrocytes where it is trapped . Analysing Cr in the erythrocytes EryCr) might consequently be expected to supply information during the lifetime of the erythrocytes.

on te time integrated exposure to Cr h

We here present a method for analysis of chromium in plasma (PCr), erythro cytes and whole blood together with studies on welders and electroplaters.

MATERIAL A ND METHODS BCr, PCr, EryCr and UCr were analysed in samples from 4 stainless steel manual metalarc welders collected Thursday after work (4 am), Friday before (6 pm) and after work and the following Tuesday morning after a work free period of 87 hours. Analyses were also performed on samples taken immediately after 31 days of vacation. Samples were in addition collected from 6 electroplaters immediately before and after 31 days of vacation. Chromium in plasma, erythrocytes and whole blood: Venous blood was collected in heparinisedacidwashed tubes through a plastic catheter. Plasma and erythro cytes were separated by centrifugation. The samples from the welders were diluted with water with the addition of 0.2 Mg (NO,) 6H 0 5 and 0.1. Triton X100

(plasma 1:5.5, whole blood 1:11 and erythrocytes 1:22). The limit of detection for BCr was 16 nmol 1 and for PCr 12 nmol 1 as calculated by double analyses of IB samples. The samples from the electroplaters were analysed according to a method by Kalliomki with addition of HNO instead of Mg (NO ) .

Chromium in urine: Urine samples were collected in acidwashed bottles. The samples were diluted with distillated water with addition of 0.6o HNO . The workinq detection limit was 20 nmol/1 calculated from double analyses of 10 samp les with Creoneentrations between 19 and 190 nmol/1. UCr was related to the urinary creatinine levels. I ns t rurnentat ion: The analyses were performed by use of graph i te furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (Perkin Elmer AAS 5000, HGA 500 and autosampling system

186

A5 AO). The chromium hollow cathode lamp was operated on 20 mA and the wawelength used was 357.8 nm. A Tungsten lamp was used for background correction. Comparative analyses were also performed with Zeeman background correction. The sample volume was 0 and the temperature program as in figure 1. Statistics: Kendall correlation test was used for correlation tests.

Step temp.,C ramp.s hold.s

1 2 3 4 5 6

100 110 500 1500 2400 2600

20 20 30 20 0 1

10 30 5 30 5(GS) 7

JU

L-Jl

Fig. 1. Temperature program for the graphite furnace.

TABLE 1 . Chromium in blood. Detection limit with different matrix modifiers.

Matrix modifier Double analyses (no.) _9 Standard deviation (10 M) Detection limit (10~ M)

HN03 18 14 29

Mg(N0 3 ) 2

16

RESULTS The addition of Mg (NO ) allowed a higher ashing temperature without loss of Cr and decreased the detection limit compared with addition of HNO,. (Table 1). Use of Zeeman background correction did not change or improve the results. The analytical results are given in table 2 and figures 2 and 3. 3 Workers with very low Cr levels have been excluded in the figures. There is a decrease of Cr in all fluids during the exposure free periods. There are significant correlations between U-Cr, P-Cr, Ery-Cr and B-Cr (p<0.001; Kendall correlation coefficients) in the welders.

17 8
TABLE 2. Chromium in urine, plasma, erythrocytes and whole blood from 4 welders in 5 different cases and 6 electroplaters in two cases. U-Cr B -Cr nmol/1 P-Cr nmol/1 Ery-Cr nmol/1

/ Creatinine Welders Thursday after work Friday before work Friday after work Tuesday before work After summer vacation Electroplaters Before vacation After vacation 4.8 <0.6 36.7 8.9 11.3 - 31.3 8.7 - 29.0 15.6 - 61.6 7.1 - 28.2 2.2 - 11.3

38 - 142 29-138 35 - 180 31 - 150 <16 33

48 44 52 36 <13

140 138 190 146 58

23 - 132 27 - 142 27 - 188 27 - 148 <20 65

<48 <48

248 175

<38 - 271 <38

<77 - 403 <77 - 269

200

Cr-P
400 t Cr-P Cr-B

Cr-E

o 200-

E
400-1 Cr-E E 40 Cr-U

Cr-B
o 200 '20

50 (days)

50 (days)

Fig. 2. P-Cr, Ery-Cr and B-Cr in 3 welders Thursday after work, Friday before and after work, following Tuesday morning and after 31 days of vacation.

Fig. 3. P-Cr, Ery-Cr, B-Cr and U-Cr in 4 electroplaters before and after vacation.

DISCUSSION The analytical method is not sensitive enough to measure Cr in unexposed

persons. The addition of Mg (NO )

is to be preferred to addition of HNO

The distribution of chromium in blood was different for welders and electro platers, the ratio EryCr/PCr being higher for the electroplaters. This prob ably reflects the different composition of the aerosols in the working environ ment, chemically and physically. Rahkonen et al (1983) found a halftime of

BCr in stainless steel welders of around 20 days which corresponds Lo the half times of the electroplaters in Figure 2. The halftimes of BCr in the 4 welders studied have not been calculated.

200n

, 100 . O

100

200

PCr (nmol/l) Figure 4. The correlation between PCr and EryCr. No clear difference was found in the kinetics of elimination between PCr and EryCr. This fact, together with the high correlation between UCr, PCr, FryCr and BCr (p<0.00l), indicates that determination of BCr or EryCr does not seem to add additional information about exposure or risk to the determination of UCr judging from this experiment. REFERENCES Kalliomki PL, Kiilunen M, Vaaranen V (1982) Retention of stainless steel manual metal arc welding furres in rats. J tox environ health 10:223232. tangrd, S (1980) Chromium. In: H.A. Waldron (ed) Metals in the environment. Academic Press, Condon, 1980. Mutti A, Cavatorta A. Pedroni C, Borghi A, Giavoli A, Franchini I (1976) The role of chromium accumulation in the relationship between airborne and urinary chromium in welders. Int arch occup environ health 43:1 23133. Rahkonen E, Kalliomki Pt, GrenguistNordn (1983) The excre tion of chromium in urine in stainless steel welders during summer vacation (Abs tract; in Swedish), Presented at the 32 Nordic conference in occupational health, R eykjavik. ' periences with Slavin W, Carnrick G, Manning D, Pruszkowska E (1984) Recent ex| the stabilized temperature platform furnace and Zeeman backgrouind correction. Atomic Spectroscopy 3:6986. Welinder H, Littorin M, Gullberg B, Skerfving 5 (1983) Elimination of chromium in urine after stainless steel welding. Scand j work environ health 9:397403.

189
KINETICS OF CHROMIUM IN BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS DURING ONE WEEK OF STAINLESS STEEL WELDING KARL-HEINZ SCHALLER, ANDREAS ZOBER, DIETER WELTLE, HELMUT VALENTIN Institute of Occupational and Social Medicine of University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstrae 25/29, D-8520 Erlangen, Federal Republic of Germany INTRODUCTION In the Federal Republic of Germany the surveillance of manual metal arc (MMA) welders exposed to chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) is subject to the guidelines governing medical surveillance at work. The Cr and Ni levels in blood and urine are used as indicators of the metal intake. Familiarity with the toxicokinetic of these metals is an essential requirement to make a proper evaluation of the measured data. Futhermore reliable data on relationships between external and internal exposure as well as the potential intraindividual variations of internal metal exposure are necessary. The purpose of a 8 days longitudinal study was to provide data for Cr along these lines (1). The Ni results are published elsewhere (2). MATERIAL AND METHODS We examined twenty arc welders from two factories with a mean age of 39.5 (19 to 57) years, who have been working as welders for an average of 19 (3 to 42) years. 70 % were smokers, 20 % ex-smokers and only 10 % non-smokers. All these welders had been working with Cr-Ni containing filler metals for 50 (20 to 100 o) of their working hours for an average of 13 (1 to 27) years. The Cr-content of the electrodes was 18-20 . In order to assess the external and internal exposure fume samples from the breathing zone behind the shield were taken and urine (Cr-U), blood (Cr-B), and plasma (Cr-P) analyses were carried out. The air samples were collected on a daily basis over a period of roughly two hours per welder. The urine samples were taken before, during and after each shift in the course of a working week and on the following Monday; the blood samples pre and postshift only. Depending on the extent to which coated filler metals were used, the rates of exposure fall into three different goups: a) group 1 - predominantly TIG and MIG welding with MMA welding up to 20 %, b) group 2 - occasional TIG and MIG welding, with MMA welding 20 to 60 , c) group 3 - predominantly (over 60 to 100 ) MMA welding RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The values for the external exposure (20 to 40 % effective arc-burning time,

190

workshops with controlled ventilation) are shown in Table 1. None of the mea surements made during the MIG and TIG welding operations were in excess of either the general dust limit of 6 mg/m3 or the "TRK" (technical guiding con centration) for Cr of 0.1 mg Cr0,/m3; these limits were, however, exceeded by 50 % of the measurements for jointwelding operations using coated rod electro des and by 75 % of the measurements for hardfacing operations using coated electrodes. The recommended concentration for Cr was exceeded more than five times by 15 % of the jointwelding and 50 % of the hardfacing measurements. In the case of MMAwelding the median percentage of CrVI in the total Cr content of the fumes from rutilecoated electrodes was 37 %, markedly lower than the median percentage of 76 % in the fumes from basiccoated electrodes. As revealed by correlation analyses, the fumes from rutilecoated electrodes
exceeded the "TRK " f o r Cr i n the case of r e s p i r a b l e dust concentrations > 5 mg/m3, the corresponding value f o r tjasiccoated electrodes being 2.5 mg/m 3 .

TABLE 1 . External welding fuiie exposure l e v e l s (medians ancI 90% ranges) Total Group Resp. Dust (mg/m3) Total chromium (pg Cr0 3 /m 3 ) ChromiumVI 5.3 (0.4/53) 219 (4.53181) 90 (2.61306) Group 1 2.1 (0.3/14) 18 (4822) 5.1 (5.143.7) Group 2 5.6 (0.3/22) 268 (54714) 123 (26247) Group 3 16.7 (0.3/101) 661 (9 5161) 350 (5 2350)

(pg CrOym3)

The r e s u l t s obtaiined f o r the i n t e r n a l

exposure l e v e l s w i t h respect to the t o t a l

group as well as to the 3 exposure groups are presented in Table 2. The values of 30 pg Cr/g creat, currently under discussion as "action level" for an expo sure to Cr in welding fumes was exceeded in the course of the week by 35 % of the persons out of the total group, and by 88 % of the subjects in exposure group 3. The results of Cr analyses in plasma and blood showed a similiar be haviour. TABLE 2. Internal chromium exposure levels (medians and 90% ranges) Total Group 8.3 (0.4 67.4) 2.5 (0.4 7.8) Group 1 2.5 (0.4 7.4) 0.8 (0.4 2.2) Group 2 5.7 (0.2 7.8 2.2 (0.9 4.9) Group 3
19. 1 (3. .3 73) 4. .9 ( 1 . .1 9.6)

CrU (pg/g creat.) CrP (pg/1)

191

The kinetics of Cr may be identified from the concentrations in the course of the day and the week. "Saw tooth curves" are formed with respect to renal Cr elimination (Fig. 1) and the CrP level (Fig. 2 ) . These curves are most clearly evident in the high exposure group 3. It is possible to identify an increase in renal Cr elimination as the day progresses, the median values in pg/g creat, are 16.1 for the preshift specimens, 18.3 at midday, and 16.6 for the postshift samples. In the course of the week an increase of the median basal values from 3.2 to 22.8 pg/g creat, was found. The period of nonexposure at the weekend brought the basal excretion down from 22.8 on Friday to 15.6 pg/g creat, on Mon day. From the patterns followed in individual cases, it may be deduced that the increase in the basal excretion is essentially to be attributed to postshift values in excess of 15 pg/g creat.

I I

i \'

MONDAY TUESDAY 10 30 WEDNESDAY 1030 THURSDAY 1030 FRIDAY 1030 MONDAY

630
1030

U30630

li 30 6 30

H30630 TIME

H30630

1130630

li 30 HOURS
10 30 H^JRS

Fig. 1. Kinetics of renal chromium elimination (medians and 66 ranges) in the course of a day and a week in the case of exposure group 3 The median levels of CrP started at 1.2 pg/1 at the beginning of the exposure period, increased to 2.5 pg/1 per day; this again results in an accumulation as the week progresses, as expressed by the increase of the average basal value from 1.2 to 5.3 pg/1. The period of nonexposure at the weekend reduced the ba sal value from 5.3 pg/1 on Friday to only 5.0 pg/1 on Monday. Linear relation

192

WYJDAY

TUESDAY

WEDNESDAY

THURSDAY

FRIDAY

MONDAY

630

H 30 6 30

% 30 630

1L30B30 TIME

H 30 630

H 30 6 30

K JO HOURS

Fig. 2. Kinetics of chromium in the plasma (medians and 66% ranges) ships were found between the external exposure to CrVI or total Cr and the CrU (r = 0.58 resp. 0.5) as well as with the CrP levels (r = 0.62 resp. 0.59). These were, however, restricted to the combination of air concentration during the morningshift with biological specimens taken after the shift on the same day. Provided the concentration remains inside the "TRK" value for Cr in welding fumes, i.e. 100 pg/m3 , the readings do not exceed biological values of 15 to 20 g Cr/g creat. This keeps the biological concentration within a range which may still be reduced to the normal range in the periods of nonexposure. CONCLUSIONS In order to assess the internal exposure levels on an objective basis efforts should be made to analyse the CrU in each case. A CrU concentration of 15 to 20 pg/g creat, corresponds to an external exposure whithin the range of the "TRK" of 100 g CrO3/m3. Where the CrU are in excess of 15 to 20 pg/g creat, at the end of the last shift of the week, they do not drop to "normal" over the weekend, so there is an accumulation of Cr in compartments of the body. REFERENCES 1. Zober A, Weltle D, Schaller (1984) Schweien und Schneiden 10:14 2. Schaller , Zober A, Valentin (1984) Proc. 3. Int.Conf. on Ni metabolism and toxicology, Paris 3.7.Sept. 1984, Blackwell Sci.Pubi., Oxford in press

193
MANGANESE IN STAINLESS STEEL WELDING FUMES EXTERNAL EXPOSURE AND BIOLOGICAL MONITORING WOLFGANG ZSCHIESCHE, E WILHELM, A ZOBER, KH SCHALLER, D WELTLE, H VALENTIN Institute of Occupational and Social Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstr. 29, D-8520 Erlangen, Federal Republic of Germany INTRODUCTION In the literature there are several reports on chronic manganism due to industrial manganese exposure; people affected mostly worked in manganese mines, ferro- and silicomanganese production, steel plants, foundries and welding shops (1). Chronic manganese exposure can lead to a Parkinson-like disease; some authors also describe non-characteristic signs as fatigue, insomnia, bad mood, cramps and impairment of the muscle reflexes (2, 3 ) . The manganese (Mn) incorporation mainly takes place in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. More than 90 % of the Mn intake is excreted in the faeces, only 0.1 - 1.3 is renally eliminated (1). INVESTIGATED GROUPS AND METHODS One of the industrial Mn sources most often supposed to cause chronic manganism is high alloy steel welding (4). Therefore we investigated 8 welders in two factories, who were highly exposed to respirable dust (5). They welded stainless steel containing about 18 chromium, 9 o nickel and less than 5 Mn. Fume samples were daily collected in the breathing zone of each welder during one working week for two hours at least. Total dust and its Mn content were measured by gravimetry and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS) respectively. Urine spot specimens were taken before, in and after shift of each working day and on monday of the second week. Blood specimens were collected every day during the working week and the following monday before and after shift; Mn plasma and blood concentrations were also measured by ETAAS. Welding was carried out mainly with rod electrodes, most of them were basic, some rutile coated. Also wires without an innershield flux were used. The Mn content of the filler metals was about 0.8 . The welders applied manual metal arc welding during most of their work time, partly as hard facing with nickel electrodes; sometimes gas shielded (MIG, TIG)

194
welding was carried out. The current was usually direct, seldom alternating, and varied from 60 to 145 amore. The voltage ranged from 24 to 66 volt. There was forced ventilation at all workplaces. RESULTS External exposure: The median of the fume concentrations in the breathing zones of the welders was 11.5 mg/m3 (range 0.5 - 264.3), the median Mn concentration in air was 257.7 pg/m3 (range 23.8 - 8711.1). Biological monitoring: The Mn excretion in urine showed a median value of 0.7 Mg/1 (range 0.2 - 6.7) and 0.6 pg/g creat, (range 0.2 - 7.3) respectively. The median Mn concentration in plasma was 1.6 pg/1 (range 0.3 - 8.8), in blood 12.1 pg/1 (range 7.4 - 33.5). Even though the German general threshold limit value for dust of 6 mg fine dust/m3 is usually exceeded, there is only 1 excess of the Mn limit value (MAK) of 5 mg/m 3 . Also the upper normal limits of Mn in the body fluids (in urine = 2 . 0 pg/1 and 2.0 pg/g creat, resp., in plasma = 2.1 pg/1, in blood = 26.0 pg/1) are usually not or only slightly exceeded. Fig. 1 shows the distribution of the Mn concentrations of all urine specimens taken during the working week. The coefficients of correlation for the relationships of external versus internal exposure as well as for the Mn concentrations in the different body fluids are shown in Table 1. There is a significant correlation between the total airborne fume and the Mn concentrations in the air as well as for the Mn concentrations in blood between the pre- and postshift specimens; only a slight significant correlation was found for the Mn concentrations in urine before and after shift. In order to test the distributions of the Mn concentrations in the body fluids at different sampling times we applied the WILCOXON-test due to the non-Gaussian distribution of the values. The creatinine related Mn concentrations in urine were slightly significantly higher before shift than after shift. In blood and plasma there were no significant differences found for the Mn concentrations of the pre- and the postshift samples. This was also evident when comparing the Mn levels in urine, blood and plasma of the specimens collected on friday after shift to those of the following monday before shift with an exposure-free weekend between. CONCLUSIONS 1. The external exposure of manganese in welding fumes of filler metals containing < 1 % manganese under good ventilation conditions is usually below the

195
current MAKvalue (FRG) of 5 mg/m3. 2. The internal exposure, quantified by the Biological Monitoring, under these conditions is usually within the normal range or only slightly elevated. 3. No significant correlation exists between the external and internal exposure. Generally speaking no significant differences could be found for the Mn levels in biological fluids before and after shift as well as before and after an exposurefree interval of 2 days. 4. Under the working conditions described above no health surveillance of wel ders seems to be necessary due to manganese exposure. Table 1 Correlations between external and internal Mn exposure as well as for Mn concen trations in the different biological fluids before and after shift Relationship FumeAir MnAir MnAir MnAir MnAir MnAir MnAir MnAir MnAir Mn ir A MnU after MnU after MnB after MnP after No. of Corr. Data 40 shift (pg/1) shift (pg/g creat.) shift shift 40 40 25 40 35 35 25 40 40 40 19 39 60 94 60 94 60 20 20 35 35 Coeff. of Corr.
+ + + + +
0.90 0.13 0.09 0.13 0.06 0.25 0.00

Signifi canee

MnU next morning Uig/1 ) MnU next morning (pg/g creat.) MnB next morning MnP next morning after shift (pg/1) after shift (pg/g creat.) after shift after shift MnB" MnP corr. data MnB before, during and MnP after shift resp. MnP_ MnU (pg/1) next morning MnU (pg/g creat.) .m. MnU (pg/1) next morning MnU (pg/g creat.) .m.

+ + + + + + + + + +

0.13 0.06 0.32 0.32 0.75 0.17 0.21 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.21 0.01 0.29 0.07

MnU: before MnU: before MnB: before MnP: before MnU MnU MnU MnU MnB

(pg/1) (pg/1) (pg/g creat.) (pg/g c r e a t . )

MnB after shift MnB after shift MnP after shift MnP after shift

196

>l_J

100

0 60 40 20 -

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U

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F i g . 1. R e l a t i v e frequency o f concentrations i n u r i n e (pg/g c r e a t . ) ; = 120 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supportet by grants of the Nordwestliche Eisen und S t a h l Berufsgenossenschaft. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. World Health Organisation (1981) Environmental Health C r i t e r i a 17, Manganese, Geneva Saric M, Markicevic A, H r u s t i c 0 (1977) B r i t J Ind Med 34:114118 Chandra SV, Shukla GS, Singh H, Gupta VP (1981) C l i n Toxicol Narayanan (1984) I n t e r n a t . Welding I n s t . , Doc. VIII1192 Zober A, Wei t i e D, Schaller KH, Valentin (1984) Schweien und Schneiden 10:461464 18:407416

MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPHY

199

MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPHY AS A TOOL FOR MEASURING LUNG BURDEN OF INDUSTRIAL AEROSOLS MORTON LIPPMANN I n s t i t u t e of Environmental Medicine, New York U n i v e r s i t y Medical Center, Tuxedo, N.Y., 10987 ( U . S . A . ) .

ABSTRACT A v a r i e t y of I n d u s t r i a l dusts contain magnetite and/or other minerals which can ence strong act of as m i n i a t u r e permanent magnets. These Include welding fumes, asbesThe presof a t o s , f l y ash, coal mine dust, foundry dust, steel m i l l dust, e t c . nique known as magnetopneumography. I t Involves the b r i e f magnetized

such dusts w i t h i n the thorax can be detected by a non-Invasive techapplication Into a magnetic f i e l d across the chest t o a l i g n the dlpoles w i t h i n the p a r t i particles common The remanent f i e l d , which can be measured w i t h a s e n s i t i v e e x t e r randomly oriented. the mass mag-

c l e s (magnetization) and t o r o t a t e the alignment.

nal magnetometer, decays as the magnetic p a r t i c l e s become

The strength of the remanent f i e l d a t the time the magnetizing f i e l d Is turned o f f can be r e l a t e d t o the amount of magnetic dust i n the f i e l d of view of magnetometer, are known. Since the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n the thorax and the netic will moment/dust mass always be some d i f f e r e n c e s between t h o r a c i c r e t e n t i o n Inhomogene I t y and the Influences of b i o l o g i c a l of the and its r a t i o are v a r i a b l e In time and not well known, there estimate designs and the as The s e n s i t i v i t y of various detector processes provided t i o n t o the detector and the r e l a t i o n between magnetic moment and dust t h a t the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the dlpoles in r e l a -

based on remanent magnetic f i e l d . to spatial properties

p a r t i c l e s on dust d i s t r i b u t i o n w l t t i l n the thorax are d i s measurements

cussed In terms of t h e i r e f f e c t s on the accuracy of remanent I n d i c a t o r s of dust r e t e n t i o n . INTRODUCTION Welding Is an occupation with highly v a r i a b l e I n h a l a t i o n variety the of reasons. The amount

exposures

for

a of

and composition of welding fume generated

depends upon the composition of the surfaces being welded, the composition welding and the temperatures achieved. breathing and zone depends of The concentration of fume In and the the

rod and f l u x , the composition of the gases surrounding the weld, welder's amount on the r a t e of fume generation, but also on the patany local exhaust v e n t i l a t i o n provided a t or near the

terns and r a t e s of a i r f l o w In and around the breathing zone, effectiveness

200

weld.

Welding Is o f t e n performed In confined spaces,

and

this

can

have

major e f f e c t on breathing zone concentrations. and p o s i t i o n i n g of a w e l d e r ' s mask can strongly fume within the mask. to w i t h d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s and In d i f f e r e n t extremely difficult collect t h e i r average or longterm exposure.

In a d d i t i o n , the c o n f i g u r a t i o n Influence the concentration of

Furthermore, the f a c t t h a t welders are l i k e l y t o work locations on d i f f e r e n t days makes I t zone samples which can represent breathing

An a l t e r n a t e means of determining whether excessive place Is to measure an the an index of body material. approached of Is This approach, generally known as through and for biological

exposures

have

taken can be

burden or response t o the Inhaled monitoring,

a n a l y s i s of the contents of fume c o n s t i t u e n t s In body kinetics approach are In as Its temporal history of the exposures. An a l t e r n a t e This

f l u i d s such as blood or urine If one has s u f f i c i e n t knowledge of the metabolism feasible by approach Is t o measure the body burden w i t h an external probe. p a r t i c l e s which can behave as t i n y permanent magnets. aligned external magnetometer Is a v a i l a b l e , the body burden can If be the

some aerosols, such as ferrous welding fumes, which Include particles sensitive

applying an external magnetic f i e l d , and a s u f f i c i e n t l y

characterized Is known

terms of the strength of the f i e l d created by the array of magnetic p a r t i c l e s . The a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s approach to lung r e t e n t i o n measurements magnetopneumography applicability, (MPG). This paper presents a critical review of

advantages, and l i m i t a t i o n s f o r the measurement of occupational

dust r e t e n t i o n In general, and f o r welding fumes in p a r t i c u l a r . BACKGROUND FOR OCCUPATIONAL MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPHY (MPG) David Cohen of the Francis B i t t e r National Magnet Laboratory at MIT was the first tional netite also cles field, to demonstrate the f e a s i b i l i t y of M G f o r the measurement of occupa P FM dusts Include mag iron, are ( F e 2 0 , ), Mn,0., other, and some s u l f i d e s of unknown, compositions larger lung burdens of f e r r i m a g n e t i c (FM) dusts ( 1 ) . (Fe,0. ), magnhaemite Magnetic p a r t i c l e s of

nickel and c o b a l t .

found in f i n e coal f l y ash. can have m u l t i p l e domains.

Each FM p a r t i c l e acts as a magnetic d l p o l e . parti However, once subjected t o a strong magnetic

Very small p a r t i c l e s have only a si ngl e magnetic domain, while

the domains w i t h i n a large p a r t i c l e become a l i g n e d , and remain so inde A p p l i c a t i o n of an external f i e l d also magnetizes susceptible p a r t i When begins the to field Is removed, the aligned dlpoles w i l l be responsible f o r a

finitely. external decay,

c l e s not already magnetized, and a l i g n s each d l p o l e w i t h the f i e l d . remanent magnetic f i e l d . FM p a r t i c l e s . as r e l a x a t i o n . However, the remanent f i e l d Immediately

as processes w i t h i n the thorax act t o randomize the o r i e n t a t i o n of the The loss of a net magnetic f i e l d with time is a process known

201

Various groups of workers exposed t o FM dusts elevated remanent f i e l d s . excess tially

have

been miners

shown (15).

to

have These dlpole

These Include asbestos workers ( 2 ) , welders ( 1 1 2 ) ,

foundry workers ( 1 3 ) , steel m i l l workers ( 1 4 ) , and coal alignment and f i e l d strength measurement, and In sensitivity, In the all practicality there depend these

f i e l d s have been demonstrated using a v a r i e t y of techniques f o r have differed

substan

for f i e l d use, and In the Influence of Is uncertainty about the r e l a t i o n s h i p which the and create detector. retention. them, For To on in both the magnetic moments of the to

v a r i a t i o n s In the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of dust w i t h i n the thorax on the meas urements. because techniques, fields between remanent f i e l d measurements and the lung burdens remanent aerosols r e t a i n e d p a r t i c l e s and t h e i r p o s i t i o n s Industrial will the of extent relation

of mixed composition the f r a c t i o n which Is f e r r l m a g n e t l c deposition

usually vary with p a r t i c l e s i z e , as w i l l

t h a t the magnetic moment per u n i t mass which is assumed, or meas be a c a l i b r a t i o n e r r o r In the dust burden

ured, for bulk dust samples d i f f e r s from t h a t of the f r a c t i o n w i t h i n the f i e l d view of the detector, there w i l l estimates. actual Further e r r o r s r e s u l t from any d i f f e r e n c e s between the assumed and

d i s t r i b u t i o n s of p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n a f i e l d of view which includes areas

of varying s e n s i t i v i t y . V e r i f i c a t i o n t h a t M G a c t u a l l y can measure the r e t e n t i o n P within experimental animals. activated both magnetite These studies Involved the of FM of particles neutron

the thorax was provided In several studies of FM p a r t i c l e r e t e n t i o n In inhalation

and p a r a l l e l series of r e t e n t i o n measurements by M G and P 59 by external c o u n t i n g of Fe with col I imated s c i n t i l l a t i o n d e t e c t o r s . For donkeys (16), and r a t s ( 1 7 ) , there was good agreement between the r e t e n essential features, advantages, and t i o n data from the two d i f f e r e n t measurement systems. The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n discusses the l i m i t a t i o n s of the various approaches which have been used f o r the measurement

of remanent f i e l d s from lung dusts In occupational ly exposed groups. M G MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES P Cohen's o r i g i n a l f lei ds first paper described a system for measurements of remanent The open with a magnetically shielded room ( 1 ) . The immoblIIty and hi gh cost

of such f a c i l i t i e s makes them impractical

for most occupational s t u d i e s . was not reported are to in the

large scale f i e l d study was performed by Cohen, e t al (2) on 115 asbes unti I 1 981 . illustrated rotate and in Figure 1. The large c o l l s can create a f i e l d strength of sufficient

tos miners and m i l l e r s In 1974, although I t Iiterature

The essential features of Cohen's s i m p l i f i e d f i e l d system schematically from 20 t o 1000 Gauss. Low f i e l d strengths were

a l i g n small s i n g l e domain (SD) and larger pseudosingle domain (PSD) p a r t i c l e s

202

whose domalns are already a l l g n e d . cient field. to align

F i e l d s t r e n g t h s > 400

Gauss

were

suffi-

the domains of multldomaln (MD) p a r t i c l e s .

However, a f i e l d

strength of 750 Gauss was needed t o r o t a t e a l l of them i n t o alignment w i t h the

F i g . 1 . Sequence of magnetization and measurement. (A) Subject being magnetized by the external field (broken l i n e s ) . (B) The remanent f i e l d In the h o r i z o n t a l (z d i r e c t i o n ) Is c a l l e d B . (C) Measurement of B by moving up f o the f l u x g a t e probes t o z t h e "near" p o s i t i o n of h i s f a r - n e a r - f a r motion. A p l a s t i c s h i e l d prevents touching the f l u x g a t e . From: Cohen, e t al ( 2 ) .

Flg. 2 . R e l a t i v e remanent magnetic f i e l d s above a uniformly magnetized Polyurethane foam bloc c o n t a i n i n g a homogeneous dispersion of magnetite. From: Robinson and Freedman ( 1 0 ) .
('1979 IEEE)

The strength of the remanent f i e l d was then measured a t the chest tions probe; to either side.

front

of

the posifront

on a plane 10 cm above the x i p h o i d ; a t a central p o s i t i o n , and a t 10 cm Three more measurements were made at the corresponding close to the on the back. and the Each reading consisted of two measurements w i t h the f l u x with the chest about 30 cm away. Probe s e n s i t i v i t y

gate gradiometer probes: one by b r i n g i n g the chest very second

f a l l s with distance by about the Inverse cube of distance, hence the influence of the body's remanent f i e l d on both probes Is negllgable at the back p o s i t i o n and on the second probe a t the forward earth's equally. permanent magnetic With the two probes i n a position. On the other fixed hand, or the f i e l d (which Is ^10 gradlometer rear l a r g e r ) a f f e c t s both probes position, probe the is distant for and the the

f i e l d s are cancelled, and the r e l a t i v e l y by the forward probe in r e l a t i o n t o the Since there i s a f i n i t e time I n t e r v a l

small increase In f i e l d strength seen sufficient

detection of about 50 vg of Fe,0. w i t h i n the thorax. between magnetization measurement of remanent f i e l d , and since r e l a x a t i o n or randomization of o r i e n t a t i o n of the dipoles begins immediately a f t e r removal of the f i e l d , the measured value. remanent f i e l d strength (B ) Is always less than the I n i t i a l i s determined by backward to making zero serial measurements them time. or maximum of B and The l a t t e r

extrapolating

However, even the extrapolated

203

value may not i n d i c a t e the t o t a l amount of FM dust w i t h i n the f i e l d It time between the removal of the magnetizing f i e l d f i e l d measurement. activity. ferent after macrophages which are being r a p i d l y r e o r i e n t e d by and the initial

of

view.

could f a l l t o detect p a r t i c l e s whose r e l a x a t i o n times are shorter than the remanent contractile of difThese could Include small SD p a r t i c l e s and/or those w i t h i n Intracellular

Overall t h o r a c i c r e l a x a t i o n r a t e s vary greatly because of the d i f because of the FM dust being in d i f f e r e n t compartments w i t h time

ferent r a t e s In the d i f f e r e n t compartments of the lung, and proportions deposition.

The f r a c t i o n of FM dust which Is not detected due t o the l i m i t e d e f f e c t i v e ness of backward e x t r a p o l a t i o n can be expected t o vary with time since deposit i o n and w i t h the amount of FM dust in the lungs. deposition, freedom. form, an With c e l l u l a r s i t e s or in lymph nodes where i t has With Increasing time little of for FM the and indices since Increasing f r a c t i o n of r e t a i n e d dust i s located w i t h i n i n t r a relatively As c l u s t e r s in part rotational for particles apparent animals of FM Increasing dust burden, there i s an increased p r o b a b i l i t y freedom would be diminished.

the aggregation of FM p a r t i c l e s i n t o c l u s t e r s . rotational w i t h i n alveolar macrophages may account at least high dust concentrations in studies in

Cluster formation in mucus or

increases i n FM dust burdens In lungs a t several hours a f t e r the i n h a l a t i o n of humans (1,10,18) (16,17,19). Another major l i m i t a t i o n of remanent f i e l d measurements as dust butes burdens field is the extreme (approximately Inverse remanent f i e l d strengths w i t h distance from the d l p o l e s . lines. cubic) v a r i a t i o n of contrifrom FM

Each d i p o l e

In an array of d l p o l e s , such as FM p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n the lines This I n t e r a c t i o n Is i l l u s t r a t e d schematically In Figure 2

thorax, the r e t u r n l i n e s from one p a r t i c l e can cancel the forward adjacent p a r t i c l e s . from a paper by Robinson and Freedman ( 1 0 ) .

For a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of A field

p a r t i c l e s , the highest r e l a t i v e remanent f i e l d strength Is above the edges and there i s a strong negative reading j u s t beyond the edges. over a the center of the d i s t r i b u t i o n can be zero. intensity welder, positive position one Over a source which i s non-

uniform In depth and density of FM p a r t i c l e s , such as the thorax of a ure 3 , generally shows highly v a r i a b l e readings, ranging from highly t o negative. I t Is clear t h a t a s i n g l e remanent f i e l d measurement at and dust. time cannot provide an a fixed

remanent f i e l d scan with a small probe, such as the one i l l u s t r a t e d In F i g -

unambiguous index of the t h o r a c i c burden of FM

A b e t t e r estimate can be made from mul t i posi t i o n scan, such as the rapid.

shown in Figure 3 , but i t takes much more time t o make an I n t e r p r e t a b l e s e r i e s of measurements, e s p e c i a l l y when the r e l a x a t i o n times are r e l a t i v e l y

204

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t MOO 6aoo )3 4QQQ

6400 -yaOO -TOPO - 6 6 0 0 -S6O0

G -30

-3600

-3JOO

-3OO0 - 3 O 0

F l g . 3 . Remenant f i e l d maps over the a n t e r i o r chest. The largest values are recorded c e n t r a l l y over the h i l a r r e g i o n s . Negative val ues, remanent f i e l d s opposite In p o l a r i t y t o the magnetizing f i e l d , are an a r t i f a c t of the u n i f o r m f i e l d technique used. From: Freedman, e t al ( 1 2 ) . The l i m i t a t i o n s of Cohen's o r i g i n a l measurement system, also used I n i t i a l l y by other I n v e s t i g a t o r s ( 3 5 , 1012), led some of them to develop other meas urement systems.

typ 50cm
netomeieri ^* Verticil position

t=J

Terminal console

F i g . 4 . The setup of the magnetometers. The t i n y arrows Indicate a f l u x g a t e sensor and I t s o r i e n t a t i o n . During the measurement the p a t i e n t Is moved back an f o r t h between the sensors on f i v e transsectlonal lines. From: Kal I lomakl, K., e t al ( 7 ) .

Flg. 5. Instrumentation f o r measuring lung contamination: Functional block diagram of the transducers f o r magnetic f i e l d and lung p o s i t i o n , the magnetiz ing c o l l s , and the data handling com puter ( t y p i c a l pati e n t f l e i d c o n f i g u r a t i o n on the l e f t ) . From: Kal I lomakl, K., e t al ( 6 ) .

205

The f i r s t and most extensively used of these newer systems, which is i l l u s trated front to in Figures 4 and 5, is known as LUNGCO, and has been described by K a l Coaxial f l u x g a t e gradiometers are positioned both in of, and behind the subject who r e s t s on an i n c l i n e d chair or p l a t f o r m . five is llomakl, et al ( 6 , 7 ) .

The subject i s moved h o r i z o n t a l l y between the detectors i n increments of 50 m m o b t a i n a p r o f i l e of remanent f i e l d s t r e n g t h , and t h i s i s repeated f o r from apex to base. A representative series of for relaxation rate, is shown i n Figure 6 . lung heights corrected tracings,

The r e l a x a t i o n r a t e

determined from a series of scans a t p o s i t i o n C , the midi ine, during the f i r s t f i v e minutes a f t e r magnetization. the presence of
%

The average value on the f i n a l magnetic map The LUNGCO instrument moments. can detect is, the not The s e n s i t i v i t y Also, i t is

Is c a l l e d the average magnetic f i e l d ( B ) . of course,

0 . 5 mg of magnetite w i t h i n the thorax.

less f o r other FM dusts with lesser magnetic

magnetic moment must be known in order to convert the remanent f i e l d i n t o t h o r a c i c dust burdens. When more than one FM dust Is present, possible t o determine how much there Is of each.

intensity

al

u
O

lia

nu uacsmiw

sU
Anterior side Posterior side F l g . 6. Permanent magnetic f i e l d curves measured on f i v e transversal lines. From: K a l l i o m a k i , P.L., et al ( 1 3 ) .

O
c nu uaasuN F l g . 7 . Local i z e d f i e l d magnetopneumog raphy. The measurement sequence I s : (a) measurement of background due t o endogeneous Ion currents and s u s c e p t i b i l I t y , (b) local magnetization, (c) measurement of remanent magnetization, and (d) demagnetization. From: Robin son and Freedman ( 1 0 ) . (O1979 IEEE)

A modified LUNGCO system which can determine the proportional burdens of FM dusts has been described by K a l l l o m a k l , e t al (20) and J u n t t i l a , e t al the differences of in a the particles. material it is (21). D i s c r i m i n a t i o n of the dusts Is based on "coercive"

forces or the "magnetic hardness" of the d i f f e r e n t kinds of To determine the magnitude of the "coercive f o r c e "

206

first the for

magnetized reverse field

to

saturation required

In

a strong f i e l d .

A reversed magnetizing The strength of remanent f i e l d Is a field required metal arc

f i e l d Is then a p p l i e d , and the remanent f i e l d Is measured. t o j u s t cancel the o r i g i n a l measure of the " c o e r c i v e f o r c e " . cancellation varies The strength of the reverse for

substantially

among commonly encountered FM dusts. manual

Some examples reported by J u n t t l l a , e t al (21) are 7? welding duced by g r i n d i n g s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

fume, 23? for tungsten I n e r t gas welding fume, and 42% for dusts pro and demagnetizing While would for demag pulse

The measurements are made by applying s h o r t magnetizing pulses, an exact measurement of the r e q u i r e a s e r i e s of t r i a l s , p r a c t i c a l measurements. I the I ungs.
SgUID ELECTRONICS

and making very r a p i d measurements of remanent f i e l d s t r e n g t h . magnitude of the demagnetization

I t has been found t h a t one c y c l e Is s u f f i c i e n t

The r e l a t i v e r e s t f i e l d which remains a f t e r a

n e t i z a t i o n at 30? Is an adequate index of the magnetic hardness of the FM dust

.SQUID M HEAD

CHOC! NIC DH.AJI

OSCILLOSCOPE

HAGHIT p o v n

SUPPLY

t c o m ROL UNIT

fr~:~A;
AI Cl*TLSSO*

Flg. 8. In local lzedf l e l d magnetopneumography, only one region of the thorax a t a time Is magnetized, f o l l o w i n g which measurement Is made over t h a t r e g i o n . From: Freedman, e t al ( 1 2 ) . A d i f f e r e n t approach t o more q u a n t i t a t i v e measurement of FM dust burdens In the thorax was described by Robinson and Freedman ( 1 0 ) . tor In t h i s system, known Thus, there Is as l o c a l i z e d f i e l d magnetopneumography (LMPG), the f i e l d of view of the detec Is matched t o the size of the region which i s magnetized.

207

virtually field of

no c a n c e l l a t i o n of the remanent f i e l d of the FM p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n the view the by return l i n e s from FM p a r t i c l e s In adjacent t i s s u e s . After the region of Interest within The Is of

p r i n c i p a l of operation i s shown in Figure 7 . measured, FM p a r t i c l e s

i t are demagnetized so t h a t they do not A schematic

I n t e r f e r e w i t h subsequent measurements i n an adjacent r e g i o n . the o v e r a l l system is shown i n Figure 8 .

The l o c a l i z e d f i e l d magnetopneumography approach can be extended t o provide Information tion tions from in on the the chest depth distribution Inward. of the FM dust w i t h i n the thorax by Such Information may be p a r t i c u l a r l y have preferential concentraWhen such d i s t r i b u t i o n s occur, s e r i a l measurements of remanent f i e l d a f t e r successive degrees of demagnetizasurface hilar Important f o r long term dust burdens which can pleural and/or lymph nodes.

whole thorax measurements based on c a l i b r a t i o n s assuming uniform r e t e n t i o n can have s u b s t a n t i a l of days magnetite In in errors. smokers and nonsmokers. was Between the second week and f i v e 37 of with has slower In smokers In a l l In an a p p l i c a t i o n of LMPG, Freedman and Robinson (22) studied the r e t e n t i o n months, the r e t e n t i o n h a l f - t i m e was 78 + 19 days in nonsmokers, and 127 smokers. Clearance significantly three depth compartments s t u d i e d , I.e., s u p e r f i c i a l , middle and c e n t r a l ,

the greatest d i f f e r e n c e s In the central r e g i o n . A t h i r d approach t o q u a n t i t a t i v e measurements of FM dust In the thorax been described by Stern, et al ( 2 3 ) . by 30 cm. (MPGAC) u t i l i z e s two matched p a i r s of separated Helmholtz coils of 30 cm Their AC magnetopneumographic technique diameter,

The AC current i n the c o i l s (20 A, 80 H ) is balanced so Insertion

t h a t the AC magnetic f i e l d s cancel each other midway between the c o i l s . A fIuxgate of at an object magnetometer is located w i t h i n the f i e l d f r e e r e g i o n . i n t o the region of uniform magnetic f i e l d of one pair of c o l l s

causes a net magnetic f i e l d t o be generated In the otherwise f r e e f i e l d region the d e t e c t o r , and the magnitude of the f i e l d imbalance depends on the magFM and paramagnetic m a t e r i a l s , such as endogenecaliscale n e t i c moment of the o b j e c t . produce negative s i g n a l s .

ous I r o n , produce p o s i t i v e s i g n a l s , w h i l e dlamagnetlc m a t e r i a l s such as water, A measurement Involves s l i d i n g the person or A 25 L water source produced a b r a t i o n source t o a p o s i t i o n centered between the c o i l s and out again a f t e r 30 seconds, and Is repeated three times. reading values. urement of -33 u n i t s . A thorax c o n t a i n i n g ^250 mg of magnetite should p r o positive measdust is estimated t o be 2 scale u n i t s , which is equal t o The absolute accuracy of M G P f o r the FM

duce a zero net moment, while greater FM dust burdens should produce The of noise level about 12 pT or 20 mg magnetite.

FM dust depends on the assumptions made about the amount of water I t Is possible t h a t exposures t o

and endogenous Iron in the thorax.

208

or

other

occupational

dusts

may change t o paramagnetic and/or diamagnetic

background, c o n s t i t u t i n g a p o t e n t i a l source of a r t i f a c t s . MEASUREMENT OF RELAXATION RATE As discussed e a r l i e r , series of remanent applied f i e l d , extrapolation dlpoles move estimation of t h o r a c i c dust burden by M G involves P a field both measurements f o l l o w i n g p a r t i c l e alignment with an The the rate the zero time I n t e r c e p t and slope. reflects based the rate studies. at A very wide v a r i a b i l i t y The slope, which

and e x t r a p o l a t i o n back t o the time the f i e l d was removed. provides

generally expressed as a r e l a x a t i o n r a t e , i n t o random o r i e n t a t i o n . r a t e s has been observed In most population data derived from the I n t e r c e p t s . understanding dlpoles, of the factors Among these f a c t o r s are the s i z e the viscosity or

In r e l a x a t i o n

Relaxation

data, a unique f e a t u r e of MPG, can help In t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the r e t e n t i o n I t s e f f e c t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n depends affecting and shape of the p a r t i c l e s such upon an containing or dipoi e r o t a t i o n w i t h i n the thorax.

and flow f i e l d s of f l u i d s suspending the p a r t i c l e s , as mucus w i t h i n c e l l s or lymph nodes. For those p a r t i c l e s I t s e l f and on

whether the p a r t i c l e s are suspended w i t h i n surface f l u i d s surfactants, contained

w i t h i n c e l l s , d l p o l e r o t a t i o n depends on the motions of the c e l l motions w i t h i n t h e cytoskel eton.

ANIMAL 1 ANIMAL 2 ANIMAI. S A ANIMAL O ANIMAL 7 A ANIMAL I

- I - 1 - S -4 - -f

I
IA

%
. * *

DAY AFTEft MSTLLATON

TIME AFTER INSTILLATION IN HOURS

F i g . 9 . Changes I n r e l a x a t i o n h a l f t i m e s f o l l o w i n g I n s t i l l a t i o n of Fe0. Into hamster lungs: A) f i r s t 30 hours. From : Gehr, e t al ( 2 5 ) ; ) f i r s t 30 days. From: Gehr, e t al ( 2 4 ) .

209

B r a i n , et al (19) have shown t h a t the r a t e of r e l a x a t i o n deposited by

of

FM

particles

I n h a l a t i o n In the lungs of r a b b i t s c o r r e l a t e d , during the f i r s t

day, with the extent of In s i t u p a r t i c l e phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages. The change in r e l a x a t i o n r a t e during i s so r a p i d t h a t I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o meas ure i n animals exposed t o FM dust by I n h a l a t i o n , since the period tion by is long In r e l a t i o n t o the changing time constant. of inhala study Figure 9 shows the

r e l a x a t i o n h a l f t i m e f o r FM p a r t i c l e s I n s t i l l e d i n t o hamster lungs In a Gehr, et al ( 2 4 , 2 5 ) . f i r s t h a l f day to phagocytosis of f r e e p a r t i c l e s , and possibly the phages where c o n t r a c t i l e elements are most a c t i v e . The minimum in r e l a x a t i o n r a t e could have been due t o p a r t i c l e within cells or to slow r e l a x a t i o n f o r recently ectoplasmlc r e g i o n . For the high concentrations of particles 5 of days

They i n t e r p r e t the r a p i d l y changing r a t e s during the subsequent

progression of p a r t i c l e s i n t o the perinuclear endoplasmic region of the macro

aggregation in this In any essen

ingested p a r t i c l e s in the used remained

study, p a r t i c l e aggregation appears t o be the more l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n . case, the r e l a x a t i o n r a t e between about 5 hours and tially movement Remanent constant. B etween in 5 and 30 days, The the decreased by about a f a c t o r of t h r e e . role

r e l a x a t i o n r a t e gradually macrophage cytoplasmic in studies on Inhalation.

the r a p i d r e l a x a t i o n was confirmed by Valberg (26) decay In the

hamster macrophages obtained by lavage one day a f t e r FM p a r t i c l e field cytoplasmic motion. The very rapid changes In r e l a x a t i o n r a t e during the f i r s t day tively little may after relevance make workers w i t h chronic exposure except insofar as exposures on the measurement occurring However, the more r a p i d r e l a x a t i o n during of the measurements. Hogstedt, et al (27) studled clearance of the relation between relaxation the first five days,

c e l l suspensions was reduced by I n h i b i t o r s of have day of rela the that

t o the measurement of t h o r a c i c burden of FM dust In

I t d i f f i c u l t t o perform a r e l i a b l e back e x t r a p o l a t i o n . than interpretation rate and least before

longer times, may be of some Importance In the

FM dust from the lungs In 168 mild steel welders w i t h at

f i v e years of welding experience. M G r e t e n t i o n measurements were made P cleared. The workers who had very low r e l a x a t i o n r a t e s a t the f i r s t

and a f t e r a 30 day v a c a t i o n , during which up t o 50 of the t h o r a c i c burden was measure ment had v i r t u a l l y no clearance during the 30 day i n t e r v a l , w h i l e those having Thus, those p a r t i c l e s

higher r e l a x a t i o n r a t e s had s u b s t a n t i a l dust clearance.

which could clear from the lungs were f r e e r t o r o t a t e f o l l o w i n g magnetization. DISCUSSION I t Is clear t h a t magnetopneumography (MFC), even i n i t s s i m p l i s t forms, can demonstrate t h a t populations w i t h occupational exposures t o f e r r i m a g n e t l c (FM)

210

dusts have higher average remanent f i e l d s (B control populations. It t h o r a c i c dust burden In any Individual established magnetic moment.

) than do a p p r o p r i a t e l y Few

selected and are which the

Is also clear t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Is highly v a r i a b l e . an workers

exposed t o a pure FM material such as magnetite, or even to a material with an When the dust contains FM component serves as a surrogate or t r a c e r f o r the composite dust of I n t e r e s t , there w i l l o f t e n be v a r i a t i o n s of FM f r a c t i o n t o t o t a l dust according t o the size of particles. or clearance. S e l e c t i v e d i s s o l u t i o n can be a major concern In the a n a l y s i s of dust r e t e n tion in welders. in K a l l l o m a k l , e t al (2830) showed t h a t In r a t s , exposed by there for were substantial steel for Clearance h a l f t i m e s f o r stainless I n h a l a t i o n t o fumes from welding of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , differences the r e t e n t i o n of Fe, Cr, Ni and . these metals were 40, 240, 3 and 2 days, Also, with time in the lungs, there may be s e l e c t i v e d i s s o l u t i o n

respectively,

fumes from I n e r t gas welding, w h i l e they were i . e . , 50, 40, 30 and 40 days f o r s t a i n l e s s steel fumes from manual metal arc welding ( 3 0 ) . The h a l f t i m e s Fe In the fume were s i m i l a r t o those f o r pure magnetite (50 days). in Thus, when

the health hazard of the fume exposure Is r e l a t e d t o nonmagnetic c o n s t i t u e n t s the fume, whose presence Is e i t h e r not detected or masked by the magnetite retention work on data sites the Interest. and w i t h time as the r a t e and scope of the work changes. depends or In the fume, MFC measurements may be of l i m i t e d value f o r the of primary

There may also be d i f f e r e n c e s In dust composition a t d i f f e r e n t w i t h i n the f a c i l i t y , validity thorax. different The The accuracy of the measurements of t h o r a c i c burdens also

of the assumptions made about the d i s t r i b u t i o n of dlpoles w i t h i n the Thus, i n d i v i d u a l s having extremes i n body shape and s i z e , from actual studies are dust having burdens. in a the the than patterns of deposition and r e t e n t i o n from those assumed, could have errors may occur w i t h " o l d " dust burdens which may be concen lymphatics. with More needed, about more

dust burden estimates which d i f f e r e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y greatest t r a t e d In pleural and/or h i l a r extent of the artifacts

v a r i e t y of I n d u s t r i e s , with LMPG and s e l e c t i v e erasure by depth to c l a r i f y associated Incorrect assumptions e f f e c t s of body size and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of dlpoles w i t h i n the thorax. A major I i m i t a t i o n i n many cases Is t h a t workers are exposed t o one for FM dust most MG P over t h e i r working l i f e t i m e . have d i f f e r e n t magnetic moments and r e t e n t i o n h a l f t i m e s , making I t techniques t o determine how much of each Is present. of a system to measure "magnetic to the use populations, the development The d i f f e r e n t dusts w i l l

usually For such

Impossible hardness" of MG P

(21,22) appears t o o f f e r a good prospect f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l While there are some p o t e n t i a l l y serious l i m i t a t i o n s

r e t e n t i o n analyses.

211

Table 1. Summary of Lung DjSt Burdens MeasureC by MagnetopneunograCj

MP3 and Related Factors.

Report

by

Populations Studied 115 asbestos miners h ml 1 lers Quebec, Including 71 smokers. 62 welders

M C Method Used Pi < a ) RF*b> meas. P6 pts 10 cm above x i phoid on one plane WH T R scans P5 hts F

Thoracic B urdens (mg Fe 3 0 d eq).

Other Paraneters Measured

Cohen, et al (1981)

Welders * 7.8 av Exposure: Welders years Non welders 1.3 av Nonwelders years p a r t i c l e count nonwelders <4.0 xray grade welders, young = 4 15 old 302000 ret1red= 40500 30600 xray grade exposure spirometry

Renarks I r f o r exp. vs Similar results burden 1 frorr non 0.50 (nonwelder) smokers only 0.55 (welders)

Correlations Made

KelHomak i . P.L., 44 snipyard arc welders 10 controls et al 1978}

r 0.69 beteen Bn and xray grade

Clearance rate e s t i r a t e a a: 26 year

Kalliomaki. P.L.. 10 iron foundry workers et al (1979)

WM T RF scans

$5 hts

r 0.60 between and xray scale no c o r r e l a t i o n between B n and exposure score or spi rometry

Koponen, et 1 (19B0)

30 8 13 9

steel m i l l workers: s i n t e r i n g plant blast furnace continuous casting

WM T RF scans P5 hts (Lungco)

s i n t e r i n g 1040 exposures: blast furance s i n t e r i n g 1020 mg/m3 20200 blast furnace continuous 60 mg/m3 casting 220 continuous cast ing 3 mg/ni3 100 1.600 Cr In urine Hi in urine Yrs of exposure cum exp index = yrs X H W S r 0.85 between Cr in urine and cum exp. index r 0.82 between B and cum. exp. ~ index. no differences between smokers and nonsmokers no correlations with Ni i n urine

Kal 1 tomakt, P.L..83 stainless steel welders: , , et al (1981) 20 w <10t HSWC) 16 w 11491 M W S 18 w 50891 H M S 29 w >90 M W S Kalliomaki. . , et al (1981) 21 stainless steel grinders

HTM RF scans (Lungco)

P5 hts

WM T R scans F (Lungco)

20 1800 P5 hts xray grade COrre'itlOr between xray grade and dust burden B n . yrs ( <0.01 no c o r r e l a t i o n , xray opac with smoking i t i e s ( < 0.05)

Freedman, et al 10 active coal miners 15 r e t i r e d coal miners (I960) 15 rural controls

WM T active miners H 26 1440 RFmeas. 015 pts. on a n t e r i o r chest r e t i r e d miners 24 1000 controls * 32118 welders 3777 WM T av. 167 RF meas. 30 pts on a n t e r i o r chest asbestos workers av. 0.22 controls av. 0.16 welders high exp. 200 1680 I n t e r , exp. 90200 low exp. 090

Freedman, et al 11 welders 16 former asbestos (1981) insulators 24 urban controls

y r s . of welding xray grade smoking h i s t o r y

Stern, et al

59 shipyard arc welders ( A c ) l d ) (non smokers): 24 low exposure 22 interned, exp. 13 high exposure 14 e l e c t r i c i a n s (nonexposure) (non smokers)

cum. exposure chronic bronch i t i s incidence respiratory functions

r 0.49, o.oooi f o r cum. exp. "

B

no c o r r e l a t i o n with disease Incidence or respiratory function

WTM RF
c

whole thorax magnetization remanent field measurements mild steel welding alternating current susceptibility bridge method of magnetopneumography

MSw nPG(AC)

212

techniques f o r measuring the t h o r a c i c burdens of F M dusts, there are some very Important advantages a l s o . known risk 2) The technique i s non-Invasive, and of presents no in I t s a p p l i c a t i o n . x-ray As shown In Table 1 , there Is generally good inhalation of

agreement between the t h o r a c i c burden estimates and: 1) levels exposure; e a r l i e r technical l i m i t a t i o n s can be largely overcome by the

evidence of dust accumulation. F urthermore, some of the application

the measurement refinements i n the newer systems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research described In t h i s paper is p a r t of a Center program by the National REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Cohen D (1973) Science 180:745-748 Cohen D, Crowther TS, Gibbs GW, Becklake M (1981) Environ Res R 550 26: 535supported I n s t i t u t e of Environmental Health Sciences (Grant ES 00260).

KalllomakI F t , Karp PJ, Katl I a T, Makipoaa P, Saar , Tossaval nen A (1976) Scand J Work Environ Health 2 : 232-239. KalllomakI PL, Alanko K, Korhonen 0, Mattsson T, Vaaranen (1978) Scand J Work Environ Health 4 : 122-130. V, Koponen M Int

KalllomakI PL, Korhonen 0, Vaaranen V, KalliomakI K, Koponen M (1978) Arch Occup Environ Health 42: 83-90.

Kalllomaki K, Kalllomaki PL, Kelha V, Vaaranen V (1980) Ann Occup Hyg 23: 175-184. Kalllomaki K, A l t t o n l e m i K, Kalllomaki F L, Mol lanen M (1981) Amer Ind Hyg Assoc J 42: 234-238. Kalllomaki PL, KalllomakI KK, A l t t o n l e m i K, Korhonen OS Work Environ Health 9: 219-222. Kalliomaki PL, Kalllcmaki K, Rahkonen E, A l t t o n l e m i K Hyg 27:449-452. (1983) (1983) Scand Ann In J

Occup Health

Robinson SE, F reedman AP (1979) IEEE F r o n t i e r s of Engineering Care - IEEE 79 CH1440-7: 183-188.

1 1 . F reedman AP, Robinson SE, Goodman L (1979) Chest, 76: 352. 12. F reedman AP, Robinson SE , Green F HY (1982) Ann Occup Hyg 26: 319-335. 13. 14. KalliomakI PL, Korhonen 0, Mattsson T, S o r t t i V, Vaaranen V, K, K oponen M (1979) I n t Arch Occup Environ Health 43: 8 5 - 9 1 . Kalllomaki Pyy L

Koponen M, Gustafsson T, Kalllomaki K, KalllomakI PL, Mol I anen M, (1980) I n t Arch Occup Environ Health 47:35-45

213

15. 16.

Freedman AP, Robinson SE, J o h n s t o n RF ( 1 9 8 0 ) H a l p e r n M, W i l l i a m s o n S J , S p e k t o r Exp Lung Res 2 : 2 7 3 5

J Occup Med 2 2 : 6 1 3 6 1 8 RB , Lippmann M (1981)

DM, S c h l e s i n g e r

17.

O b e r d o r s t e r G, Freedman AP (1981) I n : S t o b e r W, Hochrainer D (eds) Aero sols In Science, Medicine and T e c h n o l o g y 9 Schmal I e n b e r g , Germany, F . R . , G e s e l l s c h a f t f u r Aerosol f o r s c h u n g , pp. 1924 Cohen D, A r a l SF, B r a i n JD (1979) Science 204: 514517 Exp Lung Res Acta 6:115131 Scand

18. 19. 20.

B r a i n JD, B loom SB , V a l b e r g PA, Gehr (1984) K a l l l c m a k l K, K a l l l o m a k i Ph138, UDC 6 2 : 5 3 7 2 7 5 PL, M o l l a n e n M

(1983)

Polytechnla

21.

J u n t t l | a M J , K a l l l o m a k i K, K a l l l c m a k l PL, M o l l a n e n M (In press) A new m a g n e t i c method f o r s t u d y i n g t h e l u n g r e t a i n e d d u s t I N V i v o . P r o c . of VI I n t ' I . P n e u m o c o n i o s i s C o n f . S e p t . 1 9 8 3 , B ochum. Freedman AP, R o b i n s o n SE (1984) Am Rev Resp D i s 129:A171

22. 23.

S t e r n RM, Drenck K, Lyngenbo 0 , D i r k s e n J , G r o t h S. Health, occupational e x p o s u r e , and t h o r a c i c m a g n e t i c moment o f s h i p y a r d w e l d e r s , t h i s v o l u m e . Gehr P, B r a i n JD, Nemoto I , B loom SB (1983) Environ Exercise Physiol 55:11961202 Gehr P, B r a i n JD, Nemoto I , B loom SB (1982) I n t ' l Workshop on B l o m a q n e t l s m p p . 6 2 6 3 V a l b e r g (1984) H o g s t e d t P, Science 224: 513516. Il Nuovo C i m e n t o 2 0 : 6 0 8 6 1 6 Kivela R (1983) J Appi Physiol: Respirat

24.

25.

In:

Workshop

Digest,

4th

26. 27. 28.

K a d e f o r s R,

N s l u n d PE (1983)

K a l l l o m a k i PL, J u n t t l l a M L , Kalliomaki Scand J Work E n v i r o n H e a l t h 9 : 1 7 6 1 8 0 K a l l l o m a k l PL, Lakomaa E, K a l l i o m a k i ( 1 9 8 3 ) B r i t J Ind Med 4 0 : 2 2 9 2 3 4 K,

KK, Lakomaa EL,

29.

Kallunen

M, K i v e l a R, V a a r a n e n

30.

K a l l l o m a k i PL, T u o m l s a a r l M, Lakomaa EL, K a l l l c m a k l Arner Ind Hyg Assoc J 4 4 : 6 4 9 6 5 4

K,

Kivela

(1983)

215

A MOBILE MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPH WITH DUST QUALITY SENSING K. KALLIOMKI, P-L. KALLIOMKI, M. MOILANEN Oulu University, SF-90570, Oulu, Finland INTRODUCTION The exposure level of workers in the metal and metallurgical industry is usually monitored by measuring the particulate content of the air to be inhaled. This exposure measure is not accurate because individual working habits, personal protective devices, smoking habits etc. change the lung deposition rate. The clearance rate of different particle populations may vary as much as 1:100. Due to the blow clearance component, the amount of lung retained particles reflects the average amount of airborn contaminants eg. over the last ten years. Dust level measurements are not really available during that long period. Therefore the estimation of the amount of lung retained particles on the basis of dust level measurements is not reliable: the possible error could be more than 1:100. In the metal and metallurgical industry airborn particulates almost always contain iron in the form of ferrimagnetic, magnetite-like spinel structures. If the workers' exposure is homogeneous, i.e. he is predominantly exposed to only one type of fumes, the amount of lung retained dust can be estimated once the magnetic properties of the inhaled dusts or fumes are known ' ' ' ' . The remanent magnetic field of the dust retained in the lungs is measured with a fluxgate or SQUID magnetometer after the chest area has been magnetized in a homogeneous field (Magnetopneumography). Particles deposited in the lungs are affected by physical (agglomeration, translocation) and chemical (solubility) factors which seem to decrease the 2 specific remanent magnetic moment (Am /kgFe) of some dusts. Therefore the accuracy of magnetopneumography is hardly better than + 50 6 in the case of homogeneous exposure. In most cases, however, the worker's exposure is heterogeneous. For example, a welder often uses several welding methods that generate fumes which differ magnetically. The worst case seem to be exposure to both stainless steel manual metal arc (SS/MMA) and stainless steel metal inert gas (SS/MIG) welding fumes, because SS/MMA fumes have very low and SS/MIG fumes very high specific remanence. Then an ordinary magnetopneumograph probably measures the remanent field of the SS/MIG fumes without any indications about what is the magnetically dominating particle population or the suitable calibration between remanent field and the amount of lung retained dust. factor

216

This problem can be solved by measuring the coersive force, which has a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value for each industrial metal aerosol. Due to particle rotation in living tissue, one has in fact to measure the pulse coersive force (Hep) to sense the quality of lung retained dust. When studying industrial workers using a magnetopneumograph, the total cost of the study is lower due to travelling costs if one can move the MPG near the factory compared to a distant location of the MPG. Therefore the new MPG is installed into a caravan.

MEASUREMENT OF THE PULSE COERCIVE F ORCE IN VIVO Measurement of the coereive force of dust retained in the lungs is complicated: the object to be measured is substantial, the dust concentration is quite low and the orientation of particles (relaxation) due to s t a t i c demag-netizing errors. The application of the s t a t i c demagnetizing field can be avoided if a pulse coercive force (H ) is measured instead of the coercive force. The pulse coercive force is cp the amplitude of a short demagnetizing pulse, which totally demagnetizes a field causes

previously magnetized sample. Measurements of dust samples show that the pulse coercive force depends on the process generating the dust, in the same way as the coercive force. As the duration of the demagnetizing pulse can be short (less than I s) the orientation error is minimized. The pulse coercive force of the dust in the lungs is the first p a r a m e t e r to be measured during the measurement procedure. F irst the chest area of a subject is magnetized with short pulse (50 mT, 0.5 s), and the remanent flux density of the lungs (B .) is measured several t i m e s . One minute after the magnetization a fixed demagnetization pulse (15 mT, 0.5 s) is applied, and the remaining flux density (B J) is measured as earlier. The ratio ? / B . is the measure of the coercitivity or magnetic hardness of the dust. This ratio varies from 0.00 to 00 depending on the quality of the dust.

217

STUDIED SUBJECTS AND THE RESULTS Altogether 27 subjects from two stainless steel workshops were measured. (Table I) TABLE I OCCUPATION, NUMBEER AND EXPOSURE TIME OF THE STUDIED STAINLESS STEEL WORKERS Subjects Occupation Plasmacutter SS/MMA-welders SS gas cutting MS/MMA welders MS/MIG welders SS/TIG welders SS flame cutting SS grinding Number 1 6 2 Exposuretime (a) Range Average 7 15 8 22 18 13

_
7-20 3-13 12-36 13-22 8-20 4-12 13-20

*
2
if

The results of the new magnetopneumograph are given in Table II. TABLE II MAGNETIC HARDNESS OF DIF F ERENT DUSTS IN THE LUNGS Occupation Figure of magnetic hardness(Br2/Brl) Plasmacutter SS/MMA welders SS gas cutter MS/MMA welders MS/MIG welders SS/TIG welders SS flamecutting SS grinding 0.00 0.070.05 0.12 0.220.06 0.270.09 0.230.03 0.310.06 050.1 Typical amount of dust (mg) 200 3000 200 600 200 300 200 50

218

DISCUSSION. By applying occupations.Thus pulse c o e r c i v e force measurements to lung dust, stainless steel workers' this new measuring method gives valuable information on the workers can be classified into the groups, which seem to correspond

quality of the magnetically dominating long dust extending the current applications of the LUNGCOsystem. Owing to the limited number of subjects in the present study, the results given are preliminary.

REFERENCES 1. Cohen D (1973) Science 180 2. Kalliomki , Kalliomki PL, Kelh V, Vaaranen V (1980) Ann. Occup. Hyg. 23 3. Freedman 4. Stroink G, AP, Robinson D, SE, Johnston 3 (1981) RF Am. (1980) Rev. 3. Occup. Med. 22 Dahn Holland Resp. Desease 123:4

5. B rain ID, B loom SB , Valberg PA, Gern (1984) Exp. Lung Research 6

219
ALTERNATING CURRENT SUSCEPTIBILITY BRIDGE MAGNETOPNEUMOGRAPHY K. DRENCK Royal Danish College of Pharmacy, DK-2100 and R.M. STERN
The Welding I n s t i t u t e , DK-2600 G l o s t r u p , Denmark

Copenhagen 0, Denmark

A survey of the recent progress i n remanent f i e l d magnetopneumography o f

2

welders exposed to ferrimagnetic contamination reveals the need for additional measurement techniques and a reassessment of the utility of the method. The design of a new alternating current susceptibility bridge, proposed for supplemental screening is presented. The instrument - in its basic form - consists of two identical Helmholtz coil pairs placed symmetrically with their axes horizontal and parallel to the plane of symmetry (Fig. 2). When the same alternating current passes through all coils the alternating magnetic field at the centre of symmetry of the system will be zero. Insertion of a test object in the uniform magnetic field of one of the Helmholtz coil pairs results in a net magnetic field in the centrally located field free region, which can be detected by a sensitive fluxgate magnetometer. The magnitude of this field is proportional to the net magnetic moment of the test object. Ferro-, ferri- and paramagnetic substances induce an unbalanced field of opposite sign to that resulting from diamagnetic objects. For test purposes an instrument has been constructed having coils of 40 cm mean diametre with a spacing of 38 cm; the distance between the coil axes is 100 cm (Fig. 3). When operated at 6A,80 Hz, the instrument has a sensitivity of 0.6 pT/mg Fe.,0 (lu particles dispersed in oil), and a noise level of 12 pT when measurements are made with a notch filter and a lock-in amplifier. For unexposed individuals the thorax is diamagnetic with the mean value of the magnetic moment corresponding to that from 20 I H ? 0 (Fig. 1). Because welding fumes contain a range of magnetic materials dependent of the type of technology used, a determination of the thorax fume content by DC remanent field magnetopneumography requires detailed knowledge of the nature of the fume to permit assignment of a value to the specific magnetic moment. The AC susceptibility method, on the other hand, gives information about the total content of ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic material. When the two techniques are used together, it is hoped that a model independent value of the thorax retention can be determined. A prototype instrument combining the AC and DC methods has been constructed. The DC part is very similar to the design by Kalliomki et al. The AC system

220
TABLE I WELDING FUME, BULK SA MPLES Measured by Remanent Magnetization (DC) Compared to Alternating Field Susceptibility (AC)

10 g Samp es Type MMA/MS MMA/SS MMA/Ni MAG/MS/FCW MAG/MS MIG/SS MIG/Ni

Fe 34* YFe 2 0 3 *

1 g Samples AC/DC 3.410.7 2.26.0 ^ 4.3 2.72.8 1.62.6 2.53.6 2.344

AC?
2872 5.268 % 3.6 6972 7779 7375 8.929

DC'/ 2.920 1.723 ^ 0.8 2527 3050 2129 0.213

DC.
1767 6.542

H ** C 3339 1930

3.1
5361 67113 6163 1.243

26
3240 3139 2935 5055

100 60
^ 80

100 146
^ 12

1
0.41 ^ 6.7

100 180

52 45 25

Grinding Dust/MS

Commercial products. ^Coercive field, from pulse demagnetization (arbitrary scale).

O)

MEASUREMENT 9 Kg : Lung Surgery No dust Exposure

b)

CALI RATE B 330 mg Fe3 04

C )

CALI RATE B 25L H 2 0

Fig. 1. Recorder Tracing of one Measurement and Calibration.

221

PSD

Pipi

Fig. 2. Symmetrie, DoubleAxis AC Bridge System. Fig. 3. Test Instrument, Symmetrie AC Magnetopneumograph.

Fig. 4. Asymmetrie, SingleAxis AC Bridge System.

Fig. 5. Pilot Model, Combined DC and AC Magnetopneumograph.

222

deviates somewhat from the symmetric arrangement described above ( F i g . 4 ) . A v e r t i c a l s i n g l e axis asymmetric system i s used; i t i s placed adjacent to the D system so t h a t i t w i l l be possible to compare the two methods thereby obC t a i n i n g a d d i t i o n a l information ( F i g . 5 ) . In order to gain some i n s i g h t i n t o the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the new instrument and i n order to get an estimate of the range of the magnetic properties may be encountered i n p r a c t i c a l use a short i n i t i a l been c a r r i e d o u t . Small samples - 10 g each o f a number of d i f f e r e n t common types of welding fume - were measured i n the form of loose powder on the f l a t bottom o f a p o l y ethylene c o n t a i n e r . earth. The applied f i e l d was v e r t i c a l f o r both the AC and the D C difmethod; i n the l a t t e r case i t was nearly p a r a l l e l to the magnetic f i e l d of the Measurements o f t h i s k i n d , n a t u r a l l y , w i l l give r e s u l t s e n t i r e l y f e r e n t from those obtained i n the normal s i t u a t i o n where the magnetic material i s dispersed i n a large volume o f magnetically i n e r t m a t e r i a l ; but r e l a t i v e measurements should be f a i r l y r e l i a b l e . The r e s u l t s are shown i n Table I below Also, i t i s apparent t h a t the two methods respond i n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ways. t e r i a l s must be undertaken, e s p e c i a l l y i n regard to the D method. C ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The development o f the new instrument, constructed i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h DANTEC E l e k t r o n i k A/S, DK-2740 Skovlunde, Denmark, was supported by The Council f o r Technical Development (TS) and CEC(ECSC) Luxemburg. At The Danish Welding I n s t i t u t e measurements of a number of welders are i n progress. REFERENCES 1. Cohen D (1973) Science 180:745-748: Ferromagnetic contamination i n the lungs and other organs o f the human body. 2. Freedman AP, Robinson SE, O'Leary K, Goodman L, Stellman JM (1981) Br. J . I n d . Med. 38:384-388: Nor-invasive magnetopneumographic determination o f lung dust loads i n steel arc welders. 3. Kalliomki K, A i t t o n i e m i K, Kalliomki P-L, Moilanen M (1981) Am. I n d . Hyg. Assoc. J . 42:234-238 Measurement o f l u n g - r e t a i n e d contaminants i n vivo among workers exposed to metal a e r o s o l s . 4. Stern RM, Drenck K, Lyngenbo 0, Dirksen H, Groth S (1985) t h i s conference, paper 3.23 H e a l t h , occupational exposure, and t h o r a c i c magnetic moment o f h i g h l y exposed lifetime-non-smoking shipyard welders. that series of measurements has

i t i s evident t h a t a c l o s e r study of the magnetic p r o p e r t i e s o f the fume ma-

223

STABILITY OF REMA NENT MA GNETISM OF DIFFERENT WELDING FUMES

K. KA LLIOMKI, PL. KA LLIOMKI A ND M. MOILA NEN University of Oulu, SF90570 Oulu, Finland

INTRODUCTION We I d inq fumes contain maqnet i teIike crystalline spinel structures, which are ferr maq.net ic (1). Maqnetopneumography most of

(MPG) utilizes these compo (23). The particle size

nents as a tracer for lunq retained fume particles distribution ranqes from 0.01 lim to several )jm.

There are different particle The stability of the

populations, the clearance of which may be different.

remanent maqnetism of weldinq fume particles has not been studied earlier, althouqh the stability is an essential feature for MPG. Maqnetopneumoqraphi c

studies of welders have demonstrated however that at least one particle popu lation of weldinq fume is maqnetically stable for ten years or more. When

exposinq animals to activated maqnetite dust, the clearance half time can be measured by MPG and radiation detectors. MPG almost always indicates faster

clearance than methods based on radioactive nuclides {h) . In this study the specific remanent magnetic moment of four different acti vated welding fumes has been followed for 106 days in rats' lunqs. fumes studied were manual metal arc stainless steel (MMA/MS), and metal inert qas stainless steel The weldinq

(MMA /SS), and mild steel (MIG/MS).

(MIG/SS), and mild steel

In addition the stability of MMA /MS, MMA/SS and MIG/SS fume samples were fol lowed for 55 days in a hot, physioloqicaI saline solution.

MATERIALS A ND METHODS The MS weldinq fumes were qathered by weldinq nonalloyed steel qrade C) with a MMA technique using a basic coated electrode (A STMA 283,

(Esab OK 48.00)

or with a MIG technique with an OK A utrod 12.51 weldinq wire (CO. shield qas). The SS weldinq fumes were qenerated by weldinq stainless steel (A ISI 304) usinq (MIG/SS).

a rutile electrode (Esab OK 6330) and an OK A utrod 16.32 weldinq wire

For animal studies the fumes were qathered on Millipore A A WP 037 filters and 13 21 irradiated in a neutron flux of 10 cm s for 76 h. A I > suspension of the activated fume was prepared sound. A in physiological saline and treated with ultra intratracheally into

0.2 ml aliquant of the suspension was injected Group of five rats were killed

h 40 male Wistar rats.

1 h, 1 d, h d, 8 d,

1 4 d, 30 d, 56 d and 106 d after admistration. iron of the autopsied

The maqnetic, i.e. exoqeneous in a maq The activity

lunqs were measured with a SOU ID magnetometer

netically shielded room at the Helsinki University of Technology.

measurements of the lunqs were performed using an Ortec Ge(Li) detector con

224

nected to an automatic gamma spectrometer system at the reactor lab. of the rq State Research Center (VTT/Rea). The peak of 1099 keV ( F e ) formed by
rD

thermal neutrons from iron in the sample.

Fe was measured and converted to the amount of exogenous

The specific remanent moment of the sample was then calcu

lated by dividing the magnetic moment by the amount of exogeneous iron. When studying the effect of incubation on the magnetic stability of welding fume samples, the water bath temperature was 70 C. Each Millipore filter was During

tightly fixed between two porous discs to avoid the lost of particles.

the first 15 days distilled water was used but then the bath was replaced with a 1.5 % suspension of physiological saline. The magnetic moment of the samples This procedure was

was measured twice a week using a fluxgate magnetometer. continued up to 55 d. RESULTS

MMA/SS and MIG/MS welding produced particles with a stable specific magnetic moment (A m kg/ Fe) in rat lungs. The two other welding fume particles (MIG/SS trend.

and MMA /MS) had a specific remanent magnetic moment with a descending

During the followup period of 106 d, the remanent magnetism of the lung re tained particles decreased by about 50 X from the initial value. The results of the incubation study verify the results mentioned above (Fig. 2 ) . During the 55 d followup time, only the remanence of the MIG/SS MMA /MS and MMA /SS fumes proved to be stable

fume had a descending trend. during that period.

A s one can seen (Fig. l) the MMA/MS fume was stable 60 d significantly.

in the rat experiment, only the last point (106 d) differed

DISCUSSION The results clearly point out that the remanent magnetism of some welding fumes (MIG/SS, MMA/MS) is not stable in rat lungs or hot water (MIG/SS). fore the calibration of MPG is not easy. There

MPG measurements of shipyard welders is stable at least five years.

(MMA/MS) reveal that a ferromagnetic component

Therefore it is possible that the stability of different particle populations vary. Large particles originating mostly from electrode coating could be easily In the case of the MIG/SS fumes the reason for unstabil i ty could be The latest Xray diffraction

soluble.

the slow transformation of Fe.O, to ctFe_0,.

studies (Tanninen Hyvrinen) indicate the presence of unstable gamma hematite in MIG/SS welding fumes. The results suggest that the instability of the

remanent magnetic moment of some welding fumes is caused by phenomena which appear to be both physical bility) in nature. (agglomeration, translocation) and chemical (solu

Followup times have to be increased up to one year and the

225

1 8, 1 4* 10

MMA/SS

fr
- 1

l
~l
1 1 1 1 1- 1 1

1 32^028 =26

0.6 0.2
1

2 4 0 6 0 8 MMA/MS
en E <
LU

TO O

tTd

1.6 1.2

1.24 0 2 5

" = 27 t =8.6 p<0.2/o

0.8 0.4 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L-

O
I L

20

40

60 MIG/SS

80

100 t/d

o <

1.6 + 1.2 0.8

fl 1 1 1 1

LU

< 044
0 0 20 40

5 t = 2.5 p<107
1 1 1

103H.5 " = 34

l t = 9.7 </.
100 t/d

cr
LU . LO

60 MIG/MS

80

I" " J"

0' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15

2 55 1 0 . 5 0 'N=31

20

40

60

80

100 t/d

Fiq. 1. The specific remanent maqnetic moment of MIG/SS, MIG/MS, MMA/SS and MMA/MS weldinq fumes in the lunqs as a function of retention time.

26 2

WATER (70 C 2.0 1.6 1.2 i i i 0.8

0

I I

PHYSIOLOGICAL SALINE (70C) o = MIG/SS

I
MMA/MS i

Q _i

LU
t

j j i

Hl

= MMA /SS i i .1 Iii 20 10 1 5 25 30

t r

i 55

t/d

Fig. 2. The specific remanent field of MIG/SS, MMA/SS and MMA/MS welding fumes incubated in water and 1.5 % physiological saline as a function of time.

characterization of lung retained particles in situ by electromicroscopic methods should be performed.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. h. Tuomisaari M, Minni E, Kalliomki K, Kalliomki PL ( 1983) Institute of Welding A nnual A ssembly, Trondheim Cohen D (1973) Science 180 Kalliomki K, A ittonieni K, Kalliomki PL, Moilanen M (1981) Amer. Ind. Hyg. A ssoc. J. 2:23/* Oberdorster G, Freedman A P ( 1981) In: Strober W, Hochrainer D (EDS) Aerosols in Science, Medicine and Technology, Smallenberg, pp. 192*+ In: International

OVERVIEW OF TOXICOLOGY

229

KINETICS AND BIOTRANSFORMATION OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM F. WILLIAM SUNDERMAN JR. Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Medical School, Farmington, Connecticut 06032 (USA) INTRODUCTION This of chapter Ni CI 2 to provides Ni(C0)4, rodents. a concise Ni 3S2, For resume CrCl 3, background of nickel of the transport, and on the metabolism, ^C^O; toxicity, in man and distribution, and elimination of nickel and chromium, based primarily on studies Na2Cr04, information administration Connecticut

carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity

and chromium

compounds

animals, readers should consult comprehensive reviews and monographs (1-12). KINETICS AND BIOTRANSFORMATION OF NICKEL Following animals, tracer the 63N oral 63N dose of parenteral is rapidly 63NiCl 2 As shown or intratracheal excreted in Table to rats in by administration and to a 81% and Selin of lesser of the 63N Cl 2 degree,
63

to in was

urine, iv

feces (13-18).

I, Sunderman

(15) administered a Ni

injection; and

excreted in urine within 12 h. was eliminated, of in feces. Ni(II) is administration

During 4 days post-injection, a total of 93% of 90% in urine to animals, 3% in feces. 63Ni remains Following unabsorbed most

including 63MCl 2

and is excreted Transport of

A minor fraction of the 63N accomplished by binding

dose is absorbed from to serum albumin and

the intestine, enters the serum, and is excreted in the urine (17,18). ul traf iltrable serum ligands (Figure 1) (17,19-30). amino group of of albumin, the albumin at the (b) the first and two (c) from Ni(II) competes with Cu(II) nitrogen atoms at of the the The

for complexation within a square planar ring that is created by (a) the terminal peptide the the N-terminus histidine molecule, third imidazole N-terminus nitrogen (23-26).

residue

position

presence of histidine at the third feature of the Ni(11)-binding

position of the albumin molecule

is a key contain

site, since canine and porcine albumins

tyrosine in lieu of histidine at the third position, and these albumins have less affinity tor Ni(II) than do albumins from other species (27-29). The ultrafiltrable histidine) and several 63NCI-treated small distinct 63N-binding polypeptides ligands in in serum include amino acids (esp. from were (19,26,30). The Asato et al. (19) demonstrated serum ul traf i U r a t e s
6

63N ( 11 )-complexes rabbits. is bound

ul traf iltrable

3N-complexes

rapidly cleared from serum and eliminated fraction of serum nickel

in urine and bile.

Althouqh a major (31), the

to nickeloplasmin, a macroglobulin

230
nickel content of nickeloplasmin of Ni(II) (21,32). Onkelinx fitted tissue feces. et al. (33,34) analyzed the kinetics of of 63N(I[) .n
rats ancj

is not readily exchangeable with

exogenous

63|\|i(II), and nickeloplasmin does not play an important role in the transport

rabbits by use of a twocompartment mathematical model; they generated computer curves to depict the distribution as the excretory ^3^(II) of in extracellular 63N in urine in several and and spaces, as well clearances

Studies of Ni(II) distribution have been performed

rodent

species at various dosages, timeintervals, and injection routes (1316,3537). These studies show that Ni(II) is accumulated most avidly in kidneys and that the uptake of 63pgj (II) in 63NI' tissues of in brain is substantially less than in other organs. control in and tissues showed NiCl2treated of rats by atomic rabbits of of For examples, the data in Table II are derived from analyses of nickel concentrations absorption by liquid spectrophotometry (35); the data in Table III are derived from measurements of concentrations et al. 63NC1 2treated renal cytosol bound E) to scintillation counting (36). Sunderman ligands and (38,39) minor that 63NC12treated 63N bound to rats contains one major peak five macromolecular constituents (Fraction F) of 63N 3). to ul traf iltrable in renal

peaks

(Fractions A 2 and

(Figures

These

63Npeaks

cytosol have been detected from 0.5 to 4 h after a wide range of dosages, using three independent

injection of 63|\ii CI 2 over fractionation techniques,

column chromatography on Sephadex G200, agarose gel electrophoresis, and high performance liquid chromatography on TSKgel SW2000 (38,39). The peaks have (Fraction three with estimated molecular weights of M30.000 (Fraction A ) , 70,00084,000 (Fraction B ) , 50,00055,000 (Fraction C ) , 24,00030,000 (Fraction D ) , 7,00010,000 E), and <5,000 from (Fraction F). Oskarsson mice. The and 63N Tjalve (40) found in peaks

63Nbinding peaks by Sephadex G75 chromatography of lung, liver, and kidney cytosols 63^^ r ^ 2treated j
was

present

molecular weights of >50,000, 30,000, and <2,000, respectively. A bdulwajid and Sarkar (41) reported 6 3 N ( H ) bound to a low molecular weight glycoprotein in renal several 14,400. cytosol of 63NCl2treated with rats. in HerlantPeers liver and weights et lung from al. (42) found from to >100,000 63N ( )binding mice, fractions apparent cytosol

63NCl2treated

molecular

Further research is needed to determine the identities and functions of compounds with nominal markedly different from

such 63N(Il)binding components in tissue cytosols. Studies of the biotransformation of labelled nickel valences other than 2+ are limited to nickel subsulfide, Ni 3S2. The metabolism of Ni(C0)4 is carbonyl, Ni(C0)4, and nickel Investigations of

that of Ni(II), since Ni(C0)4 is volatile and 1ipidsoluble.

231

TABLE 63N EXCRETION IN 6 3 N 1 2 T R E AI E D RA TS*

Day after injection 1 2 3 4 Total (4 days)

63N Excretion (% o f Dose + SD) Urine 86.7 2.6** 3.1 1.3 < 0.10 < 0.10 89.8 3.5 Feces 0.5 + 0.9 1.1 0.4 0.9 0.5 Total 87.2 4.2 0.9 0.5 92.8

0.5 0.3 3.0 + 1.3

Sunderman and Selin (15).

6 3 N C 1 2 (17 ujnol/kg, iv).

Rats (N=5) received an i n j e c t i o n of

* * Urine 63N

= 81.4 6.4% (0 12h) and 5.3 4.4% (12 24h).

TABLE II TISSUE Ni CONCENTRATIONS IN CONTROL AND NiCl2TREATED RA TS* Ti ssue Ni Cone, (ng/g dry w t , mean SD) Ni ClTreated Control Rats (N=8) Rats (N=6) 54 14 102 39 35 16 86 40 3/ 15 60 46 5J 14 17,730 2,520** 5,500 1,640** 2,880 2,050 1,440 770 380 990** 660** 480** 360** 140** Relative Increase (Fold) 328X 54X 82X 24X 39X 13X 7X

Kidney Lung Spleen Heart Liver Bone Brain

Sunclerman et a l . kg, sc
: )

(35).

Rats ki l i e d 24 h a f t e r

N i C l 2 , (0.13 mmol/

* * < 0. 001

VS

controls.

 g t . i o -|

1
"

*5N

bound ( albumin

\
S

\j !
IV

Ol u
not bound proltin

ci

f^
FRACTIONS

/ 1

_ i

ff

.^v

40

F OM SEPHADEX S-ZOO R

FRACTIONS (4 ml)

Fig. 1 (Van Soestbergen and Sunderman (17)). Chromato graphic fractionation on Sephadex G200 of serum from a bled rabbit 2 h after iv injection of 63NC12 (4 pmol/kg). The symbols V 0 and V designate, ^ respectively, the void volume and bed volume of the column.

Fig. 2 (Sunderman et al. (38)). Chromatographic fractionation on Sephadex G200 of renal cytosol from a rat killed 0.5 h after iv injection of 63 NiCl 2 (0.5 /kg) . The lines marked with circles illustrate a fractionation of renal cytosol to which 63NJ.C12 was added in vitro.

233

TABLE III
63

Ni DISIRIBUTIN IN

53

NiCl2TREAIED RABBITS*
63

Ti ssue

Ni Content (cpm 106/g wet wt.] Mean Range (16.0 (3.1 30.0) 3.3) 1.30)

Kidney Pi tui tary Skin Lung Heart Testis Bone Spleen Liver Muscle Brain

20.0 3.2 1.25 1.10 0.92 0.87 0.50 0.45 0.39 0.30 0.06

(1.20

(0.96 1.30) (0.75 1.10) (0.53 1.20) (0.46 0.55) (0.39 0.53) (0.30 0.46) (0.28 0.32) (0.03 0.08)
63

* Parker and Sunderman (36). Rabbits (N = 3) killed 2 h after injection (4 umol/kg, iv).

Ni CI 2

TABLE IV DISTRIBUTION OF 51cr(III) AND Sample

51

Cr(VI) IN RATS*

Skr Content ( of Dose + SD) % Cr(III)Treated Cr(VI)Treated Rats (N=7) Rats (N=6) 0. 5 + 0.1 22.4 0.9 4.2 0.2 20.3 0.2 2. 0 + 0.1 7.1 0.3 3.5 0.7 20.8 2.8 7.3 0.4 6.2 0.4 7.3 0.1 1.2 0.1

Bi le** Urine** Feces** + GI contents Liver Kidneys Plasma * Cikrt and Benko (19/9).
51

Bilecannulated rats killed 24 h after

CrCl 3 or Na251cr04 (3 pmol/kg,iv).

** Excretion during 24 h. < 0.01 vs Cr(IlI)group.

234
the metabolism can of
6

3NI(C0)4

and

Ni(14CO)4 membranes

in in

rats either

and

gas

chromatowithout

graphic measurements of Ni (00)4 in blood and breath of rats have shown that Ni(C0)4 cross the alveolar direction decomposition (15,43,44). During 2 to 4 h after exposure of rats to Ni(CO)4, Thereafter, Ni(C0)4

the lung is a major excretory organ for Ni(00)4 (43,44).

is gradually oxidized within erythrocytes and other cells to liberate Ni(II), which is excreted in urine, and carbon monoxide, which is eliminated in expired breath (44). mice Oskarsson and Tjalve (45) performed whole-body autoradiography of inhalation or injection of 63N(CO)4 and Ni(l^CO)4. following

Their autoradiograms demonstrated Ni(C0)4 in lung, brain, adrenal cortex, and other tissues. Sunderman following et im al. (46) investigated of the metabolism to and kinetics The of 63N administration 63N 3S2 rats. cumulative

excretion of 63NI during 8 weeks after the injection averaged 67% of the dose in urine and 7% in feces. 63NI3S2 that remained located Residual 63NI kinetic site, (4/) 35s and at within intracellular, macrophages. Whole-body injection et 63NI in al. and injection. At 2 to the 10 weeks post-injection, particles of injection site were of predominantly and vesicles fibroblasts

cytoplasmic

at the injection site averaged 19% of the dose in for upon of ^fii were computed of to was 63Ni mice also rats by in use of a

rats killed at 20 to 24 weeks post-injection and 14% in rats killed at 31 weeks. parameters viscera three-compartment model, based measurements and site. Ni 3^552 There urine, feces, Oskarsson im or sc of the by

^Hi 3S2~treated

(34,46).

administered from the and from did

63NI3S2

Whole-body autoradiography showed gradual mobilization of sol ubi li zed injection regional not mobilization of 63NI-labelled particles, which were lymph nodes. Ni3S2, that sarcomas that but located within developed phagocytes site of

nonsolubi1ized insoluble Ni 3S2 Kasprzak

liver, spleen, residue injection and

X-ray

diffractometry at the

lyophilized reveal

distinctly

demonstrated

Ni7S6 and NiS. to N i S during

These in vivo findings are consistent with observations of (4B), who showed Ni3S2 slowly becomes oxidized subsequent insoluble in vitro incubation in rat serum, and (e.q., Ni SO4) undergoes

Sunderman

oxidation to soluble Ni(II) compounds particles (e.g., Ni(0H) 2 ).

and relatively

KINETICS AND BIOTRANSFORMATION OF CHROMIUM The state of oxidation kinetics undergoes of soluble to permeability is the most are important parameter Most cell by penetrated (3-5). that affects have the low then are chromium compounds. readily to Cr(III) membranes These

Cr(IlI) but

Cr(VI), which assertions

intracellular

reduction

235

supported

by

recent

comparisons

ot

the kinetics

of

51o(III)

and

51cr(VI)

compounds in rodents (4954). 51Cr(III) excretion or of 51Cr(VI). A s 51o in urine

Cikrt and Benko (49) studied the distribution and shown did not in Table IV, excretion in of 51Cr in and 51

elimination of 51cr in rats during 24 h after iv injection of tracer doses of bile and feces was less after injection of Cr(IIl) compared to Cr(VI), while differ significantly Cr(IIl) Cr(VI)treated rats. markedly different The relative contents of 51Cr in liver and kidneys were in Cr(III) and Cr(VI)treated rats, and the plasma

concentrations at 24 h postinjection were 6fold higher in Cr(111)treated rats than in Cr(VI)treated rats (49). Sayato et al. (50) compared the kinetics of 51cr {III) and 51o(VI) in rats after oral and iv administration. forms of 51cr were excreted
5

Gastrointestinal than the

absorption of both intestinal 4) while tract. 51c r (VI)

oxidation states of 5 1 o was <]% of the oral dose. A fter iv injection, both more by the kidney plasma cytosol 405U); transferrin from the ^Cr(III) became of 51cr bound to (Figure

entered erythrocytes and became bound to hemoglobin (Figure 5 ) . fractionations rats showed constituents hepatic to be no. ^^Cr(III) associated patterns of and with predominantly

Chromatographic ^Cr(VI)treated ultraf i Krable binding to

(fractions

51cr

macromolecular constituents (fractions 10 to 36) were significantly different in the two groups of rats (Figure 6 ) . Danielsson et al. (51) reported that fetal uptake of 51Cr in mice was higher in dams that received an iv injection of Cr(VI) compared to dams that received an equal dose of Cr(III) (Table V ) . bile 51Cr 51Cr duct as was ligation more 51cr 51CrCl 3 . localized or In in sham operation than did (Table rats rats, Manzo et al. (52) studied the VI). >50% Na251Cr0zitreated equal hepatic of 51cr amounts SlCr all with of rats of was low excretion of 51cr after iv administration of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) to rats with excreted in bile that received

Cr( VI )treated the cell

present in cytosol, whereas in Cr(111)treated organelles. molecular weight components of hepatic cytosol SlCr from hepatocytes into bile.

rats, practically Complexes were involved

hepatic

in passage of

Norseth et al. (53) also found that the relative amount of 5 l o excreted in rat bile after injection of 51o(III) was much less than after injection of
5l

Cr(VI) was

(Table

VII). to

Biliary biliary

excretion excretion

of of

51

Cr

in in

51

Cr(111)treated 63NJ(11)treated

rats

equivalent

63N

rats, as observed by Marzouk and Sunderman (55). 51Cr(III)treated rats versus 2 to 3 for

Norseth et al. (53) reported rats. Based

that the liver to bile ratio of 5 1 o concentrations ranged from 50 to 100 for 51Cr(VI)treated upon chromogenicity by the diphenylcarbazide reaction, only Cr(III) was found in

plasma

Elution Volume (ml)

10

20

30

40

50

Fraction number

F i g . 3 (Sunderman et a l . ( 3 9 ) ) . HPLC f r a c t i o n a t i o n on TSKgel SW2000 of renal cytosol from a r a t bled 1 h a f t e r im i n j e c t i o n of 63fji ci 2 (125 /kg).

F i g . 4 (Sayato et a l . ( 5 0 ) ) . Chromatographic f r a c t i o n a t i o n on Sephadex G200 of plasmas from r a t s bled 2 h a f t e r iv i n j e c t i o n of 51CrCl 3 or Na2^Cr4 (0.4 pmol/kg).

stroma (ree hemolysate hemoglobin

3 "CrCI, E
c

"CrCI,

'

,1

1
X>

-Wv^-r- , * ^

il

" --' "iii

\^

0 E

<

IO

20 30 ')0 Fraciion number

V)

10

20 30 40 Fraction number

Fig. 5 (Sayato et al. (50)). Chromatographie fractionations on Sephadex G-200 of hemolysates from rats bled 2 h after injection of biCrCl3 51 or Na 2 Cr0 4 (0.4 umol/kg)

Fig. 6 (Sayato et al. (50)). Column chromatographic fractionations on Sephadex G-200 of hepatic cytosol from rats killed 2 h after iv injection of ^CrCl 3 or Na2 51 Cr0 4 (0.4 umol/kg).

238

TABLE V DISTRIBUTION UF Tissue 5 1 o ( I I I ) AND 5 1 o ( V I ) IN PREGNANT MICE* 51Cr Concentration (pg/ml or pg/q SE) Cr(III)-Treated Cr(VI)-Treated Mice (N=4) Mice (N=4) 0.1 0.01 2.4 0.2 27.7 3 . 5 8. 7 2.3 11.0 1 . 6 0. 5 0.04 3.0 0.2 33.9 3.9 36.0 4.3 2.8 0.4

Fetus Placenta Liver Kidney Serum *

Danielsson et a l . (1982).

Dams were k i l l e d on day 16 of gestation at iv).

1 h a f t e r i n j e c t i o n of SlCrCl 3 or Na2^Cr04 (10 mg C r / k g ,

TABLE VI
51

Cr EXCRETION IN 51(>(1) OR Sample

51

Cr( VI )-TREATED RATS* Cr Excretion ( of dose SD) % Cr(VI)-Treated Cr(III)-Treated Rats (N=5) Rats (N=5) 5. 2 3.0 0. 5 0.3 6.3 1.0 0.1 0.01 3.3 2.0 3.2 1.8** 4.4 0 . 9 0. 4 0.3**,

Treatment

Shamoperated

Urine Feces

Bile duct 1 i gated

Urine Feces

Manzo et al. (1983).

51

Excretion during 24 h after 51CrCl3 or

Na 2 Cr04 (100 pg Cr/rat, iv). ** < 0.01 vs Cr(III)-group. < 0.01 vs sham-operated group.

239

TABLE
B I L I A R Y

VII
E X C R E I I U N OF 5 1 O A N D
6 3

I N

RATS

Compound and Route Na 2 5 1 Cr0 4 (iv)*

Dose (umol/ kg)

Bile Col lection (Hours)

No. of Rats

Metal Exi:retion in Bi le se ( of Do: + SD) % 6.4 7.4 + 8.4

0.6 4.3
18.5

5 5 5 5 5 5 6

4 9 3 3 4 4 6

0.5 1.4 1.5

51CrCl3 (iv)*

0.6 4.3
18.5

0.16 0.03 0.09 + 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.14 0.03

63

NiCl2(sc)**

1.7

Norseth et al. (53). Sunderman (55).

** Marzouk and

TABLE VIII DISIRIBUTION OF INTRATRACHEAL 51Cr(III) and 51Cr(VI) IN RABBITS* Sample Cr Content ( of dose SD) % Cr(III)-Treated Cr(VI)-Treated Rabbits Rabbits 0.8 0 . 1 7.9 0.6 85.0 + 2 . 7 0.18 0.03 0.33 0.06 6.1 0.3 15.5 1.2 46.8 1 . 4 10.9 0.9 13.1 0.9

Blood Urine Lung Liver Kidneys

* Wiegand et al. (54). Rabbits are killed 4 h after instillation of

51

CrCl3 or Na2 51 Cr0 4 , 0.1-0.5 mg Cr/animal.

240
bile, even after injection of Cr(VI) at dosages as high as 18 pmol Cr/kg. Glutathione depletion of liver by administration of cyclohexane oxide decreased the biliary excretion of 5 1 o , and shifted the oxidation state of biliary chromium from Cr(III) to Cr(VI) (53). Minoia et al. (56) demonstrated that biliary chromium in K2Cr27-treated rats exists primarily in the Cr( 111)-oxidation state, based upon speciation by liquid anion-exchange chromatography and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Bryson and Goodall (57) studied the toxicities of several Cr(III) and Cr(VI) compounds administered to mice by ip injection. The compounds included Cr(N0 3 ) 3 , CrCl 3 , Cr 2 (S4) 3 , OO3, and K 2 Cr 2 0 7 . Acute mortality within 3 days post-injection was much greater with Cr(VI) compounds, but the subacute LD50 doses (more than 10 days post-injection) averaged 18 pg Cr/g body wt, regardless of the oxidation state of chromium. Mice dosed once with Cr(III) retained 7-fold more chromium at 3 weeks than mice treated with Cr(VI). When Cr(III) was given at weekly intervals, mice accumulated 6-fold more chromium at 8 weeks than Cr(VI)-treated mice. Whole body chromium concentrations continued to increase with further Cr(III) treatments, but slowly declined with Cr(VI). Analyses of fecal and urinary excretion showed that urinary chromium clearance was maximal soon after injection, and that urinary and fecal excretion of chromium was greater in Cr(VI)-treated mice than in Cr(111 )-treated mice. Wiegand et al. (55) conpared pulmonary absorption and organ distribution of SlCr in rabbits after intratracheal instillation of 51CrCl3 and 51 Na 2 51Cr04. (The Na2 CrCJ4 was mixed with unlabel led Na 2 Cr 2 07, dissolved in saline, and adjusted to pH 7.4 with NaOH.) In rabbits killed 4 h after Cr(III)-treatment, 85% of the 51Cr dose remained in the lung and absorbed 5 1 o in blood was confined to the plasma compartment. In contrast, after Cr( VI )-treatment, only 47% of the 5 1 o dose remained in the lung and the bulk of blood radioactivity was present in erythrocytes. Substantial amounts of 51Cr were noted in liver and kidneys of Cr(VI )treated rabbits, while little 51r,r w a s present in liver or kidneys of Cr( III)-treated rabbits ("Table Vili). These observations indicate that Cr(VI) can traverse the alveolar membranes without reduction to Cr(III). Yamamoto et al. (58) detected a low molecular weight Cr-binding substance in cytosol from liver, kidney, spleen, intestine, testicle, and brain of K 2 Cr 2 07-treated mice, as well as in plasma, urine and feces. The low molecular weight Cr-binding substance was separated by column chromatography on Sephadex G-25. The oxidation state of chromium bound to the low molecular weight constituent was not identified. Yamamoto et al. (58) proposed that the Cr-binding substance may play an important role in chromium detoxification.

241
The intracellular locations and biochemical mechanisms that are involved in reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in vivo are uncertain, although the mitochondria and microsomes are likely sites (59-64). Gruber and Jennette (62) demonstrated that Cr(VI) is reduced j_n vitro when Na2Cr04 is incubated with hepatic microsomes in the presence of NAOPH (Figure 7 ) . In further experiments, Jennette (65) observed that incubation of Cr(VI) with rat liver microsomes and NADPH leads to formation of a stable, reactive intermediate, Cr(V). Jennette speculated that Cr(V), rather than Cr(III), may represent the oxidation state of chromium that interacts with cellular macromolecules (65). nkelinx (66) analyzed the whole-body kinetics of Cr(III) in rats by use of a three-compartment model with computer-fitted curves to illustrate the compartmental distribution of 51cr and the excretory clearances of 5 1 o in urine and feces. To date, such mathematical models have not been applied to the kinetics of Cr(VI). NUCLEAR LOCALIZATION OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM Bryan (67) reviewed the literature on nuclear localization of toxic metals, emphasizing methodological problems from metal contamination or reassociation during nuclear isolation procedures. uno et al. (68) analyzed trace metal concentrations in nuclei and nucleoli from normal and regenerating rat liver. The activity of monoamine oxidase in the isolated nuclei was only 2% of that in mitochondria. Since monoamine oxidase is a marker enzyme for mitochondria, these results indicate that the nuclei were highly purified. The contents of Ca, Cu, Mn, and Zn in nuclei were <3% of those in whole cells, but the contents of Ni and Cr in nuclei were approximately 20% of those in whole cells (Table IX). The metal contents of nucleoli, expressed per mg of protein, ranged from 3-fold (Zn) to 11- fold (Cr), and 18-fold (Ni) those in nuclei; the Ni and Cr ions that were bound to nucleoli were more resistant than other metals to treatment with nucleases. Sunderman and Liber (69) measured 63pji n renal nuclei prepared by sucrose density gradient centrifugation and monitored for purity by electron microscopy. Throughout the period from 2 to 24 h after sc injection of ^\\Z]2' nuclear 63 63 Ni averaged 1.9 to 2.5% of total renal Ni (Table X ) . When 6->Ni-uptake was measured in renal nuclei from rats killed 2 h after sc injection of 6 3 N i C l 2 at dosages from 3 to 250 pmol/kg, nuclear 63 Ni averaged 1.9 to 2.4% of total renal 63^-j (Table XI). Such concentrations of 63N could reflect trace contamination of the isolated nuclei by mitochondrial and plasma membranes; therefore, these data do not substantiate significant uptake of 6 3 N ( I I ) into renal nuclei of 63N Cl -treated rats. Ciccarelli and Wetterhahn (70,71) and Tsakapos et al. (72) studied the

242

Cr (VT) * MICROSOMES

2 3 4 5 INCUBATION PERIOD (hour)

Fig 7 (Grutier and Jennette ( 6 2 ) ) . Time course study of recovery of Chromate from s o l u t i o n s incubated at 37C w i t h r a t l i v e r microsomes and/or NADPH. TrisHCl b u f f e r (pH 7.4, 0. 05 mol/1 i t r e ) ; K2OO4 concentration = 0. 4 mmol/1 i t r e ; microsomal p r o t e i n concentration = 1.5 g / l i t r e ; NADPH concentration = 1.44 mmol/litre.

TABLE IX Cr AND Ni CONCENTRATIONS IN RAT LIVER NUCLEI* Metal Fraction No. of Trials 11 9 3 6 Metal Concentration (mean SD) (ng/q, dry wt) 45.3 + 10.9 9.6 3.5 % of Tota 100 21 100 20

Cr N i

eel Is nuclei cells nuclei

61.7 17.6 12.4 + 1.3

Ono et al. (66). Each trial was based on pooled liver homogenate or nuclei from 3 rats.

243

TABLE TIME-COURSE OF 63 Ni UPTAKE INTO RENAL NUCLEI*

Hours from Inject ion to Deaith Renal 63Ni ( of dose % in kidney) 3.0 0.3 2.3 + 0.2 1.8 0.5 1.0 + 0.2 0.9 0.3 Nuclear (pmol/10b nuclei ) 10.5 + 4.4 7.7 1.1 5.9 0.9 3.3 0.8 3.0 + 0.3
63

Ni Cone. ( mean + SD) {% of total (pmol/ DNA renal 63 Ni) 1.7 0.3 1.4 0.3 1.1 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.1 2.1 0.9 1.9 0.2 1.9 + 0.2 2.0 0.2 2.2 0.6

2 4 8 16 24

* Sunderman and Liber(69).

Each qroup (3 or 4 rats/aroup) received im

injection of *>3NiCl2 (36 pmol/kg).

TABLE XI DOSE-EFFECT STUDY OF 63 Ni UPTAKE INTO RENAL NUCLEI*

NiCl 2 dose, im (pmol/k a)
63

Renal 63Ni (% of dose in kidney) 3.3 0.4 4.3 + 0.3 3.8 0.5 3.6 + 0.6 3.0 0.3 2.1 0.6 1.8 + 0.3 1.3 0.3

Nuclear 63Ni Concentratior (mean SD) (pmol/106 {% of total (pmol/ pg DNA) renal 63 Ni) nuclei ) 1.1 0.3 2.2 0.1 3.5 0.3 6.2 1.9 10.5 + 4.4 13.4 3.0 22.7 9.2 32.1 + 1.7 0.14 + 0.02 0.42 + 0.02 0.54 0.06 0.84 0.20 1.7 2.0 3.8 5.0 0.3 0.3 0.7 + 0.9 2.1 + 0.5 1.9 + 0.3 1.9 0.1 1.9 0.5 2.1 0.9 2.0 0.1 2.3 1.0 2.4 0.2

3 6 11 19 36 70 128 250 *

Sunderman and Liber (69). Groups (3 or 4 rats/group) killed 2 h after 3 NiCl2 injection, im.

244
uptake of Ni and Cr into renal nuclei of rats killed after ip injection of NiCC>3s Na2Cr27, or O C I 3 , at various dosages and intervals. The concentrations of Ni and Cr in the isolated nuclei apparently increased in approximate proportion to the renal contents of the respective metals; the published data are insufficient to compute the percentages of renal Ni or Cr that were present in the nuclei. SUMMARY Following parenteral administration of 63 Ni CI 2 to rodents, 63 Ni(II) is transported in plasma by binding to albumin and ultraf iltrable constituents 63 (e.g., amino acids). M'(II) is avidly removed from plasma by the kidney, where it is bound to five cytosolic macromolecules, as well as to ultrafiltrable substances. Negligible 6 3 N ( H ) enters renal cell nuclei; most 6 3 N ( H ) is rapidly excreted in urine, bound to low molecular weight components. A smal.l fraction of the 6 3 N ( I I ) dose is excreted in bile. Following parenteral administration of 51Cr(III) to rodents, 51Cr is transported in plasma by binding to transferrin, and is excreted primarily in urine, and to a \/ery limited extent in bile and other intestinal secretions. The metabolism and kinetics of SlCr(VI) differ markedly from those of 51Cr( III ). In blood of 51Cr(VI)-treated rodents, 51Cr is present predominantly in erythrocytes, bound to hemoglobin. A considerable proportion of administered 51Cr(VI) is excreted in bile, although most is excreted in urine. Cr(VI) undergoes reduction in hepatocytes to Cr(III) prior to biliary elimination. Biliary 51Cr(III) is complexed with low molecular weight substances, such as glutathione. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Supported by grants No. EV-01340 from the U.S. Department of Energy ES-01337 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. REFERENCES 1. Brown SS, Sunderman FW Jr (1980) (eds) Nickel Toxicology. London, pp 1-193 2. Brown SS, Sunderman FW Jr (198b) (eds) Progress Blackwells Ltd, Uxford, pp 1-244 Academic Press, Toxicology. and

in Nickel

3. Friberg S, Nordberg GF, Vouk VB (1979) (eds) Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1-/09 4. Langard S (1980) In: Waldrom HA (ed) Metals in the Environment. Press, New York, pp 111-132 5. Langard S (1982) (ed) Biological Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1-285 and Environmental Academic

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245

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35. Sunderman F J r , Marzouk AB , Crisostomo C, Weatherby D (1985) Ann C l i n Lab W Sci ( i n press) 36. Parker K, Sunderman F Jr (1974) Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol W 37. Oskarsson A, Tjalve H (1979) Ann C l i n Lab Sci 9:4759 38. Sunderman F J r , Costa ER, Fraser C, Hui G, Levine JL, Tse TPH (1981) Ann W C l i n Lab Sci 11:488496 39. Sunderman F J r , Mangold B L, Wong SHY, Shen SK, Reid MC, Jansson I (1983) Res W Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 39:477492 40. Oskarsson A, Tjalve H (1979) Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 45:306314 41. Abdulwajid AW, Srkar B (1983) Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 80:45094512 7:755762

42. HerlantPeers MC, Hildebrand HF, B iserte G (1982) Zbl B akt Hyq I Abt Orig B 176:368382 43. Sunderman F J r , Roszel NO, Clark RJ (1968) Arch Environ Health 16:836843 W 44. Kasprzak KS, Sunderman W Jr (1969) Toxicol Appi Pharmacol 15:295303

45. Oskarsson A, Tjalve H (1977) Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 41 (Suppl 1 ) : 158159 46. Sunderman F J r , Kasprzak KS, Lau TJ, Minghetti PP, Maenza RM, B ecker W Onkelinx C, G o l d b l a t t PJ (1976) Cancer Res 36:17901800 47. Oskarsson A, Andersson Y, Tjalve H (1979) Cancer Res 39:41754182 48. Kasprzak KS, 16:95108 Sunderman F W Jr (1977) Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol ,

49. C i k r t M, B encko V (1979) J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol

Immunol 23:241246

50. Sayato Y, Nakamuro K, Matsui S, Ando M (1980) J Pharm Dyn 3:1723 51. Danielsson B RG, Hassoun E, Dencker L (1982) 52. Manzo L, DiNucci A, Edel J , Gregotti Pathol Pharmacol 42:113125 53. Norseth T, Alexander 52:450455 J , Aaseth J , 51:233245 E (1983) Res Commun Chem

C, Sabbioni

Lanqard S (1982)

Acta Pharmacol

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54. Wiegand HJ, Ottenwalder H, B olt H (1984) Toxicol L e t t 22:273276 M 55. Marzouk AB , Sunderman F Jr (1985) Ann C l i n Lab Sci ( i n press) W 56. Minoia C, Mazzucotelli A, Richelmi Mikrochim Acta 1:353360 P, B aldi C, C a v a l i e r i A, Micoli G (1984)

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57. ryson WG, Goodall C (1983) Carcinogenesis 4:15351539 M 58. Yamamoto A, Wada 0, Uno (1984) J Inorg B iochem 22:91102 59. Langard S (1979) B iol Trace Elem Res 1:4554 60. Alexander J, Aaseth J , Norseth (1982) Toxicoloqy 24:115122 61. Ryberg D, Alexander J (1984) B iochem Pharmacol 33:24612466 62. Gruber JE, Jennette K (1978) B iochem B iophys Res Commun 82:700706 W 63. Jennette K (1979) B iol Trace Elem Res 1:5562 W 64. Garcia JD, WetterhahnJennette (1981) J Inorg B iochem 14:281295 65. Jennette K (1982) J Amer Chem Soc 104:874 W 66. Onkelinx C (1977) Amer J Physiol 232:E478484 67. B ryan SE (1981) I n : Eichorn GL, Marzi 11 i LG (eds) Information Transfer. E l s e v i e r , Amsterdam, pp 87101 Metal Ions in Genetic

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GENETIC TOXICOLOGY OF CHROMIUM AND NICKEL COMPOUNDS

S. VENITT Institute of Cancer Research: Royal Cancer Hospital, Clifton Avenue, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5PX, United Kingdom CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS Chromium elemental (Cr6 ) . implanted review. mium exists Elemental into in three different valency states in the presence (Cr0), trivalent chromium (Cr1 ) and of oxygen: chromium directly in this

chromium

hexavalent

chromium is thought to be biologically inert unless

muscular tissue (1) and will not be considered further

The chemical and biological properties of trivalent and hexavalent chrothese differing properties being critical to an compounds. Moreover, Cr[III] an imporchro(and vice versa).

compounds differ markedly,

understanding of the genetic toxicity of chromium compounds

may be contaminated with Cr[VI] compounds

tant source of confusion when trying to assess the genotoxic properties of mium compounds. Trivalent conditions Cr[III], strongly membranes.

chromium is the more stable oxidation state and under physiological it forms co-ordination complexes with ligands such as nucleic acids, to form Biological membranes are thought to be impermeable to (Cr[VI]) is usually linked with oxygen which readily cross biological

proteins or organic acids. Hexavalent

chromium

oxidising Chromate or dichromate ions,

These ions are easily reduced under physiological conditions to yield state. Once inside the cell, Cr[VI] is reduced to Cr[III] reduction of CrtVI] to the targets. Cr[III] Cr[VI] must for may

stable Cr[III] complexes. It is evident, therefore, that chromium can enter cells only in its hexavalent in order very to form very stable complexes which are then unable to leave the cell. Therefore, to exert a DNA-dama g ing effect, close to occur the cellular DNA in order to allow opportunity

formation

of putative Cr[III] complexes with critical DNA

also be reduced to Cr[III] in extra-cellular fluids, and thus becomes unavailable for reaction with other molecules. Since in and compounds the first demonstration that Cr[VI] salts could induce point are active in a wide range of short-term tests which other manifestations of DNA damage, detect mutations Cr[VI] mutation of DNA of bacteria various (2) a large amount of data has accumulated which shows that including stimulation

repair and the induction of chromosomal aberrations. little 10.

On the other hand, there is Many reviews

evidence that Cr[III] compounds are genetically active. in tabular form,

the genotoxic activity of chromium compounds are available and including refs. 3The most detailed review is given, in ref. 6 and this has been updated in summary form in ref. 9. A particularly valuable discussion of the possible mechanisms underlying chromium genotoxicity and carcinogenicity is given in ref. 11. The genetic toxicity of chromium compounds was summarised in ref. 9 as follows:

Hexavalent chromium caused DNA damage and misincorporation of nucleotides in an in-vitro DNA transcription assay. It was mutagenic in bacteria in the absence of an exogenous metabolic activation sustem and mutagenic in fungi and in mamrn-

250
alian celle in vitro and in vivo. Potassium dichromate induced dominant lethal mutations in mice treated in vivo. Hexavalent chromium caused chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in vitro, and micronuclei in mice in vivo. It produced cell transformation in a number of systems. Micronuclei uere formed in peripheral lymphocytes from exposed workers.
Thus hexavalent Chromate possesses genetic activity characteristic of namely the ability to induce DNA damage, point clasmutsical organic carcinogens,

ations and chromosomal anomalies in a very wide range of assays and organisms. On the other hand, the evidence for the genetic toxicity of Cr[III] was stated thus:

There is no good evidence that CrLlIIi causes mutations in bacteria, fungi or mammalian cells in culture or that it transforms mammalian cells in vitro. The few positive results in assays for chromosomal aberrations were obtained only with very high doses and could be explained by non-specific toxic effects. No data on humans were available (9).
Since inforce in 100 those these evaluations were made, more evidence has accumulated the doses (a) to rethat to the view that Cr[VI] is a broadspectrum genotoxin and (b) to show necessary

assays where Cr[III] gave positive results,

elicit the response were always very much higher (usually by factors greater than times) than those used to obtain a similar response with Cr[VI]. below. These more recent studies are summarised PROKARYOTIC ASSAY SYSTEMS Bacterial mutation assays. have Further studies of the mutagenicity of Cr to bacteria induces point mutations in For example, only those which showed several signifto Venier e^ &X (12) confirmed that Cr[VI] but not Cr[III],

different species and at different genetic loci. showed that of 11 industrial Cr[III] compounds, icant contamination with Cr[VI] induced

reversion from histidine auxotrophy

prototrophy in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98 and TA100. In a study of reversion from histidine auxotrophy to prototrophy in 9 of and S.typhimurium, which detects to a variety of oxidative mutagens) was found to Even in be strains the most highly strain TA102 (which contains AT basepairs at the target locus this

sensitive

the mutagenic effects of Cr[VI] compounds.

sensitive strain, Cr[III] compounds were devoid of mutagenic activity (13). Pedersen and co-workers (14) showed, by replica plating, that at high doses of Cr[VI] murium a proportion of the colonies thought to be his+ revertants However, of S.typhidoseTA100 were in fact 'false revertants'. judging from the

response curves given by these authors,

the slope in the linear range was little coagar,

affected by subtraction of the false-revertant fraction. In a further investigation of the problem of 'false' revertants Baker and as his could in be identified as his+ after 24 hours culture on Moreover, it was found that nutrient high workers (15) found that the majority of chromate-exposed colonies initally scored i.e., the absence of Chromate. of the plates, Chromate to

levels inhibited colony growth, incubation less toxic to Cr[III],

which, however, gradually recovered with further colonies to emerge. These in com-

during which time [CrVI] was found to be reduced

thus allowing his+ revertant

authors concluded that temporary growth inhibition at high Chromate appears mutagenicity assays of Cr[VI]. This study therefore confirms that

concentration Cr[VI]

be responsible for most of the non-replicating colonies detected

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pounds do induce t r u e p o i n t m u t a t i o n s i n b a c t e r i a , as was f i r s t d e m o n s t r a t e d by V e n i t t and Levy (2) who determined r a t i o s of s t r u c t u r a l to s u p p r e s s o r trp+ mu t a n t s of c h r o m a t e t r e a t e d E . c o l i WP2 s t r a i n s as a means of confirming t h e in d u c t i o n of t r u e m u t a t i o n . In f l u c t u a t i o n t e s t s , potassium Chromate, i n the non t o x i c dose range 1 . 7 5 . 1 uM, c o n s i s t e n t l y produces high l e v e l s of m u t a t i o n in E . c o l i WP2nvrApKM101+ ( 1 6 ) . T h i s i s f u r t h e r evidence t h a t p r o t o t r o p h i c r e v e r t a n t s induced by chromtes a r i s e by m u t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n by a c r o s s f e e d i n g effect caused by the p r e s e n c e of l a r g e numbers of dead c e l l s . In a foward m u t a t i o n a s s a y , potassium d i c h r o m a t e induced p o i n t m u t a t i o n s at the l a c l l o c u s of E . c o l i KM L 3835. Few if any induced m u t a n t s were seen i n B c u l t u r e s t r e a t e d w i t h C r C l , , a t r i v a l e n t chromium compound ( 1 7 ) . I n d u c t i o n of DNA Damage in B a c t e r i a . Treatment of E . c o l i B /r WP2 c e l l s w i t h 250 g/ml potassium dichromate r e s u l t e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of DNA s t r a n d b r e a k s . From s t u d i e s of the e f f e c t s of t o c o p h e r o l on t h i s p r o c e s s , i t was concluded that Chromate produces DNA damage by i n d u c i n g mutagenic pathways of DNA r e p a i r ( 1 8 ) . The i n d u c t i o n of prophage i n b a c t e r i a i s an i n d i r e c t t e s t for DNA damage, being one m a n i f e s t a t i o n of an i n d u c i b l e p l e i o t r o p i c DNA r e p a i r pathway known a s ' S . O . S ' r e p a i r . In such a system, exposure of E . c o l i WP2 () c u l t u r e s for 30 min. to doses of potassium Chromate r a n g i n g from 4 1 0 M t o 3 . 2 5 M provoked v e r y large (up t o x76 background) d o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s i n prophage i n d u c t i o n . In c o n t r a s t , chromic c h l o r i d e caused a maximum 6fold i n c r e a s e in prophage i n d u c t i o n only a f t e r prolonged i n c u b a t i o n a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n (5 4 M) which was c l o s e to t h a t found to cause i n h i b i t i o n of b a c t e r i a l growth. Moreover, the authors could not d i s c o u n t c o n t a m i n a t i o n of chromic c h l o r i d e w i t h Chromate as an e x p l a n a t i o n for t h i s weak but p o s i t i v e e f f e c t ( 1 9 ) . Reduction of Cr[VI] to C r [ I I I ] in b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . A v a r i e t y of biological p r e p a r a t i o n s ( e . g . , microsomal f r a c t i o n s from r a t l i v e r , e r y t h r o c y t e l y s a t e , and human g a s t r i c j u i c e ) have been shown t o reduce CrtVI] t o C r t l l l ] and t o decrease the b a c t e r i a l m u t a g e n i c i t y , of Cr[VI] ( 6 ) . More r e c e n t s t u d i e s have confirmed t h i s . I n c u b a t i o n of sodium dichromate w i t h human g a s t r i c j u i c e or s a l i v a r e s u l t e d in a d e c r e a s e in Cr[VI] c o n c e n t r a t i o n as d e t e c t e d by a c o l o r i m e t r i e a s s a y (20). M u t a g e n i c i t y of chromtes t o S.typhimurium TA102 was markedly d e c r e a s e d , via NADPHdependent mechanisms, by r a t l i v e r S9 f r a c t i o n s , and t o a lower e x t e n t , by p o s t m i t o c h o n d r i a l s u p e r n a t a n t s p r e p a r e d from human lung t i s s u e ( 1 3 ) . In v i t r o s t u d i e s employing i s o l a t e d microsomes from r a t s p r e t r e a t e d w i t h phnobarbital or 3 m e t h y l c h o l a n t h r e n e showed t h a t C r [ V I ] , in t h e p r e s e n c e of NADPH, can be reduced to C r [ I I I ] v i a the cytochrome P450 system ( 2 1 ) . EFFECTS OF CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS ON CELLS CULTURED IN VITRO Uptake of Chromate by c u l t u r e d mammalian c e l l s . Uptake of Chromate i n t o c e l l s of b a c t e r i a and lower e u k a r y o t e s i s mediated by the s u l p h a t e t r a n s p o r t system, s i n c e m u t a n t s which a r e r e s i s t a n t t o the t o x i c e f f e c t s of chromtes are d e f e c t i v e in normal s u l p h a t e t r a n s p o r t . S i m i l a r s t u d i e s u s i n g mammalian c e l l s show t h a t t h e s e a l s o take up Chromate by the s u l p h a t e t r a n s p o r t system. Campbell and coworkers (22) i s o l a t e d a number of c h r o m a t e r e s i s t a n t m u t a n t s from c h r o m a t e t r e a t e d cul t u r e s of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t Chinese hamster c e l l l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g V79 and CHO, lines frequently used in g e n e t i c t o x i c o l o g y . All c h r o m a t e r e s i s t a n t mutants d i s p l a y e d 2 abnormal p h e n o t y p e s : an i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e to Chromate and a r e

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duced uptake of radiolabelled sulphate (a tenfold reduction compared to wild type c e l l s ) . Hybridisation experiments showed that both mutant phenotypes were expressed in a l l segregante, indicating that both t r a i t s resulted from a single genetic lesion. Lack of complementation revealed that Chromate selects for mut ations in a single gene. D A damage in cultured c e l l s . N Crosslinking between D A and protein and induc N tion of singlestrand D A breaks following treatment of several types of mamm N a l i a n c e l l s in v i t r o with chromtes at high doses (25200 ) has been demon strated (23). The level of crosslinking (assayed by the a l k a l i n e e l u t i o n tech nique) was proportional to the dose of Chromate, and crosslinks were persisent for 12 hours of incubation in chromatefree medium. The low level of chromate induced singlestrand breaks was repaired after 4 hours of incubation. D A damage N of this type was not seen in c e l l s treated with C r [ I I I ] . On the other hand, when isolated nuclei or DNA/bovine serum albumin solutions were treated with chromium compounds, C r [ I I I ] , but not Cr[VI], induced DNAprotein c r o s s l i n k s . The authors suggested that Chromate crosses the cell membrane, is reduced to the t r i v a l e n t form which can then bind to D A and protein. In a further study employing alka N line elution, normal human f i b r o b l a s t s , or excisiondeficient fibroblasts from xeroderma pigmentosum p a t i e n t s , were treated with potassium Chromate between 2 and 50 . From his data the author concluded that chromateinduced D A damage N is repaired by a mechanism which differs from the classical excision pathway which repairs damage induced by such agents as u.v. i r r a d i a t i o n (24). Tsapakos t al^ (25) treated cultured chick embryo hepatocytes with doses of sodium Chromate ranging from 2.510 for periods of up to 2 hours. This t r e a t ment did not affect c e l l v i a b i l i t y as judged by the release of l a c t a t e dehydro genase. Chromate was taken up rapidly and induced (dependent on time and concen t r a t i o n ) D A interStrand c r o s s l i n k s , D A strand breaks and DNAprotein cross N N links as determined by the a l k a l i n e e l u t i o n technique. Incubation of chromate treated c e l l s for 21 hours in chromatefree medium resulted in a marked decrease in the number of D A c r o s s l i n k s , presumably by a DNArepair process, but a low N but significant number of crosslinks persisted even after almost complete repair of D A strand breaks. In contrast, no strand breaks or crosslinks were detected N in chick hepatocytes treated for 1 hour with Cr[III] at concentrations up to 25 times (250 ) those used with Chromate. In addition to studying the DNAdamaging properties of chromium compounds, these authors also measured the effect of Chromate on inducible cell functions, as an indirect way of studying D A t r a n s N c r i p t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n . They showed that Chromate (2.510 ) inhibited propyl isopropylacetamideinduced accumulation of porphyrin and phenol red glucuroni dation in a time and concentrationdependent manner which paralled the effects on DNA. Again, Cr[III] was inactive, even at doses 25 times higher than those used with Chromate. Mutation in cultured c e l l s . More recent studies have confirmed the e a r l i e r r e port (26) that chromtes induce point mutations in cultured mammalian c e l l s . Rainaldi e_ aj. (27) treated V79/AP4 Chinese hamster c e l l s for 1 hour with doses of potassium dichromate ranging from 32 to 128 g per ml and assayed the numbers of clones r e s i s t a n t to either thioguanine (TG) or to ouabain (OUA) amongst the survivors. This is a method of detecting mutation at two different loci with d i s t i n c t mutagen s p e c i f i c i t i e s . T selects for mutation at the hypoxanthine G

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guanine phosphoribosyltransferase [HPRT] l o c u s , a n o n e s s e n t i a l salvage enzyme, therefore allowing d e t e c t i o n of gross mutagenic events such as d e l e t i o n s . ODA s e l e c t s for mutation at the membranebound Na /K dependent ATPase l o c u s , an enzyme e s s e n t i a l for c e l l v i a b i l i t y . The range of mutants d e t e c t e d by OUAresis tance i s r e s t r i c t e d because large l e s i o n s such as d e l e t i o n s are not v i a b l e . R R Dosedependent i n c r e a s e s in both T G c l o n e s and c l o n e s were o b t a i n e d , concomitant with d o s e r e l a t e d c e l l k i l l i n g . In absolute terms, there were more R R T G clones than OUA per s u r v i v o r , but the rate of i n c r e a s e in mutants per survivor with increasing dose was roughly the same for both s e l e c t i v e a g e n t s . On the b a s i s that mutation to OUAresistance i s known to be induced mainly ( i f not only) by agents which cause b a s e p a i r s u b s t i t u t i o n , the authors concluded that Chromate induces basepair s u b s t i t u t i o n s in mammalian c e l l s . Paschin and Kozachenko (28) obtained s i g n i f i c a n t and d o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s in mutation at the HPRT locus in Chinese hamster V79 c e l l s (using 8azaguanine [AG] instead of T as the s e l e c t i v e agent) at doses of potassium dichromate ( 0 . 1 and G 0.5 g per ml for 2 hours) very much lower than those used by Rainaldi et al (27) but similar to those used by Newbold et al (26) who a l s o used A as the s e l e c t i v e G agent with V79 c e l l s . Whether or not the use of d i f f e r e n t s e l e c t i v e agents and d i f f e r e n t s u b l i n e s of V79 c e l l s can account for these q u a n t i t a t i v e d i s c r e p a n c i e s cannot be determined. However, in a l a t e r study ( 2 9 ) , i t was shown that 2 d i f f e rent Chinese hamster c e l l l i n e s (V79 and CHOAT32) showed d i f f e r i n g sensitiv i t i e s to the mutagenic e f f e c t of potassium dichromate, using forward mutation S R from A G to A G as an assay for mutation at the HPRT l o c u s . After a 2hour

treatment (using doses mentioned above) there was a 5 f o l d increase in A G mu tants at 75% survival in V79 c e l l s , but no response in CHOAT32 c e l l s . Only a f t e r 17 hours treatment at these doses was i t p o s s i b l e to recover A G mutants, at a survival of 45%. Chromosomal anomalies in cultured mammalian c e l l s . The evidence already amassed (9) for the induction by chromium compounds of chromosomal anomalies in cultured mammalian c e l l s has been further strengthened by a d d i t i o n a l studies. Cr[VI] induces s i s t e r c h r o m a t i d exchanges (SCE) at very low d o s e s , a f a c t confirmed by several independent s t u d i e s . Phytohaemagglutinin [PHA]stimulated human lympho c y t e s were t r e a t e d for 70 hours with several Cr[VI] compounds at doses ranging from 0.06 to 1 . D o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s in SCE up t o 4.3 times the spontaneous l e v e l were obtained, CaCrO being more e f f e c t i v e in inducing SCE than e i t h e r Cr0 3 or KjCr 2 0, (30) . Up to 4 . 6 f o l d i n c r e a s e s in the frequency of SCE were seen i n V79/AP4 Chinese hamster c e l l s treated for 1 hour with doses of potassium dichromate ranging from 16 to 64 M per ml (54218 ) ( 2 7 ) . g In a comparative study (31) of the c y t o g e n e t i c e f f e c t s of potassium dichromate and chromic chloride on PHAst inula ted human lymphocytes cultured and t r e a t e d for 70 hours, potassium dichromate produced a very c l e a r d o s e r e l a t e d increase in SCE at doses ranging from 0.1 to 10 , with a 2 . 5 f o l d increase in SCE per metaphase at the highest dose. Chromic chloride ( C r [ I I I ] ) provoked no i n c r e a s e in SCE even at doses up to the s u b t o x i c l e v e l of 1000 . D o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s i n chromo somal aberrations (predominantly chromatid gaps and breaks) were induced by potassium dichromate at doses between 0 . 2 5 1 0 , the h i g h e s t dose g i v i n g a 2 . 7 fold increase in t o t a l a b e r r a t i o n s . Chromic c h l o r i d e a l s o produced a d o s e r e l a t e d

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increase i n chromosomal a b e r r a t i o n s ( 2 . 7 f o l d at the h i g h e s t d o s e ) , but at a dose range about 100 times higher (51000 ). A d i f f e r e n c e of the same order of magnitude was found for the c y t o t o x i c e f f e c t of Cr[VI] and C r [ I I I ] , both com pounds causing m i t o t i c d e l a y . Studies of the i n d u c t i o n of SCE by Cr[VI] in unstimulated (nondividing) lymphocytes, and lymphocytes t r e a t e d at different times a f t e r s t i m u a t i o n , i n d i c a t e d that c e l l s were most s u s c e p t i b l e to SCE induc t i o n during the phase of DNA r e p l i c a t i o n ( ' S p h a s e ' of the c e l l c y c l e ) . In another study ( 1 2 ) , several i n d u s t r i a l C r [ I I I ] compounds were t e s t e d for t h e i r a b i l i t y to induce SCE and chromosomal a b e r r a t i o n s in Chinese hamster CH0 cells. Potassium dichromate, chromic c h l o r i d e and chromic n i t r a t e were used as reference compounds. Those reference C r [ I I I ] compounds known to be free of Chro mate contamination did not induce SCE. Of the 11 i n d u s t r i a l compounds only those most contaminated with Cr[VI] induced SCE, as did the reference Cr[VI] compound. The l a t t e r induced a 1 . 8 f o l d increase at a dose of 0.34 applied for 32 hours, a r e s u l t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y s i m i l a r to that quoted above for cultured human lympho c y t e s . This dose of potassium dichromate produced a doubling i n t o t a l chromosomal a b e r r a t i o n s in C O c e l l s . H S i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s in chromosomal abberrations were a l s o seen in c e l l s t r e a t e d with the reference C r [ I I I ] compounds and with the i n d u s t r i a l Cr[III] l e a s t contaminated with hexavalent chromium. However, this damage was observed only at very much higher d o s e s : for example, a dose of about 190 chromic c h l o r i d e produced a 1 . 7 f o l d increase i n t o t a l a b e r r a t i o n s , over 500 times the dose of Cr[VI] required to produce the same e f f e c t . The very wide d i f f e r e n c e in c l a s t o g e n i c a c t i v i t y between C r [ I I I ] and Cr[VI] was studied by E l i a s e_ al ( 3 2 ) . Ihey measured SCE induction i n V79 Chinese hamster c e l l s by several Cr[VI] compounds and two C r [ I I I ] compounds, chromic chloride (which i s water s o l u b l e ) and chromium[III]oxide (Cr 2 0 3 ) which i s an i n s o l u b l e c r y s t a l l i n e chemical. Cr[VI] compounds at doses (as Cr) between 0.5 and 2.7 and treatment times of 28 hours produced d o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s of up to 4 times the background l e v e l s of SCE accompanied by dosedependent m i t o t i c delay. These r e s u l t s are very s i m i l a r to those obtained for human lymphocytes (30,31) and for C O c e l l s ( 1 2 ) . However, unlike these s t u d i e s , in which no evidence was H found that even very high doses of C r [ I I I ] could induce SCE, s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d o s e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e s in SCE were obtained in V79 c e l l s treated for 28 hours with chromic c h l o r i d e (doserange 188750 Cr) and chromiumtlll ]oxide (doserange 6572615 Cr), with maximum i n c r e a s e s of 1 . 9 f o l d and 4 f o l d for chromic c h l o r i d e and chromium[III]oxide r e s p e c t i v e l y . Prolongation of treatment time up to 48 hours caused a p r o g r e s s i v e dose and t i m e r e l a t e d enhancement of SCE f r e q u e n c i e s induced by C r [ I I I ] . The f i n d i n g that very high doses of C r [ I I I ] compounds induced SCE in V79 c e l l s but not i n human lymphocytes or Chinese hamster C O c e l l s i s discussed by E l i a s H e t al who suggest several f a c t o r s which might e x p l a i n t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s : (a) V79 c e l l s are probably more s e n s i t i v e to SCE i n d u c t i o n than are C O Chinese hamster H c e l l s or human lymphocytes. (b) Prolonged exposure to the t e s t chemical, which causes delay in c e l l c y c l e p r o g r e s s i o n , may be important in the induction of SCE by c e r t a i n compounds, including Cr compounds. ( c ) In the case of the soluble C r [ I I I ] compound (chromic c h l o r i d e ) longer incubation times would allow c o n s i d erable accumulation of C r [ I I I ] on the c e l l s u r f a c e , a phenomenon known to occur in cultured c e l l s ( 1 1 ) . Some of t h i s accumulated C r [ I I I ] could then be transpor

255

ted (32) by that could

across the c e l l of that c r y s t a l l i n e phagocytosis, slow

membrane and i n t o t h e c e l l . oxide, which i s totally p a r t i c l e s of

With r e g a r d t o t h e insoluble in water, It of is

clastogenic it is noted cytoplasm suggested which aqueous on the seem some lead dosethat they but in

activity

chromium[III]

t h i s compound w e r e a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e the r e l e a s e

particles

b e i n g o b s e r v e d around the n u c l e u s . p a r t i c l e s may a l l o w activity of including, (33),

s o l u b i l i s a t i o n of

Cr[III] DNA. high

then react with

target macromolecules,

presumably, low or

Differences s o l u b i l i t y were paradox ility, to have l i t t l e

in the c l a s t o g e n i c soluble

chromtes of

s t u d i e d by Koshi and I w a s a k i carcinogenic activity,

i n order to shed l i g h t genotoxins,

that although such as z i n c

chromtes are r a t h e r potent

w h e r e a s compounds of medium o r low are c a r c i n o g e n i c , effects. Chinese

solubhamster

Chromate and c a l c i u m C h r o m a t e , i_n v i t r o

e x p e r i m e n t s have b e e n shown t o g i v e o n l y weak g e n o t o x i c DON c e l l s w e r e Chromate, related zinc treated Chromate or c a l c i u m C h r o m a t e . i n chromosomal soluble aberrations. in water, All

f o r 4 8 h o u r s w i t h e i t h e r p o t a s s i u m Chromate, f o u r compounds i n d u c e d studies indicated s o l u t i o n and Solubility soluble

increases

l e a d Chromate was s l i g h t l y medium and t h a t solution mate are than in water. of

Tyrode's

tissue-culture Chro-

z i n c and c a l c i u m Chromate w e r e l e s s These r e s u l t s suggest i n body f l u i d s . aberrations

i n serum and T y r o d e ' s z i n c and c a l c i u m between

that lead,

slowly dissolved

Good c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e f o u n d and t h e l e v e l s of of the four

the f r e q u e n c i e s dissolved When total dissolved Chromate

chromosomal

chromium f o u n d t o be chromtes. chromium on lead (based found: amounts of was

i n t h e c u l t u r e medium a f t e r i n t h e medium, > zinc in Chromate alkali)

t r e a t m e n t w i t h e a c h of equal o r d e r of

a b e r r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y was compared on t h e b a s i s the f o l l o w i n g aberrant metaphases, has or g a p s and b r e a k s ,

clastogenic potency or e x c h a n g e s ) potent suggested

> p o t a s s i u m Chromate

> c a l c i u m Chromate. It is

[ L e a d Chromate than (33) in the potassium that the between

(dissolved greater

a l s o b e e n shown t o be more (34)].

Chromate i n i n d u c i n g SCE i n c u l t u r e d c e l l s clastogenic activity of Pb and Cr. T h i s genotoxicity tion amount medium. of of Cr study is valuable different

o f l e a d Chromate m i g h t be due t o in demonstrating Chromate salts, of

'co-action'

the importance, determining of

comparative concentrasince the the culture

studies

d i s s o l v e d Cr i n c u l t u r e medium r e c o v e r e d from t r e a t e d c e l l s , solubilised s e e m s t o d e p e n d o n the composition

GENOTOXIC EFFECTS OF CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS IN VIVO DNA damage i n d u c e d treatment. livers ney, i n v i v o by Chromate. elution analysis related Sprague-Dawley of DNA i s o l a t e d r a t s were i n j e c t e d and k i l l e d 1 hour of k i d n e y s In DNA 6 i.p. after or kidwere sinBoleo by two intrawhose w i t h sodium d i c h r o m a t e Alkaline ( 2 0 or 50 mg p e r k g - b o d y w e i g h t ) ,

from n u c l e i

from t r e a t e d r a t s r e v e a l e d t h e p r e s e n c e cross-links were

of D N A - p r o t e i n c r o s s - l i n k s Chromate. but a small (35). Groups of proportion

o c c u r r e n c e was p o s i t i v e l y

t o t h e a d m i n i s t e r e d d o s e of

predominantly DNA-protein, Liver nuclei

i n t e r s t r a n d DNA c r o s s - l i n k s . g l e - s t r a n d breaks phthalmus muscularly. added

contained protein-associated in f i s h .

in a d d i t i o n t o DNA-protein c r o s s - l i n k s (marine fish)

I n d u c t i o n by Chromate o f chromosomal a b e r r a t i o n s dussumieri In the r o u t e s of e x p o s u r e . to a r t i f i c i a l I n the d i r e c t indirect route, sea-water route,

were t r e a t e d w i t h sodium d i c h r o m a t e 1 o r 5 mg ( a s Cr) w e r e i n j e c t e d M e t a p h a s e chromosome f i s h were exposed t o 3 0 . 5

or 2 4 ppm Chromate preparations

i n an a q u a r i u m .

256

were made from gill tissue 76 hours and 96 hours after exposure by the direct and indirect routes respectively. Treatment by the direct route resulted in a statis tically significant and doserelated increase in chromosomal aberrations compared with untreated controls. fish treated by A significant increase in aberrations was also seen A berrations included chromatid A statistically and in iso the indirect route.

chromatid breaks, rings, fragments, rearrangements and exchanges (36). Induction of genetic damage by Chromate in mice. significant induced potassium in thus results increase in dominantlethal mutation in early and late spermatocytes was 20 mg per kg. (21 that Lower doses were ineffective. daily i.p. Chronic treatment with These

in CBA C57B1/6J mice treated with potassium dichromate at a single i.p. dose of dichromate indicate injections of 2 mg per kg) induced significant

creases in dominant lethal mutation in sperm and late spermatids. induce mutations transmissible to subsequent generations (37). The

Cr[VI] can cross the mammalian bloodtesticular barrier and

genotoxic effects of Chromate on somatic tissue of mice have been

inves the

tigated with the micronucleus test, in which the target tissue is bone marrow and the target cells are erythroblasts. formation the suitable (1,5 hours the (38). Chromosomal anomalies in people exposed to chromium compounds. ports people of elevated levels of chromosomal anomalies in peripheral occupationally exposed to chromium compounds have appeared Further lymphocytes since re of the maximum Chromosomal aberrations which result in erythroblast maturation. of acentric chromatids or chromosomes form micronuclei which remain in A fter staining, such micronuclei are easily visible in the enucleated cells. with single doses of potassium dichromate 48 and 72 in the hours with

cytoplasm after the nucleus is shed during

CBA C57B1/6J mice were treated i.p. after treatment.

and 10 mg per kg bodyweight) and bone marrow was sampled at 24, numbers of micronuclei were obtained after all 3 treatment times,

Doserelated and statistically significant increases

yield of micronuclei (3 times the background) being seen after 48

evaluation in 1982 (9). (31).

Of 12 workers exposed to chromic acid fumes in a plating the

works, the 7 youngest subjects had significantly more SCE/metaphase than controls This study was expanded and has been reported in greater detail (39): (chromium[VI]trioxide) in 4 electroplating works was 'Bright' electroplating, incidence of chromosomal aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes in 38 men exposed compared well matched by age and smoking habit. Two in which nickel is also where chromium Urinary the the was

to vapours of Cr0 3 factories employed, the A 'Hard'

with that of 35 nonexposed controls, (I and II) performed and

two (III and IV) performed 'Hard' electroplating using 14 nonexposed

alone is used.

SCE incidence was determined in 21 of the exposed group (all from controls.

electroplating factories),

chromium levels ^ g per g urinary creatinine) were determined for all the groups. statistically significant increase in chromosomal aberrations, type, plating were found in subjects from two of the factories the frequency of total chromosomal mostly of In aberrations and chromosome 'Bright' tent in factories.

higher and positively related to the duration of employment. There was no consis relationship between the incidence of chromosomal aberrations levels. the 'Hard' plating factories. positive relationship urinary a SCE chromium A n increase in SCE was detected in workers exposed to chromium The analysis of the data was complicated by between increasing age and increasing

significant

257

incidence of

in the c o n t r o l s . (Factory

When t h i s was t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , higher showed t h a t only of the i n c r e a s e

10/12

(Factory

III) with

and 4 / 7 w o r k e r s age-matched group o f antly and

IV) had SCE f r e q u e n c i e s

than c o n t r o l s . i n SCE employing a steeper

Comparison younger significbeing in

p o o l e d d a t a from e a c h f a c t o r y controls linearly exposed s u b j e c t s . related

compared the slope

was s i g n i f i c a n t to urinary

i n the f a c t o r y

The f r e q u e n c y

SCE i n e x p o s e d w o r k e r s was

chromium l e v e l s f chromium.

obtained for

s m o k e r s compared w i t h n o n - s m o k e r s : of u r i n a r y

t h e SCE f r e q u e n c y was h i g h e r

y o u n g e r w o r k e r s who had h i g h e r l e v e l s CONCLUSIONS Mechanism of chromium c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y . activity doubt, genic, like being apparent therefore, of can by that of all

Cr[VI]

is

comprehensively t o man.

genotoxic, There i s

its no most is

i n o r g a n i s m s r a n g i n g from b a c t e r i a chromium i s

t h e m e t a l s known o r s u s p e c t e d o f b e i n g the one w h i c h p o s s e s s e s carcinogens.

carcino-

the h e r a v a l e n t

form of

properties

those

classical

organic

CrtVI] easily membranes cellular entry

be r e g a r d e d a s a ' p r o - c a r c i n o g e n ' , It is readily an active cell, transport where i t system.

and a s a form i n w h i c h Cr transported across or g a s t r i c survived

d i s t r i b u t e d around the body. r e d u c t i o n by, for example,

biological extragain or be The

Chromate w h i c h h a s

blood erythrocytes

j u i c e may can DNA.

to a target

i s reduced to C r t l l l ] , 'ultimate'

a process mediated Cr [ I I I ] , since this

e n h a n c e d by NADPH-dependent enzyme s y s t e m s . regarded a s the Cr can resulting mutagenic descendants nevertheless O x i d a t i o n of It this the is is r e a c t i o n of largely depend compound probably will as in DNA 'proximate' damage or e v e n t h e form s t a b l e DNA of complexes with a v a r i e t y ( w h i c h may i n c l u d e

The r e d u c e d f o r m , carcinogen, of m o l e c u l e s ,

form of

including changes) may

DNA-protein

cross-links,

interstrand provoke in damage, division. and the If is to will is

cross-links,

strand breaks, c e l l s which,

and p e r h a p s more s u b t l e though s u s t a i n i n g of Cr and

events

which are e v e n t u a l l y cytotoxicity

expressed as malignant underwent Cr[VI]

transformation further

target survived that

chromium-induced

DNA by C r t V I ] may a l s o c o n t r i b u t e the i n t r a c e l l u l a r Crtlll] w i t h DNA i s t h e c r i t i c a l the c a r c i n o g e n i c target of cells for

t o t h e b u r d e n o f DNA damage. to C r [ I I I ] i n chromium c a r c i n o g e n e s i s . chromium compounds is delivered time. of the This fluids Crtlll] nature

likely

r e d u c t i o n of event

the c a s e ,

p o t e n c y of

different d o s e of

g o v e r n e d by w h e t h e r or n o t a s u f f i c i e n t to a great extent in question: very important on t h e c h e m i c a l it will

DNA of c r i t i c a l

the a p p r o p r i a t e

l e n g t h of

and p h y s i c a l solubility

chromium compound solubility results that of show

these p r o p e r t i e s , cells. of

in b i o l o g i c a l of aqueous

since

determine

the ease w i t h which the is s u p p o r t e d by t h e

be w a s h e d away from t h e t a r g e t a factor the

The i m p o r t a n c e chromtes

in the c a r c i n o g e n i c potency context at l e a s t , it

r e p o r t e d by L e v y ( t h i s V o l u m e ) . H i s l u n g - i m p l a n t a t i o n industrial factor chromtes tissues i s only in sparing effects Cr[VI] who

studies with rats response. the

those hexavalent modulating for

materials

s o l u b i l i t y which evoke a c o n v i n c i n g c a r c i n o g e n i c which w i l l is also play a part of of the r e s p o n s e the animal capacities

Another different

carcinogenic For example, (20) as

t o the c h e m i c a l . and h i s of

may have d i f f e r e n t

t h e m e t a b o l i c r e d u c t i o n ' of co-workers S9 preparations

to C r t l l l ] : of

t h i s h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d by P e t r i l l i rat tissues. R e d u c t i o n of CrtVI]

found marked d i f f e r e n c e s

in the CrtVI]-reducing a b i l i t y

from a v a r i e t y

t o C r [ I I I ] may be r e g a r d e d

258
detoxification DNA, capacity Active variable to if it decreases the amount of Cr[III] available for reaction with by occuring extra-cellularly. On the other hand, an enhanced if it

for example,

reduce Cr[VI] within a cell could be regarded as activation of Chromate across cell membranes is another

increases the availability of Cr[III] for reaction with DNA. transport which biological and could play a part in enhancing or mitigating the genotoxic

carcinogenic effects of chromtes, again by controlling the supply of Chromate to critical cellular targets. The repair of DNA damaged by chromium compounds may also differ by cell by tissue and by species, and this is yet another factor which may control organ and species specificity of Chromate carcinogenicity. Chromium compounds as germ-cell mutagens. chromosomal for the compounds of absorption, in man. The fact that chromium compounds cause evidence chromium strands a germ-cell trivalent that, cells at in with of anomalies in people occupationally exposed to them is good systemic distribution and genotoxic activity Positive results in the dominant-lethal type, the

test in rodents indiThese two as well as posing

cates that Chromate can cause heritable mutations in mammals. evidence raise the possibility that chromium compounds, hazard, carcinogenic 1 ine. Is trivalent chromium genotoxic? chromium very vitro. high To doses, Although

might also pose a mutagenic hazard to the human there is no evidence that

compounds are point mutagens,

there are substantive reports

they can induce chromosomal anomalies in mammalian

this extent it could be said that certain Cr[III] compounds show some Whether this results from a direct reaction of Cr[III] remains to be determined.

genotoxic activity.

chromatin or DNA, or from a non-specific effect, such as the release of nucleases from destabilised lysosomes (12), vance in cultured Moreover, the relecompounds or carcinogenic implies how of the clastogenic activity of high doses of trivalent chromium mammalian cells to prediction of either mutagenic However,

activity in mammals is not clear. that highly

whatever its mechanism or its inter-

pretation, production of cytogenetic damage by C r U I I ] compounds strongly Cr[III] can cross cell membranes.

Phagocytosis of crystalline particles of

insoluble compounds such as chromium[III]oxide is one explanation of

such compounds enter cells.

NICKEL COMPOUNDS The times ref.9: genetic toxicology of nickel and its compounds has been reviewed in the last few years (3,4,9,10,40-42). A succinct summary is several given in

Soluble nickel aalte caused infidelity of DNA synthesis and transcription in an inoitro system. Nickel salts gave negative results in mutagenicity tests using bacteriophage and in assays for mutagenicity and differential survival {indirect tests for DNA repair) employing bacteria. Soluble nickel salts induced cytological abnormalities in a vascular plant, and, at high doses and after long treatment times, slight increases in chromosomal aberrations in cultured mammalian cells. Nickel subsulphide and nickelous chloride caused slight increases in sister chromatid exchange frequencies in cultured mammalian cells. Nickel subsul-

259

ghide induced cell transformation in cultured mammalian cella (.C3 /10T1/2 and H Syrian hamster embryo). Nickel sulphate, sub sulphide, selenite and powder caused cell transformation in Syrian hamster embryo cells. In tests conducted in vivo, nickel sulphate did not induce chromosomal aberrations in the bone marrow or germ cells of male rats. Cultured peripheral lymphocytes from workers exposed to nickel compounds in a refinery contained more chromatid gaps than lymphocytes from unexposed people, but there was no significant difference in other chromoso mal aberrations or in sisterchromatid exchanges between the exposed and the control groups.
This toxicity. has evidence was considered 'inadequate' for classifying nickel and certain geno com nickel compounds as possessing convincing activity in shortterm tests for Since the publication of that review, extended our knowledge of the genetic toxicology of nickel and nickel

further work has appeared which

pounds. This more recent work is reviewed below.

SUBMAMMALIAN investigated interaction buffer pH

A SSA Y SYSTEMS Lee et al and in in (43) its the of con the solubilization of the carcinogen nickel with of DN . A Incubation of nickel subsulphide subsulphide (NijSj)

Interaction of nickel compounds with macromolecules in vitro.

TrisHCl

7.4 containing DNA ,

ratliver microsomes and NA DPH resulted

solubil isa tion solubil isa tion. istic tides.

110 mM Ni(II).

The presence of NA DPH decreased the rate

The solubilised nickel had physicochemical properties character and bound to DNA with an apparent equilibrium binding. Precipitation by

of octahedral Ni(II), Microsomes that

stant of 730 M 1 , and with a saturation binding value of 1 nickel per 2.4 nucleo lowered this saturation complex. A lthough nickel compounds treatment have with g experiments forming a suggested microsomes mediate the binding of nickel to DNA

stable ternary proteinNi(II)DNA

Bacterial assays for mutation and DNA damage. bacteria In per icity for

been considered to be devoid of mutagenic activity (9), further studies employing the detection of mutation or DNA damage following nickel compounds have given conflicting results. an abstract it was reported that NiCl 2 , ml, at doses between 0.01 and 0.1 with toxic gave a statistically significant and dose related increases in mutagen effects

in a fluctuation test employing S.typhimurium TA 1535, chloride and nitrate,

above 0.2 g per ml (44). Nickel acetate, limits, tested gave for tested to their toxicity or solubility assay in in negative results in the Salmonella/mammalian microsome

several strains. Negative results were also obtained when the same compounds were induction of DNA damage in an assay using differential survival DNArepair deficient strains of E.coli (45). In a fluctuation test, doserelated and statistically significant increases in reverse bacterium technique mutation from homoserine auxotrophy to prototrophy were seen in sp.887(hom) treated with nickel chloride in the (46). nontoxic Coryne doserange

0.5 to 10 g per ml (240 ) . These results were confirmed by a clonal outgrowth The bacterial strain used in these tests has not been submitted confirmation to validation against a panel of reference mutagens, and independent of this positive result are needed. In an indirect test for induction of DNA damage, Ni(00CCHj) 2 , added for 18

260

hours

at subtoxic doses ranging from 160 to 640 ,

induced prophage in

E.coli

W P 2 S ( X ) , the maximum effect being 8 times the background at 160 . When compared with the effect of hexavalent Chromate, 30minute which induced a 75fold increase after a it will be treatment with 16 sodium Chromate (a nontoxic dose),

seen that the prophageinducing power of the nickel compound was very weak (19). Genotoxic activity of nickel compounds in a protozoan. ) were of nickel subsulphide Fine particles (about 1.8 (NiS) tetra ((Ni 3 S 2 ) and crystalline nickel monosulphide This organism ingests

assayed in a test which employs the eukaryotic protozoan Paramecium and undergoes selffertilization

urelia to detect genotoxic activity. particles sity. Induction

nonrespirablesized parental

(autogamy) which results in homozygo

of dominant versus recessive mutations induced in the

genome can be measured in the next generation by determining the fraction of dead or slowgrowing progeny. This fraction reflects the presence of lethal and detri mental mutations in the parental germline. A t nontoxic doses at or below 5.4 g per est ml, both types of nickel dust significantly increased the percentage or of lethal and detrimental mutations in the progeny of treated organisms, effect at being being a 4fold increase (relative to a glassbead 0.5 g per ml N i 3 S 2 . There was an inverse control) the great solvent between

relationship

mutagenicity and dose.

There was no significant difference in mutagenic activity

between nickel subsulphide and nickel sulphide (47).

EFFECTS OF NICKEL COMPOUNDS ON CULTURED CELLS DNA damage in cultured cells. of nickelinduced DNA elution, or no alkaline Conflicting results have been obtained in studies In a study employing human fibroblasts DN A breaks were detected in pigmentosumderived normal damage in cultured mammalian cells. singlestrand xeroderma

fibroblasts ml (24). sis

excisiondeficient

treated with nickel sulphate (NiS0 4 .6H 2 0) at doses ranging from 10 to 2000 g per However, Robison and Costa (48), using alkalinesucrose gradient analy showed that treatment of Chinese hamster CH0 cells with 1 g per ml or 1 g per ml of crystalline NiS for 24 hours, resulted strand breakage. Both compounds induced did not increases in DNA strand breaks at doses which of DNA ,

of NiClj for 2 hours, concentrationdependent

in the formation of a high degree of DNA significantly impair cell division.

Harnett et al (49) employed radiolabelled nickel compounds to study the ing of nickel to cellular macromolecule s of Chinese hamster CHO cells. of g for and with and cells with 10 g per ml
63

bind

Treatment

N i S (lowtemperature form of crystalline NiS [mill or protein in the range 1

<3

erite] for 3 days resulted in binding of Ni to RNA , DNA Ni bound per mg macromolecule. protein,
63

Treatment of cells with 10 pg per ml

NiCl2 RN A NiS

15 days gave one to several orders of magnitude less Ni bound to the latter binding about 100 times more Ni than DNA and Nimacromolecule interaction was not due to binding of
63

DNA , RNA .

treatment produced 300 to 2000 times more Nibinding to RNA or DNA than treatment NiCl2. particles, an Both ('S') it was concluded that dissolution of intracellular part N i S particles plays binding.

important compounds phase,

in the distribution of Ni[II] ions available for

selectively blocked cell cycle progression in the DNA synthetic

crystalline NiS being considerably more potent than NiCl 2 , in parallel to Morphological transformation

the greater specific binding of NiS to macromolecules. Morphological transformation by nickel compounds.

261

of cultured mammalian cells, claimed

though not strictly a test of genetic toxicity, Further had

is

to be a sensitive indicator of carcinogenic potential. nickel compounds (aNi 3 S 2 , aNiS and N i 3 S e 2 )

studies

have strengthened the evidence that nickel compounds show activity in such tests. Crystalline more more cell actively significantly and were (amorphous transforming activity in Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells phagocytosed than other particulate nickel compounds

NiS, metallic Ni, N i 3 0 2 , and N i O ) . Particles of crystalline NiS ranging from 2 4 were phagocytosed 6 times more than Ni S particles of 56 uM mean diameter. Differences in particle size of amorphous NiS had little effect on its low susceptibility to phagocytosis and low toxicity. cal activity. cytosed (50). metals The presence of noncarcinogenic, (e.g., amorphous NiS, Hn, Thus the crystallini ty and size biologi nontransforming and nonphago transforming

of particulate nickel compounds are important factors influencing their MnCl 2 ) diminished the

effects of crystalline metal compounds probably by reducing their internalization Further studies using this system (51) revealed that chemical reduction of NiS by particles and of crystalline Ni S resulted in their increased of of Chinese hamster OIO cells and increased cell transformation amorphous SHE cells. cells ed by

phagocytosis

The authors concluded that the entry of metal sulphide particles into

is related to their surface properties and in particular to the degree studies of phagocytosis and morphological of CuS, metal less CoS 2 and CdS, increases in morphological transformation A ll these by The

negative charge on the particle surface. Evidence for this hypothesis was extend crystalline dose induced counter CHO cells beads morpho respective and particles related amorphous parts, NiS exposed in addition to NiS. induced

transformation of SHE cells.

sulphide particles were phagocytosed less readily

considerably caused

morphological transformation than their crystalline strand breakage of DNA of Chinese hamster

at both cytotoxic and noncytotoxic doses. considerable for 23 hours to 10 Mg per ml NiS.

Crystalline but not amorphous

Inert particles such as latex caused DNA damage and

were phagocytosed, but did not induce morphological transformation or DNA damage, suggesting that dissolution products such as N i 2 logical transformation rather than the particles themselves. transformation (52). An important point to emerge from this work is that once a nickel compound has entered a cell, depends gical an it seems that its ability to induce morphological transformation of the only on the intracellular nickel content and may be independent transformation of Syrian hamster BHK21 cells, including N i 3 S 2 , NiCl 2 was about 1/3

to 1/2 as potent as crystalline NiS, on a weight basis, in inducing morphological

nature of the original material.

This idea has been tested (53), using morpholo cytotoxicity being used as A number of nickel NiO) and a com the soluble

indirect measure of intracellular Ni concentration. A ll

pounds were tested, acetate. mation toxicity

several oxides (e.g.,

substances induced the same number of transformed colonies at as a function of dose of Ni per unit area of culture) then

same degree of toxicity (e.g., at 50% survival) although the potency of transfor (expressed differ nickel widely from substance to substance. The authors concluded that if it is true that is a valid measure of intracellular nickel concentration, Ni 1 ] is the 'ultimate intracellular biologically [presumably active material,

independent of source'.

262
GENOTOXIC EFFECTS OF NICKEL COMPOUNDS IN VIVO DNA damage induced in vivo by nickel compounds. injected i.p. per kg-bw. isolated kidney and (53) per from nuclei Twenty hours after injection, the renal cortex. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were with the carcinogen nickel carbonate at doses of 10, the rats were killed, Alkaline elution analysis of DNA IS and 20 mg from these breaks of of DNA and

and nuclei were

revealed the presence of nickel-induced single-strand DNA In an extension of this work, Ciccarelli and

DNA-protein cross-links at levels positively related to the applied dose investigated the distribution of nickel and DNA lesions after treatment rats with i.p. liver, kg-bw for up to 48 hours after injection. the Alkaline elution analysis of nuclei

nickel carbonate (54). Sprague-Dawley

Wetterhahn

doses of nickel carbonate ranging from 5 to 40 mg lung and thymus 3 and 20 hours after treatment

from nuclei from kidney, showed seen

presence of single-strand DNA breaks in lung and kidney

DNA-protein and DNA interStrand cross-links in kidney nuclei. in nuclei from thymus or liver. breaks and cross-links in kidney nuclei. urred 2 to 4 hours after treatment, the presence of repair: however, present 48 hours after treatment. (measured all ted the four In the kidney,

DNA damage was not

A dose-response was seen for single-strand maximum DNA damage occsuggested and loss of DNA lesions over time

repair-resistant DNA-protein cross-links were The DNA damage induced in the kidney by nickel Nickel levels nuclei A from doseinjecbe the (this

carbonate was estimated to be 1 lesion per 1 0 ' to 10* nucleotides. by atomic absorption spectrophotometry) were elevated in organs,

with the highest concentrations in lung and kidney.

response relationship was observed between the amount of nickel carbonate and the levels of nickel in nuclei and in tissues.

The authors suggest that the cyto-

ability of nickel carbonate to induce DNA lesions in kidney and lung may to the levels of Ni[II] in the nuclei of these organs and to and carcinogenicity of this compound. of the binding of nickel[II] to renal nuclei, For an alternative view of see Sunderman

related toxicity Volume) .

significance

Genotoxicity tests in mice. per kg-bw NiCl 2 , about 12 mg per kg-bw of Ni. the dominant-lethal test

Groups of male BALB/c mice were injected with 25 mg these doses corresponding to in At these doses, negative results were obtained and

or 56 mg per kg-bw Ni(N0 3 ) 2 .6H 2 0,

the micronucleus test for induction of chromosomal damage in somatic cells and in for induction of heritable mutation chromosomal clastoof damage in germcells. The authors concluded that nickel probably has no The

genic properties in mammals (56). Chromosomal anomalies in people exposed to nickel compounds. chromosomal eral dust aberrations refinery workers was compared relevant of artment. factors. incidence and SCE in peripheral lymphocytes of 9 retired (4-15 years after retirement) with that in matched for age, sex and nickelperiphother furnace dep-

lymphocytes from non-exposed 11 controls, N i 3 S 2 and NiO,

The nickel workers had been exposed by inhalation to

or aerosols of NiCl 2 and NiS0 4 in an electrolysis

Workers had been exposed to atmospheric Ni concentrations higher than 1

mg per M 3 for more than 25 years. Mean plasma Ni levels were 2 and 1 pg per litre for exposed and control groups respectively: this difference is not statistically significant. groups, but There was no difference in SCE between the exposed and control 7.6 the exposed group had a mean frequency (per 100 metaphases) of

chromatid gaps and 4.1 chromatid breaks compared with 5.3 gaps and 0.5 breaks for

263

the

control group,

these increases being significant

(<0.05 for breaks,

<0.001

for breaks) (57) . CONCLUSIONS Are nickel compounds genotoxic? there with From the results of the work summarised above, seems little doubt that nickel compounds are not totally devoid of biologCr[VI], divalent nickel compounds produce rather weak and inconsistent of

ical activity which might be considered as 'genotoxicity'. However, when compared effects in a variety of short-term tests considered diagnostic or predictive

carcinogenic activity. Nickel-induced point mutation. questioned bacteria, independent speculating in and In ref. 9, attention was drawn to the total lack This evaluation must now be in for point Clearly there is a need it is of activity of nickel compounds in bacterial assays. the weak prophage-inducing effects. of these results:

the light of the two reports of nickelinduced point mutation in the meantime

confirmation

worthwhile in which

on the significance of these data.

In both experiments where

mutation was seen, cause test cell death. chemical to

low doses of nickel were used in fluctuation tests, Moreover,

small but significant increases in mutation can be detected at doses which do not fluctuation tests and the prophage-induction assay as opposed to the 'Ames Test' where the Whether these factors are be are conducted entirely in liquid medium, critical

and bacteria are suspended in agar.

the detection of nickel-induced mutation in bacteria remains to

seen: further experiments are necessary to resolve this question. ClastoRenic effects of nickel compounds. There have been no confirmatory Jji vitro studies ref. group genic creases to substantiate the weak clastogenic effects of nickel referred to in 9 and the question of whether nickel compounds can induce chromosomal anomof retired nickel workers can only be considered suggestive of a bearing in mind the small numbers of subjects and the test in gaps and breaks. Negative results with soluble nickel salts clastointhe in

alies in cultured cells is still in doubt. The single additional study of a small effect modest

micronucleus

and dominant lethal assay in mice indicate a lack of The studies

clastomentioned

genic activity, in agreement with earlier studies. Assays of particulate and crystalline nickel compounds. earlier were conducted with soluble nickel salts: however, there is good evidence that the most carcinogenic forms of nickel (e.g., nickel subsulphide) are insoluble particulates and that long-term persistence of Ni within the target tissue is crucial to development of neoplasia (see Dicussion in ref. 58). It is therefore not surprising that the most convincing evidence for genotoxic activity of nickel comes from experiments with crystalline particulates. transformation The ther the target and of DNA animals treated i i vivo. j induction mutation in the protozoan P.tetraurelia by particles and to of furthat the and size crystalline physical nickel sulphides - particularly potent nickel carcinogens - is nature of the nickel and the way in which it is delivered Bacteria, These induce morphological DNA damage in damage in cultured mammalian cells and

evidence that nickel compounds are capable of inducing mutation, macromolecules is a crucial factor. cells,

unlike P.tetraurelia

mammalian

are not capable of phagocytosing particles of respirable

and it is this ability which seems to be of critical importance to the biological

264

effects of n i c k e l . I t would seem w o r t h w h i l e , therefore, t o conduct f u r t h e r in v i v o t e s t s for dominant l e t h a l i t y and c l a s t o g e n i c i t y u s i n g c r y s a l l i n e p a r t i c u l a t e forms of n i c k e l such as n i c k e l s u b s u l p h i d e . Mechanism of n i c k e l c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y . From the evidence summarised i n t h i s and e a r l i e r reviews i t i s p o s s i b l e to put forward a p o s s i b l e mechanism for nickel c a r c i n o g e n e s i s : t h i s i s l a r g e l y based on the models d i s c u s s e d i n r e f s . 52 and 5 5 . The i n t e r a c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s w i t h t h e c e l l membrane i s t h e i n i t i a l and most critical event, n e g a t i v e l y charged c r y s t a l l i n e p a r t i c l e s being more e f f e c t i v e l y phagocytosed t h a n amorphous p a r t i c l e s . Once i n s i d e the c e l l , the p a r t i c l e s u n d e r go d i s s o l u t i o n e i t h e r through i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h lysosomes or by the c r e a t i o n of a more f a v o u r a b l e d i s s o l u t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m a f t e r b i n d i n g of p a r t i c l e s t o specific m e t a l b i n d i n g a g e n t s . Since the n u c l e a r membrane i s impermeable to particulate nickel, g e n e r a t i o n of n i c k e l ions by d i s s o l u t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l for uptake of n i c k e l by the n u c l e u s . Ni i s c o n s i d e r e d l i k e l y to be t h e ' u l t i m a t e c a r c i n o g e n ' : it i s e l e c t r o p h i l i c and can b i n d t o DNA phosphate and DNA b a s e s . Nickel ions d e c r e a s e the f i d e l i t y of DNA r e p l i c a t i o n and induce s t r a n d b r e a k s and DNAprotein crosslinks, and t h e r e i s l i m i t e d evidence for the i n d u c t i o n of p o i n t m u t a t i o n s in b a c t e r i a and a p r o t o z o a n .

WELDING FUMES B a c t e r i a l m u t a t i o n a s s a y s of fume p a r t i c l e s from a v a r i e t y of welding p r o c e s s e s showed the p r e s e n c e of mutagenic a c t i v i t y which was dependent both on the type of p r o c e s s and t h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d : e . g . , fume p a r t i c l e s from manual m e t a l arc (MMA) of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l (SS) were more mutagenic than p a r t i c l e s from m e t a l i n e r t gas (MIG) welding ( 5 9 ) . Other s t u d i e s (mentioned i n r e f s . 60,61) suggest t h a t MMA/SS fumes cause chromosomal damage and m u t a t i o n i n mammalian c e l l s , and t h a t i t i s t h e Chromate c o n t e n t of t h e fume which i s l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e for these e f f e c t s . However, i n 2 independent and w e l l c o n t r o l l e d s t u d i e s ( 6 0 , 6 1 ) , no e x c e s s of chromosomal anomalies ( s t r u c t u r a l chromosome a b e r r a t i o n s or SCE) were seen in p e r i p h e r a l lymphocytes of w e l d e r s compared w i t h nonexposed control groups w e l l matched for age and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . In both s t u d i e s , the w e l d e r s had been exposed t o MMA/SS fumes, on a v e r a g e , f o r a t l e a s t 19 y e a r s a t the time of t h e blood s a m p l i n g . REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Hueper W (1955) J Natl Cancer I n s t 16:447462 C V e n i t t S, Levy LS (1974) Nature 250:493495 Sunderman F (1978) I n : F l e i s h e r M (ed) The C l i n i c a l B i o c h e m i s t r y of Cancer. W The American A s s o c i a t i o n for C l i n i c a l Chemistry, Washington DC, pp 265297 F l e s s e l CP (1979) I n : Kharasch (ed) Trace Metals i n H e a l t h and D i s e a s e . Raven P r e s s , New York, pp 109122 Leonard A, Lauwerys RR (1980) Mutat Res 76:227239 IARC (1980) I n : IARC Monographs on the E v a l u a t i o n of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals t o Humans. Vol 2 3 , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, pp 205323 Norseth (1981) Environmental H l t h P e r s p e c t i v e s 40:121130

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267

RESPIRATORY TOXICOLOGY OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM DR. L . S . Institute University INTRODUCTION The from in in in specific area of of of toxicology for nickel there that has drawn most their This attention compounds, as in draw of the have and the similarity effects industry researchers, both and chromium and tract. been their has of of Birmingham, LEVY Health, B15 2 T T , England. of O c c u p a t i o n a l Birmingham

has been n e o p l a s i a t h e c a s e of the the which late to and a both development

the r e s p i r a t o r y metals knowledge their

is n a t u r a l ,

a remarkable neoplastic within

humans

parallels those

rapid which

utilization shed light

19th and e a r l y findings

20th c e n t u r i e s . toxicants.

This paper w i l l on o u r Those papers

attention nickel for lung a been as

knowledge used

chromium as target of out. cancer their acute organ other

respiratory in human a n d

selected although

review will number from and of:

be m a i n l y

concentrated directed

on t h o s e w h i c h h a v e studies, target both at other tract, exert be adult

experimental

vast Apart

studies of the

sites nickel under

carried

respiratory are able to to can These (similar

chromium on the headings

compounds tract. effects and

other

toxic

effects distress

respiratory asthma,

classified respiratory

syndrome),

interstitial EFFECTS by high

fibrosis

(pneumoconiosis).

ACUTE BRONCHO-PULMONARY The major effect This in this and chromium compounds epithelium. chromic acid classical transitory perhaps exposure dyspnoea, ensue alveoli heavily degree similarity are of is is may

caused toxic be

levels of by the

of

certain

nickel and

and

damage caused

bronchial carbonyl nausea,

aveolar is and and

chromtes, symptoms

dichromates, poisoning are mild vomiting by a

and n i c k e l of by

carbonyl. frontal the

Nickel headache,

respect. epigastric weakness & Kincaid, or with and

Initial pain in

consisting followed

sternal

(Sunderman, symptoms severe types oedema Recovery of There and is cases, may

1970).

Severe cough, may the is the strong

above and

followed be

cyanosis, to

delerium where on

(Sunderman filled

1970).

pneumonitis

certain

pneumonia the

proteinaceous desquamated. of high

epithelium of

infiltrated damage.

dependent

Inhalation

concentrations

chromic

268
acid causes intense irritation of upper and lower respiratory tract with cough, dyspnoea and chest pain (Meyers, 1950). ASTHMA-LIKE EFFECT Both chromium and nickel compounds have been associated with late asthmatic responses. These include chromtes (Card, 1935) and nickel sulphate and nickel carbonyl (McConnell et al, 1973). Tolot et al (1956) described asthma-type lung conditions in a nickelplating bath worker. Recently, a patient with nickel asthma was found to have high titres of IgE and IgG antibodies to a complex made up of nickel and human serum albumin (Dolovich et a l , 1984). Thus in the case of either nickel or chromium, both have the ability to cause sensitization reactions due to their ability to form complexes with protein and amino acids. There are reports of bronchial asthma in the ferrochromium industry (Broch, 1949) and Keskinen et al (1980) which describes asthma due to welding fumes of stainless steel hence implicating both nickel and chromium. INTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS In the USSR, Zislin et al (1969) have described nickel pneumoconiosis in 13 workers exposed to nickel dust with features including diffuse fibrosis and perhaps some emphysema. Similarly, features of mixed dust fibrosis in steel mill workers exposed to iron oxide, nickel and chromium engaged in the cutting and deseaming of stainless steel products were reported by Jones and Warner (1972) .Al though fibrosing pneumoconiosis has been described in chromite ore miners (Sluis-Cremer & du Toit, 1968), the finding is not supported by experimental work (Swensson, 1977).
CANCER OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT Cancer Although varying variety (NIOSH, neoplasms extended of the of of the respiratory lung cancer bronchial and most nasal tract in n i c k e l been the the refinery workers and the a

bichromate-producing term of is forms 1975), the

workers

has

studied

extensively. to d e s c r i b e cancer" used by has

is u s u a l l y cancer,

understood term"nasal convention to sinuses use and

meanings

following usefully

NIOSH sinus. been

applied nasal which

describe studies and

malignant have

cavities, industries

ethmoid

More r e c e n t l y , into

human c a s e and e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l those

nickel

chromium

269
compounds. In most cases, the studies have been complicated by the

fact that rarely have worker groups been exposed to specific nickel or chromium materials alone,but rather a whole range of materials. NICKEL R e v i e w s : - F o r r e v i e w s on t h e c a r e i n g e n i c i t y of n i c k e l and i t s compounds, t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o NIOSH ( 1 9 7 7 a ) , NIOSH ( 1 9 7 7 b ) , IARC 1 9 7 6 , S u n d e r m a n ( 1 9 7 3 ) , S u n d e r m a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , CMBEEP ( 1 9 7 5 ) , K a z a n t z i s and L i l l y ( 1 9 7 9 ) , Sunderman (1981). Human s t u d i e s A l t h o u g h n i c k e l was f i r s t i s o l a t e d by C r o n s t e d t in t h e mid 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , commercial e x p l o i t a t i o n did not begin u n t i l the l a t t e r h a l f of t h e 19th c e n t u r y due t o t h e d i f f i c u l t y in s e p a r a t i n g n i c k e l from c o p p e r . T h i s was a c h i e v e d by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e O r f o r d p r o c e s s in t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s . J u s t a s i m p o r t a n t was t h e a b i l i t y t o o b t a i n h i g h l y p u r i f i e d n i c k e l due to t h e n i c k e l c a r b o n y l process d i s c o v e r e d by Mond, and b a s e d on t h i s b r e a k t h r o u g h , a r e f i n e r y b e g a n p r o d u c t i o n i n 1902 i n C l y d a c h , S o u t h W a l e s . L a t e r , an e l e c t r o l y t i c p r o c e s s of r e f i n i n g was d e v e l o p e d . A full description of t h e Mond p r o c e s s i s d e s c r i b e d by Morgan ( 1 9 5 8 ) . B r i e f l y , the s i x - s t a g e p r o c e s s c o n s i s t e d of c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g t h e n i c k e l copper matte ( p r o d u c e d from t h e C a n a d i a n n i c k e l s u l p h i d e o r e , pen 11 and i t e ) , c a l c i n i n g of t h e m a t t e a t 800 C t o p r o d u c e c o p p e r and n i c k e l o x i d e s , e x t r a c t i o n of c o p p e r by s u l p h u r i c a c i d l e a c h i n g , r e d u c t i o n of t h e n i c k e l o x i d e t o impure n i c k e l powder, r e v o 1 a t i 1 i za t i o n of i m p u r e n i c k e l p o w d e r i n p r e s e n c e of c a r b o n monoxide t o p r o d u c e n i c k e l c a r b o n y l and f i n a l l y , d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the n i c k e l carbonyl gas to g i v e pure n i c k e l . The n i c k e l m a t t e used a t C l y d a c h came from a n i c k e l s m e l t e r in Canada and i t s c o m p o s i t i o n v a r i e d o v e r t h e y e a r s (Morgan 1 9 5 8 ) . The C a n a d i a n m a t t e c o n t a i n e d 40-45% n i c k e l , 30-35% c o p p e r and 17% s u l p h u r . The f i r s t four a b o v e s t a g e s w e r e e x t r e m e l y d u s t y and t h e i m p u r e s u l p h u r i c a c i d u s e d c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s of a r s e n i c . In 1922, a r s e n i c - f r e e s u l p h u r i c a c i d was i n t r o d u c e d a s w e r e g a u z e d u s t m a s k s . Later c h a n g e s in t h e C a n a d i a n r e f i n e r y l e d t o n i c k e l m a t t e w i t h h i g h e r n i c k e l c o n t e n t o v e r t h e y e a r s and i n 1 9 4 5 , n i c k e l o x i d e was s u b s t i t u t e d a s t h e feed m a t e r i a l . T h e f i r s t r e p o r t e d i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c a n c e r p r o b l e m a t C l y d a c h came i n 1932 i n t h e r e p o r t of t h e Chief I n s p e c t o r of F a c t o r i e s ( B r i d g e , 1933) when t e n c a s e s of n a s a l

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cavity cancer were reported and by 1950, 52 cases of cancer of nasal cavities and 93 cases of lung cancer had been reported (Chief Inspector of Factories, 1952). The Clydach refinery commissioned an epidemiological survey which was completed in 1939 but not made public till 1966 (Hill, 1966). He found that workers and pensioners employed between June 1929 and January 1938 were 10 times more likely to develop lung cancer and 11 times more likely to develop nasal sinus cancer than the general population. The risk was confined to process workers and reported only for those on the Mond process, hence the suspicion that cancer was related to nickel carbonyl exposure, although arsenic (from the sulphuric acid) had also been cited. In 1949, lung and nasal sinus cancer was made a compensatab le disease in the U.K.. As additional studies became available and the population at Clydach was further studied (Morgan, 1958 and Doll, 1958), the risk of lung and nasal sinus cancer was clearly established, but it became less likely that nickel carbonyl was the principal material responsible for this risk. Loken (1950) showed lung cancer occurring in a Norwegian electrolytic nickel refinery where nickel carbonyl did not occur. Further, Morgan (1958) found no clear association between cancer and nickel carbonyl exposure but only with high exposures to nickel bearing dusts. Doll et al (1970) performed a follow-up study at the Clydach refinery of 845 workers first employed before 1944 for at least 5 years. They noted that in men employed before 1925, lung cancer was about five to ten times the expected, whilst deaths from nasal cancer was 100 to 900 times the expected figure. They noted that men employed in 1925 or later showed no cancer excess, hence suggesting that the cancer hazard in the refinery had effectively been removed by 1925. In addition, they also showed that among workers exposed prior to 1925, the nasal cancer risk persisted unchanged for 15 to 42 years after the carcinogen was eliminated, whereas the lung cancer risk decreased with time. However, a re-assessment of the period of risk by Doll et al (1977) in which they extended the period of epidemiological investigation, demonstrated that the cancer risk extended until 1930 and that this accorded better with the temporal changes in the process (Morgan, 1958). According to CMBEEP, ( 1975), a total of 78 cases of nasal cavity cancer and 174 cases of lung cancer occurred among workers at the Clydach refinery during the 50 years from 1921

271

to 1971. N a s a l s i n u s c a n c e r was r e p o r t e d i n R u s s i a n n i c k e l refinery w o r k e r s ( Z n a m e n s k i i , 1962, and T a t a r s k a y a , 1 9 6 5 ) , and c o n f i r m e d by e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of Saknyn and S h a b y n i n a (1970, 1973) in a number of p l a n t s . In C a n a d a , S u t h e r l a n d (1959) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t among 2355 w o r k e r s a t a n i c k e l r e f i n e r y , t h e n a s a l c a n c e r r e l a t i v e r i s k was 29 t o 195 and 2.24 f o r l u n g c a n c e r c o m p a r e d t o t h e expected. G r e a t e s t r i s k was in t h e f u r n a c e d u s t a r e a and t h e r e was no e v i d e n c e of a r i s k in w o r k e r s s o l e l y engaged in t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s area. These f i n d i n g s were summarised for p u b l i c a t i o n by M a s t r o m a t t e o ( 1 9 6 7 ) . A f u r t h e r s t u d y by S u t h e r l a n d (1969) showed t h a t the cancer r i s k extended to Canadian s i n t e r p l a n t workers. The e a r l i e r m e n t i o n e d r e s u l t s of Loken (1950) from t h e N o r w e g i a n n i c k e l i n d u s t r y w e r e e x t e n d e d by P e d e r s e n e t a l ( 1 9 7 3 ) who s h o w e d t h a t t h e c a n c e r r i s k was n o t o n l y i n f u r n a c e w o r k e r s b u t e l e c t r o l y s i s workers as w e l l . T h u s , e v e n from t h e s e s t u d i e s i n j u s t f o u r c o u n t r i e s , i t b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e l u n g and n a s a l s i n u s c a n c e r r i s k was w i d e s p r e a d a n d n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o j u s t t h e furnace process. T h u s , i t seemed u n l i k e l y t h a t j u s t one n i c k e l compound a l o n e was r e s p o n s i b l e . More r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e h e l p e d , b u t n o t c o m p l e t e l y c l a r i f i e d t h e situation. A s t u d y of w o r k e r s a t a g a s d i f f u s i o n p l a n t who w e r e e x p o s e d t o p u r e n i c k e l d u s t h a s n o t shown an i n c r e a s e in r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t c a n c e r s (Godbold and Tompkins, 1 9 7 9 ) . A matched r e f e r e n t s t u d y of a i r c r a f t e n g i n e w o r k e r s e x p o s e d t o o x i d e s , c h l o r i d e s and a l l o y s of n i c k e l g a v e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s ( B e r n a c k i e t a l , 1 9 7 8 ) . A l s o n e g a t i v e was a m o r t a l i t y s t u d y of n i c k e l a l l o y m a k e r s e x p o s e d t o n i c k e l and n i c k e l o x i d e s (Cox e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e f i n d i n g t h a t two i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of n a s a l s i n u s c a n c e r m o r t a l i t y d i d n o t r e v e a l any r i s k from e x p o s u r e t o n i c k e l (Roush e t a l , 1 9 8 0 , A c h e s o n e t a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . Recently r e p o r t e d s t u d i e s of n i c k e l r e f i n e r y w o r k e r s a l l show a r i s k of l u n g o r s i n o n a s a l c a n c e r ( C h o v i l e t a l , 1 9 8 1 , Magnus e t a l , 1982 and E n t e r l i n e and M a r s h 1982) i n C a n a d a , Norway and t h e U.S.A. respectively. The c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n be d r a w n from t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a l o n e i s t h a t s u s p i c i o n s h o u l d be f o c u s s e d on i n s o l u b l e d u s t s of n i c k e l s u b s u l p h i d e and n i c k e l o x i d e , a e r o s o l s of s o l u b l e n i c k e l compounds and t h e v a p o u r of n i c k e l c a r b o n y l .

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Anima 1 s t u d i e s H u e p e r (1958) saw no m a j o r b r o n c h i a l c h a n g e s i n m i c e o r r a t s e x p o s e d t o 15mg/m p u r e n i c k e l powder f o r s i x h o u r s a d a y , four t o f i v e d a y s p e r week f o r up t o 21 m o n t h s . Hueper and Payne (1962) saw no l u n g t u m o u r s i n 120 r a t s f o l l o w i n g f i v e t o s i x h o u r d a i l y i n h a l a t i o n of p u r e n i c k e l p o w d e r t o g e t h e r w i t h 2 0 - 3 5 ppm s u l p h u r dioxide. In g r o u p s of r a t s e x p o s e d t o n i c k e l c a r b o n y l (Sunderman e t a l , 1957, 1959) f o r e i t h e r a s i n g l e e x p o s u r e of 0.25mg/m f o r 30 m i n u t e s o r r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e s t o 0 . 0 3 o r 0.06 ppm, inflammatory changes and squamous m e t a p l a s i a of t h e b r o n c h i a l e p i t h e l i u m were s e e n . F our o u t of n i n e r a t s t h a t s u r v i v e d two y e a r s d e v e l o p e d l u n g n e o p l a s m s , t h r e e of which were b r o n c h i a l . F u r t h e r s i n g l e p u l m o n a r y a d e n o c a r c i n o m a s w e r e r e p o r t e d i n o t h e r g r o u p s of r a t s e x p o s e d t o n i c k e l c a r b o n y l (Sunderman and D o n n e l l y , 1 9 6 5 ) . S i n g l e i t r a t r a c t e a 1 i n s t i l l a t i o n s of 5 m g / a n i m a l of n i c k e l s u b s u l p h i d e p r o d u c e d no p u l m o n a r y tumours in 13 r a t s a l t h o u g h some showed p e r i b r o n c h i a l a d e n o m a t o i d p r o l i f e r a t i o n ( K a s p r a k e t a l , 1 9 7 3 ) . O t t o l e n g h i e t a l (1975) e x p o s e d 226 m a l e and 344 f e m a l e r a t s t o lmg/m r e s p i r a t o r y r a n g e d p a r t i c l e s of n i c k e l s u b s u l p h i d e f o r s i x h o u r s a d a y f o r f i v e d a y s a week f o r 78 w e e k s and f o l l o w e d by a n o t h e r 30 w e e k s o b s e r v a t i o n . Lung t u m o u r i n c i d e n c e i n NiS t r e a t e d a n i m a l s was 14% c o m p a r e d t o 1% i n c o n t r o l s . Even more i m p o r t a n t was t h a t NiS exposed a n i m a l s d e v e l o p e d adenocarcinomas and squamous c a r c i n o m a s . Hamsters h a v e been used in e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s w i t h n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s when e x p o s e d t o p u r e n i c k e l p o w d e r ( H u e p e r and P a y n e , 1 9 6 2 ) , a n d e v e n when s u b j e c t e d t o 30 w e e k l y intratracheal i n s t i l l a t i o n s of n i c k e l o x i d e (NiO) ( F a r r e l l and D a v i s , 1 9 7 4 ) . G o l d e n h a m s t e r s i n h a l i n g 52 mg/L n i c k e l o x i d e (NiO) s e v e n h o u r s a d a y , f i v e d a y s a week f o r l i f e s p a n showed 4 / 5 1 various site tumours compared t o 1/51 in t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p but t h e a u t h o r s ( W e h n e r , 1974 and Wehner e t a l , 1975) d i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h i s t o represent a positive carcinogenic effect. In a s t u d y in which r a t s w e r e e x p o s e d t o f e i n s t e i n d u s t (an i n t e r m e d i a t e of refining c o n t a i n i n g N i S , NiO and m e t a l l i c Ni) a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 70 mg dust/m f o r f i v e h o u r s a d a y , f i v e d a y s a week f o r s i x months 2 / 5 s u r v i v i n g r a t s d e v e l o p e d squamous c a r c i n o m a of t h e l u n g (Saknyn and B l o h k i n , 1 9 7 8 ) . In a c o l l a t e r a l s t u d y , t h e s e a u t h o r s p r o d u c e d a s i n g l e s q u a m o u s c a r c i n o m a of t h e l u n g i n 26 r a t s a f t e r a s i n g l e

273

intratracheal (NiO) . Conclus ions T h e human are acting a where that

instillation

of

20 t o

4 0 rag b l a c k

nickel

monoxide

studies as

do

not

clearly as workers

indicate were was

which

nickel employed nor the

compounds in were areas all

carcinogens nickel were the

rarely However,

single in

compound

encountered, would and indicate the some in rats

materials

atmosphere be a t

identified. one that lung is also in agent

implication that nickel from show that the that to a nickel

furnace

dusts would areas also this

responsible least

subsulphide compound/s nickel lesser Other

evidence soluble and clearly nickel models.

electrolysis is

suggest produces effect

perhaps cancer shown

respons ib le.Anima 1 s t u d i e s with

subsulphide extent, nickel

carbonyl. hydroxide,

compounds, local

(nickel

powder,

oxide,

carbonate) CHROMIUM

produce

sarcomas

experimental

Reviews: There are a number of reviews on the toxicology and carcinogenicity of chromium and for these, the reader is referred to IARC 1980, NIOSH 1975, Industrial Health Foundation 1981, Kanzantzis and Lilly 1979. Human ev idence Following the identification of chromium by Vauquelin in 1797, there was a rapid utilization of its compounds in the late 19th century and 20th century. The irritant effect of the hexavalent chromtes was recognised early on and nasal perforations and chrome ulcerations were a constant finding in workers handling such materials. Cancer was not recognised until the 20th century however as a possible hazard. The development of our knowledge can be divided into a number of industries. Bichromate-producing industry The process of bichromate and Chromate production consisted of turning the insoluble trivalent chromic oxide, found in the ore, chromite, into water-soluble, hexavalent sodium Chromate. This was and still is the starting material for most chromium containing chemicals. Simply, the process consisted of crushing the ore and roasting it in a rotary kiln after it has been mixed with sodium carbonate and perhaps limestone. This produces sodium Chromate and

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this roasted mixture ("frit") is put through a variety of leaching and neutralising tanks. Usually sodium dichromate is the end point. The first observations of a lung cancer risk associated with this above process were made as early as 1911 and 1912 but not published until 1932 (Lehman 1932) in one plant and in another in 1938 (Alwens and Jonas 1938). All authors point to heavy Chromate exposure as evidenced by nasal perforations but there was no attempt to evaluate the degree of risk nor did they establish that chromium-containing compounds alone were responsible for the tumours observed. The first major epidemiological survey on bichromate workers was published by Machie and Gregorius in 1948. The mortality study, based on company and hospital records from seven US bichromateproducing plants showed a crude death rate increase that on average was 25 times the normal and that the range of excess for the various plants was from 18-50 fold. Excess cancer rates at other sites were not found. Baetjer (1950a), reviewed and re-evaluated this work and found a crude increase in attack rate of 29.2 fold. A further case-control study by Baetjer (1950b) uncovered further cases and reconfirmed the risk. Further studies by Mancuso and Hueper (1951) and Brinton et al (1952) also reported this excess risk of lung cancer in bichromate-producing process workers but, did not show a risk of contracting cancer at any other site apart from the lung. The first epidemiological survey of U.K. bichromate-workers was reported by Bidstrup in 1951. One case of bronchial carcinoma was discovered against an expected 0.44 and although a second lung cancer death occurred after the survey, a definite conclusion regarding the risk in the British industry was precluded. A follow-up study however (Bidstrup and Case, 1956) using comparative composite cohort analysis was able to demonstrate a statistically significant risk of carcinoma of the lung. Twelve lung cancer deaths were recorded whereas 3.3 were expected. In a follow-up investigation (Alderson et al, 1981), of this workforce involving some 2715 men who had worked for at least one year at the three chromate-producing plants in Britain between 1948 and 1977, it was shown that the relative risk of lung cancer, for those men employed at the one plant still in operation had decreased from

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o v e r 3.0 b e f o r e p l a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n t o a b o u t 1.8 (which i s no l o n g e r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ) in t h o s e men who h a v e worked o n l y s i n c e p l a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n which i n c l u d e d t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of l i m e in 1 9 6 1 . T h i s f i n d i n g s u p p o r t s t h e h y p o t h e s i s of B i d s t r u p (1981) that c a l c i u m C h r o m a t e , p r o d u c e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e a d d i t i o n of l i m e s t o n e i n t h e r o a s t i n g s t a g e , may w e l l h a v e b e e n t h e p r i n c i p a l , i f n o t s o l e , agent r e s p o n s i b l e for the lung cancer r i s k . C o n t e m p o r a r y e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s h a v e been a p p l i e d t o t h e U.S. b i c h r o m a t e - p r o d u c i n g i n d u s t r y w i t h some i n t e r e s t i n g results. T a y l o r (1966) l o o k i n g a t t h e m o r t a l i l t y o v e r a 24 y e a r p e r i o d ( 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 6 0 ) of 1212 C h r o m a t e w o r k e r s i n 3 p l a n t s s h o w e d n o t o n l y was t h e r e a n e x c e s s of r e s p i r a t o r y c a n c e r (71 o b s e r v e d d e a t h s v e r s u s 8.3 e x p e c t e d ) b u t t h e r e w e r e i n c r e a s e s i n o t h e r c a u s e s of death as w e l l . E n t e r l i n e (1974) u s i n g t h e same d a t a ( 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 6 0 ) f o u n d 69 r e s p i r a t o r y c a n c e r d e a t h s a s a g a i n s t 7.3 e x p e c t e d b u t , a l s o an e x c e s s of d i g e s t i v e t r a c t c a n c e r d e a t h s (16 o b s e r v e d against 10.4 e x p e c t e d ) . This is not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Two a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s d e a l w i t h t h e f i r s t Chromate r o a s t i n g p l a n t in t h e USA a t B a l t i m o r e , M a r y l a n d . The p l a n t was r e - m o d e r n i s e d in 1 9 5 1 and a g a i n i n 1961 w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a c h r o m i c a c i d plant. H a y e s e t a l (1979) s t u d i e d c a n c e r t r e n d s i n " h i g h " and "low" e x p o s e d g r o u p s and a l t h o u g h r i s k of t r a c h e a l , b r o n c h i a l and l u n g c a n c e r was r e d u c e d by t h e new t e c h n o l o g y , i t was shown n o t t o have been c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d . This finding is broadly c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( H i l l and F e r g u s o n , 1979) which used " p r o b a b i l i t y window a n a l y s i s " . Chrome p i g m e n t i n d u s t r y As e a r l y as 1 8 9 0 Newman r e p o r t e d a case of cancer ( a d e n o c a r c i n o m a ) of t h e n a s a l t u r b i n a t e s in a chrome p i g m e n t worker in S c o t l a n d . K l s c h , a s r e v i e w e d by Lehman ( 1 9 3 2 ) was t h e f i r s t person to s u g g e s t a c o n n e c t i o n between e x p o s u r e to Chromate d u s t and l u n g c a n c e r a l t h o u g h n o t t i l l t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 ' s t h a t i t was shown t h a t w o r k e r s w i t h i n t e r m i t t e n t c o n t a c t t o chrome d u s t s may be a t r i s k ( G r o s s and K l s c h , 1 9 4 3 ; L e t t e r e r e t a l 1 9 4 4 ; B a a d e r 1 9 5 1 and F i s c h e r - W a s e 1 s 1 9 6 1 ) . H u e p e r (1966) showed l u n g cancer a p p e a r i n g i n s h i p y a r d w o r k e r s who w e r e e m p l o y e d t o c u t up s c r a p m e t a l p a i n t e d w i t h chrome y e l l o w ( p o s s i b l y z i n c Chromate) a s w e l l a s i n s p r a y p a i n t e r s , a p p l y i n g c h r o m e y e l l o w a s an a n t i c o r r o s i v e p a i n t t o a e r o p l a n e s . B a e t j e r ( 1 9 5 0 a , 1950b) a l s o c o n c l u d e d t h a t

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some lung cancers in the chrome pigment industry were of occupational origin as did Spannagel (1953) in the German Chromate and chrome pigment industry. In more recent times, dedicated studies on chrome pigment workers were led by that of Langard and Norseth who investigated a small Norwegian company producing zinc Chromate pigment. The company was established in 1948 and for the first three years produced only lead Chromate but from 1951-1956, both lead and zinc Chromate were produced. From 1956, only zinc Chromate was produced. Only 24 men of the 133 workforce had worked there for more than three years up to 1972. Three cases of bronchial cancer were diagnosed in this subgroup of 24 cases; (ages: 41, 51 and 59). The relative risk in these workers was 38. Smoking and exposure to Chromate pigments and sodium dichromate had to be considered as causative agents, especially as numbers were so small. However, a follow-up study on these 133 workers (Langard and Vigander, 1983) uncovered a further three cases and the relative risk of 44 in this group appears to confirm the risk of lung cancer in spite of the fact five of the six were smokers and all had been exposed to zinc Chromate with intermittent exposure to other chromtes. In the USA, two studies commissioned by the Dry Color Manufacturers Association were carried out by Equitable Environmental Health Inc., (1976, 1983). Both studies were concerned with three plants producing Chromate pigments and the results indicate that although an association could be shown between exposure to zinc Chromate and lung cancer, it could not be shown for those exposed only to lead Chromate (2.3 expected against 3 observed in among 246 men). Investigations into lung cancer mortality at three UK chromepigment producing factories were reported by Davies (1978, 1979 and 1984). She showed that there was no excess mortality from lung cancer for those who worked only with lead Chromate but that there was a significant risk of lung cancer in those "heavily" or "moderately" exposed to zinc and lead Chromate, but not those receiving "low" exposure to the mixed chromtes. A study of chrome pigment workers in Northern France making zinc and lead chromtes also showed an increased risk of lung cancer (Haguenoer, et al 1981). Aircraft spray painters inhaling zinc Chromate have also been shown to have an excess risk of lung cancer (Dalager et a l ,

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1980). In a r e c e n t e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d y i n t h e USA by S h e f f e t e t ( 1 9 8 2 ) , of a p l a n t u s i n g b o t h z i n c a n d l e a d c h r o m t e s , w o r k f o r c e c o n s i s t e d of 1296 w h i t e and 650 n o n - w h i t e e m p l o y e e s . s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k of 1.6 from l u n g c a n c e r among w h i t e c o h o r t was r e p o r t e d w h i l s t in t h e t o t a l c o h o r t , t h e r e was a d d i t i o n t o an i n c r e a s e d r i s k of l u n g c a n c e r , an i n c r e a s e stomach and p a n c r e a t i c c a n c e r s . Chromium p i a t i n g

al the A the in in

W a t e r h o u s e (1975) in a p r e l i m i n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n c i t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t (P = 0 . 0 5 ) e x c e s s of l u n g c a n c e r d e a t h s i n a g r o u p of m a l e w o r k e r s h i r e d from 1946 i n a UK c h r o m i u m - p l a t i n g f a c t o r y . O t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by R o y l e ( 1 9 7 5 a , 1 9 7 5 b ) s h o w e d t h a t among a g r o u p of 1238 chromium p l a t e r s employed in 54 p l a n t s in Y o r k s h i r e , E n g l a n d , t h o s e employed o v e r one y e a r had a s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e s s of d e a t h from c a n c e r a t a l l s i t e s b u t , a l t h o u g h l u n g c a n c e r d e a t h s in m a l e p l a t e r s was t w i c e t h a t of t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p , t h e e x c e s s was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Okubo and T s u c h i y a (1977) p u b l i s h e d t h e r e s u l t s of a m o r t a l i t y s t u d y of 952 Tokyo c h r o m i u m p l a t e r s . The n e g a t i v e f i n d i n g s may be t h e r e s u l t of s e v e r a l f a c t o r s b u t t h e a p p a r e n t r a n d o m n e s s of t h e s t a t u s of t h e c o n t r o l p o p u l a t i o n may have precluded c l e a r study c o n c l u s i o n s . A s t u d y by B l a i r (1980) of 1292 d e a t h s among w o r k e r s i n t h e m e t a l p o l i s h i n g and p l a t i n g i n d u s t r y from 1951-1969 s u g g e s t e d s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e s s of o e s o p h a g e a l and p r i m a r y l i v e r c a n c e r . Ferrochromium industries

P o k r o v s k a y a and S h a b y n i n a (1973) i n v e s t i g a t e d m o r t a l i t y i n a g r o u p of USSR c h r o m i u m f e r r o a l l o y workers between 1955-1969. Workers were e x p o s e d t o b o t h t r i v a l e n t and h e x a v a l e n t chromium a s w e l l as b e n z o ( a ) p y r e n e . Male w o r k e r s aged 50-59 had s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e s s m o r t a l i t y from a l l m a l i g n a n c i e s , from l u n g c a n c e r and oesophageal cancer. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , no c a n c e r e x c e s s e s w e r e f o u n d by A x e l s s o n e t a l (1980) i n S w e d i s h f e r r o c h r o m i u m w o r k e r s a l s o e x p o s e d t o t r i v a l e n t and h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m i u m c o m p o u n d s . A s t u d y by L a n g a r d e t a l (1980) i n a f e r r o c h r o m i u m / f e r r o s i l i c o n p l a n t i n Norway among 976 w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d f o r m o r e t h a n o n e y e a r between 1925-1977 showed e x c e s s of l u n g c a n c e r in t h e f e r r o c h r o m i u m g r o u p (7 o b s e r v e d a g a i n s t 3 . 1 e x p e c t e d ) a n d , i n t h e w h o l e

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population, significant Welding

t h e r e was an e x c e s s of p r o s t a t i c c a n c e r b u t t h i s e x c e s s was n o t q u i t e (P = 0 . 0 6 ) .

(20 o b s e r v e d statistically

a g a i n s t 13 e x p e c t e d )

industry

In a r e t r o s p e c t i v e c o h o r t s t u d y ( S j o g r e n , 1980)of m o r t a l i t y among 234 s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l w e l d e r s , who were e x p o s e d t o fume c o n t a i n i n g 15-25% chromium, m a i n l y in t h e form of h e x a v a l e n t s o l u b l e Chromate a n d 8-15% n i c k e l , t h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d no e x c e s s of t o t a l t u m o u r s when c o m p a r e d t o c o n t r o l s , b u t an e x c e s s of p u l m o n a r y c a n c e r s (3 o b s e r v e d a g a i n s t 0.68 e x p e c t e d , = 0 . 0 3 ) . Anima 1 s t u d i e s O v e r t h e p a s t 40 o r s o y e a r s , many a n i m a l s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d i n an a t t e m p t t o f i n d w h i c h chromium-containing m a t e r i a l s , if any, are r e s p o n s i b l e for the excess cancer r i s k to t h e l u n g s e e n i n g r o u p s of w o r k e r s e x p o s e d t o t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . E a r l y a t t e m p t s t o p r o d u c e t u m o u r s u s i n g a v a r i e t y of c h r o m i u m c o n t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l a n d no b r o n c h o g e n i c c a r c i n o m a were p r o d u c e d when mice were e x p o s e d t o Chromate d u s t s in i n h a l a t i o n c h a m b e r s ( B a e t j e r e t a l , 1 9 5 9 ; S t e f f e e and B a e t j e r , 1965; N e t t e s h e i m e t a l 1 9 7 1 ) . S i m i l a r l y , e a r l y a t t e m p t s t o i n d u c e b r o n c h o g e n i c c a r c i n o m a in r a t s by i n t r a t r a c h e a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c a l c i u m C h r o m a t e w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l ( H u e p e r and P a y n e , 1 9 6 2 ) . A m a j o r a d v a n c e was r e p o r t e d by L a s k i n e t a l , ( 1 9 6 8 ) , who p r o d u c e d squamous c a r c i n o m a s and a d e n o c a r c i n o m a s of b r o n c h o g e n i c o r i g i n in r a t s e x p o s e d t o c a l c i u m Chromate (8/100) and a s i n g l e tumour in 100 r a t s exposed to "process r e s i d u e " . L a s k i n d e v e l o p e d and u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a t e c h n i q u e by w h i c h a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l w i r e b a s k e t l o a d e d w i t h t h e t e s t m a t e r i a l s u s p e n d e d in c h o l e s t e r o l was s u r g i c a l l y i m p l a n t e d in t h e l e f t b r o n c h u s of t h e r a t . Nettesheim e t a l ( 1 9 7 1 ) , r e p o r t e d t h a t i n m i c e , t h e i n h a l a t i o n of c a l c i u m Chromate d u s t r e s u l t e d in a f o u r f o l d i n c r e a s e in p u l m o n a r y adenoma b u t no b r o n c h i a l t u m o u r s were s e e n . T h i s makes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the study d i f f i c u l t as p r e v i o u s l y , Nettesheim and Hammons (1971) had shown t h a t squamous c a r c i n o m a of t h e r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t c o u l d be i n d u c e d by known c a r c i n o g e n s in m i c e . In a s t u d y on r a t s u s i n g a m o d i f i e d " L a s k i n " i n t r a b r o n c h i a l i m p l a n t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e f i r s t d e s c r i b e d by K u s h n e r e t a l ( 1 9 5 7 ) , L e v y and V e n i t t (1975) u s e d a s e r i e s of 14 c h r o m i u m - c o n t a i n i n g

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m a t e r i a l s found in t h e b i c h r o m a t e - p r o d u c i n g i n d u s t r y . Among t h e t e s t c o m p o u n d s , s q u a m o u s c a r c i n o m a of t h e l u n g was o n l y s e e n i n three groups; c a l c i u m Chromate ( 8 / 1 0 0 ) , z i n c p o t a s s i u m Chromate ( 3 / 1 0 0 ) and c h r o m i c a c i d ( 1 / 1 0 0 ) . The f i r s t two r e s u l t s are s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w h i l s t t h e s i n g l e tumour seen w i t h c h r o m i c a c i d , a l t h o u g h of i n t e r e s t , i s n o t . In a f u r t h e r s t u d y u s i n g t h e same t e c h n i q u e , L e v y and M a r t i n ( 1 9 8 3 ) , u s i n g a s e r i e s of 20 c h r o m i u m - c o n t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s , many of them chrome p i g m e n t s , h a v e shown t h a t l e a d c h r o m t e s do n o t e v o k e a c a r c i n o g e n i c r e s p o n s e , w h i l s t s t r o n t i u m Chromate i s a p o t e n t l u n g c a r c i n o g e n and that s o m e f o r m s of z i n c C h r o m a t e a r e a l s o c a p a b l e of carcinogenesis. In a l l a b o v e c a s e s of l u n g t u m o u r s , a l l w e r e b r o n c h i a l c a r c i n o m a s , u s u a l l y squamous c a r c i n o m a . The r e s u l t s of t h i s and p r e v i o u s s t u d y l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s that t r i v a l e n t chromium i s n o t c a r c i n o g e n i c b u t t h a t c e r t a i n h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m a t e s of s p a r i n g s o l u b i l i t y ( s t r o n t i u m , c a l c i u m and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , zinc) a r e . Conclusion C l e a r l y , t h e b i c h r o m a t e - p r o d u c i n g i n d u s t r y and t h e chrome p i g m e n t i n d u s t r y h a v e b e e n shown t o c a r r y a r i s k of l u n g c a n c e r . It is l i k e l y t h a t a n y c h r o m i u m c a r c i n o g e n w i l l b e f o u n d among t h e h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m t e s and t h a t t h o s e of " s p a r i n g " s o l u b i l i t y s u c h a s s t r o n t i u m , c a l c i u m and c e r t a i n f o r m s of z i n c a r e t h e m o s t l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s w e l l s u p p o r t e d by b o t h human and animal i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . If t h i s r i s k extends to o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s where Chromate e x p o s u r e o c c u r s , t h e s t r o n g i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t t h e e x a c t s p e c i e s of C h r o m a t e n e e d s t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h g r e a t c a r e . REFERENCES A c h e s o n , E.D., C o w d e l l , R.H. & R a n g , E.H. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . N a s a l c a n c e r i n E n g l a n d and W a l e s : An o c c u p a t i o n a l s u r v e y . B r i t . J . I n d . Med., 38, 218-224. A l d e r s o n , M.R., R a t t a n , N.S. & B i d s t r u p , P.L. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . Health workmen in t h e Chromate - p r o d u c i n g i n d u s t r y in B r i t a i n . Brit. I n d . Med., 3_8, 1 1 7 - 1 2 4 . A l w e n s , W. s. J o n a s , W. ( 1 9 3 8 ) . Uni I n t e r n a t . C o n t r a Cancrum., Der c h r o m t 3, 1 0 3 - 1 1 8 . lungenkrebs. of J.

Acta

A x e l s s o n , G., R y l a n d e r , R. & S c h m i d t , A. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . M o r t a l i t y and i n c i d e n c e of t u m o u r s among f e r r o c h r o m i u m w o r k e r s . B r i t . J. Ind. Med. 3J_, 1 2 1 - 1 2 7 . B a a d e r , E.W. ( 1 9 5 1 ) . Der l u n g e n k r e b s a l s . g e w e r b e m e d i z i n i s c h e s problem. V e r h a n d l . D t s c h . Ge. I n n . Med., 5J7, 3 2 2 - 3 3 2 . B a e t j e r , A.M. ( 1 9 5 0 a ) . P u l m o n a r y c a r c i n o m a in Chromate w o r k e r s I . A r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e p o r t s of c a s e s . A r c h . I n d . H y g . , 2, 4 8 7 - 5 0 4 .

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Baetjer, A .M. (1950b). Pulmonary carcinoma in Chromate workers II. Incidence on basis of hospital records. A rch. Ind. Hyg., 2, 505 516. Baetjer, A .M., Downey, J.F., Steffee, G.H. & Budacz V. (1959). Effect of chromium on incidence of lung tumours in mice and rats. Arch. Ind. Health, 20, 124135. Bernacki, E.J., Parsons, G.E. & Sunderman F.W. Jr.(1978) . Investigation of exposure to nickel and lung cancer mortality. Case control study at aircraft engine factory. A nn. Clin. Lab. Sci., 8 , 190194. _ Bidstrup, P.L. (1951). Carcinoma of the lung in Chromate workers. Brit. J. Ind. Med., 8, 302306. Bidstrup, P.L. & Case R.A .M. (1956). Carcinoma of the lung in workmen in the bichromatesproducing industry in Great Britain. Brit. J. Ind. Med., 13, 260264. Bidstrup, P.L. (1981). Epidemiological survey of the manufacturing industry in Great Britain. In: Proc. Chromates Symposium 80, Focus of a Standard. Industrial Health Foundation Inc., Penn., pp.100 106. ^ Blair, A. (1980). Mortality among workers in the metal polishing and plating industry, 19511959. J. Occ. Med., 2_2, 158162. Bridge, J.C. (1933). In "Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for the Year 1932", pp.103104, HMSO, London. Briton,. H.P., Frasier, E.S. & Koven A .L. (1952). Morbidity and mortality experience among Chromate workers. Pubi. Health Rep., 6J_, 835F50. Broch C. (1949). Bronchial asthma due to chromium trioxide fume. Nord. Med., 4_1, 996997. Card, W.I. (1934). A Lancet, _ i , 134849. i_ case of asthma sensitivity to chromtes.

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Doll, R. (1958). Cancer of the lung and nose in nickel workers. Brit. J. Ind. Med., IZ_, 217233. D o l l , R., Mathews, J.D. & Morgan, L.G. (1977). Cancer of the lung and nasal sinuses in nickel workers : a reassessment of the period of risk. Brit. J. Ind. Med., 3_4, 102105.

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TOXICOLOGY OF OZONE AND THE OXIDES OF NITROGEN Glselher von Nieding Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene, Federal Health Office, Corrensplatz 1, 1000 Berlin 33 (Federal Republic of Germany) INTRODUCTION The inhalation of irritant gases such as N0 2 and 0 3 may be the cause of noncardial or nonrenal lung oedema: such clinical picture is known from animal experiments (22, 19, 20) and occurs in humans asa consequence of a sudden release of great quantities of irritant gas in accidents. In this connexion the Silo's filters disease" (29, 14) should be mentioned. Another report on acute intoxications caused by N0 2 dates back to 1929 and comes from a hospital, where, in its radiological department, the archives with films made of nitrocellulose had caught fire (15). Such lung oedema occurring after shortterm inhalation of very high concentrations (160 4000 ppm = 3007000 mg/m3) has a severe course and is often fatal. It is a characteristic feature that lung oedema due to the inhalation of the irritant gas, N0 2 or 0 3 , and also of other chemical irritants such as phosgene, does not occur immediately after intoxication, but only after a latency period of up to 24 h (4, 7, 29). In individual cases, chronic respiratory diseases such as bronchitis obliterans are the consequence of acute intoxications. The patient may, however, also recover completely (34). When certain welding methods are used (gas welding, plasma cutting, inertgas shielded welding), N0 2 and 0 3 will be produced in addition to other hzardous substances. Fig. 1 show the concentration profile of ozone within the breathing area of a welder (MIG Argon) Depending on the welding procedure, con centration peaks of ozone exceeding 0.1 ppm (200 Mg/m3) by one order of magnitude may frequently occur. However, in health surveillance, it has never been possible to demonstrate clearly the effect of N0 2 or 0 3 alone, without other influencing factors such as dust (26, 50, 43, 1, 6, 38).
, < t > [pprr
NO 020 NC 2 0llppmi NO 004pprT nass chemisch<

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Fig. 1 Concentration profile of ozone (0 3 ) within the breathing area of a welder (MIG Ar)

0 25

Uhr

RESPIRATORY EFFECTS The physicochemical properties of the irritants inhaled have an essential influence on the type of lung reaction. The water solubility of irritants such as S0 2 , N0 2 or 0 3 differs greatly. It may be assumed that due to its high water solubility, S0 2 is rapidly dissolved in the secretions and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract, whereas the irritants N0 2 and 0 3 whose water solubility is low, may penetrate into the lower respiratory tract. This may be one of the reasons why in animal experiments

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the nhalalations of S0 2 never causes emphysemalike damages, whereas, as a rule, the inhalation of relatively low concentrations of N0 2 and 0 3 during sufficiently long periods leads to such damages (28,24,9, 10, 11, 12,41,42). Moreover, varying functional effects within the lung should be expected considering the different degrees of solubility. Figs. 2 and 3 show the results of an acute exposure of subjects with chronic bronchitis to N0 2 and S0 2 at a concentration of about 5 ppm carried out under almost identical conditions (short term exposure during a few minutes, abrupt concentration change, mouth breathing) (37, 25). The bronchitics exposed to N0 2 showed an increase of the airway flow resistance in the respiratory tract (Rt) which, although small, could be clearly detected. In contrast, part of the S02exposed bronchitics showed very pronounced bronchoconstriction which in individual cases required even medication. This great difference in reaction to the inhalation of irritant gases is probably due to the fact the sites of attack and biochemical activities are different ones. The effect of S0 2 probably results from a reflec tory bronchoconstriction (23), whereas in connexion with the action of N0 2 (35, 52) a release of biogenic amines such as histamine is considered to be responsible for the development of a microoedema. The action of N0 2 depends on its concentration. In chronic bronchitics, a constant increase in resistance may be observed when the concentration is increased over a value of approximately 1.52.0 ppm (2.83.8 mg/m 3 ). In healthy persons, the threshold value for influencing the parameters of the respiratory mechanisms seems to be 2.5 ppm (4.7 mg/m3 ) (3). The reaction does not depend on factors varying during the day but is rather constant for the individual (Fig. 2). As in the case of S0 2 , some volunteers will react with greater sensitivity than others to the inhalation of N0 2 (37).
L R (CM H D / C L / S J ) HH 2

3 S .. 3 2 S ..

Fig. 2 Absolute increase of airway resistance (Rt) in 14 subjects with chronic bronchitis after acute inhalation of nitrogen dioxide (N0 2 ) at or slightly above the MAK concentration (37)

2 I S

r; ,:

AR RUI

c CM O/C L / 5 >)

2 CHRDN BRDNCH

20
IB IE

I2 IB

Fig. 3 Absolute increase of airway resistance (R t ) in 30 subjects with chronic bronchitis after acute inhalation of sulphur dioxide (S0 2 ) at or slightly above the MAK concentration (25)

287

To clarify the question, wether a long-term exposure to low concentrations has a more severe detrimental effect on health than a short-term exposure to peak concentrations, tests with varying concentration/time profiles as related to one working shift were performed. In an exposure chamber, test persons subjected to intermittent physiological stress on a bicycle ergometer were exposed once to an 0 3 concentration of 0.3 ppm (600 Mg/m3) and a second time, to peak concentrations of 1 ppm (2000 Mg/m3) during a two hour period. The results indicate that 0 3 peak concentrations have a greater effect on well-being and lung function values than constantly low concentrations (39). Animal experiments have shown that, after long-term exposure (for months and years) to N0 2 as well as 0 3 , emphysema-like changes in the lung may develop. While e.g. S0 2 s a saturated molecule, N0 2 and 0 3 have a radical structure and are unsaturated which means, in particular, that they are able to release aggressive atomic oxygen. Radical structure and instability of these molecules are conditions necessary for action, at the cellular level, on the molecular structures of the tissue protein and its destruction. It is therefore not surprising that even high S0 2 concentrations do not lead to lung destruction in the first place, even in the case of a long-term exposure, whereas the above-mentioned emphysema-like tissue damages are typical of a long-term low exposure to N0 2 and O3, at least in the animal experiment. Moreover, a great number of other effects such as the negative action on the pulmonary defence mechanism, on biochemical factors (e.g.surfactants, lipid peroxidation) or on bronchial reactivity has been described as a precursor" of irreversible tissue damage. On the other hand, there are numerous observations indicating a limited development of tolerance or adaption. The latter, above all, is inconsistent with the impressive morphological findings in animal experiments. OTHER EFFECTS Carcinogenic effects of N0 2 or 0 3 alone have not been demonstrated up to now. 0 3 , however, is a substance acting radiomimetically which may cause chromosomal breakage at very low concentrations (0.1 ppm = 200 Mg/m3) similar to the action of X-rays. Therefore, such an effect cannot be excluded in general. However, no increase in malignant neoplasms has been observed in welders working with inert gas shielding. Also in the case of N 0 2 , the results obtained up to now are not sufficient to make any final scientifically-based statements on carcinogenicity, mutagenicity or teratogenicity (56, 57). 80 - 90 % of the N0 2 and 0 3 are absorbed in the respiratory tract (51, 49, 54, 55). It must be assumed that both gases penetrate deeply into the lung periphery because of their low water solubility. It is possible that N0 2 is absorbed by formation of nitrous or nitric acid or their salts, as may deduced from the detection of nitrite or nitrate in urine after the inhalation of N0 2 (27, 47). The question whether these low nitrite concentrations represent a certain risk potential, cannot be answered at the moment. In humans and animals, the formation of methemoglobin is observed only at high NO and N0 2 concentrations (10 - 15 ppm). In the more relevant lower concentration range, methemoglobin does not attain levels which would have a significant effect on the transport capacity of 0 2 (36, 19). Numerous investigations in animals of different species have shown that N0 2 and 0 3 will reduce the resistance to infectious agents; effects of this kind have been observed already at 0.08 ppm (160 Mg/m3) for 0 3 and at 0.5 ppm (940 Mg/m3) for N0 2 (5, 13). According to these studies, exposure to peak concentrations plays a more important role. The question how far these data can be directly extrapolated to humans is still unanswered. Inter alia, differences in the lung architecture and respiratory mode, as well as the very high bacterial counts used in these investigations, have to be taken into consideration. Also numerous biochemical changes have been described after N0 2 and 0 3 inhalation. At relatively low concentrations of N0 2 from approximately 380 Mg/m3 (0.2 ppm) upwards, for example, an inhibition of the conversion of prostaglandin E2 to its metabolites has been observed (32, 33). Such observations indicate that the changes caused by N0 2 occur rather early. Their biological relevance, however, has not yet been quite understood; they may be early indicators of cell damage which will manifest itself morphologically only at higher concentrations or after prolonged exposure. In the case of 0 3 , there is a better understanding of these effects.The effect on the surface-active substances of the lungs (reduction of the surface tension and alveolar collapse), reaction with sulphhydryl groups (inactivation) or lipid peroxidation with the development of toxic intermediate products which possibly are responsible for part of the cellular effects observed in connexion with 0 3 exposure. The protective effect of the antioxidant vitamin E indirectly proves the correctness of this assumption (44, 31, 40).

288

Some results obtained from animal experiments seem to indicate that, when studying the oedemaproducing potential of these gases, a reduced reaction ('tolerance') may be observed in the case of repeated N 0 2 and 0 3 exposure (48, 30, 18, 8). This development of tolerance, however, does not refer reduced resistance to infections or to the development of destructive lung changes such as emphysema but rather to acute t o x i c i t y . A n oedematous swelling of the alveolar capillary membranes and of the interstitial septa, respectively, acting as a protective mechanism, has been assumed to be cause of this tolerrance development (19, 20) while other authors (8) believe that biochemical mechanisms are the basis of this tolerance development. One the basis of several controlled laboratory studies w i t h 0 3 it may be concluded that also in humans a certain adaptation takes place under certain conditions which may be responsible for the differences in the results of different working groups. This is indicated by comparative studies made in US (California) and Canada (16). In California the volunteers accustomed to photochemical smog reacted to a lesser extent to 0 3 exposure tests in the laboratory than in Canada. (17). In contrast t o the quite well-known effects of N 0 2 and 0 3 we know little of the biological effects of other unsaturated substances or free radicals occuring during welding. In this context, peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), peroxylacylnitrates may lose an N 0 2 group resulting in a biologically highly effective peroxyacyl radical. T o avoid the formation of these radicals, the use of organic solvents e.g. for degreasing, should be avoided. From epidemiological studies in regions with high photooxidant concentrations it is known that theses radicals and peroxy compounds are of high biological activity and have a strong effect on the mucous membranes. The effect of photooxidants on the eye, i.e. irritation at rather low concentrations in the range above 1 0 - 1 5 ppm, has been demonstrated (45, 46, 53). Finally, it should be mentioned that after tissue destruction the polymorphonuclear leucocytes may induce a formation of free radicals like peroxides which probably are responsible for the additional tissue destruction. SUMMARY The biological effects of N 0 2 and 0 3 have been investigated quite intensively. The acute exposure to high concentrations results in a toxic lung oedema, whereas chronic exposure leads to destruction and emphysemalike lung changes and decreased resistance to infectious agents. Findings of epidemiological nature are scarce. However, the above-mentioned effects should result in preventive measures at the workplace to diminish concentrations of N 0 2 , 0 3 and to prevent the formation of secondary products such as free radicals or highly reactive peroxides.

REFERENCE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Baetjer A M (1950) Arch Industr. Hyg. 2:400-406 Becker K H , Lbel, J. Schurath U (1983) I n : Luftqualitts-Kriterien fr photomechanische Oxidantien, Berichte 5 Umweltbundesamt (eds) Erich Schmidt Verlag Berlin Beil M, Ulmer WT (1976) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 3 8 : 31-44 Camiel MR, Berkan HS (1944) Radiology 4 2 : 175-182 Coffin D L , Gardner DE, Holzman RS, Wolock FJ (1968) Arch environ Health 16 : 633-636 Collen M F , Dybdahl G L , O'Brien GF (1944) J Ind Hyg 26: 1-7 Diller FW (1983) Atemw.-Lungenkrkh. 9 : 353-356 Fairchild EJ (1976) Arch environ Health 1 4 : 111-125 Freeman G, Haydon GB (1964) Arch Environ Health 8: 125-128 Freeman G, Crane SC, Stephens RJ, Furiosi NJ (1968) Yale J Biol Med 4 0 : 566-75 Freeman G, Juhos LT, Furiosi NJ, Mussenden R, Stephens RJ, Evans M (1974a) Arch environ Health 2 9 : 203-210 Freeman G, Juhos LT, Furiosi NJ, Mussenden R, Weiss T A (1974b) A m Rev Respir Dis 110: 754 - 759 Gardner DE, Miller FJ, llling JW, Graham JA (1982) I n : Schneider'T, Grant L (eds) Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides. Elsevier Scientific Puplishing Co. Amsterdam pp 401-415 Grayson RR (1956) Ann Inter Med 45 (3): 393-408 Gregory K L , Malenoski V F , Sharp CR (1969( Arch Environ Health 18: 508-515 Hackney JD, Linn WS, Karuzza SK, Buckley RD, Law DC, Bates DV, Hazucha M, Pengelly LD, Silverman F (1977a) Arch environ Health 3 2 : 1 1 0 - 1 1 6

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17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

Hackney JD, Linn WS, Mohler JG, Collier CR (1977b) J appi Physiol 4 3 : 8285 Henschler D (1960) Arch Exp Pathol Pharmacol 2 3 8 : 6667 Henschler D, Ltge W (1963) Int Arch Gewerbepath Gewerbehyg 2 0 : 362370 Henschler D, Hahn E, Assmann W (1964a) NaunynSchmiedebergs Arch exp Path Pharma 2 4 9 : 249 342 Henschler D, Hahn E Heymann H, Wunder H (1964b) NaunynSchmiedebergs Arch exp. Path Pharmak 249: 343356 Hine Ch, Meyers FH, Wrigt RW (1970) Toxicol Appi Pharmacol 16: 201213 Islam MS, Vastag E, Ulmer WT (1972) Int Arch Arbeitsmed 29: 221232 Islam MS, Oellig WP, Weller W (1977) Res Exp Med 171:211218 Islam MS, Ulmer WT (1979) Wissenschaft und Umwelt 1 : 4147 Kosmider S, Ludyga K, Misiewicz A , Drozdz M, Sagan J (1972) Zbl Arbeitsmed u Arbeitsschutz 12:3668 Kosmider S, Luciak M, Drozdz M (1975) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 3 5 : 3759 Lewis TR, Moormann WJ, Luchmann WF, Cambell KJ (1973) Arch Environ Hlth 2 6 : 1621 Lowry T, Schuman LM (1956) J A M A 126: 153160 Matzen RN U957) A m J Physiol 190: 8488 Menzel DB , Roehm J N , Lee SD (1972) J Agrie Food Chem 2 0 : 4 8 1 4 8 6 Menzel DB (1980) I n : Nitrogen Oxides and Their Effect on Health. A Symposium from a Joint Conference, Amercan Chemical Society and Chemical Society of Japan, Honolulu, Hawaii, April 1979. Lee SD (ed) A n n Arbor Science Publishers, Ine, Ann Arbor, M l , pp 199216 Menzel DB (1982) I n : A i r Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides. Schneider T and Grant L (eds) Elsevier Scientific Pubi, Amsterdam, pp 417426 Milne JFH (1969) J Occup Med 1 1 : 538547 von Nieding G, Krekeler H (1971) Int Arch Arbeitsmed 29: 5563 von Nieding G, Wagner HM, Krekeler H (1973) In: Proc 3rd Int Clean Air Congr, Dsseldorf (B RD) pp A 1416 von Nieding G, Wagner HM, Casper H, B euthan A, Smidt U (1980) I n : Lee SD (ed) Nitrogen oxides and their effects on health. Ann Arbor Sci, A n n Arbor, pp 315330 von Nieding G, Casper H, smidt U, Krekeler H, Lllgen H, Wagner HM (1981) I n : Forschungsber Chronische B ronchitis und Staubbelastung am Arbeitsplatz, Harald B oldt Verlag, B oppard von Nieding, Wagner HM, Wagnitz K (1982) I n : Verhandlungen der 22. Jahrestagung der Dt. Ges. fr Arbeitsmed., Gentner Verlag, Stuttgart, pp 579586 Nilsson J, Lars G, Selander H (1971) svensk Farm Tidskr 7 5 : 4 7 7 4 8 2 P'an A Y S , B eland J, Jegier (1972a) Arch environm Health 2 4 : 2 2 9 2 3 2 P'an AS, Jegier (1972b) Arch environ Health 2 4 : 233236 Patty FA (1963) I n : T o x i c o l o g y , Vol I I , Interscience Publishers, New York Roehm JN. Hadley JG, Menzel DB (1971) Arch Intern Med 128: 8893 Richardson A A , Middleton WC (1957) Evaluation of filters for removing irritants from polluted air (Report No, 5743). Los Angeles, University of California, Dept. of Engineering 31 Richardson NA, Middleton WC (1958) Heat Piping Air Cond 3 0 : 147154 SvorcowaS, Kaut V (1971) Cesk Hyg 16: 7176 (in Czech) Stockinger HE, Wagner WD, Wright PG (1956) A m Med Assoc Arch ind Health 14: 158162 Vaughan TR, Moorman WJ, Lewis TR (1971) Toxicol Appi Pharmacol 2 0 : 4 0 4 4 1 1 Vigdortschik NA, Andreeva EC, Matussevitch IZ, Nikolina M M , Frumina LM Striter V A (1937) J Ind Hyg 19: 469473 Wagner HM (1970) StaubReinh d Luft 30: 380381 Wagner H M , von Nieding G, B euthan A, Antweiler H (1982) Wissenschaft und Umwelt 1 : 3439 Wayne WS, Wehrle PF, Carroll RE (1967) J A m Med Assoc 199: 901904 Yokoyama E, Frank R (1972) Arch environ Health 2 5 : 132138 Yokoyama E (1972) Proc Symp Japan Soc Air Pollut 13: 192 V D I 2310 B l 12 Maximale Immissionskonzentrationen fr Stickstoffdioxid V D I 2310 B l 15 Maximale Immissionskonzentrationen fr Ozon (in press)

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REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES: EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHROMIUM AND NICKEL COMPOUNDS KARI HEMMINKI and MARJA-LIISA LINDBOHM Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, SF-00290 Helsinki, Finland INTRODUCTION Exposure to metal fumes is one of the oldest and most extensive occupational exposures. It has been estimated in Finland that up to 100 000 workers are exposed to one or more metals (1), which is quite prevalent in a country with a total work force of slightly more than 2 million. Because the total population is also exposed to metals through food and environmental sources, it is of interest to compare the level of occupational exposure to the level of exposure of the total population (2). Three types of categories can be noted (Table I ) . In one category, including copper and zinc, occupational exposures are usually less than the amounts obtained from other sources, e.g. food. In the second category, including arsenic, cadmium, lead and nickel, occupational exposures are somewhat higher (up to three times) than other sources. In the third category, including chromium, cobolt and mercury occupational exposures are about 10 or more times higher than the non-occupational exposures. In the present article we review experimental literature on the reproductive effects of chromium and nickel compounds. Epidemiologic literature is also surveyed in industries were exposure to welding (and other metal) fumes may have taken place. Epidemiologic literature on reproduction and exposure to metals is very limited in number, partly because many relevant occupations have been historically dominated by male workers. It is also limited in information about exposure including the type and form of the metal. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Chromium compounds A few studies have been published on the reproductive toxicity of chromium compounds in mammals. Gale (3) and Gale and Bunch (4) have studied the effects of chromium trioxide in hamsters and

TABLE I OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO METAL COMPOUNDS IN FINLAND Exposure Number of workers exposed (x 103)' 5 2 30 2 10 20 30 3 10 10 50 Type of work Level of occupational exposure Oug/d) 100 30 1000 200 1000 200 1000 50 300 2000 Level of exposure of total population (yug/d) 60 13 30 13 1700 70

Arsenic Cadmium Chromium Cobolt Copper Lead Manganese Mercury Nickel Zinc Other inel. iron

Copper smelting, foundry work, leather S c pesticide manufact., preservation of wood Production of Cd, glass & enamel manufact. hard soldering Production of ferrochromium S steel,welding, c cement S glass & leather manufact. , c chrome plating Production of Co, glass & paint manufact. Production of Cu and of copper alloys, foundry work Secondary smelting of Pb, battery & cable S glass manufact., spray painting c Welding, foundry work iron & steel production, paint S glass S battery manufact. e c Production of chlorine and pesticides, instrument manufact. & repair Production of Ni S steel, welding, nickel c plating Production of Zn, steel, welding, paint S rubber S plastics manufact. c c Iron S steel production, processing of iron c and steel products, turning, welding, soldering

6 130 16000

Modified from ref. 1,2.

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found a dose-dependent increase in resorptions and oral clefts (Table II). Oral clefts were a common type of malformations that depended on the dose; an increase in cleft palates was observed at the smallest dose used, 5 mg/kg. Other types of malformations were also detected including hydrocephalus, extra ribs and delayed ossification of several bones and bone systems. Fetal deaths have also been observed in mice (5), but any other effects of chromium on female reproduction appear untested (6). Data on the effects of chromium on male reproduction are also very limited (7). TABLE II TERATOGENICITY AND EMBRYOTOXICITY OF CHROMIUM TRIOXIDE IN HAMSTERS ACCORDING TO GALE (3) Dose (mg/kg) 0 5.0 7.5 10.0 Resorptions Cleft pa lat es rocephalus Hyd:

() %
2 6 29 41

() %
2 34 85 84

() %
0 55 7 24

Golden hamsters were injected i.V. on the 8th day of gestation. Nickel compounds Nickel compounds have attracted more teratological experimentation than chromium compounds, and many different salts, animal species and dosing regimen have been applied, as reviewed by Leonard et al. (8), Mattison et al. (6), and Sunderman et al. (9) (Table III). Water-soluble nickel compounds (NiCl_, Ni(CH 3 COO) 2 ) have induced resorptions, malformations of several organs, and decreased fetal weight in mice and hamsters at doses of 1-10 mg Ni/kg body weight. Water-insoluble nickel carbonyl has been tested in rats and hamster by iv. and inhalation routes, and many types of malformations, including ocular anomalies were induced, in addition to resorptions and weight decrease in fetus. While nickel carbonyl equalled the potency of other nickel compounds (NiCl.) when injected, the inhaled nickel carbonyl appeared to be quite potent. There is ample evidence that nickel compounds traverse placenta in many species including humans (9,16).

294
Table III TERATOGENICITY AND EMBRYOTOXICITY OF NICKEL COMPOUNDS IN MAMMALS (MODIFIED FROM SUNDERMAN ET AL., ref. 9) Compound N1CI2 Species Mice Dosing (as Ni) 1.2-6.9 mg/kg, ip Findings R, M (CNS, ocular. palatine, skeletal), W R, M (exencephaly), W R, W R, M (ocular), W W R, M (ocular, hydronephrosis), W R (>10 mg/kg) , M ("general") M (CNS, ocular, lung, palate) Ref. (10)

NiCl 2 NiCl 2 Ni (CO) 4 NiO Ni (CO) 4

Mice Rat Rat Rat Rat

5 mg/kg, ip 8-16 mg/kg, im 0.03-0.1 mg/1, 15 min, inhal. 1.3-2.5 mg/m^, 21 d, inhal. 11 mg/kg, iv

(11) (12) (9) (13) (9)

Ni(CH3COO)2 Ni(CO)4

Hamster Hamster

2-30 mg/kg. 0.02 mg/l/15 min, inhal.

(14) (15)

R = resorptions, M =^malformations, W = decreased fetal weight, CNS = central nervous system Nickel compounds have a number of interactions with female reproductive system including hypothalamic-pituitary system, ovary, uterus, oocyte maturation and implantation events (6). Nickel compound can also interfere with male reproduction. Depression in the production of viable sperm and even complete infertility ensues in rodents after exposure to nickel compounds (7). Fertilization rates have decreased in mice when males were treated with nickel nitrate (12 mg Ni/kg) (6). Pre-implantation and post-implantation loss of fetuses were noted in rats when males were injected with nickel carbonyl in a dominant lethal test (9). Reproductive effects of Cr and Ni in relation to other metals The mechanism and the exact site of action remain unestablished in metal-induced teratogenesis. It is thought that the site of

295
action is located in the embryo-placental system rather than in the maternal system (Ferm and Hanlon, 1983), but further work is required to establish the underlying mechanisms. It has been pointed out that most of the abnormalities created by metal ions are reductive, e.g., the normal pattern of embryonic development is subverted; limb buds fail to form, critical tissue do not close etc. (17). This points to the inhibition of some process at a critical time during organogenesis. Hanlon and Ferm (17) have suggested some likely modes of teratogenic insult by metal ions at the biochemical level. These include inhibition of one or more critical enzyme reactions, destabilization of a cell membrane system and/or interference with the transport of specific factors across the nuclear membrane. A typical feature of metal teratogenesis is the interaction of two different metals in the process. The effect can be synergistic, where one metal enhances the response of another, or protective, where one metal reduces the response of another. Some metals are recognized to cause site specific lesions in surviving fetuses (Table IV). For some metals such as cadmium, the organ system effected critically depends on the timing of exposure. Cadmium, copper, arsenic and lead induce site-specific lesions in the hamster (14). The ability of chromium trioxide to induce cleft palates in a large number of animals also shows site-specificity, although generalized edema is also induced. Mercury and nickel appear less specific according to the available results with hamster; yet the ocular anomalies induced by nickel in hamster, rat and mice suggest a specific target site even for the nickel compounds. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON WELDING AND METAL FUMES Any metal exposure Among metals only methylmercury and lead have been shown to be embryotoxic in humans (18). In the case of methylmercury exposure was through contaminated food. Historical data and case studies are available on the induction of spontaneous abortions in humans by lead (19,20). Occupational lead poisoning has been reported to cause menstrual disorders in women (21) and to decrease the fertile ability of men (22). In a recent Danish study female occupational exposure to lead, mercury and cadmium was associated with idiopathic infertility and delayed conception, defined as an

296
attempt to concieve for one year or longer (23). Occupational exposure of the pregnant women to lead may be problematic also because of the reported impairment of mental functions in children exposed to lead environmentally (24). TABLE IV ORGAN SPECIFICITY OF METAL TERATOGENESIS IN HAMSTER AS MODIFIED FROM FERM AND HANLON (17) Metal compound Decreasing potency Hg Cr Ni Cu + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Cd CNS, ocular Heart Uro-genital Ribs Oral-facial Tail Edema

> As

Pb +

Potency indicates the dose required to elicit a teratogenic response. In a Swedish series of studies reproductive health of employees of a copper smelter was investigated. The workers were potentially exposed to a number of metals such as copper, lead, arsenic and cadmium in addition to sulfur dioxide. An increased frequency of spontaneous abortions and malformations in the offspring was reported for women employed in the smelter (25,26). Also among the wives of male smelter workers the rates of spontaneous abortions were higher in pregnancies after the husband's employment than before it (27). Male exposures in a Finnish smelter also associated with an increased frequency of spontaneous abortions (28). In Finland spontaneous abortions of the female members of the Metal Worker's Union were analyzed. Among metal workers 195 spontaneous abortions were recorded. The rate of spontaneous abortions was 7.82 % (spontaneous abortions/pregnancies) and the ratio 13.79 % (spontaneous abortions/births), of which the latter figure was significantly higher than the respective one among all Finnish women (29). Both the rate and the ratio were significantly

297

increased upon joining the Union as analyzed from an age-standardized material. A particular risk industry appeared to be the production of radios, televisions and their components. An exposure to solder fumes was suggested to explain the increased risk. A follow-up study of the union members has been published (30). A Swedish study found a tendency to an increased frequency of spontaneous abortions among female workers in the metallurgical areas of a steel mill but factors other than occupational exposure were thought to explain the results (31). An American study, based on birth records, detected that fetal death rate was significantly increased among women in metal industry but no information was available on specific exposures (32). Results of the above studies are cited in Table V. Welding fumes The data of the population and housing census, was used in Finland to investigate spontaneous abortions of female welders and of wives of male welders. In the application the frequency of hospitalized spontaneous abortions in years 1973 - 1976 was analyzed in relation to the occupation of the woman and her husband as stated in the census taken at the end of 1975 (33). The analysis covered a few hundred occupational titles. TABLE V STUDIES ON ASSOCIATION BETWEEN REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS AND METAL EXPOSURE Occupation/ exposure Workers of a smelter: a) Cleaning and/or smelter workers Administration, restaurant or laboratory work Pregnancies before/ after Questionnaire, medical records Decreased birth weight. Increase in spontaneous abortion rate (26) Referent group Data source Adjusted factors Findings Ref.

b) All smelter workers

Increase in congenital maIformat ions

(25)

298

TABLE V

continues Referent group smelter work Data source Adjusted factors Findings Ref.

Occupation/ exposure

c) Wives of smelter workers, exposed pregnancies

Nonexposed pregnancies of smelter workers Pregnancies before/ after membership

II __

II

Age, pregnancy order

Increased fetal death rate, No increase in cong. malformations

(27)

Members of the Union of Metal workers

- production of radios and televisions Exposed workers of a steel mill

Hospital register. Union register

Age

Increase in spontaneous abortion rate

(29, 30)

- "-

m_

II

II

Nonexposed industrial and clerical workers Other occupations Other occupations

Interview

Age, smoking

No increase in spontaneous abortion rate

(31)

Metal occupations Metal occupations

Birth records Hospital register census

Age, gravidity Age, parity marital status, place of residence

Increased fetal death rate No increase in spontaneous abortion rate

(32)

(33)

Lead

Historical data

Increase in spontaneous abortions, menstrual disorders, decreased fertile ability in menand women

(19, 21, 22)

299

TABLE V

continues Referent group Data source Time trends Nonexposed controls of a healthy child Hospital register. Mail questionnaire Age, parity education. residence Adjusted factors Findings Minamata disea Increase in idiopathic infertility or delayed conception Ref. (18) (23)

Occupation/ exposure Methyl mercury Lead, mercury and cadmium exposed women

Welding other metals than stainless steel (male or female exposure)

Nonexposed controls

_ "_

_ "_
and Delayed smoking, conception drinking, use of oral contraceptives (23)

Results from welders and from some referent occupations are shown in Table VI. Age-adjusted rates of spontaneous abortions were calculated by the direct method of standardization using ten-year age groups. The pregnancies of all employed women or of the wives of employed men were used as the standard population. Welders had 28 spontaneous abortions during the study period. The crude rate of spontaneous abortions was 9.5 and the adjusted rate 9.9. It was slightly (but not significantly) higher than the rate of other industrial workers (8.5) or of other employed women (7.7). The regional distribution of the female welders suggested that many of them were employed in shipbuilding. The husbands' occupations were also analyzed but no significant differences were seen from all industrial workers. The census covering the nation provides important background information for occupational studies. It may be used to generate hypotheses and to collect groups of workers for study. However, the occupational information is not specific enough in most cases to reconstruct exposures.

300

TABLE VI AGE-STANDARDIZED RATES OF SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS FOR FEMALE WELDERS AND FLAME-CUTTERS AND FOR THE WIVES OF MALE WORKERS IN FINLAND IN 1973-76 Number spontaneous pregnancies abortions Female workers - welders and flame-cutters - industrial workers - all employed women Male workers - welders and flame-cutters - industrial workers - all employed men 28 2260 13730 295 27654 177765 Rate adjusted

crude

9.5 8.2 7.7

9.9 8.5 7.7

317 6049 15460

5219 89999 222589

6.0 6.7 6.9

6.7 7.0 6.9

There were no differences between the welders and other industrial workers, or other employed workers (Mantel-Haenszel-test for age-stratified data). The association between welding and infertility has been examined in a Danish case-control study utilizing data from hospital records and mailed questionnaires (23). Male welders of stainless steel "had an increased risk of sperm abnormalities (odds ratio 1.7, confidence interval 1.0 and 2.8), but the increase was statistically insignificant after adjustment for women's age, education, residence and parity (odds ratio 1.7, confidence interval 0.9 and 2.9). Welding of other metals was associated with the risk of delayed conception, both among men and women (adjusted odds ratios 1.3 and 2.7, respectively), but this was not found when welders of stainless steel were analysed (see Table V ) .

301

CONCLUSIONS The experimental studies reviewed here showed that chromium and nickel compounds induce doserelated embryotoxicity and teratogenicity in rodents. Chromium and nickel compounds elicit some specific types of malformations and they are moderately potent among metal teratogens. Human reproductive studies on the effects of welding are very limited. A study, based on the Finnish population and housing census, showed that female welders had only slightly higher rate (p > 0.05) of spontaneous abortions than other industrial workers. The wives of male welders did not differ from the wives of other industrial workers in the frequency of spontaneous abortions. A Danish hospitalbased study found that male welders of stainless steel had an increased level (OR = 1.7, CI 1.0 2.8) of sperm abnormalities; while welding of other metals associated with delayed conception. REFERENCES 1. Kauppinen T, Tossavainen A, Vainio H, Kalliokoski (1982) Ymprist ja Terveys 23:207212 2. Hemminki K, Vainio , Sorsa M, Salminen S (1983c) J Environ Sci Health CI :5595 3. Gale TF (1978) Environ Res 16:101109 4. Gale TF, Bruch JD (1979) Teratology 19:8186 5. Iijima S, Matsumoto N, Lu CC, Katsunuman H (1975) Teratology 12:198 6. Mattison DR, Gates AH, Wide ALM, Leonard A , Hemminki K, PeereboomStegeman JHJC (1983) In: Clarkson TW, Nordberg GF, Sager PR (eds) Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. Plenum Press, New York, pp 4192 7. Lee IP (1983) In: Clarkson TW, Nordberg GF, Sager PR (eds) Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. Plenum Press, New York, pp 253278 8. Leonard A, Gerber GB, Jacquet (1981) Mutat Res 87:115 9. Sunderman Jr FW, Reid MC, Shen SK, Kevorkian CB (1983) In: Clarkson TW, Nordberg GF, Sager PR (eds) Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. Plenum Press, New York, pp 399416 10. Lu CC, Matsumoto , Iijima S (1979) Teratology 19:137142 11. Storeng R, Jonsen J (1981) Toxicology 20:4551 12. Sunderman Jr FW, Shen SK, Mitchell JM, Allpass PR, Damjanov I (1978) Toxicol Appi Pharmacol 43:381390

302

13. Weischer CH, Kordel W, Hochrainer D (1980) Zbl Bact Hyg I Abt Orig 171:336351 14. Ferm VH (1972) Adv Teratol 5:5175 15. Sunderman Jr FW, Shen SK, Reid MC, Allpass PR (1980) Teratogen Carcinogen Mutagen 1:223233 16. Lu CC, Matsumoto N, Iijima S (1981) Toxicol Appi Pharmacol 59:409413 17. Ferm VH, Hanlon DP (1983) In: Clarkson TW, Nordberg GF, Sager PR (eds) Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. Plenum Press, New York, pp 383398 18. Wilson JG (1977) In: Wilson JG, Fraser FC (eds) Handbook of Teratology, Vol. 1. Plenum Press, New York and London, pp 357385 19. Rom WN (1976) Mt Sinai J Med 43:542552 20. Chang LW, Wade PR, Pounds JG, Reuhl KR (1980) Adv Pharmacol Chemother 17:195231 21. NIOSH (1977) Guidelines on pregnancy and work. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Washington DC 22. Lancranjan I, Posocu H, Galvenescu 0, Klepsch I, Serbanescu M (1975) Arch Environ Health 30:396401 23. Rachootin P, Olsen J (1983) J Occup Med 25:394402 24. Beattie AD, Moore MR, Goldberg A, Finlayson MJW, Graham IF, Mackie EM, Main JC, McLare DA, Murdoch RM, Stewart GT (1975) Lancet i : 589592 25. Nordstrm S, Beekman L, Nordenson I (1976b) Hereditas 90:297300 26. Nordstrom S, Beekman L, Nordenson (1979a) Hereditas 90:291296 27. Beekman L, Nordstrom S (1982) Hereditas 97:17 28. Hemminki K, Kyyrnen P, Niemi ML, Koskinen K, Sallmn M, Vainio H (1983a) Am J Pubi Health 73:3237 29. Hemminki K, Niemi ML, Koskinen K, Vainio H (1980) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 47:5360 30. Hemminki K, Niemi ML, Kyyrnen P, Koskinen K, Vainio H (1983b) In: Clarkson TW, Nordberg GF, Sager PR (eds) Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. Plenum Press, New York, pp 369380 31. KolmodinHedman B, Hedstrm L, Grnqvist B (1982) Scand J Soc Med 10:1722 32. Vaughan TL, Daling JR, Starzyk PM (1984) J Occup Med 26:676678 33. Lindbohm ML, Hemminki K, Kyyrnen (1984) Am J Epidemiol 120:370378

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF TOXICITY IN VITRO AND IN VIVO

305

NICKEL AND CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS AND WELDING FUMES IN MAMMALIAN CELL TRANSFORMATION BIOASSAY IN VITRO

R.M. STERN The Danish Welding Institute, Park Alle 345, DK-2600 Glostrup, Denmark. KAREN HANSEN Danish National Institute of Occupational Health, Baunegaardsvej 73 DK-2900 Hellerup, Denmark

INTRODUCTION The control oF occupational exposures to particulates, and to welding fumes in particular, is traditionally performed by hygienic monitoring on paper Exposure based Ni(II) resultet interest protocol risk per on and in to limits "worst for metals freguently depend on solubility, case data", which, in the case of the and are filters. usually

putative exposures

carcinogens which of have great and of

CR(IV) are derived from historic industrial

detectable cancer overincidense (1, 2). It is therefore demonstrate the presence or absence of matrix,

collection, assessment made in

dependent unit

properties which might prevent (or

permit)

exposure in one industry based on observations

other

industries

where the only certain common property of the exposure is

elemental

or ionic metal content. Towards this aim the absolute toxicity and transformation potency of a of Cr and Ni compounds, and industrial metallic aerosols, including series welding with

fumes from several processes (both mild steel without and stainless Cr and Ni) are compared in a standardized procedure involving

steel

alternative

collection, storage and bioassay protocols.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The BHK-21 mammalian cell _ n vitro transformation assay, modified for use with i particulates, has been described in detail elsewhere (3). For the to

transformation assay, test solutions in appropriate concentrations are added a 70 confluent cell monolayer and exposed for between 7 and 20 cells are trypsinized, and plated out for toxicity

hours. After or

exposure,

measurement,

incubated for 3 weeks for transformation scoring (colonies of 400 um or more in soft agar). In some cases, toxicity only is measured whereby test solutions added 24 hours after plating, and exposure lasts for 7 days (37 )
D

are

after

which

the colonies are stained with crystal violet. Metallic are chosen chromium as (Cr), CaCrO. , K_Cr,0-,, Cr.,0-., CrCl, 6.,0, 4' 2 2 7' 2 3' 3 2 the wide range of solubilities partially and of PbCrO, 4

representing

chromium

compounds

available. in

The compounds

were solubilized,

solubilized

or suspended

water (particulates

4 ). Ni metal (Ni), NiO. . -3H.0, NiO,

306

Ni,5_ and Ni(CHCOO) are chosen as representative of Ni Six different are types of welding fumes

compounds.

produced by combinations of common welding on mild 3) on

techniques steel Metal

also tested, as follows: 1) Manual metal arc 2) Manual metal arc welding on stainless

(MMA /MS);

steel

(MMA /SS); welding Ni

inert gas welding on mild steel (MIG/MS); 4) Metal inert gas steel and (MIG/SS); 5) Metal intert gas welding with

stainless (MIG/Ni); coated

pure

wire

6) Manual metal arc welding with a

primarily

barium

carbonate FeCl,

Ni electrode (MMA /Ni). Fe D

(0.2 particulates), FeSO 7 0 and

6IL0 are chosen as insoluble and soluble controls. The fumes, whose typical chemistry and biological activity have been described in on detail elsewhere (4, 5, 6,) are produced in a robot, and large paper filters, or in an impinger filled with either collected water either or the

growth medium used in the BHK21 assay (7.8). Analysis of total chromium and nickel was by flame AA5: Cr(VI) .by dephenyl DPC

carbazide (DPC) method, modified in cell culture medium by first adding the followed by acidification just prior to spectroscopic analysis to

avoid

problems of stability of the DPCCr complex found in the organic solution.

RESULTS All Ni compounds, including MIG/Ni welding fumes, and Ni metal particulates

were both toxic and transforming in the bioassay, as summarized in Table 1 TABLE I Toxic (30%) Dose vs. Relative Transformation Potency for Ni Compounds LD 50 Ug Substance/ yg Ni/ ml cm 300 200 225 100 14 10 22 32 13 1.0 1.2 Transformation potency relative to that of NiO* T/T (NiO) 1.0 1. 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.1 cells at LD 50. Ni/cm 2 of

Substance

MIG/Ni Welding Fume Ni Powder Ni(CH C00) 7 NiO NiO (3H 0) Ni3S

* Typically 3060 transformed colonies/5 10 where plate respect test the area to

50%toxic dose (LD 50) in terms of Ug compound/ml and Pg are shown, together with the transformation potency that for NiO (black), which is run as a positive

measured in

with each

control The

batch to eliminate the effect of interrun variations.

corresponding

transformation frequencies range between 3060 per plate (average of 4) per 5 10 cells. No increase ir toxicity or transformation were observed beyond 6 hrs is phagocytosis which

exposure for particulates indicating the uptake pathway

307

is completed by indicating

that

time. The response to

Ni(CH C00)_

increases

with

time hrs

uptake by membrane permeability which continues (at least to 24

exposure). Negative controls show typically 0-2 colonies per plate. The fumes results are of the bioassay for chromium compounds and in Table II. Cr(VI) compounds show HHA/SS similar 50 is but and HIG/SS to

shown

behavior

Nicompounds independent inter-run than 20;.

inasmuch of

as the transformation freguency at tD

relatively within of the less is

matrix, although the range is somewhat larger

variation, and can be accounted for by a variation in tD 50 Neither Cr metal

nor Cr(III) was toxic or transforming. PbCrO. after

extremely insoluble and apparently has a very low bioavailability even being phagocytized (B ). TABLE II 50"; Toxic Concentrations and Transformation Freguency for Cr(VI) Compounds and Welding Fumes ug Substance/ ml medium

Substance

ug C:r(VI)/ ml medium Total Soluble

C r 7 0 7 (a) 7.4 2.5 2.5 CaCrO (a) 7.5 2.5 2.5 7nCr0 (a) 14 4.6 4.6 PbCrO^ (a) 156 25 0.05-0. 12 CrCl 6H (a) 900 Cr Metal (a) 1000 MMA/SS (b) 50 2.0(c) 1.8 20 MIG/SS (b) 800 5(d) 0.8 20 (a) 7 hr exposure (b) 20 hr exposure (c) 2.0-33 yg Ni/ml medium (d) 32-48 pg Ni ml medium A comparison species of the absolute biological activity for the in MIG/Ni and MIG/SS fumes collected on paper

Transformation freguency/ 5x IG cells at LD 50. 18 30 50 40

active

Ni(II) and and in the the nor

Cr(VI)

filters

impingers is shown in Table III a, b. Collection in an impinger filled with BHK-21 assay growth medium (20o newborn calf serum) increases solubility of MIG/Ni fume from 5 to 6 5 V the the soluble fraction is however neither activity restricted only to the toxic

transforming,

biological

particulate in to

fraction, regardless of the method of collection. MIG/SS fume when collected an 0.5o filled toxicity impinger or less impinger which is found to contain upwards of 2.5; Cr(VI) (soluble) in fume collected on paper filters. When collected the (presumably hydrated) Cr(VI) species has compared in a a

water

specific Cr(VI)

is three times that of the

(presumably

protein-bound)

species formed in a medium filled impinger. Representative samples of over 23 welding fumes were compared for toxicity the B HK-21 assay with a 7 day exposure, with total fume and soluble in and

insoluble fractions measured separately. All fumes were toxic: LD 50 for fumes ranged from 8-16 g fume ml-medium, associated with the

MMA/SS soluble

308

TABLE Illa

50? Toxic Concentrations for Ni Containing Substances (yg/ml Medium) (7 day exposure) Total Particulates Total Ni Soluble Ni Insoluble Ni

Substance

MIG/Ni Fume (Medium Impinger) MIG/Ni Fume (Filter) Black NiO Ni(CH3C00)2 (a) LD 50

2B (b) 24 (c) 516

14 12 2.58 3.5

(a) 3.5

5 11 2.58

32 Mg soluble Ni/ml medium, (b) 3565? sol. (c) 3555 sol.

TABLE Illb

50? Toxic Concentrations for Cr(VI) Containing Substances (yg/ml Medium) (7 day exposure) Total Particulates Total Cr(VI) Soluble Cr(VI) Insciluble Cr(VI)

Substance

MIG/SS Fume (Water Impinger) MIG/SS Fume (Medium Impinger) K Cr 0 7 tMedium) MIG/SS (Paper Filter)

40 120

1.2 3.6 3.5 5

1.0 3.0 3.5 0.8

0.2 0.6

800

fraction higher

only(at this dose level). All other fume types were grouped range of LD50's: MMA/MS (130400 yg (65400 yg/ml), MIG/Ni 130 yg the mostly of fume/mlmedium), with MIG/MS the

around

(65400

yg/ml), MIG/SS fraction. compared MMA/Ni, high LD For to

associated 80 ug for total the

particulate should be

LD 50

fume/mlmedium technological

total fume/mlmedium

alternative with its

although the toxicity of the latter fume is to be associated content (l?). For

Ba content (38?) and not with its low Ni

comparison

50 for 0.2 U Fe,0, particulates was 400 yg/ml, for soluble Fe(II) 20 yg/ml,

and for Fe(III) 80 yg/ml. Details will be published elsewhere.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS All BHK21 welding fumes from 23 types of processes were found to be toxic cell transformation assay, although only fumes containing Ni and in the Cr(VI)

were transforming. The series toxicity the transformation of nickel and potency for fumes containing mostly nickel, was essentially the same at and for a

compounds,

constant to matrix

(50?) and only and for

implying that Ni is the transforming agent regardless of matrix, transformation potency varies from matrix

toxicity

because of variation in the uptake rate, which is different for soluble

309
insoluble welding material. fumes Similar results are found for Cr(VI) Cr(VI , implying that with compounds Cr(VI) organic and is for the

containing MIG/Ni

mostly

here an

transforming agent independent of matrix. Collection results not an in of fumes in an impinger filled medium form fumes leads is in to a 10 fold enhanced solubility of Ni, although the soluble results in a 5-10 fold enhancement of the stable soluble

bioavailable to the BHK-21 assay: similarly collection of MIG/SS impinger of the fume. The presence of serum protein in the impinger

Cr(VI)

content due

sequestering results in

of the Cr(VI) in a compartment of low bioavailability, the formation of a readily bioavailable hydrated Cr(VI)

presumably impinger which is per in

to the formation of organic Cr(VI) ligands: collection in a water

stable against organic-ligand formation. These results demonstrate that an extremely wide range of delivered dose unit vitro for a exposure of Cr and Ni is observed from several sample collection of the relative _ n vivo i toxicity associated a ranking e.g. by be bioassay protocols. It is not obvious which protocol is most determination to in a efforts number of welding fumes, although such and

appropriate with might means based are unit be of that on still

exposures desirable process exposure

to reduce occupational health risk,

dependent exposure or control limits. These results also control limits for metals and metallic aerosols should

suggest

appropriate

standardized collection and speciation protocols, which

to be developed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Research supported in part by CEC (tuxemburg) 4th EC5C medical research Program Contract 7248/22/061 and the Danish Technical Research Council (STUE). REEERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Rigaut JP (1983) Rapport Prparatoire sur les Critres de Sante pour le Nickel. Commission des Communauts Europeennes, Doc. CCE/LUX/V/E/24/83 Some Metals and Metallic Compounds. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, Vol. 23, IARC, Lyon, July 1980, pp 205-323 Hansen K, Stern RM (1983) Env. Health Perspectives 51:223-226 Stern RM (1981) Env. Health Perspectives 41:235-253 Stern RM (1980) In: Brown RC, Gormley IP, Chamberlain M, Davies R. (eds) In Vitro Effects Of Mineral Dusts. Academic Press, pp 202-209 Stern RM, Piggott GH, Abraham JL (1983) Journal of Applied Toxicology 3:18-30 Stern RM, Thomsen E, Eurst A (1984) Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 8:95-108 Hansen K, Stern RM (1985) Journal of Applied Toxicology, 5(1985) 306-314.

311

IN VITRO CYTOTOXICITY OF WELDING FUME PARTICLES TO BOVINE ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES

R.N. HOOFTMAN, P. ROZA, C.W.M. ARKESTEIJN TNO Division of Technology for Society, P.O. Box 217, 2600 AE Netherlands) Delft (The

INTRODUCTION Several Particles mechanisms are involved a diameter of in the defence of the lung against 0.5-3 pm (viable and non-

inhaled matter. Among them the alveolar macrophage play an important role. with approximately viable) penetrate the alveoli, where they are readily phagocytized and removed by alveolar macrophages. These cells are known to be involved in the development of some chronic lung diseases (pneunoconiosis and emphysema). As most of the particulate fraction of welding fumes is respirable and will reach the alveolar region, the alveolar macrophage has been employed as a model for in vitro investigation of the cytotoxicity. Test criteria used are viability, phagocytic phology of the cells. Welding ability (of latex microspheres) and morfume particles from different stainless

steel welding processes are being compared with particles from mild steel welding processes. The contribution of Cr to the toxicity of welding fumes has been investigated by testing both CrVI (from KCrO.) and Crii I (from CrCl,). In this paper the first results of these investigations are presented. MATERIALS AND METHODS Welding fumes Particles from different welding processes (Manual Metal Arc welding = MMA and Metal Inert Gas welding = MIG) of both stainless steel (SS) and mild steel (MS) were collected on paper filters, from which they were immediately scraped. Alveolar macrophages The method applied was generally the same as that described by Ftsher et al. (1). Macrophages were harvested by lavage from lung lobes of

312

slaughtered cattle. Cells were sedimented by centrifugation and suspended in H199 tissue culture medium supplemented with 15% new born calf serum. Cells were seeded in Leighton tubes with a density of 2 10 s cells/ml. Welding fume particles were added in suspension to the desired concentra tion. A fter 18 h exposure in a CO, incubator, the survival of the cells was determined by trypan blue exclusion. The phagocytic ability of the cells was tested by exposure of the cells for 30 minutes to inert car bonized latex microspheres. After this period coverslips were stained with Wright scored. The morphology of the cells was studied with a scanning electron Giemsa, mounted on slides and the uptake of microspheres was

microscope. Cells attached to coverslips were fixed with glutardehyde, de hydrated with acetone, dried by the critical point method, and coated with a layer of Au/Pd.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 lists the results for particles from four types of welding processes. Survival after 18 h exposure and phagocytosis (of latex beads) are expressed as percentages of the control values. The table also in cludes the socalled Phagocytic Index (P). This magnitude defines the com bined effects of a test compound on phagocytosis and viability as
v

phagocytosis (%) viability (%) 100 Cytotoxicity of the particles from various types of welding and of glass beads to bovine alveolar macrophages. Experimental results are expressed as percentages of the control values.

Table 1

Concentration of particles in suspension (pg/mt) Type of particles Test parameter 0.32 1.0 3.2 10 32 100 320

MMA/SS

survival phagocytosis phagocytic index survival phagocytosis phagocytic index survival phagocytosis phagocytic index survival phagocytosis phagocytic index survival phagocytosis phagocytic index

108 111 120

101 84 85 101 92 93

96 45 43 95 91 87

92 16 14 94 68 64 98 99 97 99 97

63 3 2 96 65 62 89 91 81 102 97 96

55 0 0 89 37 33 93 71 66 95 91
99 98 97 95

31 0 0 86 26 22 72 46 33 99 86
86 99 99 98

27 0 0 69 12 8 59 20 12 75 47
85 90 75 68

MIG/SS

MMA/MS

MIG/MS

Inert particles (glass beads)

313

CrVI was found to be toxic to macrophages at concentrations 0.03 Mg/ml, while CrIII was found not to be toxic at far higher concentrations. This agrees with the results of Waters et al. (2) and White et al. (3).
surv val o' nrro va ue C r ' trom K 2 CrO. I weld ng fume port des % phagocytosis of control value i IZO

C r ^ l t r o m K z Cr0,1 o weldng fume particles

\.
^

^
ug we d ng fume pert c es m med um 0 32 32 32 Cr k* ml med um 10 10 100 1000 u g weldng fume particles / ml medium 0032 052 ^ ug Cr 32 32 / m l medium

Fig. la.

Viability of bovine Fig. lb. Phagocytic ability of bovine alveolar macrophages after alveolar macrophages after exposure to MMA/SS welding exposure to MMA SS welding fume particles or to CrVI fume particles or to CrVI (from KCrO.). (from K.CrO.).

There appeared to be an increase in toxicity to alveolar macrophages in the order MIG/MSMMA /MSMIG/SSMMA /SS. Figs, la and lb show the results obtained for MMA /SS welding fume

particles and for CrVI (from KCrO.). The concentration of the particles is also expressed in CrVI equivalents. It appears that the toxicity of the welding fume particle based on their content of soluble CrVI is comparable with that of CrVI from K ? CrO.. This indicates that CrVI may play an im portant role in the toxicity of welding fumes to alveolar macrophages. There is a known relationship between cytotoxicity to alveolar macrophages and fibrosis and, therefore, particles from MMA /SS welding should be re garded as being potentially fibrinogenic. In addition, these particles may seriously cytosis, fection. In Figs. 2a and 2b the results obtained for MIG/MS welding fume par ticles are compared with those of inert particles (glass beads). It ap pears that MIG/MS fumes behave more or less like inert particles. Morphological showed that investigations with the scanning electron microscope accumulate welding fume par impair one of the main functions of macrophages, viz. phago thereby rendering the lungs more vulnerable to microbial in

alveolar macrophages

readily

ticles. Macrophages exposed to the "less toxic" welding fumes particles

314

accumulated

so many

particles that they became swollen. Membranes of

macrophages exposed to CrVI containing fume particles were often smooth and damaged compared with the control cells.

phagocytosis

% survival of control value i

0

of control value

20 120

120

fc

o o . ^

S = = t

o welding fume particles glass beads

o welding fume particles glass beads

~ particles/ml medium 10 100

particles/ml medum I I

Fig. 2a.

Viability of bovine Fig. 2b. Phagocytic ability of bovine alveolar macrophages after alveolar macrophages after exposure to MIG/MS welding exposure to MIG/MS welding fume particles or glass fume particles or glass beads. beads. investigations have been supported by the Commission of the

These

European Communities DG XIX 1A 5 (contract 7248/22/020) and by the Direc torate General for Environmental Hygiene of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment.

REFERENCES 1. Fisher, G.L.; McNeill, K.L. and Democko, Ch.J. (1982), Symposium on the application of shortterm bioassyas in the analysis of complex en vironmental mixtures. January 2527, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Waters, M.D.; Gardner, D.E.; A rayi, C. and Coffin, D.L (1975). Env. Res. 9: 3247. White, L.R. ; Marthinsen, A .B.L. ; Jakobsen, (1983). Env. Health Persp. 51: 211215. . and EikNes, K.B.

2. 3.

315

MUTAGENIC A CTIVITY OF FUMES PRODUCED BY GA SCUTTING REFITTING OPERA TIONS IN OIL TA NKERS.

DURING

FEDERICO VA LERIO, RICCA RDO PUNTONI, A NNA

LA ZZA ROTTO*

Istituto Nazionale per la ricerca sul cancro,v.le Benedetto XV , . 10 Genova, Italy Universit degli studi di Genova, Istituto di Oncologia.

INTRODUCTION It is generally agreed that inorganic components of fumes produ ced during welding procedures, mainly metals, ozone, and nitrogen oxides, may induce toxic effects on exposed workers. Less attention is devoted to the possible presence of organic compounds when "dirty" surfaces are welded. In this case, organic materials such

as oils or pain residues on metal may be vaporised or

chemically

modified by the high temperatures produced by the welding process. We showed that this situation e f fectively occurs during the

refitting operations carried out in Genoa dockyard, inside oil tan kers. In this peculiar environment, tank surfaces are frequently

covered by a thick layer of tar or other solid residues from tran sported crude oil. When, after inadequate cleaning of surfaces, oxy acetylene flames are used to cut damaged sheets, thick fumes are produced. We therefore studied the concentration of benzopyrene (BP)

and nitrogen oxides in air near the work places and the mutagenic activity of fumes produced during this procedure(1).

EXPERIMENTAL

RESULTS

Chemical composition of fumes and gases The sampling, extraction and analytical methods used are descri bed in our previously cited paper (1). Two measurements of dust and col

BP concentration where carried out on samples of particulate

lected prior to the cutting operations and six determinations of BP and NO

levels were carried out on samples obtained during cutting. ,BP.

Figure 1 shows the mean concentration of airborne particles,NO

316
Fiqure 1 shows the mean concentration of airborne particles, NO

and

BP in the tanks, before and during cutting. BP concentrations widely, ranging from 3 ug/m to a maximum of 22 ug/m

varied

, according to

tank size, number of flames simultaneously operating and aspirators effectiveness. Gas chromatographic analysis of the tar still present on tank walls, after cleaning with hot water and analysis of the collected fumes showed a comparable polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PA H)

composition. In the fumes a relatively higher level of low molecular weight PA Hs was present, probably due to their higher volatility.

Before cutting

During cutting
V V 7

DUST

\V
V "7

25 20 IS
m

V V V V V V V V

TLV

V V* V

H_ . a V V

g/m3

IP I

NO, TLV
4 2

ppm

ND
BENZOPYRENE

14
2 TLV 4

mg / 3 3 5 , '10 m

Fig.l Mean values of total dust,NO and benzopyrene in oil tanks before and du x ring cutting operations. Dotted line represents the respective threshold levels values. White columns represent the lowest registered values.

317
Mutagenic effects of collected fumes A set of fume samples was extracted by cyclohexane, concentrated dissolved in olive oil and injected in traperitoneally ce to have quantitative in Balb C mi

information on mutagenic activity of fumes. (SCE) induced

After 24 hours the number o f s i s ter chromatid exchanges in bone marrow was evaluated. A fraction containing reference 1. Figure 2 shows results obtained by SCE analysis.

similar procedure was used for the

PA H separated by TLC. For technical details see

The mutagenicity of fumes was higher than expected according to BP content. Infact the highest increase of SCE obtained with fumes

samples corresponded to a BP dose of about 50 mg/kg, but the ef fective amount of BP in the sample was only about 1 mg/kg. Moreover the decreased mutagenicity of the PA H fraction compared to the who le sample indicated that the mutagenic effects of mixture can not be due to PA Hs only.

15

if '
._0

10

w
< .

A.
100 200 mg / Kg b. w.
Fig. 2 Number of SCE/cell induced in the bone marrowcells of mice injected IP with ( ) benzo (a)pyrene, ( ) 7 ,1 2 dimethylbenz (a) anthracene, ( O o) cyclohe xane soluble fraction of smoke collected in tanks and ( )P H fraction of smo A ke collected in tanks. 300

318
DISCUSSION In the dockyard, most of the work done on board is performed at the same time or in rapid succession by workers of different job

categories, so most workers are exposed to a variety of noxious substances; asbestos in particular undoubtedly plays and important role in the development of cancer , especially lung cancer and mesothelioma,in exposed workers. However, starting from the fifties, the increasing number of oil tankers needing repairs, exposed welders to the described more and more frequently. in Genoa dockyard, also metallurgical situation

Owing to work organisation

workers, while installing braces and frames and transporting all materials used by other workers, were frequently exposed , without

any protective equipment, to the same fumes and gases produced by welders in a closed, airless environment. It is noteworthy that our epidemiological survey on causes of death among dockyard workers in Genoa (2) demonstrated that in these

two categories cancer risk for different target organs, particularly bladder and lung, was nearly the same. The fact that asbestos is completely absent in the studied situations seems to enhance the hypothesis that, at least bladder cancer, may be induced by inhalation of such fumes.

REFERENCES Valerio F, Raffetto G, Puntoni R, Vercelli M Cancer Det Prev 5:335-341 (1982)

Puntoni R, Vercelli M, Di Giorgio F, Valerio F, Bonassi S, Ceppi M, Santi L In : Proceedings of the International Conference on Health Hazards and Biological Effects of Welding fumes and gases. Copenhagen 18-21 February 1985

319

CYTOTOXIC EFFECTS OF WELDING FUMES ON HUMAN EMBRYONIC EPITHELIAL PULMONA RY CELLS IN CULTURE H.F. HILDEBRAND1, M. COLLYND'HO0GHE2and R.M. STERN3 1. Institut de Mdecine du Travail, Facult de Mdecine, 1 place de Verdun 59045 LILLE Cedex FRANCE 2. U 124 INSERM, Facult de Mdecine, 1 place de Verdun 59045 LILLE Cdex 3. The Danish Welding Institute, Park Alle 345, DK 2600 GLOSTRUP DENMARK

INTRODUCTION Certain welding fumes contain significant amounts of Cr, Mn, Ni and traces of other metals, which were shown to be mutagenic in one or more n -iOio bioassays. Some of these metals are strongly suspected human carcinogens (1), and it might, therefore be expected that welders experience an excess risk of respiratory tract cancer because of their occupation. The toxic effect of two MIG/SS and one MMA/SS welding fumes were studies on human embryonic epithelial pulmonary cells in cul ture (L132).

MATERIAL AND METHODS For this investigation, the cytotoxic effect of two MIG/SS and one MMA/SS welding fumes were tested in cell culture (Table I). L132 cells derived from normal human embryonic lung epithelium are cultured in plastic bottles in MEM 0011 medium (Eurobio) supplemented with 5 % fetal calf serum.

TABLE I NOMINAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WELDING FUMES {%)

Al Mg MIG/SS 1 Hater soluble Total Water soluble Total Water soluble Total
1 3

Si

Ca Ti

Cr 0.51

0,2

Ni

Fe

Cu

A s

Ba

0,7 4 , 1 37 4,1 37 0,06 60,8 3 0,002 0,2 0,03 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,4

3,2

10,8 10,4 1 0 , 8 10,4 0,004 0,4

22

MIG/SS 2

11,3

19,5 22

0,4 1,4

3,63 0,25 0,06 3,8U 2,7 0,53 36

MMA/SS

14,7 7,3

Cr (VI) Cr (VI)

9.8(111) + l.O(VI)

" Cr(VI + III)

320

In order to establish growth curves after continuous exposure to welding fumes, 1.5xl05 growing cells were seeded in 2 ml Leighton tubes and incubated at 37C for 8 days. Every day the cells were suspended in 0.1 % trypsin and the number of cells per tube was measured. Four tubes were used for each point and at least three seperate experiments were realised for each concentration of the substance tested. The survival rate was determined using the colony forming method (2). Ultrastructural investigation was carried out on cells grown in the presence of 100 or 200 yg/ml of MIG/SS welding fumes and of 5 or 10 ug/ml of MMA/SS welding fume. The material was prepared for electron microscopy as described previously (3). EDS microprobe analyses were performed on unstained sections placed on Pioloform F coated titanium grids. Elemental determinations were carried out with a Philips EM 301 electron microscope and a Link-System microprobe analyser. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The growth curves were established for different concentrations of MIG/SS and MMA/SS welding fumes. At equal concentrations the two MIG/SS welding fumes have a comparable cytotoxic effect, which is somewhat stronger for the MIG/SS-? fume containing more than 60 % of Nickel-compounds. A very high cytotoxic effect, however, was observed for the MMA/SS welding fume at ten times lower concentrations. These results are confirmed by establishing the survival curves (Fig. 1 ) , where only ^ery low concentrations (1, 2 and 2.5 yg/ml) are needed to reduce considerably the survival fraction.

Fig. 1. Survival curves of L132 cells treated with welding fumes MIG/Si-1 (survival curves are fitted by eye) MIG/SS-2, MMA/SS

321

The high c y t o t o x i c e f f e c t of the MMA/SS welding fume may be due to the presence of Cr(VI) : 3.6 %. Indeed, growth curves of L132 are quite i d e n t i c a l when c e l l s are grown at r e a l l y same Cr(VI) concentrations contained e i t h e r i n MMA/SS welding fume or in Na 2 CrO u . A d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s can also be obtained by the high concen t r a t i o n s of water soluble F (14.7 %) and (22 %). The u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l study of the c e l l s c u l t u r e d i n presence of Cr(VI) i n welding fumes revealed important changes of the shape and the size of the c e l l s as well as of t h e i r n u c l e i . The untreated c e l l s are large and f l a t and display a smooth sur f a c e , t h e i r nuclei are c l e a r and have a regular form. The t r e a t e d c e l l s , however, are often r e t r a c t e d , g l o b u l a r and w i t h a high number of m i c r o v i l l o s i t i e s on t h e i r surface. Their nuclei are i r r e g u l a r l y shaped and chromatin strands are more conden sed than i n untreated c e l l s . The welding fume p a r t i c l e s can be observed i n a l o t of L132 c e l l s ( F i g . 2 ) . EDS analyses of the p a r t i c l e s revealed some d i f f e r e n c e i n the elementary compo s i t i o n between e x t r a c e l l u l a r ( F i g . 3a) and i n t r a c e l l u l a r (Fig 3b) areas. The Mncontent i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower i n i n t r a c e l l u l a r p a r t i c l e s w i t h respect to the Feconcentration i n the same area. Mn seems to be dissolved i n the c e l l and i s probably bound to the c e l l s t r u c t u r e s and proteins i n small amounts which cannot be assessed by EDS Xray a n a l y s i s . No remarkable differences between e x t r a c e l l u l a r and i n t r a c e l l u l a r areas were stated f o r the MIG/SS2 welding fume w i t h a high Micontent. The Ni c o u l d , indeed, e a s i l y be recovered i n a l l EDS diagrams.

1 /um

Fig. 2. MIG/SS2 welding fume particles being phagocytized by a LI32 cell in culture. Incubation time : 3 days with inn ug/ml

322

1000^S

500

I I IIIIIIIIIIIII I1IIIIIIII II IIII III IIIIIII IIII I 0 5 lOKeV

5 10KeV

Figure 3. EDSdiagrams o f e x t r a c e l l u l a r (A) and i n t r a c e l l u l a r (B ) MIG/SS1 welding fume i n L132 c e l l c u l t u r e . Incubation time : 3 days w i t h 200 y g / m l . Note the d i f f e r e n c e of Mnamount w i t h respect t o Feconcentration. Mn seems to be dissolved in the c e l l and i s probably bound to c e l l s t r u c t u r e s and proteins in small amounts and t h i s can not be assessed by EDS Xray a n a l y s i s .

323

These results are rather similar to the observations described by Anttila et al. (4,5) who analysed welding particles contained in alveolar and interstitial macrophages in lung tumours (4) and in rat lungs after inhalation experiments (5). The MMA /SS welding fume had a very rapid cytotoxic action on cells. Electron microscopy reveals not only cell death after absorption of fume particles but also for a lot of cells not having phagocytized the particles. Three types of particles could be detected and were analysed by EDS : (i) fine granules the composition of which is quite identical to MIG/SS welding fumes (ii), spherical particles (0.1 to 0.2 urn) containing essentially Si, and (iii) cubic crystals (0.2 urn) the main component of which is Cr. Another remarkable observation should be mentioned : im most EDS diagrams, from MIG/SS as well as from MMA /SS welding fumes displayed a peak of P, which could derive either from stick electrodes or wires, or from the cell, We frequen tly have observed the presence of in other cell assays with Nicompounds where no exogenous was present (2) and in precipitates next to orthopaedic implants (6). Thus we suggest that there exists an organic or anorganic metalphosphorus compound which may be considered as a metabolite. Since the welding fumes have sometimes a very complex composition, the question arises: to what compound should be attributed the cytotoxic effect of the fumes? By inhalation studies on rats, Kalliomki et al. (7) indicate that the lungs were the target organs of soluble hexavalent chromtes. The distribution of chromium to other organs differs, however, from those obtained after single intravenous injections of alkaline chromtes (8). Nickel and chromium seems to play an impor tant role for cell death (as shown here) as well as for cell transformation as described by Hansen and Stern : nearly all Ni compounds have a high transforma tion activity ( 9 ) , for chromium however, this activity depends from the solubi lization of Crcompounds, i.e. from its bioavailability (10).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grants from the Institut National de la Sant et de la Recherche Mdicale (INSERM U. 124) and the Association PR0THES0R are acknowledged.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stern RM (1983) Arch. Environm. Health 38:148155 Hildebrand HF, Collynd'Hooghe M, HerlantPeers MC (in press) In: Brown SS, Sunderman FW Jr (eds)"Progress in Nickel Toxicology". Blackwells Ltd, London Hildebrand HF, Biserte G (1979) Europ. J. Cell Biol. 19:276280 A nttila S, Sutinen S, Pkk P, Alapieti T, Peura R, Sivonen SJ (1984) Brit. J. Ind. Med. 41:468473 A nttila S, Sutinen S, Kalliomki PL, Sivonen SJ, Grekula A , Nickels J (in this issue)

324

6.

Hildebrand HF, Roumazeille B, Decoulx J , Herlant-Peers MC, Ostapczuk P, Stoeppler M, Mercier JF ( i n press) I n : Brown SS, Sunderman F Jr (eds) W "Progress i n Nickel T o x i c o l o g y " . Blackwells L t d , London Kalliomki PL, Lakomaa E, Kalliomki K, Kilunen M, Kivel R, Vaaranen V (1983) B r i t . J . I n d . Med. 40:229-234 Langard S (1979) B i o l . Trace Eleni. Res. 1:45-54 Hansen K, Stern R (1983) Env. Health Persp. 51:223-226 issue)

7. 8. 9.

10. Stern R, Hansen K ( i n t h i s

325
LONGTERM INHA LA TION STUDIES WITH A ND A S ^ A EROSOLS IN WISTA R RA TS U. GLASER*, D. HOCHRAINER*, . OLDIGES* AND S. TA KENA KA **

FraunhoferInstitut fur Umweltchemie und kotoxikologie, D5948 SchmallenbergGrafschaf t ** FraunhoferInstitut fr Toxikologie und A erosolforschung, D3000 Hannover INTRODUCTION In the past several years we have been engaged in studying the toxic effects of inhalations of several metal compounds: cadmium, lead, arsenic, nickel and chromium. Recently our interest has been focused on the inhalative carcinogenic effects of continuously generated submicron metallic compound aerosols, where cadmium chloride was found to have a lung carcinogenic potential on male Wistar rats at low exposure levels (1). The present paper is concerned with the implication of nickel oxide and arsenic trioxide aerosols of comparable concen trations and particle sizes as carcinogens under the same experimental circumstances. MATERIAL A ND METHODS Male wistar rats (TNOW74, SPF, five weeks old) were continuously exposed to submicron aerosols (< 0.3 MMAD) of nickel oxide and arsenic trioxide. At the lower exposure levels (60 pg/m metal) forty rats, at the higher levels (200 pg/m metal) twenty animals were kept in inhalation chambers for 18 months and then conventionally housed in clean air till the termination of the studies one year later. In each inhalation study forty further rats served as controls. The NiO aerosols were generated by atomization of aqueous Niacetate solutions with compressed air nebulizers and subsequent pyrolysis of the particles pas sing tube furnaces (2). The A s0, aerosols were obtained by using nebulized sodium chloride particles as condensation nuclei for arsenic trioxide that had been evaporated in tube furnaces at 170 C (3). RESULTS The longterm A s^O, inhalation study. A ll the exposed rats behaved similar to the control animals of both studies. The results of the body weights, hema tology, clinical chemistry, macroscopical and light microscopical examinations did not differ significantly from the controls at any time of the longterm study. At termination the mortality rate amounted 72.5 and 80 % in the low and

326
high arsenic exposed groups respectively, which was not significantly different from that of the controls (65 %). N o accumulated arsenic remained in the organs of the exposed rats one year after inhalation. The total tumor incidence (Table 1) was 40.5 % (15 of 37 examined rats) in the lower and 35 % (7/20) in the higher arsenic exposed group respectively, and 39.5 % (15/38) in the control rats of this study. Only one lung tumor of metastatic origin had been observed in each group. TABLE 1 TISSUE SPECIFIC TUMOR IN CIDEN CE IN THE A S ^ STUDY Tumor incidence in different organs of male Wistar rats exposed to arsenic trioxide aerosol for 18 month and subsequently observed for another year

controls = 38 skin lung liver kidney testis adrenal other * from metastases 6 1,(1)'

60 g/m As = 37

200 pg/nr As = 20

(1) 1

2,(1) 2

The long-term N iO inhalation study. At termination 25 control rats (62.5 % mortality) had died. The cumulative mortality incidence of this study is shown by Figure 1. In total 17 neoplasms, but no lung tumor had been observed in the 40 examined animals of this control group (42.5 % neoplasms). At termination in the N iO exposed groups the two surviving rats (one each group) showed lung alveolar proteinosis. This was also found in all N iO exposed animals, which had died at relative early stages. The alveolar lumina were filled with homogenous, acidophilic and strongly PAS-positive material (4). In several cases there were accumulations of macrophages adjacent to the PAS-positive areas and sometimes focal septal fibrosis. No primary tumor and only few hyperplastic changes were observed. As early signs of the toxic effects of the N iO aerosols in both exposure groups significantly elevated RBC counts, hematocrits and hemoglobin levels starting at the 9th month were found as well as significantly reduced mean body weight beginning with the 12th month of exposure.

327

100

^ 80 /
9'

>

Fig. 1. Cumulative mortality incidence after 18 months continuous exposure to nickel oxide aerosol (x 60 pg/m 3 Ni, 200 tig/m3 Ni, controls) CONCLUSION In conclusion long-term exposure to submicron arsenic trioxide aerosols (60 and 200 pg/m As) did not result in any toxic or carcinogenic effect on the male Wistar rats that had been exposed for one and a half years and then conventionally housed for a further year in clean air. The parallel conducted long-term NiO inhalation study showed lung toxic effects. Particularly the microscopical examination revealed alveolar proteinosis in every exposed rat. These effects were so severe, und the survival of the animals was too short that carcinogenicity could not be evaluated. It is suggested that cytotoxic effects on alveolar macrophages and depressed alveolar clearance mechanisms (5) have initiated these long-term exposure effects of NiO aerosols. Further long-term investigations with even lower NiO levels, exposed for forty hours weekly should provide information on the NiO carcinogenicity.

328
REFERENCES 1. Takenaka, S., H. Oldiges, H. Knig, D. Hochrainer and G. Oberdrster (1983): Carcinogenicity of cadmium chloride aerosols in W rats. JNCI 70, 367-373. 2. Spiegelberg, Th., W. Kordel and Dr. Hochrainer (1985): Effects of NiOinhalation on alveolar-macrophages and the humoral immune systems of rats. Ecotoxicology & Environmental Safety: in press 3. Hochrainer, D. (1983): Generation of aerosols from heavy metals for inhalation experiments. Intern. Conference: Heavy metals in the environment, Heidelberg, Septembre, 1983. 4. 5. Takenaka, S., D. Hochrainer and H. Oldiges (1985): Alveolar proteinosis in Wistar rats after long-term exposure to nickel oxide aerosols. Environm. Res.: submitted Oldiges, H., W. Kordel, D. Rittmann, Th. Spiegelberg, D. Hochrainer and G. Oberdrster (1982): Influence and effects of NiO inhalation. EUR 7884 EN, Commission of the European Communities, Brssel.

329

CARCINOGENICITY

A ND

IN

VITRO

GENOTOXICITY OF THE PARTICULATE FRACTION OF TWO

STAINLESS STEEL WELDING FUMES

REUZEL P.G.J.*, R.B. BEEMS, W.K. DE RAAT and P.H.M. LOHMAN* TNOCIVO Toxicology and Nutrition Institute, P.O. Box 360, 3700 AJ Zeist, ** TNODivision of Technology for Society, P.O. Box 214, 2600 AE Delft, ** TNOMedical Biological Laboratory, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA Rijswijk, (The Netherlands) INTRODUCTION There are only slight indications of an increased risk of developing cancer in the respiratory tract among welders exposed to chromium and nickel containing

welding fumes (13) . As or been far as we know no data on the possible carcinogenicity of inhaled chromium nickel containing stainless steel welding fumes in experimental animals have reported. However, CaCrO^, Ni S , NiO, and NitCOK were found to be car

cinogenic for the lungs of experimental animals (410). The particulate Since the fraction of stainless steel welding fume may have genotoxic

properties. gested that

many chromium and nickel compounds are genotoxic, it is sug genotoxicity of welding fumes is very likely caused by the

chromium(VI) and nickel compounds from the welding fumes (1112). To study the carcinogenicity of chromium and nickel containing welding fumes a longterm study was performed in hamsters receiving the particulate fraction of

two stainless steel welding fumes by intratracheal instillation. The dose levels for this study were selected on the basis of the results of a previous 4week with the same welding fumes. In addition, these welding

rangefinding

study

fumes were tested for their possible genotoxicity. To enable fume was comparison with treated those of of the a possible effects of the chromium containing

welding animals

carcinogenic

Chromate an additional group of

with CaCrO.. For a similar purpose CrO. was used in the

genotoxicity test program.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Test welding metal 308 5 L and material. of inert (0= in gas 0.8 the The welding fumes were generated by either manual metal arc stainless steel (MMA /SS) with electrodes type E 308150 (0=4 mm) or welding and MIG/ 1.0 of stainless steel (MIG/SS) with metal wire, type ER mm). The welding fume particulates were collected by

filtration on paper filters. The chromium content in the MMA/SS welding fume was SS welding fume 0.4. The nickel content was 0.4 in the MMA/SS welding fume and 2.4$ in the MIG/SS welding fume.

330
Experimental Longterm intratracheal instillation study in hamsters. Five groups each con

sisting of 35 male Syrian golden hamsters, about 6 weeks old at the start of the study, tion with were used. The animals were exposed by means of intratracheal instilla

of

the test material suspended in 0.2 ml saline. The animals were treated (controls), 2.0 mg MIG/SS, 0.5 mg MMA/SS, 2.0 mg MMA/SS or 0.1 mg

saline once

CaCrO^

a week till week 56. Next they were kept for an observation period

of about It weeks. The animals were conventionally housed in wire mesh, stainless steel cages, at a temperature with of 20 _ 1C and a relative humidity of ^075 %. The animals were + Hope Farms standard diet for hamsters and rats and with unfluor

provided

idated bottled tap water ad libitum. All weights animals were visually inspected for clinical signs and mortality. Body

were recorded at weekly intervals during the first 3 months and monthly A thorough autopsy was performed on all animals found dead, killed

thereafter. in

extremis or sacrificed at the end of the study. The lungs, spleen, liver and of animals killed at the end of the study were weighed. Histopathology

kidneys

was restricted on the respiratory tract, liver, kidneys. Pituitary, thyroids and adrenals were examined microscopically for the presence of tumours. Genotoxicity welding calf tests. Suspensions were made of the particulate fractions of the

fumes in distilled water or in Ham's F10tissue culture medium with 15 and mixed ultrasonically for 20 minutes. The suspensions and a

serum

solution mutation

of CrO^ in water of in medium were examined in the Ames test, a gene test in bacteria, the sister chromatid exchange test (SCE), the HGPRT

test, a gene mutation test in mammalian cells, and in a DNA repair test in human cells (UDS). In addition, Ames tests were performed with the supernatant of the

centrifugea suspensions. Results Longterm tracheal exposed slowly intratracheal instillation study in hamsters. A fter each intra

instillation the animals showed signs of respiratory distress. Animals to 2 mg MMA/SS got into a very poor state of health and recovered very

from the anaesthesia, a few animals even died. To prevent further morta

lity the frequency of treatments of this group was reduced to once every H weeks from than week in 26. However, the mortality rate in this group continued being higher the other groups during the major part of the study. Body weight gain

was initially lower in hamsters treated with 2 mg MMA/SS than in controls. Lung weights of animals treated with 2 mg MMA/SS or 2 mg MIG/SS were signifi

331
cantly treated malignant an animal rentiated the and lung. greater with of than MIG/SS the in than 2 mg controls. in The effect was more pronounced in hamsters treated with MMA/SS welding fume. Two

animals

tumours combined

were found in the lungs. One tumour was found in the lung of MMA/SS group killed terminally. It was a well diffeand adenocarcinoma. One animal of the 0.5 mg epidermoid

MMA/SS group that died after one year of treatment showed an anaplastic tumor in The tumour was most probably a carcinoma. It invaded the mediastinum many in amongst low-distance metastases in the surrounding lung parenchyma. organs other than the respiratory tract were randomly the groups without any indication of a treatment relationproduced

Tumours ship. Rats nounced

observed

distributed

treated with welding fume showed pulmonary lesions, which were most proin the 2 and mg MIG/SS group. They consisted of moderate to severe nonemphysema. Hamsters treated with 0.5 mg MMA/SS or

specific pneumonia, slight to moderate interstitial pneumonia, moderate alveolar bronchiolisation slight with CaCrO. showed similar changes but distinctly less pronounced. Livers and kidneys did not show any treatment-related non-neoplastic lesions. Genotoxicity K-CrO. solution induced particles tests. only The particulate fraction of MMA/SS welding fume and the to be genotoxic effects in in the Ames and SCE tests. MIG/SS these tests. Table II shows the marginal appeared

results of the genotoxicity tests. TABLE II RESULTS OF GENOTOXICITY TESTS WITH MMA/SS AND MIG/SS WELDING FUME MATERIAL MMA/SS MIG/SS K2CrOi) AMES + + + SCE + + + n.d. HGPRT UDS

- = no effect, +_ = marginal effect, n.d.= not determined DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The The there exposure changes was of could hardly hamsters be any to

+ = clear effect,

stainless steel welding fume by repeated intra-

tracheal instillation resulted in severe histopathological changes in the lungs. characterized as pneumoconiosis. It was remarkable that visible difference in the quantities of welding fume

particles in the lungs and in the severity of the pneumoconiosis between animals

332
that period affected hamster mg died of during 44 the treatment period and animals sacrificed after a recovery This means that there were was hardly any recovery of the observed in the lungs, one in a

weeks. Two

lungs. treated

malignant

tumours

with 0.5 mg MMA/SS and the other in a hamster treated with 2.0 fume. The occurrence because in of a these two tumours is considered group of 429 male and 363 female

MMA /SS

welding

toxicologically control observed. action of

significant,

hamsters, which were used in long term studies, no lung tumour had been Therefore, MMA /SS by the presence of these two tumours suggests a carcinogenic fume. The significance of the two tumours is also

welding the

strengthened

positive results obtained with MMA/SS welding fume in the

genotoxicity tests. No lung tumours attributable to treatment were found in animals given CaCrO^,

though the total quantity of instilled soluble chromium in these animals was the same as in animals treated with 2.0 mg MMA/SS and 2.3 times higher than in

animals than

treated

with 0.5 mg MMA/SS welding fume. Consequently, compounds other in the welding fume will most probably have attributed to the

chromium

induction of the two tumojrs. The the genotoxic effects of MMA/SS welding fume were almost similar to those of

K?Cr0j^ the It

if compared on the basis of the soluble chromium quantities. There major part of the genotoxic effects is probably caused by the

fore,

chromium.

can, however, not be excluded, that also other compounds from the

welding fume will have contributed to the observed genotoxic effects. The MMA/SS results welding of the present study suggest, that the particulate fraction of may induce malignant lung tumours. In addition, the par

fume

ticulate fraction of MMA/SS welding fume appeared to be genotoxic.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Menck HR, Henderson MD (1976) J Occup Med 18:797801 Davies JM (1978) The Lancet pp 384 Doll R, Mathews JD, Morgan LG (1977) 3^:102105 Baetjer AM, Lowney JE, Steffer H, Budacz V (1959) Arch Industr Hlth 20:124 Gilman JWP, Ruckerbauer GM (1962) Cancer Res 22: 3213^0 Hueper WC, Payne WW (1962) Arch Environ Hlth 5:445 Levy LS, Venitt S (1975) Brit J Cancer 32:254 Nettesheim (1972) Prog Exp Tumor res 16:185200 Saknyn AV, Blokhin VA (1978) Vopr Onkol 24:4448

10. Sunderman FW (1978) Fed Proc 37:4046 11. Hedenstedt A (1977) In IIWdocument VIII784243 12. Maxild J (1978) Mutation Res 56:235243

333

POSSIBLE BRONCHOCARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF WELDING AND THERMAL SPRAYING FUMES CONTAINING CHROMIUM N.O. B ERG*, M. BERLIN**, M. BOHGARD*, B. RUDELL*, A. SCHUTZ*, . WARFVINGE* Institutes of Hygiene, Pathology and Occupational Medicine, and the Department of Nuclear Physics, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden ** Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre, Chelsea College, University of London, 459A Fulham Road, London SW10 OQX, U.K. *

INTRODUCTION Fumes released during the welding of stainless steel and the thermal spraying of chromium have been shown to contain tri- and hexavalent chromium in soluble and low-soluble form (1). As some chromium compounds are known to be bronchocarcinogenic in man (2,3), an in vivo test was performed on rats to assess the

broncho-carcinogenicity of chromium-containing welding particles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS A pellet of stainless steel net according to Laskin (4) containing a suspension of welding fume particles in cholesterol was inserted into the left bronchus of both male and female Sprague-Dawley rats by tracheotomy. The pellet

was deposited with the aid of a trochar and was left until the animal was sacrificed or died. Three groups of 100 rats each were operated on. The pellets of group A

contained a cholesterol suspension of welding fume particles produced from stainless steel welding with chromium-containing electrodes (OK67.41 ESAB ). The

pellets of group B contained a cholesterol suspension of thermal spraying fumes produced from the thermal spraying of chromium(IIIloxide. control group contained cholesterol only. The pellets of the

Three rats were used as positive

controls and given pellets with 40 per cent benzofalpyrene in cholesterol. The pellet was constructed by rolling a 5 10 mm rectangle of fine stainless steel wire mesh around a length of stainless steel wire with the ends bent into hooks. The pellet was then dipped in molten cholesterol containing the test Each pellet contained between 5 to 10 mg of the test particles.

particles.

The chromium content of the particles was assessed by proton-induced X-ray emission analysis (PIXE) and by electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) before and after extraction with water buffered to pH 7.4 (5). The experimental groups were mixed and housed in groups of two or three in cages ventilated with filtered air. The sexes were kept separated. Hygiene

standards were maintained by staff coming into contact with the animals by means of special protective clothing or nasal masks, gloves, hats and shoes. The cages were cleaned twice weekly and the animal room cleaned out daily. The rats

received clean water four times a week and had free access to autoclaved food.

334

AUTOPSY The rats were sacrificed after 34 months or at earlier signs of d i s e a s e . organs were weighed and examined m a c r o - and microscopically. The

The pellets were

removed from the lungs after 24 hours in formalin and stored at -80 C for chromium a n a l y s i s . sectioned. The lung w h e r e the pellet had been located w a s serial

S e c t i o n s , four to five microns thick, were kept and stained with

haemotoxalin and eosin.

RESULTS

TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION OF SAMPLES Figures in % w.w. Unless otherwise stated the results are by PIXE (6)

Welding f urne Element Total Low-sol. Soluble

Therm. Total Low-sol.

Ca Ti

20

2.2 1.0 1.8 1.7 2.8

0.17 0.08

17.8

1.7 2.3 2.9 3.4

0.25 0.13

0.7 0.5 1.2 0.6

0.08 0.05

0.7

Fe Ni Zn

0.2 0.1

F
Cr(total) Cr(VI)

34

2
0.7

32

0.04

3.6

2.9

56
49 *

40

0.2

**

29 **

20

* atomic absorption ** ESCA

spectrometry

ESCA m e a s u r e s the oxidation state of the chromium to a depth of only two m i c r o n s , but as 99 per cent of the particles are in the size-range 0.01-0.1 m i c r o n s , the results obtained are valid for at least 50 per cent of the mass of the p a r t i c l e s . The welding particles contained 0.2 per cent of low-solubility The thermal spraying particles contained about 10 per cent chromium!VI). chromium(VI).

low-soluble

335

Clinical observations Throughout the experimental period there were no signs of respiratory infection among the animals. The weight increase curves and the distribution of

survival times were similar for the two experimental groups and the controls. During the last six months of the experiment, there was a rapid decline in the health of the animals. The most usual signs were sudden weight decrease, The

apathy, restlessness in the hind quarters and a general unkempt appearance.

total number of spontaneous deaths was 39, 15 in group A (welding fumes), 9 in group (spray fumes) and 15 in group C (negative controls). Autopsy There were no significant differences between the experimental and negative control groups according to organ weights. The pellets had remained in position

in all but 22 of the rats, distributed through the three groups in which they were missing. Analysis of the pellets showed a reduction of about 35 to 60 per

cent of the chromium content in group A and group B, respectively. Marked neoplastic changes were observed in the pellet lobes of three positive controls receiving benzo(alpyrene: clear, infiltrating epithelial cell cancer in situ and in the bronchi. The right lobe of one rat in group A (welding fumes)

showed, on microscopical examination, an epithelial cell cancer with no apparent relation to the bronchus. This markedly keratinized and highly differentiated

invasion had the appearance of a peripheral metastasis, but no primary source tumour could be located. The appearance of the pellet site varied considerably. The different types of

local reaction were distributed about equally between the sexes and between the two experimental groups and the negative controls. characterized by a certain degree of fibrosis. The site was always

In general, only insignificant

peripheral bronchial dilation was observed, and no clear inflammatory irritation. This reaction, termed simple fibrosis, was seen in 144 rats.

Another feature seen in 85 rats was a fibrosis that only partially surrounded the pellet. Against the pellet's surface was seen a proliferating epithelial

layer, often with so-called epithelial metaplasia but never with atypical cells. The bronchial walls usually showed round-cell infiltration and the

fibrotic zone was broader with transformed bronchial proliferating glands whose epithelial layers were cubic. No mitosis was observed. Occasionally, deposits

similar to the alveolar microlithiasis were seen.

Another group of 35 rats

showed a reaction intermediate between this and the simple type of fibrosis above, and in 36 rats the site of the pellet was uncertain. A limited degree of

atelectasis was observed in about one-fifth of the rats, generally at the pellet site or a little distance from there. There was no sign of infection. 6 rats

showed a more developed bilateral bronchitis and pneumonia, leading to death in

336
3 cases. Several of these had disorders predisposing to pneumonia. The cause The

of about one-half of the 39 spontaneous deaths could be ascertained. largest group of associated diseases were nephropathies.

Tumours were involved

in 8 cases, 2 malignant lymphomata and 3 involving the central nervous system, 2 sarcomata and 1 epithelial cancer in the lungs. seen in 6 cases: Infections were uncommon, but

4 cases of simple myocarditis with 2 showing marked auricular

thrombosis, 1 case of widespread septicopyemeia, 1 fulminating kidney infection with orchitis.

COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS The single case of epithelial cell cancer was seen in the right lung of a rat exposed to a welding fume pellet and was not associated with the bronchus. It was on the opposite side of the lung from the implantation site. The evidence

suggests that it was a solitary metastasis, though no primary tumour could be found. While it cannot be excluded that this tumour could have originated from

matter detached from the pellet site migrating to the other lung, the absence of any pre-cancerous changes in the bronchial epithelium, in spite of frequent metaplasia, suggests that the chromium compound in the fumes has a low order of carcinogenicity compared with other carcinogenic chromium compounds tested and with benzo(a)pyrene. Up till now, epidemiological studies have not revealed any great risk of cancer from exposure to chromium-containing fumes of the types that we have studied and the results of our experiments give no impetus to change this view. However, against the background of the known mutagenic and broncho-carcinogenic action of certain chromium compounds, it would be unwise to recommend that the epidemiological surveillance of men exposed to welding fumes should be relaxed.

REFERENCES 1. Malmqvist KG, Johansson GI, Bohgard M, Akselsson KR (1981) Elemental concentrations in airborne particles from welding and metal spraying operations. Nuclear Instruments and Methods 181:465 Hayes RB (1980) Occupational exposure to chromium and cancer: a review. In: Lilienfeld AM (ed) Reviews of Cancer Epidemiology, vol. 1. Elsevier/ North Holland, New York National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1975) exposure to chromiumiVI). HEW Pubi No (NIOSH), pp 76-129 Occupational

2.

3. 4.

Laskin S, Kuschner M, Drew RT (1970) Studies in pulmonary carcinogenesis. In: Hanna MG Jr, Nettesheim , Gilbert JR (eds) Carcinogenesis. AEC Symposium Series 18. Oak Ridge, Tenn: United States Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information, pp 321-350 B ohgard M, Jangida BL, Akselsson KR (1979) An analytical procedure for determining chromium in samples of airborne dust. Ann Occup Hyg 22:241-251

5.

337
ACUTE AND SUBCHRONIC EFFECTS OF INTRATRACHEALLY INSTILLED NICKEL CONTAINING PARTICLES IN HAMSTERS H. MUHLE, W. KOCH, B. BELLMANN Fraunhofer-Institut fr Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Stadtfelddamm 35, D-3000 Hannover 61, West-Gerraany INTRODUCTION For nickel and sorre of its compounds in the form of a respiratile dust there is some evidence of a carcinogenic risk. In respect to nickel alloys only limited information exists whether a potential carcinogenic risk is associated with the inhalation of an aerosol of this material. The objective of this study is to find the maximum tolerated dose of nickel containing dust administered by intratracheal instillation in Syrian golden hamsters. This information will be used to perform a chronic study to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of grinding dust from nickel containing stainless steel. MATERIAL AND METHODS Dust Collection A respirable fraction of stainless steel grinding dust was collected in a factory in which metal pieces were grinded. For the separation of coarse and fine dust a high-volume heavy-grain-load impaction sampler was constructed (Fig. 1). Coarse dust particles are impacted on oil treated filters whereas the fine dust is collected on membrane filters, from which the particles can be scraped of. Figure 2 shows the impaction efficiency of monodisperse particles in the sampler at an air flow of 80 m /hr. The maximum fine dust load of the impaction sampler is about 3 grams, the maximum coarse dust load is about 10 grams. About 85 % of the sampled dust had an aerodynamic diameter < 7 pm. Based on electron microscopy investigations the calculated mass mean aerodynamic diameter of the sampled dust was 3,1 \m. Chemical Analysis TABLE 1 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CR-NI STAINLESS STEEL GRINDING DUST. Fe Cr Cr6+ Ni Mn I % % % % % % 59,2 17,2 13,92 <0,01 6,79 1,0 As S Al Si Zn Pb Fe met

% % % % % %

0,016 0,13 2,14 0,65 0,03 <0,01

Cd C Be Co Ti Mo

% % % % % %

<0,01 3,90 <0,001 0,10 0,03 0,22

338

medium-fraction

toil treated fillers!

fraction of collected

Fig. 1. High-volume heavy-grainload impaction sampler.

fine dust,

impaction efficiency

Fig. 2. Impaction efficiency of the impaction sampler a t 80 m / h .

aerodyn diameter

3 * 5

10 dal

The dust was also investigated by powder diffractrometric analysis. The Cr-Ni-steel dust was composed of a phase mixture of austenite and a cubic spinel (FeCrNi)304 with a lattice constant of a = 0,813 nm. Additionally about 100 single randomly selected particles were investigated in a scanning electron microscope by energy dispersive X-ray analysis. This investigation showed no evidence for the existence of nickel or nickel oxide in pure form. The range of the nickel per particle was 4 to 10 %.

339

Reference Materials For a positive control for the carcinogenicity test nickel subsulphide (a Ni,S2) and nickel powder was used. For Ni-S, the mass median diameter (I*) was 2,2 un, and the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) 6 un. The corresponding data for the spherical nickel powder were for MMD = 3,1 un and MMAD = 8,9 un. Grinding dust of high chromium steel with a nickel content of < 1 % was collected as described above and is used as negative control. Animal model Syrian golden hamsters were chosen as experimental animals because of the low spontaneous tumor rate in the respiratory tract (< 1 % ) . Respirable fractions of the different test materials were suspended in saline and instilled into the trachea. Tests were performed according to OECD Guidelines for Testing of Chemicals, No. 403 and 413. RESULTS Acute Study 0,15 ml of the suspended test materials were intratracheal^ instilled once. 5 hamsters of each sex were treated at 5 to 7 different concentrations. The mean hamster weight was 88,9 g. The evaluation of the test was performed according to Litchfield and Wilcoxon. Fig. 3 shows the results. The LD,,, for nickel powder is 4,07 mg/hamster the geom. standard deviation corresponding data are 2,09 mg/hamster and is 1,96. For Ni-,S2 the = 7,68. For the

Cr-Ni-stainless steel grinding dust no acute toxicity could be determined. At 20 mg/hamster 5 of 10 hamsters died after instillation on airway obstruction due to overdose. Subchronic Tolerance Test In the subchronic study the dusts were instilled every 14 days 12 times to give a relative equal lung burden over a long period. 10 hamsters of each sex were used per dose. The mean weight of hamsters at the beginning was 78 g. Results are given in Tab. 2. A macroscopic examination was performed on lungs. They showed pin-pointed and extended hemorrhagic areas. These observations are similar to the ones of the acute toxicity test.

340

^99 90

Nickel powder NijSj

50 1 0
1

~QJ

05 ^

IO

30

Fig

Results of

the acute study

Dose (mg/hamster)

calculated after Litchfield and Wilcoxon.

TAB. 2: RESULTS OF SUBCHRONIC TOLERANCE TEST. Test Material Dosing per Instillation (mg/Animal) 0,05 Cumulative Dose of 12 Treatments (mg/Animal) Number of Dead Animals out of 10 < + 10 9 J
9

Nickel Powder

0,6 2,4 9,6

0,192 0,48

1 2

0,2 0,8
N3S, 0,016 0,04 CrNi Stainless Steel Grinding Dust High Chromium Steel Grinding Dust NaCl Solution

2 2

0,1 1 3 9

1,2 12 36 108 108

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was sponsored by Nipera, Industrieverband Schneidwaren und Bestecke e.V., and the Industrieverband Haushalt, Kchen und Tafelgerte e.V., West Germany

REFERENCES Litchfield J Wilcoxon F (1949) J Pharmacol Exp Ther 96: 99113

341

IN VIVO AND IN VITRO INCORPORATION OF Ni AND Cr IN LUNG AND LIVER H.F. HILDEBRAND, J.F. MERCIER, M.C. HERLANTPEERS, J.M. HAGUENOER Institut de Mdecine du Travail, Facult de Mdecine, 1 place de Verdun, 59045 Lille Cedex (France)

INTRODUCTION Experimental animal studies and epidemiological investigations in the occupational setting have established that the lung is the target organ of Ni and Cr incorporation and that the compounds of both metals may induce pulmonary carcinoma (1,2). Although other studies on metal induced diseases have considered the metabolism and the toxicity of Ni and Crcompounds, very little information exists on the cell structures and proteins implicated in the transport, the binding and/or the storage of Ni and Cr in vivo (3,4). The present work was designed to compare and to characterize in vitro and in vivo incorporations of chromium into cytosol and the mitochondrial, microsomal and nuclear fractions of lung and liver and to identify chromiumbinding proteins in these subcellular constituents. The results are compared to those obtained during similar invest igations with nickel chloride (5).

MATERIAL AND METHODS The experimental animals were female Balb/C mice and Wistar rats. In vivo incorporation of nickel and chromium was carried out by single or successive i.p. injections with
63

NiCl2,

'crCls or

'crOi,Na2 , with specific activities of

4.5 mCi/mg Ni and 200 mCi/mg Cr. Cell homogenization, cell fractionation and analytical SDSpolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PA GE) were performed as described previously (5).
3

Ni and

Crions were detected in subcellular fractions by multichanel scintillation counting and multichanel ray spectrometry respectively. Ni and Crbinding proteins were revealed in the gels by fluorography after impregnation with DMSO PPO (6).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cr(VI) in Balb/C mice. Figure 1 shows the high affinity of Ni to lung tissue after a single i.p. injection. That affinity could not be confirmed for Cr com pounds, which were recovered predominantly in liver tissue. In contrast to Cr, very little Ni is found in the liver (7).

342

dpm/g

of tissue

"'.Lu '^.Lu LI 24812 24 4 72 96 144

Cr Hill Cr IVI I NUMI hours

Fig. 1. In vivo kinetic study of G3 Ni(II), 51Cr(III) and 51Cr(VI) incorporation in mouse Balb/C liver and lung after a single i.p. injection of 50 uci of 63 NiCl2, CrCl3 and CrOi,Na2 solutions. Each point is the mean value of 4 animals, < 0.05

The difference of affinity of lung and liver to Ni and Cr could further be assessed by studying the time course in vivo incorporation of the three compounds in cell fractions of both organs. The preferential cell fractions are the mito chondrial and the microsomal fractions for both metals. The preferential binding of Ni and Cr to these cell fractions as well as the high affinity of Ni to lung cells becomes even more clear cut after in vivo incorporation of Ni (II) and Cr(VI) after 7 successive i.p. injections (Table 1 ) . TABLE 1. In vivo fixation of 63Ni(II) and 51Cr(VI) in liver and lung cell fractions after 7 daily i.p. injections of 100 pei of 63Ni(II) per mouse or 100 uci of 51 Cr(VI) per rat. Sacrifice of the animals: 24 h after the last injection. The fixation is indicated as dpm/mg proteins by mean values of 4 experiments Liver Cr(VI) Nuclei Mitochrondria Microsomes Cytosol 350 4807 791 534 Ni(II) 1320 14800 5590 5300 Lung Cr(VI) 96 2063 738 577 Ni(II) 16590 172850 121720 34080

Fractions

343

S,

Cr[Vl]

51

Cr[lll]

43

20.1 144

MW

120

a' b' 240 m

a' b' MW

5,

Cr[vl]

5,

Cr[lll]

k
200

43 30" 20.1 144

I
b a' 120 b'
a

I
' 240 b' m a'

69 46

^t&^am^

|14J

MW a

b' MW " C
' f i

14,

F i g . 2. SDSpolyacrylamide g e l e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s (PAGE) (a,b) and i t s f l u o r o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s ( a ' , b ' ) of microsomal f r a c t i o n s ( F i g . 2a) and c y t o s o l s ( F i g . 2b) of r a t lung ( a , a ' ) o r l i v e r ( b , b ' ) a f t e r ' i n v i v o ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h 5 1 C r ( V I ) o r il C r ( I I I ) . I n c u b a t i o n time: 120, 240 mn a f t e r a s i n g l e i . p . i n j e c t i o n of 500 pei of 51CrOi,Na2 and 30, 6 0 , 120, 240 mn a f t e r a s i n g l e i . p . i n j e c t i o n of 1 mCi of C r C l s . (Numbers i n d i c a t e m o l e c u l a r weight (MW) in k i l o d a l t o n s )

344
In previous papers (5,6) we demonstrated the existence of Nibinding pro teins in lung and liver tissues and we underlined, that Ni was especially bound to mitochondrial and microsomal proteins as could be expected from the studies of incorporation into subcellular fractions after single and successive injections. Crincorporation, however, seems to be different. Although much more Cr is recovered in mitochondria by ray spectrometry, very few proteins are found to bind it in this fraction and we especially detect Crbinding proteins in the microsomal fraction (Fig. 2a) and the cytosol (Fig. 2b). A already described for s Nibinding, we also observed that Cr(VI) labelled proteins are not all the same

at different times of incorporation ( h or 2 h). No remarkable difference could 1 be observed for in vivo incorporation with Cr(III), and we always recovered two Crlabelled proteins in the cytosols of lung and liver, independent from incub ation time (Fig. 2b). The molecular weight is 68000 for the main b'crlabelled protein and 78000 for the second one. Very few 5'crlabelled proteins with dif ferent molecular weight are found in the microsomal fraction. In vitro, however, Cr(III) is binding to most cellular proteins. This investigation demonstrates that several cellular proteins are implicated in the transport of nickel and chromium. In fact, a high number of metabolic enzymes are related to the mitochondrial and microsomal constituents. Indeed, the relationship between microsomal constituents and Ni or Crcompounds have been demonstrated several times (8,9). The difference of in vitro and in vivo incorp oration of Cr(III) could be explained by the difficulty of Cr(III) to cross the cytoplasmic membrane and to penetrate into the cell (10).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grants (INSERM) from t h e Institut N a t i o n a l de l a S a n t e t de l a R e c h e r c h e are acknowledged. Mdicale

and t h e A s s o c i a t i o n P r o t h e s o r

REFERENCES 1. I.A.R.C. Monographs (1976) 11:75104 B r i t J I n d Med (1971) 40:7174 B iochemistry 10:16471651 Ann 4:387392 Mikrobiol

2 . L a n g a r d S, V i g a n d e r ( 1 9 8 3 )

3 . Nomoto S , M c N e e l y MC, S u n d e r m a n FW J r

4 . S u n d e r m a n FW J r , C o s t a ER, F r a s e r C, Hui G, L e v i n J J , C l i n Lab S c i 1 1 : 4 8 8 4 9 6 5. HerlantPeers MC, H i l d e b r a n d HF, K e r c k a e r t J P (1983)

T s e TPH ( 1 9 8 1 ) Carcinogenesis

6 . H e r l a n t P e e r s MC, H i l d e b r a n d HF, B i s e r t e ( 1 9 8 2 ) Z e n t r a l b l B a k t e r i o l Hyg I A b t 1 7 6 : 3 6 8 3 8 2 7 . L a n g a r d S (1979) B i o l T r a c e Elem Res RB , J e n n e t t e B iol. 1:4554 B iochemistry 1:5562 21:771778

8 . Lee J E , C i c c a r e l l i 9. J e n n e t t e K (1979) W

K (1982) W

T r a c e Elem Res

345

LUNG CLEARANCE, TRANSPORTATION, AND EXCRETION OF METALS IN RATS AFTER INTRA TRA CHEA L INSTILLA TION OF ACTIVATED WELDING FUMES

PL. KA LLIOMKI, . , and K. HYVRINEN Institute of Occupational Health, 00290 Helsinki, Finland K. KA LLIOMKI University of Oulu, 90570 Oulu, Finland EL. LAKOMAA Technical Research Centre of Finland, 02150 Espoo, Finland

INTRODUCTION The main purpose of this work was to study the lung clearance and excretion routes of lung deposited welding fumes. A ctivated fumes were instilled intratracheally. A ctivated fumes were chosen because their use required fewer animals, fewer samples had to be ir radiated, the measurements of activity had no background inter ference due to external concentrations, and sample preparation entailed no risk of contamination with external inactive elements. The disadvantage of this tracer technique was that we had to give the exposure either as an intratracheal instillation or a single short inhalation. We chose intratracheal instillation. MATERIALS AND METHODS The welding fumes were generated by manual metal arc (MMA ) and metal inert gas (MIG) weldings of stainless steel (SS) and mild steel (MS). The fumes were gathered on Millipore A A WP 037 filters and irradiated in a neutron flux of 1013 cm 2 s1 for 76 h. A 1% suspension of the activated fumes was prepared in physiologi cal saline. A 0.2 ml aliquot (0.1 ml for MIG/MS fumes) of this sus pension was instilled intratracheally into each of 40 male Wistar rats anesthetized with halothane. The amounts of Fe, Cr, and Ni in the instillation solution (determined by neutron activation analy sis) are shown in Table I. Groups of five animals were killed at the following times after administration: 1 h. I d , 4 d, 8 d, 14 d, 30 d, 56 d, and 106 d. The lungs were set aside for measurements of activity. Urine and faeces were also collected from four rats.

346

TABLE I Amounts of administered fumes, Fe, Cr, and Ni. Welding technique
MMA/SS MIG/SS MMA/MS MIG/MS

Fumes (mg) 2 2 2 1

Fe

Cr

Ni

(ug)
80 600 400 500

(ug)
70 200 0. 2 0. 2

(wg)
8 80

Activity was measured with an Ortec Ge(Li) detector connected to an automatic gamma spectrometer system. The radioactive nuclides Fe, Cr, and Ni, respectively. long as Ni is Co were used as indicators for Fe, Cr, and 58 ( Co can be used as an indicator for Ni as form. Co also dissolves from the

in particle

particles at the same rate as Ni.) A standard solution irradiated simultaneously with the fumes and containing known amounts of Fe, Cr, and Ni was measured at the same time. The detection limits typically were as follows: Fe 1 ug, Cr 0.01 pg, and Ni 0.05 pg. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lung clearance The disappearance of the metals from rat lungs after instillation of the fumes is illustrated in Fig. 1. The amounts of Cr and Ni from MMA/SS fumes and Ni from MIG/SS fumes detected in the lungs 1 h after instillation were considerably lower than the amounts instilled. Thus MMA/SS and MIG/SS fumes had partly dissolved in the injection saline and were absorbed from the respiratory tract immediately after administration of the fumes. Excretion into the faeces For all the fumes, the ratios of the elements in the faeces were similar to those in the fumes. Apparently the fumes were excreted into the faeces as unchanged particles. For all the fumes the total amounts of elements in the faeces in the first three days were about 10% of the amounts instilled. Thus a fraction (about 10%) of the injection bolus had entered the gastrointestinal tract immediately after instillation.

347

c0-80>ja , - 73 110 d

<:'
C0-38^a 2 1, - 53 5 d 200

Fe . C 500 100 ;jg

":
500 200

-* * '."
!.. .

Cr

. C = 240 150 ;jg

C 0 - 1.8>jg T,/2" 49 * d

Ni

..
"
40

'

_' C 60 jg T, / : 170150 d 80 lime (d) 120

40

80 lime (d)

120

onn
500

MMA/MS

500

CQ-

200

\ * v >c^

^\

Fe
50

300 /jg T,/, - 63 1 1 d

100

\ ^ . C 0 - 340 ^ \ ; T V 2 - 55 t 8 d

50
0.5

;
Cr

0.2 0.1 0.05 Cr C 0 . 1 2 1 0.05 ^g

0.2

C - 0 . 2 2 i O . 0 6 g

40 80 lime (d) 120

0.02 40 80 time (d) 120

Fig.l. A mounts of Fe, Cr, and Ni in the lungs after the adminis tration of activated MMA /SS, MIG/SS, MMA /MS, and MIG/MS fumes. The initial values C Q and the halftimes T]_/2 o f monoexponential fits are given for the slow clearances. The Ni in MMA/SS fumes and the Fe in MIG/MS fumes also have a fast lung clearance component. When no clear decrease was found, the average lung content C is given.

348

Small amounts of MIG/SS fume components were continuously ex creted into the faeces. For MMA /MS and MIG/MS fumes, the excretion rates in the faeces were similar to the lung clearance rates. Urinary excretion Cr and Ni from MMA /SS fumes and Ni from MIG/SS fumes showed a fast initial excretion in the first few days and a much slower and gradually diminishing excretion thereafter. These excretions originated primarily from the elements that had dissolved in the injection saline. Small amounts of Cr were continuously found in the urine of rats administered the MIG/SS fume. CONCLUSIONS Distinct differences were detected in the lung clearance rates and the main excretion routes of the different fumes. MMA/SS fumes were cleared from the lungs primarily by dissolution and were ex creted into the urine. MIG/SS fumes were excreted very slowly into the faeces, apparently in particle form. Some of MIG/SS fumes may also have been cleared from the lungs by dissolution. MMA /MS and MIG/MS fumes were excreted mainly into the faeces as unchanged particles. Lung clearance after the intratracheal injection of activated MIG/SS fumes has been studied by A lShamma et al. . They found 1) that the fumes cleared from the lungs very rapidly, 2) that the high faecal output corresponded well with the lung clearance, and 3) that the excretion took place as unchanged particles. The dif ferences between the lung clearance rates obtained in this study and those obtained by A lShamma et al. may have been due to the many differences in the setups of the studies. A lShamma et al. used guinea pigs and exposed the trachea to an injection of as much as 1015 mg. Moreover, the elemental composition of their fumes was rather different from ours.

REFERENCE 1. AlShamma J, Hewitt J, Hicks R (1979) Ann occup Hyg 22:3341

349

MANGANESE DISTRIBUTION IN RATS AFTER THREE TYPES OF WELDING FUME EXPOSURES PL. KA LLIOMKI1, EL. LAKOMAA , . 1 , AND K. KALLIOMKI3 Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, SF00290 Helsinki, Finland ^Technical Research Centre of Finland, Reactor Laboratory, SF02150 Espoo, Finland ^University of Oulu, Department of Electrical Engineering, SF90570 Oulu, Finland INTRODUCTION Welders are exposed to fumes that may contain chromium, nickel, iron, and manganese compounds as metals or as oxides, fluorides, or carbonates and in complicated chemical combinations with each other. We have earlier reported results on the kinetics of chromium, nickel, and iron, in rats exposed to manual metal arc (MMA ) mild steel (MS) and stainless steel (SS) fumes, and metal inert gas (MIG) stainless steel (SS) welding fumes (1,2,3). This paper describes kinetics of manganese during and after exposure to these welding fumes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats (male, Wistar 300 + 15 g) underwent inhalation exposure (1 h/day, 5 d/week) to MMA/SS, MMA/MS or MIG/SS welding fumes by the noseonly technique. The manganese concentrations of the fumes were 2.2 % for MMA/SS, 2.8 % for MMA/MS and 7.9 % for MIG/SS. The exposure chamber and the generation of the welding fumes have been described earlier (1,2). The concentration of manganese in the tissues was studied after 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of exposure (24 h after the last exposure), and in a separate series, 1, 3, 8 h, and 1, 4, 7, 14, 28, 56, and 106 days after the last exposure of a 4 week exposure period. The number of rats in each group was 4. The amount of manganese in the diet was 0.1 mg/kg. Analytical methods Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INA A ) was used for the determination of manganese in the lung, liver, kidney, spleen and brain samples. Blood samples were gathered into acidwashed vials for atomic absorption spectrometric determinations. Manganese was

350
determined via the (,) reaction by measuring the
56

activity of the 846.9 keV Y-peak of

Mn (half-time 2.58 h)

about 2 h after irradiation for 10 min in a neutron flux of 12 -2 -1 10 cm s . The detection limit for the determination is 0.4 ^g/g dry weight. The reliability of the analysis was continuously followed by analyzing manganese in NBS bovine liver reference material. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table I shows the concentrations of manganese in rat lungs during and after the exposure periods to three different types of welding fumes. Lung clearance of manganese in MMA/MS welding fumes The lung concentrations of manganese decreased rapidly (first T, /_ M 0.5 d) immediately after the exposure to MMA/MS fumes; this rapid clearance was reflected also in the fact that the lung concentration of manganese after four weeks of exposure were no higher than after one week of exposure. However, the bulk (80 90 %) of the exogenous manganese disappeared more slowly (T. , f 5 d ) . This slower disappearance is very similar to that _ a of external iron (2). Also the ratio of the amounts of external iron and manganese remained very similar throughout the experiment (0.12 + 0.02). It is therefore conceivable that MMA/MS welding fumes disappear from the lungs as particles. Lung clearance of manganese in MMA/SS welding fumes For MMA/SS fumes, the fast component of manganese disappearance had a half time of 5 d, as calculated from the accumulation phase (Table I ) . Most (appr. 75 %) of manganese disappeared during the 4 weeks' cumulative exposure period. After the first day, the rest of manganese disappeared with a half time of appr. 40 d, a value very close to that of external iron (Fe ex ), chromium and nickel j (1,3). After the first four post-exposure days, the ratios Mn/Fe (0.15 + 0.03) and Mn/Cr (0.21 + 0.01) in the lungs remained stable. Thus, manganese seemed to clear from the lungs together with the other elements. Lung clearance of manganese in MIG/SS welding fumes After the exposure to MIG/SS welding fumes the lung clearance of manganese was slow (T. , PS 107 d) (Table I ) . The ratio of _

351

TABLE I MANGANESE (Mn) CONCENTRATIONS (pg/g DRY WEIGHT) IN RAT LUNGS EXPOSED TO FUMES FROM MANUAL METAL ARC MILD STEEL ( M M A / M S ) , MANUAL METAL ARC STAINLESS STEEL (MMA/SS), AND METAL INERT GAS STAINLESS STEEL (MIG/SS) WELDING FUMES Manganese in lungs, ug/g, mean + SD MMA/MS Cumulative exposure (h) 0 4 9 14 19 Clearance time (d) 0.04 0.13 0.33 1 4 7 14 28 56 106 Models During retention: in MMA/MS fumes in MMA/SS fumes in MIG/SS fumes During clearance: in MMA/MS fumes =Mn=3e-1-3t+16e--16t T^/2=0.53d; T2 / 2 = 4 .3d in MMA/SS fumes C M n=9e- 0 - 0 1 6 t +l T1/2=40d in MIG/SS fumes C M n =131e- 6 - 7 4 x 1 0 " 3 t
T

MMA/SS

MIG/SS

1.2+0.2 9.7+1.4 11.4+4.1 10.4+4.0 14.2+4.2

1.0 6.3 7.8 9.6 10.6

+0.1 +1.0 +1.4 +3.1 +1.8

1+0.1 48+ 4.5 104+13 125+11 173+23.2

21. ,0+5. .4 18. .0+3. .4 15. ,2+4. .4 14. .2+4. ,2 5. .9+2. .3 4. .4+1, .4 2. .0+0. ,5 1. ,4+0, ,5 0. ,8+0. ,5 1. .4+0. 5 .

14. .3+2..2 14, +2. .3 .1 11. ,7+2..0 10. +1. .6 .8 ,2+2..7 11. 8, ,2+2..3 6. .8+2..4 7. .3+3,.1 4. .6+2.,3 1. .68+0. .4

.5 135+35. .0 112+12. 173+23, .2 .8 132+13. .7 105+ 5, .6 109+35. 109+16. .7 77+20. ,5 71+30. ,0

C Mn =11.3(l-e-- 35t )+l C Mn =10.4(l-e--14t )+1 C w =8.7t+9.9 Mn

r=0.96 r=0.99 r=0.99

N=5 N=5 N=5

r=0.99

N=7

r=0.94

N=6

r=0.85

N=9

l/2=107d

352

manganese and nickel lung concentrations during and after the exposure was stable (1.3 + 0.1) and equal to that in the fumes (3). The lung clearance both for chromium and iron was very slow ( T l / 2 > 240 d) (3). Manganese in the other organs The concentrations of manganese in the livers (7.7 + 0.7 g/ dry weight) after exposure to MMA/SS and MS welding fumes and in the kidneys, brain, and spleen ( 3 . 0 + 0 . 4 , 1 . 5 + 0 . 4 and 1.0 + 0.3 jug/d dry weight, respectively) after exposure to MMA/SS and MIG/SS welding fumes do not differ statistically significantly (Fischer's ttest) from the values found in the controls. Increased concentrations of manganese (2.3 + 0.3 ,ug/g) were found in the brain one month after the last exposure (p < 0.05). In the kidneys exposure to MMA/MS welding fumes caused a constant elevation (maximally 40 %) (p < 0.01) in the manganese concentration; this returned to the control level within 106 d. The blood manganese concentrations were 0.1 0.2 pmol/l both in the control and exposed rats, with no statistically significant difference between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS The removal of manganese from the lungs was fastest for MMA/MS fumes, intermediate for MMA/SS fumes, and very slow for MIG/SS. With MMA/MS and MIG/SS fumes, the main route of removal seemed to be mucociliary mass movement of particles for MMA/SS, the contribution of this process was appr. 25 %. Exposure to welding fumes had little effect on the manganese content of tissues other than the lungs. REFERENCES 1. Kalliomki PL, Lakomaa EL, Kalliomki K, Kivel R, Kiilunen M (1983) Brit J Ind Med 40:229234 2. 3. Kalliomki PL, Kivel R (1983) Kalliomki PL, Kivel R (1983) Junttila ML, Kalliomki K, Lakomaa EL, Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:176180 Tuomisaari M, Lakomaa EL, Kalliomki , Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:649654

353

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF INHALED WELDING FUMES IN RAT LUNG SISKO ANTTILA, SEPPO SUTINEN Department of Pathology, University of Oulu, Kajaanintie 52 D, SF-90220 Oulu 22 (Finland) PIRKKO-LIISA KALLIOMAKI, JUHA NICKELS Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, SF-00290 Helsinki 29 AALE GREKULA AND SEPPO J.SIVONEN Institute of Electron Optics, University of Oulu, SF-90570 Oulu INTRODUCTION The size distribution and elemental composition of various welding fumes are largely known (1-2). The retention and clearance of elements has been studied by bulk analytical methods in rat lung after inhalation exposure; it was found that the same elements in different welding fumes do not behave similarly (3-4). The accumulation of endogenous iron into lungs exposed to manual metal arc mild steel welding has been reported both in animal experiments (5) and human studies (6). We studied the endogenous iron and dust contents of macrophages by light microscopy, and the ultrastructure and composition of inhaled fume particles in situ by transmission electron mixroscopy and X-ray microanalysis in lungs exposed to three different welding fumes. METHODS Exposition. Male Wistar rats were exposed in inhalation chambers (50 mg/m 3 ) to manual metal arc mild steel (MMA/MS), manual metal arc stainless steel (MMA/SS) or shieldgas stainless steel (MIG/SS) welding fumes one hour per day for four weeks. Light microscopy. Right lungs of 11 rats exposed to MMA/MS, of 11 rats exposed to MMA/SS and of 6 rats exposed to MIG/SS welding fumes were taken 24 hours after the last exposure, fixed intrabronchially with 3 % glutaraldehyde, processed conventionally and stained with haematoxylin and eosin and Berlin blue stains. The relative amounts of dust and endogenous iron in macrophages were estimated in air spaces, interstitium and lymphatic tissue without knowing the identification of specimens. Electron microscopy and x-ray microanalyses. Tissue from both lungs of 4 rats exposed to MMA/MS, of 4 rats exposed to MMA/SS and of two exposed to MIG/SS welding fumes were fixed in glutaraldehyde, postfixed in osmium tetroxide and

354
embedded in eponaraldite. Sections of 100 nm were cut on an LKB Ultrotome III ultramicrotome and placed on copper grids coated with formvar and carbon. Particle aggregates and single particles were photographed with transmission mode of a JEOL TEMSCAN 100CX electron microscope and the elemental compositions of the same particles analysed with scanning transmission mode and PGT 1000 energy dispersive spectrometer. The relative intensities of the elements in the spectra were converted by a "ratio" method (78) to weight fractions of elements in particles. The mean compositions of particle types in tissue were calculated and compared to those of the same fumes in air samples (1). RESULTS Light microscopical findings. The relative amounts of endogenous iron and dust in the macrophages in the air spaces are shown in Figure 1. Dust or iron contents of interstitial and lymphatic macrophages did not differ significantly between lungs exposed to different fumes. Slight acute alveolitis with granulo mas was observed in most lungs of MMA/MS group, in some of the MMA/SS and MIG/SS groups and not in controls, but the differences between the fume types were not significant. MMA/MS N = 27 MMA/SS N = 14 MIG/SS N = 13

30 20 10
1 2 3 < 0.05 < 0.01 < 0.001 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 = endogenous iron dominates 2= equal amounts 3= dust dominates

Fig.1.

Relative amounts of endogenous iron and dust in macrophages of air spaces.

Ultrastructural and analytical findings. In lungs exposed to MMA/MS welding two main particle types were seen at the alveolar level: the first irregular in shape, 50200 nm in size rich of light elements, and the second round in shape, 7100 nm in size and metal rich (Table 1). In lung tissue particles of the first type had lost most of their potassium and calcium but iron was too high probably

355

TABLE 1 COMPOSITION* OF MMA/MS FUME PARTICLES IN AIR SAMPLES AND IN LUNG Population I (50-200 nm)

Na
Air Lung

Al

Si
8 12 28 1

Ca
29 2

Ti

Mn
7 13

Fe
24 67

Population II (7-100 nm)

Na Al Si

10

Ca

Ti

Fe 86 92

Air Lung

3 5

1 2

* Compositions normalized to 100 % by weight. because of endogenous iron. Also in lungs exposed to MMA/SS fume two main particle types were found: particles of the first type were 100-200 nm and those of the second type 5-100 nm in size (Fig.2). Table 2 shows the compositions of both particle types in air and lung specimens.

200

nm

Fig.2. Transmission electron micrograph of MMA/SS fume particles of the first (thick arrow) and of the second type (thin arrows) in an alveolar macrophage.

356

TABLE 2 COMPOSITION* OF MMA/SS FUME PA RTICLES IN AIR SAMPLES AND IN LUNG Population I (100200 nm) Na A l Air Lung 19 2 11 Si 22 61 35 3 Ca 3 Ti 2 8 Cr 6 1 5 4 Fe 8 9 Ni 1

Population II (5100 nm) Na A l Air Lung 7 3 Si 5 14 17 1 Ca 2 Ti 3 Cr 11 10 1 3 Fe 48 51 Ni 11 13

* Compositions normalized to 100 ". by weight. < In lung tissue the first population had lost almost all of its sodium, potassium and chromium and some of its manganese and iron but the second population only sodium and potassium. MIG/SS welding produced to the alveolar level only one particle type, which by the size and shape of particles resembled much the second pulmonary population of MMA/SS fume. The mean compositions of the particles in air and lung specimens did not differ from each other. REFERENCES 1. Grekula A , Peura R, Sivonen SJ (1985) In this Proceedings 2. Stern RM (1977) A Chemical, Physical and Biological A ssay of Welding Fumes, Part I. Fume Characteristics. The Danish Welding Institute Publication 77.05 Copenhagen. Kalliomki PL, Lakomaa E, Kalliomki , Kiilunen M, Kivel R, Vaaranen V (1983) Br J Ind Med 40:229234 Kalliomki PL, Tuomisaari M, Lakomaa EL, Kalliomki K, Kivel R (1983) Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:649654 Kalliomki PL, Junttila ML, Kalliomki K, Lakomaa EL, Kivel R (1983) Scand J Work Environ Health 9176180 Kalliomki PL, Sutinen S, Kelh V, Lakomaa E, Sortti V, Sutinen Sirkka (1979) Br J Ind Med 36:224230

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. Cliff G, Lorimer GW (1975) J Microsc 103:203207 8. A nttila S, Sutinen S, Pkk , Alapieti , Peura R, Sivonen SJ (1984) Br J Ind Med 41:468473

357

STARLING EQUA TION A DA PTED TO OXIDANT GA S INJURY TEE LAMONT GUIDOTTI Occupational Health Program, 13103 Clinical Sciences Bldg., University of Alberta Faculty of Medicine, Edmonton, Alberta, CANADA T6G 2G3 INTRODUCTION The lung is highly vulnerable to flooding by plasmaderived fluid. The relationship presumed to describe fluid and protein flux in the lung is the Starling Equation. The Starling relationship for net transvascular fluid flow (QJ balances hydrostatic pressures (p) and osmotic pressures () arising in the microvascular bed (subscript c) and pericapillary interstitium (subscript i):1,2 Q f = PfA [(p c P ^ (~c .)] PfA is usually expressed as K f , the permeability characteristics of the mem brane. In reality, K f consists of the product of the "hydraulic conductivity" or membrane permeability to water (P f ) and the surface area of the membrane (A); this distinction may be very important. The coefficient a is termed the "re flective coefficient" and refers to the completeness of the barrier to the passage of plasma proteins, the solutes of significance in generating the osmotic gradient. Consider a hypothetical model in which all components of the Starling rela tionship are known for a section of lung near the top of physiologic Zone III. The section is selected because it is usually involved clinically in alveolar pulmonary edema. Tentative but plausible mammalian values for the variables in 1 2 the Starling Equation are: ' = 10 torr, at this location in Zone III; p. = 15 torr; = 25 torr; . = 19 torr; = 0.8 in physiologic state; = 1.0, a plausible value. Since K f = P f A, simplify the model by examining only that volume of tissue in the section containing 1.0 cm of initially per fused endothelial surface, so that P f = 1.0 in the physiologic state. This simplified model yields a transvascular fluid flow in the physiologic state of (cm3/h100g wet lung): Q = 1.0[(10 (5) 0.8 (25 19)] = 10.2 Extension of the Traditional Equation In the case of endothelial toxicity, problems arise which are not encountered in the traditional treatment of the topic which emphasizes the cardiogenic and hypervolemic cases. If the endothelium is altered in such a way that the in trinsic permeability characteristics of the endothelial surface change, then Pf is the term which increases. On the other hand, the other component of K f ) the surface area A , may also change. There is good evidence, for example, that perfusion redistributes after inhalation of agents such as nitrogen dioxide.3' 4 This alteration in perfusion may minimize early changes in Q f by reducing A ,

150 140H 130 120

O) / . Pr C

f 100
= .

E 80
70

60 50
40 30 20
Physiotogic Stale

101 Area of Microvascular Surface Perfused (cm ) Fig. 1. Model of response of fluid flux (Q,) to changes in area perfused (A).

10

Fig. 2 Model of Response of fluid flux (Q f ) to changes in membrane characteristics after oxidant gas injury

359

thereby reducing the magnitude of expression of injury resulting from the in crease in P f . In other words, the change in permeability may be partially off set by a reduction in the surface area, reducing fluid loss by transudation. This aspect of the problem and its obvious adaptive implications have not been studied. Another problem in the pathophysiology of endothelial injury is thatP_ and are almost certainly closely associated properties of the endothelium because they both relate to membrane and junctional characteristics. A lthough the Star ling equation assumes that is a membrane characteristics independent of P f , this is not a logical assumption. It is more likely that both are determined by related physicochemical properties of the membrane under conditions of toxic injury. In the aftermath of acute toxic injury structural disorganization and damage to membrane functional mechanisms are likely to lead to gross effects re lated to the integrity of the cell membrane. The Starling Equation does not allow for the treatment of P, and as covariables. A more reasonable form of the equation assumes that a relationship exists be tween P, and , both being determined by a membrane characteristic or aggregate of characteristics which might be termed . (The Greek letter zeta is proposed on the inspiration of a colleague who remarked "that could be a zillion differ ent things.") Both P, and may then be expressed as functions of . Thus: Q f = [P f U ) A ] [p c P i ) () (c .)] It is understood that A is not fixed, but varies during and after the exposure. Table 1 describes how the anticipated behaviour of the variables P f , A, and are likely to affect Q f . TABLE I DIVERGENCE FROM THE STARLING EQUA TION IN OXIDANT GAS INJURY Term Affected A Probable Effect Increased with increasing injury Varies with vascular response Tends toward 0 with injury Net Effect on Q f Increased Reduced, initially Increased

Predictions Of The Extended Model Figure 1 describes the response of Q f in the model to changes in A, the sur face area of endothelium, assuming that the pattern of redistribution does not significantly affect . Since the pulmonary vasculature is a lowpressure system and recruitment of vascular channels is facilitated, this is probably a safe assumption. The effect of redistributing the area perfused, and thereby reducing A becomes obvious in this model. Over the lower range of plausible

360

values for , after endothelial injury, alterations in perfusion may be protec tive by reducing transvascular fluid flow into the interstitial space. Once en dothelial permeability is greatly compromised, however, the process of edema for mation is not likely to be constrained further by this mechanism. Figure 2, on the other hand, describes the behavior of the model under certain assumptions of changes in endothelial integrity. If the reflective coefficient for macromolecules is unchanged despite enormous alterations in permeability to water, the relationship between Q, and P f is simply linear. This seems very un likely, however. A toxic injury capable of causing great changes in permeability to water is obviously likely to cause drastic changes in impedance to the passage of macromolecules. For the sake of visualizing this relationship, assume that P f and are both related to in such a way that as changes, every unit change in P f is asso ciated with a 0.1 unit change in . (This is a plausible but conservative as sumption that suggests that at P f = 5.0, the barrier described by o permits the passage of half the activity previously excluded.) Such a relationship predicts a quadratic function to describe the correlation between Q f and P f . A s can be seen, the divergence between values of Q f predicted by either assumption is not great, given the uncertainties of the model. Thus, the effect of simultaneous changes in accompanying changes in P, is probably not detectable at the present state of the art, although the problem remains of theoretical interest due to its implications for membrane functions. Implications for Research Possible directions for further investigation include the following: 1. What is the magnitude, distribution, and time course of the perfusion response to toxic oxidant inhalation? 2. What is the time course of permeability changes induced by toxic oxidant in halation? 3. To what degree do the vascular response and permeability alterations each con tribute to the time delay in edema formation? 4. What therapeutic interventions are possible based on a manipulation of these responses? REFERENCES 1. Hurley JV (1978) J Pathol 125:5979 2. Staub NC (1974) Am Rev Resp Dis 109:358372 3. Von Nieding G (1973) Int Arch Arbeitsmed 31:6172 4. Guidotti TL (1980) Exper Molec Pathol 33:90103

EPIDEMIOLOGY

Epidemiological Studies of Respiratory and Other Diseases Among Welders

363

RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONAL IMPAIRMENT IN METAL WELDERS: INTERPRETATION OF CURRENT DATA

AN

Kaye H. Kilburn, M.D. Environmental Sciences Laboratory, University of Southern California School of Medicine, 2025 Zonal Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90033 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to answer the question "What is the nature of respiratory functional impairment from welding metals?", including the site and extent of such impairment and the relationship to specific exposure. Our approach is to analyze the results of studies of respiratory function in welders together with prevalence of respiratory symptoms and to discuss the inferences which can be made. It is intended as a critical review following a chronological order without attempting to be exhaustive. It concludes with recent observations on welders, before and after shifts, made by our laboratory and analyzed by cigarette smoking duration specific comparisons to a population of men from a stratified random sample of Michigan. Welding, which is the commonest method of joining metals, exposes approximately 2% of the work force in developed countries, over 2.5 million full-time workers to the fumes of metallic oxides and oxidant gases, including ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Countless other workers are somewhat less exposed to these agents by virtue of being part-time welders or working at other jobs, such as in shipyards, where they are exposed to welding fumes. Although welders have been recognized for sometime to have excessive respiratory symptoms, especially chronic cough and phlegm production, the effects of welding on pulmonary function have been less clear. Some of the difficulty resulted from comparison of welders to other shipyard workers, all of whom have been exposed to the effects of asbestos and the failure to separate the effects of cigarette smoking. Recent development of pulmonary function values on current and ex-smokers in a stratified random sample of the Michigan population makes possible comparisons within smoking categories, that is, allowance for smoking effects in occuptionally exposed workers. One of the reasons that the

364 effects of welding may have been under appreciated is that Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and Forced Expiratory Volume in one second (FEVi) have been measured to the exclusion of Forced Expiratory Flow from 25 to 75 percent expired (FEF25-75) and Forced Expiratory Flow from 75 to 85 percent expired (FEF75_s5). It is also evident that in welders, the recording of expiratory flow has been, in some cases, stopped before completion of expiration, resulting in a FVC and that this early termination has produced art ifactually high air flow values together with FEV^/FEV ratios above 80%. Furthermore, a sensitive technique, which is to observe changes in flow rates across a workshift in each worker has not been applied to welders (1). This method has been used extensively to examine the response to diisocyanate, to cotton dust, to Canadian red cedar and to detergent enzymes and has been useful in the identification and quantification of occupational asthma due to other agents as well. Finally, the technique of measuring decrements of function across lapsed time in months and years which utilizes again, the individual as his own control or standard for comparison, permits comparison of the effects of one or more exposures to the decrement expected in age, height and sex matched individuals who do not smoke. This technique was applied by Fletcher, et al (2), to show that decrements across time for asymptomatic smokers can be approximated from the values at the same height and age of a population. Such longitudinal comparisons help determine whether the acute effects of the exposure translate into larger decrements across time. TARGET ZONE - TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES It is useful, before reviewing the published studies, to consider that welding fumes and gases are a complex mixture consisting of oxides of the various metals in the welding rod and base metal together with the flux or coating materials on the rod and the gases particularly, ozone and oxides of nitrogen together with carbon monoxide produced by combustion. It has been shown that welding fume consists of particles of approximately 2 Jim. in diameter. What this means is that these particles are respirable

365

into the distal airways and alveolar spaces of the human lung. It also means that the metallic oxide crystals may adsorb on their surfaces molecules of ozone and nitrogen oxide. It has been shown previously that even pure carbon particles in an atmosphere of ozone, NO2 or formaldehyde, will adsorb gases and thereby change their effects (3). The target cells, the cuboidal epithelial cells of terminal bronchioles and alveolar ducts are thus exposed to particles which are chemically active. There is further evidence that hexavalent chromium may catalyze oxidant damage to cell membranes. Thus, we have the most vulnerable part of the tracheobronchial tree exposed to an ideal aerosol which may s timulate -raucousproduction by causing the epithelium to undergo goblet cell metaplasia. Cilia are lost and thus, a mucous burden is produced in small airways where the mucociliary escalator is damaged. Mucus production may lead to obstruction of the terminal bronchioles which each supply approximately 5,000 alveoli. If damage is prolonged or repeated the subepithelial connective tissue may be stimulated with the production of polypoid masses growing into lumens or the distortion of the lumens by concentric or epicentric scarring. This produces permanent obstruction. Thus, it appears that welding fumes, like cigarette smoke, are ideal in size, heavily concentrated and contain active chemical materials, either native to them or adsorbed, which damage cells. One would predict that the initial detectable human effect of welding fumes on pulmonary function would be reduction in flow rates in small airways or the terminal portion of the FVC. Thus, we may begin with the bias that the impairment to be looked for is reduction in FEF75_35 or altered distribution of inspired gas. This altered distribution is measurable in a number of ways but the alveolar volume determined with helium (ALV) in the course of measuring the diffusing capacity by the single breath carbon monoxide technique (DLCOsb) provides a method which is applicable to field studies of workers. REVIEW Evidence that ozone or nitrogen oxides can produce adverse effects on the respiratory system was published from animal experiments as early as 1929. Metal fume fever had been described earlier.

366

Through the 1930's and 1940's there were reports of welder's siderosis (for a historical review see Hunnicutt (4)). TABLE 1 - SHIPYARD WELDERS -- NEWPORT NEWS CS Smoker W 71 C 59 4.15 3.99 2.77* 2.66* 5.23* 3.08 3.19 7.83 Nonsmoker C 41 W 29 4.31 3.09 3.39 6.15 4.32 3.31 3.68 7.53

VC FEV! FEF25. -75 Peak 1Flow * p<.01

A well designed study of shipyard welders (W) compared to a control group of nonwelders (C) was carried out at Newport News, Virginia (4), Table 1. One hundred electrical arc welders had reduced Peak Expiratory Flows (PEF) and reduced FEF25-75 together with reduction in FEV}. Comparison of the smokers with the nonsraokers showed that among smokers FEVj, PEF and FEF25_75 were significantly reduced. Such differences were not seen for nonsmokers. However, the mean FVC was reduced for the entire group of shipyard workers who averaging slightly over 4 liters or about 20% below predicted normal (5,6,7,8). TABLE 2 - SHIPYARD WELDERS - BOSTON Welders TLC L FVC L FEV! L DLCO RV L 61 CS 5.81 4.01 3.1 22.9 1.80 NS 5.45 3.88 3.0 24.5 1.57 Pipefitters 63 CS-NS 5.56 3.79 2.90 22.4 1.77

TLC=Total Lung Capacity, Residual Volume=RV. DLCOsb = Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide, single breath Shipyard welders were compared with pipefitters and pipe coverers from a shipyard population in a 1973 study (9), Table 2. Both groups were found to have increased TLC's, FEF25_75's, FVC's and

367

reduced DLCO's compared to current comparison populations. However, because the authors made internal comparison among shipyard workers who were moderately to heavily exposed to asbestos, the differences between the groups were not apparent. Moreover, the values for current cigarette smokers were not different from the values for nonsraokers. When both welders and pipefitters were compared to Boston policemen, the FVC's were 85% of predicted and FEVj's were 76% to 79% of predicted. Although, these may be within the clinical range of normal for assessing an individual subject when such values are the mean values of populations they are significantly different from normal. TABLE 3 - ELECTRIC ARC - BASIC ELECTRODES Welders Controls Simple bronchitis 24 14 Colds 23 11 Hoarseness 21 6 Sore throat 43 27 Catarrh, bronchitis, pneumonia, cough breathlessness,raucopurruient bronchitis not different TABLE 4 - ELECTRIC ARC - BASIC ELECTRODES number FVC FEV! FEV^FVC % Welders 157 (36y) 4.95 3.96 80 Controls 108 (37y) 4.83 3.94 81.4

The effect of shipyard exposure is illustrated by the Finnish study of welders in engineering shops (10). These workers had significantly increased prevalences of bronchitis, Table 3. At a mean age of 36.1 years their FVC's and FEVj's were normal but the FEV1/FVC ratio was 80% illustrating the artifact of early termination of expiratory effort, Table 4. These men were not separated into smoking groups and most of them had welded from 5 to 14 years for as much as 16 hours a day.

368

TABLE 5 - ELECTRIC ARC WELDERS- SHIPYARD

welders .
FVC FEV! FEF 25 _75 TLC 75 5.03 3.92 3.70 6.06

NS & ES Controls 53 5.49 4.26 3.92 6.63

welders .

Smokers Controls 44 37 4.96 5.07 3.71 3.90 3.28 6.04 3.59 6.22

A study of Swedish shipyard workers showed that their TLC's were reduced in both smoking and nonsmoking welders as compared to clerks (11), Table 5. FVC and FEVj were also decreased. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in TLC welders compared to controls. TABLE 6 - SHIPYARD WELDERS - NEWCASTLE CS NS Welders Controls 107 59 4.91* 5.07 3.63* 3.82 9.43 9.30 Welders Controls 102 50 5.10* 5.40 3.92* 4.27 10.66 11.21

FVC FEV! DLC0

Comparison of 209 welders and 109 nonwelding controls in a Newcastle, England shipyard (12), Table 6, showed significant differences for the whole group for FVC and FEVj and these differences were maintained when the nonsraokers were analyzed separately. Analysis of the DLC0 showed no significant differences either for the whole group or the smoking subgroups. However, analysis of the DLC0 by regression analysis with age showed a steeper decrease with advancing age in welders than in controls. Such a difference was not seen for FVC or FEVj, unfortunately, midflow and terminal flow were not measured. In one of the few studies differentiating between welding processes, mainly, between manual metal arc (MMA) and tungsten inert gas (TIG), Kalliomaki and associates (13,14), showed significant deviation from reference values for FVC, the instantaneous flows at 50% and 75% of FVC and for the DLCOsb. No

369

significant differences were found for smoking effect but the method of analysis is not clear. These same authors analyzed changes in these parameters of respiratory function across the interval from 1976 to 1982 in a small group of welders (15). Although FVC and FEV^ did not change during the interval, DLCOsb decreased in nonsmokers, smokers and ex-smokers. When the same group was divided by their exposure to welding, only the retirees with a mean age of 60 showed significant differences. Once again, DLCOsb decreased the most in the moderate to heavily exposed welders as well as in retirees. There were large age differences and how these were adjusted for in the analysis is not described. Also, the four groups included only 46 welders. Although individual studies are flawed by one or more of the following difficulties, first, comparison of welders to other shipyard workers both groups of which are exposed to asbestos, second, ignoring the effects of cigarette smoking and third, one or more studies have early termination of FVC, a general picture emerges. This appears to be a loss in TLC as measured by dilution methods (which underestimate volume when there is airway obstruction). It appears that the volume of lung available to exchange or equilibrate gas is reduced. In most of the studies there is a reduction in FVC which accompanies the reduction in TLC and with this a reduction of FEVj. In those studies in which flow rates were measured and comparisons were made there appear to be reductions, particularly in the flow at 75% of FVC. Lastly, it appears as though DLCOsb, which is highly dependent upon the ALV, is reduced and that it is progressively reduced with age and with increasing duration of exposure to welding gas and fumes. In the single study which compared MMA with TIG welding (13), there were sizeable and statistically significant differences in the reductions in FVC, flow rates and DLCOsb with MMA welding. This finding would be consistent with response to a much greater exposure to gas and fumes. In an ongoing study of the Devonport Dockyard, McMillan (16,17) has tried to determine whether welders have excesses in morbidity and mortality. He found that welders have slightly above average frequency and severity of absence due to respiratory disease as

370

compared with boilermakers, electrical fitters and shipwrights. But the greatest difference was that they took longer spells of absence. In a further study (17), in which mortality was examined for 131 welders and 2,437 controls, analysis of the causes of death showed no significant differences between the welders and two other shipyard worker groups. In all, there were high incidences of mesothelioma and of carcinoma of the bronchus. However, fifty-two deaths in welders were too few to permit conclusions. No excess deaths from pneumonia, bronchitis or other respiratory illnesses were noted. One study from the United States also found excess deaths from lung cancer among shipyard welders (18). Our study of welders began in 1981 with two objectives, to determine the baseline pulmonary function of welders compared to a nonshipyard, non Los Angeles comparison group (7,8) and to measure the cross shift changes in respiratory function in those welding aluminum, stainless steel and mild steel. The study was designed to interview each welder briefly and measure his FVC and flow rates before he went to work on a Monday morning. After a full workshift, each welder returned to the field laboratory for a second measurement of FVC and flow rates together with a diary of welding exposure during the day, including metal used, rods, type of welding and surface coating materials and protective equipment. A respiratory questionnaire and a questionnaire for cross shift symptoms was completed by the welder with the assistance of the field staff to define standard bronchitis, wheezing and shortness of breath. Questions were those of the British MRC questionnaire as adopted by DLD-78 (19). We also inquired about pneumonia, respiratory illnesses, time lost from work, chest pain, pressure or heaviness. The inventory of symptoms experienced during the work shift included feverishness, chills, thirst, fatigue, headaches, muscle aches, metallic taste, hoarseness, sore throat and chest tightness. This constitutes the symptom list for metal fume fever (20). Spirograms were recorded on either an Ohio rolling seal spirometer or on Stead-Wells spirometers. These were calibrated repeatedly with a large syringe during the study. Measurements were made with the subject standing, wearing a nose clip and following the

371

American Thoracic Society criteria (21). The best effort was digitized, the values computed for FVC, FEVj, FEF25-75 and FEFy5_ 35. These values were compared to those from the stratified random sample of Michigan for current and ex-smokers of cigarettes and for nonsraokers. The after shift spirometry curves were made isovolume to the morning curves for the calculation of flow rates. RESULTS The welders were equally distributed among those who had never smoked cigarettes, 73, and those who had smoked, 75. The symptoms were compared to the stratified random sample of Michigan men in a smoking specific manner. Cross shift symptoms were compared to 29 hospital employees with a similar age and ethnic and smoking composition, all of which were men. TABLE 7 - WELDERS COMPARED TO MICHIGAN MEN CS Phlegm 3mo/2y SOB >40 steps 33.9/26.6 14.3/7.0 ExS 31.6/9.8 21.1/6.1 31.6/7.8 47.4/6.3 NS 23.3/3.3 31.5/1.5 27.4/1.4 38.4/4.4

Wheeze 30.4/13.0 Chest heaviness at work 44.6/6.2

There was a large difference in the prevalence of phlegm production for 3 months for the past 2 years, Table 7. In nonsraokers, the prevalence was seven fold greater than Michigan men and it was increased further in ex- and current smokers, 33.9% in the latter. Shortness of breath on climbing two flights (40 steps) was also much increased and was highest in nonsmokers. Wheezing was also increased and showed a very slight smoking gradient for increase from nonsraokers to current smokers. Chest heaviness was the most frequent symptom and occurred in 38Z to 47% of the welders.

372

TABLE 8 - SYMPTOM PREVALENCES Today, during or after welding, did you develop? CS ExS NS Con. 37.5 31.6 31.5 15 Cough 21.1 12.3 19.6 19 Hoarse 32.1 36.8 28.8 15 Sputum 25.0 10.5 27.4 0 Chest tightness 5.2 15.1 4 Wheeze 21.4 Palpitations, >HR Headache Fever Muscular aches, metallic taste 12.5 30.4 8.9 28.6 15.8 10.5 10.5 26.3 6.8 26.0 11.0 37.0 0 25 0 17

The symptoms during welding were shown in Table 8. Of the nine symptoms, seven were significantly more frequent in welders. Only hoarseness and headache were equal in the control group. Cough and sputum were approximately twice as frequent, chest tightness occurred in up to 25% compared to none in controls and wheezing ranged from 5% to 21% and only 4Z in controls. Palpitations and the symptoms of metal fever; separately fever, muscle ache, metallic taste were also greatly increased.

373

TABLE 9 - SPIROMETRY IN MALE WELDERS B Y NONSMOKERS, CURRENT SMOKERS AND EX-SMOKERS NS CS ExS Number Age Height Smoking (yrs) Welding (yrs) Present job (yrs) FVC pre FVC post FEVj pre FEVj post FEF25_75 pre FEF25_75 post FEF 7 5 _ 8 5 pre
FEF

73 Meansd 37.09.7 67.2+2.8 O 11.3+7.5 6.4+4.3 4.46+.72 4.45.76 3.54+.56 3.53.58 3.61*1.29 3.49+1.20 0.99+.48 0.90+.53 17

57 Meanisd 38.09.3 68.8+2.8 18.2+9.1 10.5+7.2 5.64.6 4.07.69 4.06+..71 3.29+.58 3.28+.59 3.461.07 3.37+1.17 1.00.54 0.84+.57 12

18 Meanisd 41.111.3 67.6+3.4 11.9t9.3 16.5+13.6 8.6+8.5 4.55.85 4.58+.78 3.68.77 3.70+..73 3.71+.1.38 4.091.34 1.06+.57 1.04.57 5

75-85 P s t

D e c > 5 % in FVC or FEV!

Pulmonary function is shown for the three smoking groups compared to the Michigan population as percent predicted. The nonsmokers had significant reductions in FVC (4.3%), FEV (9%), FEF25-75 (4.4%) and in FEFy5_35 (14.4%). The current smokers were more abnormal even though compared specifically to the Michigan smokers. Thus, the differences shown are already adjusted for smoking effect. FVC was 81.5% and FEVjto 83.1% of predicted. These large reductions in FVC effectively amputated the slow (effort independant) portion of the expiratory flow and brought the mid and terminal flow FEF25_75 and FEFy5_35 to normal.

374 TABLE 10 - WELDERS COMPARED TO MICHIGAN MEN as Percentage, Smoking Specific NS Number FVC L FEV! L FEF25-75 L/s FEF 75-85 L/s Decrement of 5% in FVC/FEVi 73 95.7 91.0 95.6 85.6 23.3 CS 57 81.5 83.1 97.6 101.7 21.1 ExS 18 97.6 95.5 101.0 99.1 27.8

In the slightly older ex-smokers, a small group, there were no significant abnormalities. This was an inhomogeneous group of older survivors with normal function and 3 young men with large chests (over 6 liter FVC) who probably do not reflect the functional status of an average ex-smoking population of welders In order to make the cross shift comparisons of function, we regarded any welder who worked for an hour or more on stainless steel to belong to that group and an hour or more on aluminum to be an aluminum welder. Very few of the cohort worked entire shifts on either stainless steel or aluminum. A very small number worked on both. The mean cross shift differences are shown in Table 11. The aluminum welding had little effect on FEF^ or FVC. The welding of mild or black steel caused a small decrease in nonsraokers but an increase of 50 ml in FVC and 80 ml in FEVj. When nonsraokers welded stainless steel they had slightly greater decreases in FEV 1 and FVC then when nonsraokers welded mild steel. However, when the smokers welded stainless steel, they had decreases of 130 ml in FEVj and 110 ml in FVC. These contrasted with net increases for mild steel welders and, in effect, doubled the cross shift difference.

375

TABLE 11 - MEAN CROSS SHIFT CHANGES IN FORCED VITAL CAPACITY AND FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME IN 1 SECOND FOR GROUPS OF WELDERS B Y B ASE METAL EXPOSURE AND CIGARETTE SMOKING STATUS (NONSMOKERS AND EVER SMOKERS) Aluminum Smoking Number FEVj ml FVC ml status Blac k Steel

NS 20 -40 -40

ES 25 -30 -10

NS 37

ES 54
+ 50 + 80

St ainl ess Steel ES NS 16 11

-90 -80

-70 -30

-130 -110

DISCUSSION

The hypothesis was advanced that terminal bronchioles, the so called small airways are the target for welding fumes and gases and that welders should show reductions in mid, and especially terminal

flows, and furthermore, that such reductions would be seen clearly in the nonsraokers. of function. In fact, cigarette smokers showed greater loses

The nonsmoking men, who had a prevalence of almost

30% of phlegm production and 2 0 % of wheezing, had terminal flows almost 15% below predicted, considered as group means. also significantly reduced. Cigarette smokers had only FEV was slightly

more symptomotology but had lost significantly more volume as reflected by FVC and F E V j . effectively amputated These reductions, of almost 2 0 % , expiratory

their slow components of forced

flow, restoring the mid and terminal flow rates to normal.

Smokers and nonsraokers have been practically free of asbestos exposure across their careers. Furthermore, their mean interval

from initial shipyard work is only 10 years, thus, confounding by effects of asbestosis is unlikely. However they have been exposed Thus we

to the ambient air pollution of the Los Angeles region.

may have a synergisim between welding and ambient pollution in the nonsmokers as well as in the cigarette smokers whose years of smoking appear to add to this synergism. In the context of our small

previous studies (22,23 ) , we would predict relatively

effects on flow rates, particularly terminal flows and reduction in FEVj but not FVC because of the recent exposure to ambient air for an average duration of 10 years.

376

The fact that this study was done on a group of shipyard welders who live in Los Angeles and are therefore exposed to ambient air pollution provides an opportunity to identify additive or synergistic effects. To examine this further we have compared the welders to hospital employees of similar ethnic composition and age on a smoking specific basis. Small airways flow reductions were present, but this impairment was not reflected in FVC or FEVi (24). In conclusion, the data supports the hypothesis advanced earlier that the principal effects of respirable particles and adsorbed gases or free gases in welding fumes are on the small airways or terminal bronchioles. This target is the same as that for cigarette smoke and for oxidant ambient air pollution. The effects in these relatively young men with 10 years welding exposure have made their pulmonary function less than that of hospital employees who do not weld and substantially less than men from the population of Michigan, a midwestern industrial state. However, the most profound change is in those who smoke cigarettes, in whom further changes have occurred, that is loss of volume from vital capacity and FEVj. Further studies which will measure distribution of gas, that is reduced alveolar volume derived during measurement of DLCOsb, by distribution of air measured with monodispersed aerosol inhalation or by the failure to find a difference between flow-volume curves with helium-oxygen compared to air (nitrogen-oxygen) should help confirm this inference. The other observations of differential response of pulmonary functions measured cross shift to the inhalation of fumes and gases from welding stainless steel, mild steel and aluminum are provocative. It appears that smokers are more susceptible to fumes of stainless steel welding containing hexavalent chromium than are nonsmokers and that these smokers cross shift decreases are greater than those of smokers welding mild steel, who improve cross shift. These are sizeable differences, as group means and suggest a specific adverse effect from stainless steel fumes which would be attributed to hexavalent chromium. The observation of these changes should be confirmed and extended with further studies. For example, it would be interesting to know whether this response is reversed with bronchodilators. This appears to be the first study of cross shift changes in welders, although, the Swedish shipyard

377 study (7) mentioned observations of a small group of welders cross shift which showed no differences. The finding of virtually no cross shift change with aluminum welding raises the possibility that aluminum oxide reduces or ameliorates the effects of the high levels of ozone produced during aluminum welding. Alternately, it could reflect the fact that aluminum welding is either done in a well ventilated fabricating shed or on the superstructure of vessels under construction in the open air. Here again, further investigations would seem prudent before drawing conclusions. REFERENCES 1. Kilburn KH, Warshaw R (1985) Grune & Stratton Inc, New York, in press 2. Fletcher C, Peto R, Tinker C, Speizer FE (1976) The Natural History of Chronic Bronchitis and Emphysema, Oxford Univ Press, New York 3. Kilburn KH (1984) Environ Health Pers 55:97-109 4. Hunnicutt Jr. TN, Cracovaner DJ, Myles JT (1964) Arch Environ Health 8:661-669 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Morris JF, Koski A, Johnson LC (1971) Am Rev Respir Dis 103:57-67 Morris JF, Koski A, Brese JD (1975) Am Rev Respir Dis 111:755-762 Miller A, Thornton JC, Warshaw R, Anderson H, Teirstein AS, Selikoff IJ (1983) Am Rev Respir Dis 127:270-277 Miller A, Thornton JC, Warshaw R, Bernstein J, Teirstein AS, Selikoff IJ (1985) Submitted for publication Peters JM, Murphy RLH, Ferris BG, Burgess WA, Ranadive MV, Perdengrass HP (1973) Arch Environ Health 26:28-31 Antti-Poika M, Hassi J, Pyy L (1977) Int Arch Occup Environ Hlth 40:225-230 Oxhoj H, Bake B, Wedel H, Wilhelmsen L (1979) Arch Environ Hlth 34:211-217 Akbarkhanzadeh F (1980) J Occup Med 22:337-341 Kalliomaki P-L, Kallioraaki K, Korhonen 0, Nordman H, Rahkonen E, Vaaranen V (1982) Scand J Work Environ Health 8:117-121 Rahkonen E, Kalliomaki P-L, Junttila M-L, Korhonen 0 (1985) Inst Occup Health Report Helsinki 29, Finland

14.

378

15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

Kalliomaki P-L, Junttila M-L, Korhonen 0, Rahkonen E, Kalliomaki (1985) Inst Occup Health Report Helsinki 29, Finland McMillan GHG (1979) Ann Occup Hyg 21:377-392 McMillan GHG, Pethybridge RJ (1983) J Soc Occup Med 33:75-84 B eaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1981) J Occup Med 23:839-844 Ferris Jr. BG (1978) Recommended Respiratory Disease Questionnaires for use with Adults and Children in Epidemiology Research, Am Rev Resp Dis 118:7-36 McCord CP (1960) Industr Med Surg 29:101-107 ATS statement- Snowbird workshop on standardization of spirometry (1979) Am Rev Resp Dis 119:831-838 Kilburn KH, Warshaw R, Thornton JC (1985) Amer J Med, in press Kilburn Kh, Warshaw R, Einstein K, Bernstein J (1985) Arch Environ Health, in press Kilburn KH, Warshaw R, Boylen CT, Johnson S, Seidman B, DeFlorio G (1985) Arch Environ Health, in press

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

379

EFFECTS OF LONG TERM EXPOSURE TO ARC WELDING FUMES ON RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS AND PULMONARY FUNCTION. Results of epidemiological surveys conducted in three factories. MUR J . M . * , PHAM Q . T . * * , MEYERB ISCH C.*, DIEB OLD F.*, SALSI S. MASSIN .*,MOULIN J . J . * , TECULESCU D . * * , CAVELIER C . * , with the technical assistance of : HENQUEL J . C . * * , B AUDIN V.*, B ETZ M . * , TOAMAIN J.P.*.

Surveys on respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function in arc welders were conducted in three factories (A, B , C). MATERIAL AND METHODS Factories A and C manufacture trailers and tanks for trucks. Factory is an electro mechanical engineering plant making turbines, alternators and reactors for the nuclear industry. These factories are of different sizes ; factory A : 400 employees (about 80 welders) ; factory : 9600 employees (about 300 welders) ; factory C : 1400 employees (about 350 welders). Mild steel is the most commonly welded metal (70% to 80%) ; aluminium (20% to 30%) is welded in factories A and C for manufacturing tanks ; stainless steel represents a small percentage of the welded metals in the three factories. Manual welding with coated electrodes is still a commonly used method in factory B , but semiautomatic processes MIG (Metal Inert Gas) or MAG (Metal Activ Gas) are techniques used almost exclusively in factories A and C. Air sampling for analysis (dusts and gas) was performed in the atmosphere of workshops and at the welders' mouth. Welders (or exwelders) were defined as the ones who devote at least 40% of their working time to welding. All the welders in factories A and C, and only those of the boilermaking workshop in factory were included in the surveys ; they were 536, whose average length of employment was 16 years. In each factory, a control group (almost the same number as the welders) was formed. This group was choosen among other workers who where neither welders nor workers exposed to a known occupational risk (eg painters were not included in the control groups).

380

The occupational career of each worker was retraced. For welders, the occupational exposure was assessed from the nature and duration of welding activities. For workers included in the surveys, the following examination and tests were performed : standard questionnaire on respiratory symptoms and smoking habits (questionnaire of EC5C on bronchitis and emphysema), clinical examination, pulmonary function tests comprising : . flowvolume curves, on which are determined vital capacity (VC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEVi.o) and maximum expiratory flow rates, . test of bronchial reactivity, to an aerosol of acetylcholine at a concentration of

10*,
. CO transfer tests : steady state (TCO ss ) and single breath (TCO s b) methods, . single breath nitrogen test (slope of phase III, CV/VC). RESULTS The average age of the workers in the different groups ranged between 36 to 46 years. About 25% of them are non smokers. Age, smoking habits, weight and height differ slightly from one factory to another, but in each factory these parameters are not significantly different between welders controls. Frequency bronchitis controls. Non specific rhinopharyngeal signs (rhinitis, angina, sinusitis) were significantly more frequent in welders of factory B , compared to controls (the factory is the one where manual welding with coated electrodes s commonly used). In the same factory (B ), pulmonary Xray abnormalities (reticular and micronodular shadows) were significantly more frequent amongst welders (6.1%) than controls (1.4%). However, none of these abnormal Xray shadows evoke a true siderosis. of stethacoustic signs from pulmonary auscultation and prevalence of and

(from 4% to 1 1 % according to factories) did not differ between welders and

: according to criteria of the American Thoracic Society (1962).

381

PREVALENCE (in %) OF RESPIRATORY IMPAIRMENTS

A W NUMBERS SYMPTOMS W - rhinopharyngeal C W - chronic bronchitis C W - asthma ABNORMALITIES AT LUNG AUSCULTATION C W C 21,1 16,2 10,5 9,5 1,3 1,4 27,6 20,3 2,6 5,4 C 76 74

FACTORIES B C 114 139 346 214

50,0 27,3 11,4 8,6 1,8 2,9 16,7 10,0 6,1 1,4 20,2 25,3 1,8 4,3 23,5 14,4 34,3 23,0 19,3 21,6 13,2 10,1

17,6 15,4 4,0 3,7 2,3 2,8 13,0 13,1 9,0 6,1

RADIOLOGICAL LUNG ABNORMALITIES ABNORMALITIES OF RESPIRATORY FUNCTION

w c
W

38,2 35,1 3,9 2,7 7,9 9,5 21,1 10,8 21,1 17,6 6,6 21,6

20,0 17,5 1,2 0 13,3 7,5 30,9 24,3 13,0 11,3 21,2 20,8

- signs of bronchial obstruction

- bronchial hyperreactivity to acetylcholine

w c w c w c w c
W C

- abnormality of CO transfer (single breath)

- abnormality of CO transfer (steady state)

- abnormality of nitrogen slope

- abnormality of closing volume Enclosed values are significantly different (p < 0.05). W = Welders - C = Controls

382

With regard to respiratory function, the frequency of the obstructive syndrome nitrogen test, was similar in welders and controls. On the other hand, abnormalities of the steady-state TCO were more observed

, of the

positive response to acetylcholine test and of the abnormalities in the single breath frequently

in welders of the three factories, compared to controls ; but the difference is

not statistically significant. For single breath TCO such differences were also observed in factories B and C : the difference is statistically significant in factory C.

IN CONCLUSION of these surveys conducted on 536 arc-welders having been employed for a length of time of about 16 years, bronchitis and asthma were observed with the same frequency in welders and controls. Rhinopharyngeal symptoms and non siderotic abnormalities of pulmonary X-rays were more frequently observed among welders in the factory where manual welding with coated electrodes is still commonly used. Spirometrie tests failed to demonstrate the difference between welders and controls whereas CO tests were more frequentely disturbed in the former. According to these results occupational hygiene at welding workplaces should be enforced and the respiratory state of the welders should be monitered (pulmonary X-rays, CO transfer tests).

Obstructive syndrom = FEVi.g / VC < 80% of predicted value (with a normal VC). Positive response to Acetylcholine : Fall of FEVi.rj > 20% of the value before test. Abnormal values for slope of phase III and CV/VC : values ^ 150% of predicted (Buist and Ross) ; for TCO steady-state : values < 80% of predicted (Mastrangelo) ; for TCO single breath : values < 80% of predicted (Cotes).

383

AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION, VOLUME LOSS AND RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS IN SHIPYARD WELDERS IN LOS ANGELES: BASELINE VALUES AND CROSS SHIFT CHANGES Kaye H. Kilburn, M.D., Raphael Warshaw, C. Thomas Boylen, M.D. Environmental Sciences Laboratory, University of Southern California School of Medicine, 2025 Zonal Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90033 Introduction Welding, now the commonest method for joining metals, exposes over 2.5 million full time workers to fumes of metallic oxides and oxidant gases. Countless others are exposed to these agents by working in proximity to welding. Welders have excess chronic cough and phlegm production (1,2,3), but the effects on pulmonary function have been less clear (2,3,4,5,6). Some of the difficulty results from overlap between effects due to welding and those due to cigarette smoking. Because most welders also smoked, attribution of effects has been difficult, if not impossible. Recent development of pulmonary function values on current and ex-smokers in a population makes possible comparisons within smoking categories (7). We examined 148 male welders for respiratory symptoms during welding and performed baseline spirometry before a first workshift of the week and repeated it after welding during that workshift. The baseline values were compared on a smoking specific basis to a stratified random population of men. Methods We recruited 148 white male welders from a shipyard in the Los Angeles harbor which builds frigates on a naval contract. This construction involves welding stainless steel, black or mild steel and aluminum. Less than 10% of their work is repairing ships. The 163 subjects who volunteered were from 667 welders, 6 women and 9 black men who were studied were excluded from analysis because the women comprised a small group and for black men, there is uncertainty about comparison populations and predicted values for of spirometry. The 148 men included 66 (45%) with Spanish surnames, 56 (38%) of Asian origin and 15 (11%) other whites. The majority were studied across the day shift. A questionnaire which was completed post shift by welders used questions on chronic bronchitis, wheezing and shortness of breath from DLD-78 (8). It asked about pneumonia, respiratory illness, work loss and chest pain pressure or heaviness. In addition, it asked specific exposure information about type of base metal, type of welding rod and type of surface coating. It requested an estimate of hours spent welding aluminum, stainless steel and mild or black steel. The questionnaire asked about symptoms during "todays" shift, including those of "metal fume fever", chills, thirst, fatigue, headache, muscle aches, a metallic taste and hoarseness or sore throat, chest tightness, cough, phlegm and wheezing. Trained interviewers answered questions, explained what was needed and checked questionnaires for completeness. A Los Angeles comparison group for symptoms and spirometry consisted of 29 male hospital and grounds workers with similar ethnic and smoking background.

384
Spirometry was done before going into the shipyard on Monday mornings and again after shift. Forced expiratory flow was recorded repeatedly on either an Ohio Rolling Seal spirometer or on Stead-Wells spirometers. These were calibrated repeatedly with a large syringe during the study. Spirometry was measured with subjects standing, wearing a noseclip and followed the American Thoracic Society Criteria (9). The best effort was digitalized and values computed for FVC, FEVj, FEF25-75 and FEF75-85. These values were compared to those from a stratified random population of Michigan for current and ex-smokers of cigarettes and for nonsmokers (7). Results The 73 nonsmoking welders had a mean age of 37.0+9.7 sd years, had welded 11.3+7.5 sd years and worked in the shipyard 6.7+4.3 sd years. The 18 ex-smokers were older 41.1+11.3 sd years, had smoked 11.9+9.3 sd years and welded for 16.5+13.6 sd years. The 57 current smokers, mean age 38.0+9.3 sd years had smoked 18.2+9.1 sd years, welded 10.5+7.2 sd years and had been in the shipyard 5.6+4.6 sd years. Thus, ex-smokers had had somewhat more welding exposure than the other groups. The frequency of respiratory symptoms, of respiratory illness and of chest pain of the three smoking groups of welders were similar and above the comparison population, but the increase with smoking was smaller. Nonsmoking welders had less cough, sputum and phlegm most days for 2 years (i.e., less chronic bronchitis) than cigarette smokers or ex-smokers. Nonsmoking Michigan men had only 3.3% with chronic bronchitis, compared to 23.3% in nonsmoking welders. Chronic bronchitis prevalence was 33.9% in smoking and 31.6% in ex-smoking welders. A high prevalence (14.3% to 31.5%) of shortness of breath walking up 2 flights of stairs was found in welders, highest in nonsmoking. This was 2 to 4 times the prevalence in the comparison population. Wheezing in welders averaged 30%. Chest pain or pressure was also unexpectedly high in welders, almost 7 times the frequency in the Michigan men and was frequently described as heaviness while welding. Pain or heaviness was relieved by resting, away from welding exposure. The frequency of respiratory illnesses causing work absence, of pneumonia, lung illnesses or chronic chest disease was 26.3% in ex-smokers but almost 10% of nonsmokers and of smokers. The frequency of respiratory illnesses was almost 50% for nonsmokers and current smokers but 73.4% in ex-smokers who appeared to have more respiratory disorders. "Accidents" causing work to be missed or hospitalization in the past 2 years occurred in over 40% of smokers and ex-smokers and in 27.4% of nonsmokers. The questions "Does welding ever produce irritation, chest tightness or other discomfort?" and, "Have episodes of fever, chills, fatigue, muscle aches, thirst or a metallic taste during or after welding occurred in the past year?" were answered yes by 35% to 45% of welders and were absent in hospital employees. Headache, hoarseness and bloody sputum had the same frequency in welders as in the comparison

385
population. Cough, sputum production, chest tightness, wheezing, palpitations, feverishness and fatigue, muscle aches and metallic taste were two to ten times as frequent in welders as in the comparison group, but failed to show the anticipated increased prevalence from nonsmoking to current smoking subjects. Aluminum welding by nonsmokers produced feverishness in 36% and metal fume fever symptoms in 60%, compared to feverishness and other metal fume symptoms in 35% of welders of stainless or black steel. The comparison group had only fatigue, without other metal fume fever symptoms. Spirometic values for nonsmokers and ex-smokers are compared to nonsmoking Michigan men for predicted values and current smokers are compared to current smokers from Michigan. Comparisons are presented after subtracting the effects of cigarette smoking so as to analyze the effects of welding. The nonsmokers forced vital capacity (FVC) was 95.7% of predicted and the forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV^) was 91.0% of predicted. Mid expiratory flow (FEF25-75) was 95.6% and terminal flow (FEF75_85> was 85.6%. Thus, mean values for pulmonary function for the 73 nonsmoking welders were substantually below predicted values derived from Michigan nonsmokers. The 57 current cigarette smoking welders had an even lower FVC, 81.5% of predicted and FEVi was 83.1% of predicted when compared with Michigan cigarette smokers. Mid flow FEF25-75 was 97.6% and terminal flow was 101.7% of predicted. Thus, welding in smokers appeared to selectively decrease volume to a greater extent than in nonsmokers, while the flow rates were reduced by the degree attributable to cigarette smoking. The ex-smoking welders were a small group, 18 men and their FVC and FEVi an(3 flow rates matched the predicted values for noncigarette smokers. Five men of 45 to 62 years with intact function and 3 young men with large functional capacities raised group means to obviate any effects of welding and cigarette smoking. One day's welding exposure produced no mean changes in FVC or in FEVi There were small decreases in mid flow and somewhat greater decreases in terminal flows. However, the prevalence of cross shift decreases in FVC or FEVi f 5% or more was over 20% in all smoking groups. Thus, there appear to be some "reactive" welders. When we arrayed the welders as nonsmokers or ever smokers (current and ex-smokers together) against the three metals welded, some differences in mean change were suggested. Thus, we regarded the group mean change in FVC and FEVi only as an indicator of group exposure effects which may relate to the specific metal. Welding aluminum produced small mean decreases of only 40 ml in FVC and FEVi, i n nonsmokers and even lesser decreases in welders who had ever smoked. Welding black or mild steel produced somewhat larger decreases in FVC and FEVi i-n nonsmokers but in smokers the mean values increased. Stainless steel welding decreased FVC and FEV} slightly in nonsmokers but had greater effects in smokers.

386

Discussion Ship construction welders had more chronic bronchitis, wheezing and chest heaviness or pain than did the comparison group. Furthermore, the usual smoking related increase in frequency of symptoms was absent. Welders had nose, throat and chest irritation, wheezing, fever, thirst, fatigue, muscle aches and a metallic taste. Such symptoms of "metal fume fever" occurred in over 35% of welders and were highest (50%)in nonsmoking welders of aluminum. The major finding is a reduction of 20% in FVC and FEVi in current cigarette smokers. The finding of less than half as much reduction in nonsmokers suggesting synergism of exposure to welding fumes, with cigarette smoke and with ambient air pollution which adversely affects lung function (10,11). Also, welders have had exposures to asbestos which may cause airway obstruction and decrease lung volume (12) . Smoking specific comparison assists in analyzing competing or synergistic effects of asbestos, welding and oxidant air pollution. Studies of longer and more consistent exposures to weJding of these metals should enhance and differentiate the effects suggested in this preliminary study. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Antti-Poika M, Hassi J and Pyy L: Hlth 1977; 40:225. Int Arch Occup Environ Arch Environ

Oxhoj H, Bake B, Wedel H, and Wilhelmsen L: Hlth 1979; 34:211. McMillan GHG: Ann Occup Hyg 1979; 21:377. J Occup Med 1980; 22:337.

Akbarkhanzadeh F:

Hunnicutt, Jr, TN, Cracovaner DJ, and Myles JT: Environ Hlth 1964; 8:661.

Arch

Peters JM, Murphy RLH, Ferris BG, Burgess WA, Manmohan VR, Randave MV, Pedergrass HP: Arch Environ Hlth 1973; 26:28. Miller A. Thornton JC, Warshaw R, Anderson H, Teirstein AS and Selikoff IJ: Submitted for publication 1985. Ferris BG: Amer Rev Resp Dis 1978; 118:7.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Snowbird workshop on standardization of spirometry. Amer Rev Res Dis 1979; 119:831. Kilburn KH, Warshaw R, Thornton JC: in press 1985. Amer J Med,

Taskin DP, Clark VA, Coulson AH, Simmons M, Bourque LB, Reems C, Detels R, Sayre JW and Rokaw SN: Amer Rev Resp Dis 1984; 130:707. Kilburn KH, Warshaw R and Thornton JC: in press 1985. Chest,

12.

387
PULMONARY DISEA SE SURVEY A MONG UNION PIPEFITTERS/WELDERS IN CA LIFORNIA BRIAN P. DOLA N, M.D., M.P.H. AND DIA NA CA PMA N DOLA N, M.S. 165 . San Vicente Boulevard, Beverly Hills, California 90211, United States of A merica INTRODUCTION The effect of welding on the health of longterm welders and fitters was ex amined in this study which was begun in April of 1983. This study is a continua tion of a statewide health survey of the pipe trades union members begun in 1980. The initial part of the study looked at problems associated with the fabrication of plastic pipe systems. Since a large percentage of union members are engaged in the welding and fitting aspect of the trade, the health hazards of this type of work needed to be assessed as well. Welding technology has been undergoing significant changes over the years in order to decrease the cost by making the process less laborintensive. Newer, and sometimes more toxic, materials and methods have been developed with poten tial adverse effects on welder's health. There are also substantial hazards in the workplace that are not necessarily part of the welding process itself. A s bestos exposure in the shipyards, power plants and refineries presents a very significant hazard. Radiation exposure from nuclear plants and from unsafe use of welding xrays can occur. Other exposures to hydrocarbon solvents, silica sand, paint fumes and similar materials frequently occur. This study was primarily designed to evaluate the reported health problems experienced by longterm veteran welders and fitters. Objective data was pro vided by chest xrays and pulmonary function tests, since pulmonary problems appear to be among the most severe health problems in the trade. A dditional questions were asked in order to assess the effects of welding on other organs known to be affected such as the skin, eyes and kidneys. RESEARCH METHODS In order to evaluate the most representative sample of fitter/welders in California, three of the largest local welder/fitter unions were selected, each representing one of the major metropolitan areas of California, that is: San FranciscoOakland Bay area, Los AngelesOrange County, and San Diego. Each local was asked to provide a list of all welders with twenty or more years of welding experience. A random sample was drawn from each list and the individual members were called and asked to participate in the study. No one refused to participate unless they were literally unable to do so due to work commitments, serious illness, or similar problems.

388
Each of the three groups was Interviewed by the same team of trained interviewers. Pulmonary function tests were performed by the same Ph.D. pulmonary physiologist. Each member of the selected sample had pulmonary function tests done, which included flow rates, lung volumes, and DLCO (diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide, single breath method). All members but eight had four-view chest x-rays taken. RESULTS The data from the 104 questionnaire and pulmonary function tests and the ninety-six chest x-rays were evaluated by means of computer generated analysis. The major findings of interest here are as follows: (A) Chest x-ray results showed that only 16% of those x-rayed had normal films. Of the remaining abnormal 84%, three-fourths (75%) had changes suggestive of asbestosis, 7% had evidence of interstitial lung disease, and 2% had evidence of obstructive lung disease. (B) Pulmonary function tests showed only 12% of those tested were normal. Almost half, (46%) had combined abnormalities of pulmonary functions. Approximately one-third (32%) had decreased diffusion capacity (DLCO) alone. Seven percent (7%) had evidence of purely obstructive disease. Five percent (5%) had tests showing purely restrictive disease. (C) Almost everyone (95%) had worked in the same area where asbestos was being used. More than half (54%) reported actually working with asbestos itself. Of those with x-rays which were normal, 42% reported working with asbestos. Of those with x-rays suggestive of asbestosis, 60% reported working with asbestos. Of those with x-rays showing interstitial changes, 70% reported working with asbestos. These findings suggest that the risks of asbestosis (as diagnosed by chest x-ray) are probably higher in those who reported working directly with asbestos. (D) Comparing the chest x-ray results with the pulmonary function tests (Table I) indicated that only three members had normal pulmonary function tests and normal chest x-rays. In general, the more abnormal the pulmonary function test the more abnormal the x-rays. This is an indication that both tests were valid. Of the members with only an abnormality of DLCO, 21 out of 32 (66%) had x-ray findings of suggestive or probable asbestosis. This suggests that the DLCO result is probably valid. (E) Comparing chest x-ray results with the categories in which members rated their own health (i.e., excellent - good - average - below average poor), approximately two-thirds in each category had suggestive or probable asbestosis on chest x-ray. No one rating his health as poor had normal findings, but many who rated themselves as having excellent, good or average health, had abnormal tests.

389
TABLE I PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS COMPARED TO CHEST X-RAY FINDINGS
Pulmonary Function Test Results Normal X-Rays Suggestive of * As bes tos i s Probable Asbestosis ** Other Lung Diseases

No
X-Rays

TOTAL

Normal Bronchitis asthma/emphysema Restriction only Diffusion Capacity only Combined abnormal i ties TOTAL

13 (12%)

1 1

2 1

3 3

0 0

1 0

7 (7) 5 (5%)

6 5 16
(15?)

7 5 15
(14.)

14 30 57
(54/)

4 5 9 (9? )

2 1 7
(7%)

33 (32%)

46 (43%)

*Suggestive of asbestos = unilateral pleural plaques. **Probable asbestosis = both pleural plaques and interstitial disease. ***0ther lung diseases - interstitial lung disease or emphysema.

(F) There was no obvious relationship between chest x-ray findings or pulmonary function results and a history of metal fume fever. (G) Welding fume exposures appear to be significant. No visible welding fume is the acceptable standard. Only 10% said that there was no visible welding fume in the air of the workplace. Thirty-three per cent (33%) said that there was heavy fume in the workplace air. (H) There were significant exposures to other toxic substances at work. Fifty-four percent (54 ) had one or more years exposure to carbon tetrachloride. Forty-six percent (46') had one or more years exposure to radiation. Significant exposures to benzene, trichloroethylene and other solvents were reported.

390
(I) There were a significant number of health problems reported including pneumonia (26%). Fourteen percent (14%) reported multiple episodes of pneumonia. Forty-two percent (42%) reported metal fume fever. Forty-eight percent (48%) reported hearing loss. Twenty-three per cent (23%) reported eye injury. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The overwhelming findings in the survey of 104 pipe trades union members is the high prevalence of asbestosis. Seventy-five percent (75%) had suggestive or probable asbestosis on chest x-ray. Earlier studies on West Coast welders, although not pipe-trades welders, noted excess deaths due to respiratory disease, and speculated on the role of asbestosis^ '. A more recent study' ' of West Coast plumbers and pipefitters showed an increasing prevalence of asbestosis with increasing time in the trade. In those with forty or more years in the trade, 77% had x-ray evidence of asbestosis. Since five percent or less of control groups have been noted to have radiological changes suggestive of asbestosis,^ ' this represents a substantial excess. Although the plumbing and heating trades have been associated with a three to six times relative risk for developing mesothelioma, ' little has been written about asbestosis in this mobile, difficult to study group. The asbestos exposure presumably derives from the asbestos blankets and other welding-related equipment and from bystander exposure from the work of lggers and other trades. The assessment of the separate contribution of the constituents of welding fume and smoke on pulmonary function was not possible in this study group. REFERENCES 1. J.J. Beaumont and N.S. Weiss 2. 3. 4. L. Rosenstock, et al Am J Epidemiol 112: 775-786. 1980

Am Rev Resp Disease

129(4) Suppl. A174 (Abstract). Am College Chest Physi-

Workplace Exposures to Asbestos

NIOSH pubi 81-103 Nov. 1980: 26

Lung Cancer and Asbestos Related Pulmonary Disease cians/NCI 1981: 34.

391 EXPOSURE AND STATE OF HEALTH IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDERS USING DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES W. D. SCHNEIDER, R. LIEBICH, G. MAINTZ, G. SCHMIDT, W. WIESENER Central Institute of Occupational Medicine of the GDR, DDR - 1134 BERLIN, NLDNERSTR. 4 0 - 4 2 AIMS The project should help to determine health risks in relation to actual working conditions and to clarify the need for surveillance programs of welders. While longitudinal studies are going on we report here on cross sectional results in manual metal arc welders on mild steel as well as on MIG- and TIG-welders on stainless steel or aluminium. Special emphasis was laid on the search for dose-response-relationships. METHODS Exposure was evaluated according to duration of exposure, intensity of total welding fumes measured by personal air sampling, concentration of metals (Mn, Cr, Al) in scalp hair measured by neutron activation analysis (1) and finally type of welding done. Health data included symptoms by questionnaire, clinical examination, x-rays of thorax and nasal sinuses, lung function analysis (FVC, FEV1# RV, PEF, MEF 50, MEF 75, V2/Vlf bronchial provocation tests with acetylcholine), cardiovascular function tests (ECG, systolic time intervals, step tests), blood and urine analysis (sedimentation rate, hemoglobin, serum electrophoresis, ALAT), audiometry and cytology of nasal smears. RESULTS Our total of 1171 workers, men only, had to be devided according to different welding technologies. MMA welders on mild steel The characteristics of the sample examined are given in table 1. Basic electrodes were used predominantly. According to total welding fumes two thirds of the welders ranged below 5 mg/cu.m, 7 % of the welders were exposed above 15 mg/cu.m and 26 % between

392

these values. Geometric means of manganese in scalp hair were

1,4 : 2,1 ppm in controls and 6,96 : 2,34 ppm in welders. Mear duration of exposure in welders revealed to 18,7 + 7,3 years. TABLE 1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MILD STEEL STUDY SUBJECTS Characteristics

Welders
433 4 1 ,,1 + 8, 7 1 2 ,, 1 + 7. 9

Controls
421 4 0 , ,6 + 9 , 0 1 1 , ,7 + 8 , 2

Significance
NS NS NS

Age ( y e a r s ) Tobacco ( g / d a y ) Smokers (%) Exsmokers {%) Nonsmokers (%)

58.3 27,4 14,3

52,4 29,4 18,2

NS Not significant at 5 % level Clinical results in regard of the respiratory system are summa rized in table 2. We found higher prevalences of nodular opacities in thorax xrays, of chronic bronchitis (recorded according to WHO criteria) and of dyspnoe (all grades). Spirometry, flow volumecurve and bronchial provocation tests revealed no differen ces in group mean values (3). TABLE 2 PREVALENCES (%) OF RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
Symptoms/Signs Nodular Cough Phlegm opacities Welders 15,2 30,8 33,2 45,1
5.2 6.0

Cont r o i s
7,5

Significance
M M M M

19,4 18,0 32,9

6.0 4.7

Dyspnoe Obstruction Hyperreactivity Disturbed distribution

NS NS NS

13.1

13,7

Significant at 5 % level, NS Not significant

393

Looking f o r d o s e r e s p o n s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f i r s t of a l l we used t o t a l w e l d i n g fume c o n c e n t r a t i o n s as a base ( F i g . 1 ) . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g dose we found h i g h e r p r e v a l e n c e s of i m p a i r e d f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y volume (FEV^/VC), h i g h e r FEV^decrease a f t e r a c e t y l c h o l i n e , n o d u l a r o p a c i t i e s i n t h o r a x x r a y s , c h r o n i c cough, l o w e r grades of dyspnoe, i m p a i r e d n a s a l b r e a t h i n g and c o r d i a l pain i n exercise.

123 FEV 'VC

12 3 123 ACH Ro FEV, Abfall Lunge

123 Husten

123 123 123 1 2 3 A * Cruw. Atemnot Nawn Ljitdurh H*nscfmwzwi rsloptung oanqigke.1 biOWstun

Fig. 1: Prevalences of signs and symptoms showing a dose responserelationship in welders when grouped according to total welding fume concentrations measured by personal air sampling. Group 1: Below 5 mg/cu.m. Group 2: 5 1 5 mg/cu.m, Group 3: Fumes above 15 mg/cu.m Similar results revealed the calculations with manganese content of scalp hair as the base. In three groups (1: Below 2 ppm, 2: 2 10 ppm, and group 3: more than 10 ppm manganese) with increasing dose we got higher prevalences of impaired FVC and/or FEV^/VC, of stronger FEV*decrease after acetylcholine, of opacities in nasal sinuses and of cordial pain in rest and exercise. Yet, it was somewhat disappointing that these individual manganese values, which we thought to be of greater accuracy than total welding fumes, did not correlate better with state of health. Without more detailed monitoring of exposure over longer periods in longitudinal studies possible explanations remain a matter of speculation.

394 MIG/TIGwelders on stainless steel and/or aluminium Again there were no differences between welders (158) and controls (159) according to age and smoking habits. Mean exposure time was 16,9 + 8,1 years for welders. Helding fume concentrations were much lower (3,86 resp. 2,17 mg/cu.m). Whereas chromium in hair revealed clear differences between welders and controls aluminium did not seem to be a useful parameter of exposure (2). There were no exposure related pneumoconioses. Chronic phlegm again was nearly doubled in welders compared to controls, but on lower level than in mild steel welders. Sensation of dryness and obstruction in the upper airways revealed as the most frequent symptoms in MIG/TIGwelders. whereas prevalence rates of obstruc tion in the large airways (FEV^) were the same in welders and controls the former showed a significant higher rate of disturbed ventilatory distribution (V2/V1) and a similar trend in MEF 75. Looking for doseresponserelationships the very low fume con centrations gave no chance to use these values. But using chromium concentrations in hair we could form three groups (below 1 ppm, 1 3 ppm, above 3 ppm) in which prevalences of impaired FEVj/VC, v 2/ v l an(^ '""^ 50 as well as of chronic bronchitis and upper airway complaints showed dependence on dose. SUMMARY In both groups of welders respiratory symptoms were dominating. There were only minor signs of involvement of the cardiovascular, nervous and gastrointestinal systems (not reported here). Dose responserelationships could be shown despite exposure mostly ranged below 10 mg/cu.m for total welding fumes. In conclusion we are convinced that longitudinal studies must be done to get better information on reliability of the now valid MAC values. Until than regular surveillance of welders is necessary. REFERENCES 1. Grund W, Schneider WD, Wiesener W (1980) J Radioanal Chem 58:319 2. Liebich R, Schneider WD, Wiesener W (1982) Zbl Pharm 121:471 3. Schneider WD (1983) Erkrank AtmOrg 161:279

395

CARDIORESPIRATORY ASSOCIATIONS WITH SHIPYARD WELDING AND BURNING

J. E. COTES AND F. M. ELGAMAL Respiration and Exercise Laboratory, University Department of Occupational Health, Medical School, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne. NE2 4HH, England

INTRODUCTION Welders have an above average standardised mortality rate from respiratory and cardiovascular disease but in most occupational surveys the overall effects of exposure to welding fumes have been small. Work in confined spaces, as in the

double bottom of ships, is associated with higher exposures than in more open situations so the effects of the fumes might be greater in consequence. The

present paper reports briefly the findings from two interrelated crosssectional studies of shipyard welders in N.E. England. The first aimed to establish if

exposure to fumes from welding and caulker/burning in the past had contributed to what seemed to be a high prevalence of respiratory morbidity amongst older ship yard workers and the second to see if the working conditions affected the exer cise performance of younger men. Many colleagues contributed to these studies*.

STUDY 1 SUBJECTS AND METHODS A stratified sample of 677 men was drawn from those on the payroll of a ship yard 9 years prior to the study. 88% were assessed clinically and by spirometry; Chest radiographs were avail

limited information was obtained on a further 7%. able on 49%.

A subsample was drawn of 189 men with undue breathlessness, wheeze ) and 96 controls matched for age and

or reduced forced expiratory volume (FEV occupation.

82% of these men underwent additional measurements including lung

volumes, transfer factor and the response to submaximal exercise.

RESULTS Associations with welding or burning All subjects. impairment. Welding was associated with siderosis but not respiratory Smoking was associated with chronic Impairment was

Burning had no illeffects.

bronchitis (MRC definition), wheeze and impaired lung function. greater in men with symptoms than those without.

The blood level of carbon mon

oxide (HbCO%) was related to smoking habits; it was not increased in welders or burners. The studies were undertaken in collaboration with Dr. D.J. Chinn, Miss V.J. Male, Dr. V.J. Metcalf, Mrs. L. Parker, Dr. J.H.R. Ramsay, Dr. J.W. Reed, Dr. F.S. Rennie and the late Dr. E.L. Feinmann.

396

Smokers or e x s m o k e r s .

Welding a g g r a v a t e d c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s and b u r n i n g In t h e p r e s e n c e of c h r o n i c

reduced some i n d i c e s of v e n t i l a t o r y c a p a c i t y . ness. Subsample.

b r o n c h i t i s , welding and b u r n i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y a g g r a v a t e d wheeze and b r e a t h l e s s Welding and b u r n i n g were s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h symptoms. (partly obstruction. The

fumes i n t e r a c t e d with smoking o r exsmoking t o r e d u c e FEV by s a l b u t a m o l ) , and i n c r e a s e t h e index of a i r f l o w E f f e c t on smoking h a b i t s

restored

The number of exsmokers was i n c r e a s e d compared w i t h e x p e c t e d (Tobacco A d v i s ory C o u n c i l , 1980) : Age Group Total Exsmokers Observed Expected 2534 71 3549 220 56 42 . 9 5064 284 82 62 . 5 ) )

* <

16

( 9.4 * p<0.01

Other findings Previous pleurisy or pneumonia, previous work spraying asbestos and current smoking all increased the ventilatory cost of submaximal exercise (V 45). E effects of exposure to asbestos. CONCLUSIONS Fumes from welding or burning interact with those from tobacco to cause respiratory symptoms and some impairment of lung function. A disproportionate This

index was more sensitive than transfer factor or Kco for detecting the early

number of susceptible men abandon smoking; they need to be identified in future studies.

STUDY 2 SUBJECTS AND METHODS Progressive submaximal exercise was carried out on a cycle ergometer on 345 shipyard workers (aged 2347 years) with work increments of 15W/min. , (V 45, fC4r= respectively). The

results for 296 men were used to obtain ventilation and cardiac frequency at an oxygen uptake of 45 mmol min

A score for regular exercise or competitive sport was obtained and inactivity, outside working hours was included in the analysis as a dummy variable. Fume exposure was expressed as: Index 1: Ever a welder or caulker/burner yes or no? Index 2: Years of work in yard proportion of time in confined and semi confined spaces (either ship or shed).

397

Other independent variables were age, body dimensions and composition, respir atory symptoms, smoking and ventilatory capacity. The results were analysed by principal component regression analysis in which allowance was made for the effects of multicollinearity.

RESULTS The results are reported as regression equations based on the exposure indices and other variables which contributed significantly to description of the two exercise indices (Tables 1 and 2 ) .

TABLE 1 SIGNIFICANT TERMS IN REGRESSION EQUATION FOR EXERCISE VENTILATION (V45)

L
Independent v a r i a b l e s Index 1 All subjects Welders Index 2 Caulker/burners

Age Smoking Index Index age Index smoking

TABLE 2 SIGNIFICANT TERMS IN REGRESSION EQUATION FOR EXERCISE CARDIAC FREQUENCY (fC5)

Independent variables

Index 1 All subjects Welders

Index 2 Caulker/burners

Fat free mass Inactivity Index Index inactivity Previous pleurisy

CONCLUSION Exercise ventilation was increased in association with welding or caulker/ burning in confined or semiconfined spaces; age and smoking both enhanced this effect. Exercise cardiac frequency was not directly affected by exposure to fumes

398
from welding or caulker/burning. It was increased in men who were inactive

outside working hours and in these men the frequency was further increased by work in confined and semi-confined spaces; the exercise capacity was probably reduced in consequence. SUMMING UP Welding in confined or semi-confined spaces causes respiratory symptoms, some impairment of lung function and an increased ventilatory cost of exercise in men who smoke; it further reduces the capacity for exercise of men who take little exercise outside working hours. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Medical Research Council, Health and Safety Executive and Northern Regional Health Authority. Dr. El-Gamal was in receipt We are indebted of a scholarship from the U.K. Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Dr. F.S. Rennie of a Prophit Scholarship of the Royal College of Physicians. to the Boilermakers' Union and the management and staff of the shipyards for their unstinted co-operation and to many colleagues who helped in making the measurements.

399
RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS AND PULMONARY FUNCTION AMONG DANISH WELDERS. ^LYNGENBO, 0.,
1)

GROTH, M.V.,

2)

GR0TH, S., 1'oLSEN, 0., 2 ' D I R K S E N , H.

'Institute of Social Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. 'Department of Clinical Physiology, Finsen Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark. INTRODUCTION This study of danish welders of respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function consists of three substudies: 1. A questionnaire study of 3,052 metalworkers and 881 control persons. 2. A "healthy worker effect"-study of 140 metalworkers. 3. A pulmonary function study of 74 welders and 31 controls. SUBSTUDY 1. THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY Materials and methods: The study group consisted of 3,052 metalworkers employed at 9 of the largest shipyards in Denmark and a control group of 881 electricians. Both groups had answered a self-administered questionnaire regarding work and health in individuals who were more than 34 years old. The number of persons in the two groups correspond to 85% and 64% of the distributed questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised questions from the British Medical Research Council about lower airway symptoms and questions about upper airway symptoms such as sore throats, colds, and hoarseness. Of the 3,052 metalworkers 2,660 had been working with welding, while the remaining 392 had been employed with various other jobs. The 2,660 welders were devided into two groups. The first group consisted of 1,516 high-exposed welders, who had been welding more than 10 hours per week for at least 5 years. The second group consisted of lowexposed welders, who had been welding 10 hours per week or less. 90% of the welders had predominantly worked with manual metal arch-welding (MMA) on mild steel and for almost all of them the duration of the employment as welders had last for 20 years or more. Results: Both groups of welders were comparable with respect to age, smoking habits and exposure to confounding factors like asbestos. Fig. 1 shows the prevalence of reported symptoms from the upper respiratory tract in the high-exposed and low-exposed welders and electricians. Colds, sore throats and hoarseness were significantly more prevalent among the welders.
Reproduced from: Lyngenbo O, Groth M: Svejsernes arbejdsmilj og helbred. Arbejdsmilj ondet, Copenhagen 1983, with kind permission

400
fig.2. Symptoms from lower respiratory tract.
30 10 20 J O
a

fig.1. Symptoms frem u pper respiratory tract.

10 20

COLDSAT LEAST CNE T i r e PR.

[p ,

I
i9

1a

z\
1 3

| l
DYSPNOE t.FLXfi IP .Q1)

rOftRSENESSAT LEAST O f t l f
PR. .

(P

0.001)

J;
I
I j

1
|
5

23

1
2

SORETHROATS A I LEAST 4 T l f S Pa.YEAfl. ( 0,001)

10

1( 1532)

HICHEXP SED ACTIVE ViLDERS O

LOWEXPOSED ACTIV WELDERS

(N 632)

D D D

HIGHEXPOSED WEUEfiS

( 1 5 1 6 )

LOWEXPOSED * L D E P S

IN = 1 1 * )

ELECTOICIWS

IN 881)

ELECTRICIANS

(N 381)

Fig. 2 shows the prevalence of the symptoms from the lower respiratory tract in the high-exposed and low-exposed welders and electricians. Chronic bronchitis was significantly more prevalent among the welders, and both figu res indicate a dose-response relationship between welding and respiratory symptoms. The more hours per week the welders are exposed to welding fu mes, the more often do they get respiratory symptoms. Fig. 3. Chronic bronchitis and smoking habits.

1 THAN 15 u f l . O F TOBACCO PR. M Y ) .

JJ

lo

1 ^

11 15 Ji. O F TO BACCO PR. M Y ) . <P J,O U)

_ l
I J

19

HIGHEXP SED KELDERS O

( 1516)

EXSTOKERS. (STOPPO) FO R MDflE THAN Of YEAR AGO) IP 0,011)

O WEXP SED hELDERS L O

<N U W )

1 17
1 Q

ELECTRICIANS

(N 8 8 1 )

1 5

NEVE* STOKERS IP .O J1)

LTT

1 11 1

401
In fig. 3, the prevalence of chronic bronchitis among high-exposed and low-exposed and electricians has been related to their smoking habits. Within each grous of smokers we found the same dose-response relationship as between respiratory symptoms and welding as in fig. 1 and 2. Logistic regression analysis of how smoking, welding and chronic bronchitis may be related, showed that eight hours of welding per day equals a daily ration of 25 cigarettes in terms of predisposing to chronic bronchitis. The risk of getting chronic bronchitis is the same whichever kind of smoke you prefer. SUBSTUDY 2. THE "HEALTHY WORKER EFFECT"-STUDY Materials and methods: The 3,052 metalworkers were observed for 7 months. During this period 175 persona stopped working. These 175 persons received an additional questionnaire through the post, inquiring about reasons for leaving the job, present health condition and smoking habits. 88% responded to the questionnaire. Results: The results of this substudy support the presumption, that it is the weakest and most ill that leave the work places. The prevalence of chronic bronchitis among the metalworkers who had retired was - when related to age and smoking habits - slightly higher than among the metalworkers still at work. It was only significantly (p<0,05) higher for heavy smokers and for 45-54 years old individually irrespective of smoking habits. SUBSTUDY 3. THE PULMONARY FUNCTION STUDY Materials and methods: This substudy comprised a study group of 74 welders and 31 control persons. The welders were selected among the 1,515 high-exposed welders from the questionnaire study according to the criteria: They should be neversmokers, nobody should ever have worked with asbestos, or been occupied with any other known materials that might damage the lungs. Only 77 qualified according to the criteria, 75 turned up. One was excluded because he had used ventoline-spray immediately before the examination. None of the others used medicine daily against airway illnesses. The selection criteria for the controls were the same, apart from the fact that they should never have worked with welding or been exposed to any similar working processOnly 8 of the 392 non-welding metalworkers from the questionnaire study fulfilled the criteria for the control group. All participated. The rest of the control group were recruited from members of the Danish Electricians Union. The allocation was based on a short questionnaire regarding age, length of employment, smoking habits and present employment. Only 23 persons fulfilled the criteria of selection. They all participated.

402

The lung function examination comprised measurements of dynamic and static lung volumes, flowvolume curves, closing volume and N~washout volume. Results: In table 1 are shown the age, hight, exposure and prevalence of chronic bronchitis among the participants of this substudy. in fig. 4 the results o- the welders are expressed in percentage of the ljng function of the control persons. It can be seen that the welders have significantly impaired values of VC, FVC, TLC, TCO, PEF, FEV,, MEF ? 5 and SA than the control group. P For the other lung function variables the difference between the two groups was not significant. Fig. 4. Pulmonary function among nonsmoking MMA welders in percent of the controls.
a
VITAL CAPACITY <VC)

103

-ja_
,

Table 1. A ge, hight, exposure and prevalence of chron. bronchitis among the participants.

1 ':
(TLC)

90

TOTAL _ J C CAPACITY

1 ; 90 1 :*J 1
'&7

,;
ACE (YEANS)

a.
HIGH (CM) EXP. (YEAPS) bPmCH. IPRE\.D

PCACED

VI 'AL

CAPACITY

( F W )

P= .0Q1
VLLcSS ( M CLHTROLS (IlJl)

<

VOL

p0,025

H5.7 (! 6.; K.6 i ; 5.65)

170 21.2 C b,?) <t b,5) 177 ; 6,7) 0

16

PEAK EXPIRATORY FLOW (PEF)

1 SO 1
(SAP)

DIFFUSION CAPACITY

(TCO)

SLOPE OF ALVEOLAR PLATEAU

AX. EXPIRATCW FL0K//3S

frtFjrc)

W. EXPIRATORY FL0H/5

(CFQ)

VW. EXPIMTDRY FLOH/25X

(F^1

1 199 1
0,880

HASH OUT VOUJt

(OV)

: !

103

0.5

CONCLUSIONS 1. MMA welders have a significantly higher prevalence of symptoms from the upper and lower respiratory tract than electricians. 2. The prevalence positively correlate to the exposition. 3. Highexposed never smoking welders have a reduced lung function.

403

HEALTH, OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE, AND THORACIC MAGNETIC MOMENT OF SHIPYARD WELDERS

R.M. STERN The Danish Welding Institute, DK2600 Glostrup . DRENCK National College of Pharmacy, DK 2100 Copenhagen 0 0. LYNGENBO Institute for Social Medicine, DK2100 Copenhagen 0 H. DIRKSEN and S. GROTH Einsen Institute, DK2100 Copenhagen 0, Denmark

INTRODUCTION Magnetopneumography (MPG), detection a sensitive technigue for the noninvasive be useful absence

of trace amounts of magnetic substances in the lungs, may

to help demonstrate either causality for welding induced disease or the thereof by establishing the extent of occuptional exposures, and

identifying

individuals and cohorts at high risk. Welders are of special interest because typical cohorts have median to

occupational groups of

experience

of the order of 15 or more years providing occupational accumulate

access

workers with 1520 years and longer exposure, welding fume particles

experience. in the after is

With as

prolonged

lungs

radioopaque ceases (1,2)

deposits The

which in many cases are cleared

slowly

exposure a mixed

major component of ferrous metal welding fumes

iron oxide (Ee0Fe0,) spinel which is strongly ferrimagnetic. In order to were further examine the potential utility of MPG performed welders on and a cohorts unexposed of non techniques, pilot exposed

studies

intermediatehigh shipyard

nonsmoking shipyard participating

electricians pilot

in a study of the effects of welding on health (3) using a

model of a MPG instrument incorporating an AC susceptibility bridge (4,5).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of Cohort: Among 1,516 shipyard welders questioned, 74 the arc requirement of more than 10 years welding, 20 hr/week, using electrodes on mild steel (shipyard additional construction occupational satisfied metal were The 6.7 had

manual A ll

plates). dust

lifrtime median q; 21

nonsmokers, age,

without

exposure. 46

and exposure (in years

SD) for the welding cohort was

6.5 a. The control cohort of 23 lifetime nonsmoking

electricians

a matching age distribution. Exposure Index: A linear exposure index (1= YE) was defined as the product of

404

years

of

full on a

time

welding

(Y), with

selfestimated

fume

exposure (E), welding spaces). in The

measured large

scale Dl.D

(E = 0, no welding fumes;

E =

0.5,

halls

(shipwrights); E = 1.0, welding in small 6 a.

enclosed

mean exposure index for the group was I = 15.7

AC Pneumomaqnetoqraphic Technique consists

and Measurement:

The

MPG(A C)

instrument

of two matched pairs of Helmholtz coils of 30 cm mean diameter, 30 cm supported in a wooden framework. The current is balanced the for two

separation, complete coil

mutual at

cancellation of the AC magnetic field midway between which point is placed a sensitive fluxgate

pairs,

magnetometer. of coils used 0.6 of

Insertion results in the

of a test object in the uniform magnetic field of one pair in a net magnetic field near the detector. For the study, 120 A, 80 Hz, the MPG(AC) instrument has a

configuration sensitivity of

pT/mg

Fe,0.: 100 scale units correspond to a magnetic field at the detector

0.64 nT.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Thoracic Dust Burden: The MPG(AC) measurements for the exposed from median is ()46 value to +168 scale units (()34()4 within 1090% cohort range limits, index for

confidence

= ()23). A plot of the MPG(AC) measurements vs. exposure limits

shown

in Fig. 1. Bar graphs for the range 10%, 90? confidence

the welding and control groups are shown for comparison: 2 va Iues are annomalous. There index was I: a significant correlation between MPG(A C) value into and exposure broad

(R =

0.49 <0.0001). Welding cohort is

divided

three

exposure

groups: (i) low retention MPG(AC) <()25, (ii) intermediate

retention

()25 iMPG(A C) <()10, (iii) high retention ()10 welders among

<MPG(A C). The distribution of used in a

these categories, chosen to be identical with those

comparable study (6) is shown in Table I. The putative dust loads are arrived at using the median MPG(AC) value for unexposed cohort (()34) for the average value for the unexposed thorax. metal arc mild steel welding fumes (MMA/MS) have an MPG(A C) magnetic the

Manual signal (mg) =

equivalent

to having 5060? of their mass fraction as Fe,0. : fume mass

(MPG(AC) +34) 20. Among the cohort of welders, 10 cases of chronic bronchitis (CB) have been 1, CB

identified by questionnaire and 17 cases by interview, as identified in Fig. where the exposure index and MPG(AC) reading can be determined. No cases of

are revealed among the cohort of 31 never smoking controls. The effect of retention of welding fumes on CB incidence can by examination of the distribution of questionnaire and be investigated cases vs. in

interview

MPG(AC) measurements of Fig. 1, utilizing the 3 retention categories defined

405

Table

I. For high, intermediate and low categories the CB rates are B%, 18.25, and 23, 22.7, 16.6? (interview): 0 o for with average retention increase category of the is not controls. The

8.3? (questionnaire) variation significant of CB

incidence the

statistically cohort (11.97 group of CB

although

entire

questionnaire, 20i interview) is significantly different from the control (0?) ( <0.01) incidence with (3). There is no statistically exposure significant dependance cohort

index for welders in the exposed

(I >5 a.): high

Intermediate

exposure

(5.0<I<15.0) (16? questionnaire,

23? interview);

exposure (I>15.0) (11? questionnaire, 23S interview).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The cohort median median inferred thoracic burden of MMA/MS welding fume in this exposed the

is of 220 mg

100 mg. This average value is in good agreement with the

values obtained by a number of MPG measurements utilizing

remanent

field technique (236 mg (6); 1000 mg (7); 250 mg (8). A regression analysis of the MPG(AC) vs. I data of Fig. 1 yields a mean The 16

accumulation rate of 46 mg MMA/MS fume per maximum exposed year (p<0.0001). short term deposition rate for MMS/SS (Stainless Steel) welding fumes is

mg/year/(mg/m ) (9). The log average (median) welding fume exposure in spaces in Danish shipyards is approximately 6 mg/m (10) . If

confined level and rate steady how to if for

this

pertains to the exposures experienced by the welding cohort studied herein, the of results of (9) are appropriate for this fume as well, an accumulation 46 mg/year implies that 48? of the deposited fume is retained conditions. of the in From this study alone it is not possible in individual deposition vs. exposure to under

state much

determine is due or

spread

data

variation pndividuals

actual exposure

levels (a factor of 16 for 907 CI (10)),

are characterized by different rates or different onset times

accumulation. The CB dependence incidence of among the 59 (out of the 74) welders can retention of welding fume based be on examined the for

thorax No

MPG(A C) with

measurements.

trend or significant difference is found among

welders

estimated lung deposits of less than 160 mg, 160400 mg, or over 400 mg fume, or with exposure among those with more than 5 years experience. The beyond absence that of a dependence of respiratory status upon further the exposure result of or

needed for entry into the cohort studied might be dropout among higher exposed and/or more susceptible that respiratory status changes rapidly after

significant could minimum

subgroups some

indicate

critical the

value of exposure or

fume deposition and retention, provided that

choice of reference cohort was valid.

406

T C )

1 C Qoftl tKj.r Q Ce in,,,.,.

!
-,<0\

'

^ _ -

Mt

^ ,

Zero deposition

.
^ ' .

901.

' ,

JSL

90%

\ v VQ/W.y///' ~//< '*'////, (",&'"

-i 7

/ / J -':""-

\
^ \ R ; 0 49 P . 00001

10

1 5

20

25

30

35

Exposure index (effective years)

Fig. 1. MPG( C) signal for the 59 welders vs. linear exposure index. Cases of CB are A identified: response to the modified BMRC questionnaire (1).Interview (0). Note 2 questionnaire cases were not confirmed by interview while 10 cases not found in the questionnaire were found through interview. Cases not measured with MPG(A C) are placed in the shaded box according to their exposure index. The MPGCAC) values for the control cohort are shown on the ordinate (I = 0 ) , and bar graphs showing the 10?, 50?, 90? confidence limits for both groups appear as well. TABLE I. DISTRIBUTION OF MPG(AC) RESULTS A MONG A GROUP OF WELDERS WITH HIGH SELFESTIMA TED EXPOSURES EXPOSURE GROUP

LOW
Range o f Range o f MPG v a l u e s (nT) <()25 <()0.16

INTERMEDIATE ()25()15 ()0.16()0.10

111

HIGH

ALL (MEDIAN) ()23

()15(+)168 ()0.10(+)1.06

Range o f FeoO^ c o n t e n t (mg)

090* 40

90*200 140

2001680 290 110

Range o f MMA/MS w e l d i n g fume

content (mg) Median Number of welders F r a c t i o n (Z)

0180* 80 24 40

180*400 280 22 37

4003300 580 13 23 220 59 100

*Absolute v a l u e s a t b o r d e r l i n e a r e u n c e r t a i n to w i t h i n 50100 mg.

407

Measurements of the magnetic moment of the thorax

of

workers

occupationally significant This implies

exposed to magnetic industrial aerosols, e.g. welding fumes, show a correlation that based for between some exposure index and inferred lung retention. reconstruct

individuals it is possible to

lifetime

exposures gap

on the magnetic technique, MPC providing a unique tool to bridge the

between epidemiology and occupational monitoring. Difficulties in a higher degree of correlation between exposure and retention

demonstrating partially to be

arise

because the

of the uncertainty in assigning an average specific magnetic moment material, which varies with fume type. The technique must

deposited

further developed to permit identification of individuals at risk (5).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Supported by 4th ECSC medical research Program Contract 7248/22/016, The The

Medical Research Fund (SL), The National Fund for Technical Science (STUF), Health Foundation, and The Council for Technical Development (TR). The cooperation of The Finsen Institute for providing facilities is

generous

acknowledged. of is

O.L. acknowledges support from The Working Environment Fund. The cooperation the welding members of the national union METAL and the electricians' union

greatly appreciated. To be published in detail elsewhere (11).

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Doig AT, McLaughlin AIG, Lancet _ (1936) 771775 1 Doig AT, McLaughlin AIG, Lancet 1 (1948) 789791 Lyngenbo 0, Groth M: Svejsernes arbejdsmilj og helbred. Arbejdsmiljfondet, Copenhagen 1983 pp 256. Drenck K, Stern RM, Report 82.05, The Danish Welding Institute Drenck , Stern RM, (1985) This synposium proceedings. Nslund P, Hgstedt P. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 63 (S 118) (1982) 6972 Kalliomki K, Aittoniemi K, Kalliomki PL, Moilanen M, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 42 (1981) 234238 Freedman AP, Robinson SE, O'Leary K, Goodman L, Stellman JM. Br. J. Ind. Med. 38 (1981) 384388 Rahkonen E, Junttila ML, Kalliomki PL, Olkinouora M, Koponen M, Kalliomki K, Int. Arch. Dccup. Env. Health 4 (1983) 113 Stern RM, Env. H. Persp. 41 (1981) 235253 Stern RM, Drenck K, Lyngenbo 0, Dirksen H, and Groth S, (1984) submitted to Am. J. Ind. Med.

409

LUNG RETENTION OF WELDING FUMES AND VENTILATION LUNG FUNCTIONS A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF SHIPYARD WELDERS P-L. KALLIOMKI1, K. KALLIOMKI and O. KORHONEN1 ^Institute of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1, SF-00290 Helsinki 29, Finland ^University of Oulu, Department of Electrical Engineering, SF-90570 Oulu 57, Finland INTRODUCTION In welding processes, respirable particles and irritative gases are emitted (4) which may affect the respiratory tract. Numerous cross-sectional studies of the respiratory condition of mild steel (MS) manual metal arc (MMA) welders have been conducted (3). These studies have indicated that conventional spirometrie indices (such as VC, FEV _ and FEV%) are perhaps not sensitive enough to detect changes in the small peripheral air passages, where the deleterious effects of fume particles and irritative gases are obviously first observed (2). In the present study shipyard welders with various lengths of exposure in one shipyard were studied. All the welders had only welded mild steel (MS) using the manual metal arc (MMA) technique. The respiratory status and the lung retention of welding fume of the welders were studied on several occasions during 1976 and 1982. SUBJECTS - Forty-seven MS/MMA welders working in one shipyard were studied. The welders were divided into four groups according to their age, which was in correlation with the length of exposure: - The welders of group 1 had in the beginning of their employment participated in a welding course of 3 months. After the course they had worked as welders in the shipyard (4+ 0,5 years). - The welders of group 2 had worked in the same shipyard during almost their whole welding period (18+ 4 years) - The welders of group 3 had worked continuously for more than 20 years in welding (26+ 7 years). They had also been employed at the same shipyard during the last 10 years. - Retired welders constituted group 4. They had welded for 25+ 9 years, and worked in the same shipyard for at least the ten last years of their employment before retirement.

410

EXPOSURE In MMA welding, the composition of the welding fumes depends on the base material, the electrode, and the electrode coating. In the shipyard where the present study was made more than 80% of the electrodes used were of the basic coated type (Esab OK 48.00). The base metal was mostly mild steel (MS). The fume concentration in the breathing zone of welders depends on many factors, e.g., on the type of base material, the type and dimensions of the electrodes, the current, the construction of the blocks to be welded, work locations (confined space, open air), local ventilation, and work position. The fume concentration may 3 3 range from about 5 mg/m up to 200 mg/m (1). The welded steel has not contributed any essential chemical changes in welding fumes since 1945. In addition, there have been no such changes in the chemical composition of the electrodes that have significantly influenced the properties of the welding fumes. METHODS The examinations included a detailed occupational history. The lung function tests comprised dynamic spirometry, closing volume, and carbon monoxide diffusing capacity. Measurement of lung-retained contaminants is based on the measurement of the remanent magnetic field created by ferrimagnetic particles retained in the lungs. RESULTS The results of the lung function tests of welders classified into groups according to age are presented in Table 1. The mean vital capacity (VC) of the older, active welders of groups 2 and 3 was slightly lower (2-3%) than that of the young welders of group 1 but the difference was not significant. To the contrary, the vital capacity (VC) of the retired workers (group 4) was significantly (p < 0.001) lower in comparison with the VC values of the young welders (group 1 ) . During the follow-up period the vital capacity (VC) was reduced (0.5-2% per year) in all the groups but in no case was this decrease significant. The diffusing capacity values of the retired welders were significantly lower (p < 0.01) than those of the active welders in groups 1, 2 and 3 (Table 1 ) .

411

TABLE 1. LUNG FUNCTION Lung function of shipyard welders measured in 1976, 1979 and 1982 (VC = vital capacity, FEV = 100 FEV 0 /FVC, DL = carbon monoxide diffusing capacity). All values in % of predicted. Lung functioi1 parameters Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD GROUP 1 (N=12) GROU' 23 (N= 21) GROUP 4 (N==13)

VC

1976 1979 1982

101.8 96.5 98.9

15. ,5 11. ,3 6. ,0

98.3 94.7 95.1

11.0 13.1 11.9

84.8 83.0 73.3

22.1 21.9 30.7

FEV

1.0 1976 1979 1982 101.2 101.7 103.7 95.5 96.0 90.6 15. .1 13, ,2 5. ,5 26. .0 13, .5 11, .0 97.3 100.4 102.0 103.2 92.1 95.2 14.6 16.8 15.3 16.4 0.3 9.5 90.3 93.0 81.1 85.0 79.3 70.2 25.0 29.8 38.0 34.5 27.7 34.3

DL

1976 1979 1982

No significant differences in the closing volume values ( A CV) could be observed between any of the groups (data not shown). Among the "young" active welders in Group 1 the amount of lung contamination increased linearly as a function of the exposure time during at least the first 5 yr. The average lung retention rate of this group was about 70 mg/yr. Among the retired welders (Group 4) the amount on lung contamination decreased significantly (P < 0.001). The lung clearance rate was 18+ 5% (mean + SD) per yr. The highest amounts of lung contaminants were observed among active "old" welders in Groups 2 and 3. The lung contamination of the welders in Groups 2 and 3 decreased slowly (P < 0.01) during the followup period, but during the last 2 yr (19801982) a faster decrease in lung contamination of Group 3 was observed.

412

This decrease was as fast as the corresponding decrease for welders in Group 4. DISCUSSION The number of welders included in the study was rather small with regard to the objective of reliable estimation of changes in the lung function parameters examined. This study, anyhow, indicated that the lung function indices of retired welders were significantly below reference values whereas the lung function of younger welders was within normal limits. Pathogenicity in the respiratory tract caused by manual metal arc (MMA ) mild steel (MC) welding fume exposure cannot be concluded. The results support earlier findings (2) that the diffusing capacity values were affected by UMA/MS welding fumes. It has been suggested that pathological changes in the respiratory tract of welders mainly occur in the peripheral air passages and alveoli. Therefore, application of the flow volume curves and/or other measures of peripheral airways might be more justified in the case of weldrs than the use of the more conventional spirometrie indices (VC, FEV and FEV%) (2). The magnetopneumographic results indicated a mean clearance rate of 20% per year. The individual clearance ranged from 10 to 30% per year. Hygienic improvements in the shipyard were clearly reflected as changes in the lung retention rates. REFERENCES 1. 2. Kalliomki PL, Korhonen O, Vaaranen V, Kalliomki , Koponen M 1978: Int Arch Occup Environm Health 42:8390 Kalliomki PL, Kalliomki , Korhonen O, Nordman , Rahkonen E, Vaaranen V 1982: Scan j work environ health 8: suppl 1, 117121 Newhouse M L, Murray R 1979: The present position concerning the biological effects of exposure to fume in welders. The Welding Institute, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge, (Group Sponsored Project, 5510/46/79) Stern R 1976: Production and characterization of a reference standard welding fume. Rapport SVC, Copenhagen

3.

4.

413
CONTROLLED WELDING IN PATIENTS WITH NEUROLOGICAL SYMPTOMS BERTIL RUDELL Medical Division, National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, S-900 06 Ume, Sweden BIRGITTA KOLMODIN-HEDMAN Medical Division, National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, S-900 06 Ume, Sweden BRITT-INGER WENNGREN ENT-Department, University Hospital, 901 85 Ume, Sweden INTRODUCTION Welders'are exposed to gases and particles from different welding processes: acetylene/oxygen, MMA, MAG, MIG or TIG. The work is often static with bad working positions. Some welders complain about headache, dizziness and difficulties in gripping and holding materials. Patients are often anxious about toxic effects of welding fumes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two case reports are presented. Case A was a 29-year-old man working as a welder for 8 years, who reported dizziness after welding. Case B was a 43-year-old man, welding for 14 years, who reported diffuse neurological symptoms in his left side and of dropping welding handles or welding rods. Welding methods used were, for case A MMA in mild steel and for case B TIG in Nimonic, i.e. 75 per cent nickel and 20 per cent chromium. A real welding situation (case A) for 30 minutes was created and lung deposition of metals and gas concentration of ozone and nitrogen oxides were estimated. Case B simulated welding (arc current = 0) and then he inhaled a welding aerosol from a box (0.5m 3 ). Next day he welded with a welding helmet supplied with fresh air (200 1/min) and later he welded as he used to do. An oculomoter vestibular testing before and after welding was performed for case A. EEG before and during simulated welding was registrated for case B. Video tape filming was performed, following the patients during the different welding situations.

414

RESULTS Ozone and nitrogene oxides were low in case A, Cu<0.1 mg/m3 and NOO.O mg/m 3 . The theoretical lung deposition of particles during the welding period was 80 pg. In case B, the patient inhaled a welding aerosol, NO+NO? was 2.2 mg/m3, O,<0.2 mg/m3 and Ni and Cr less than 0.007 mg/m 3 , from a box. At welding NO+N0 2 was 0.5 mg/m3, 0. 12 mg/m3 and Ni and Cr less than 0.002 mg/m3. Case A showed a changed visual suppression after welding, indi cating a change in the oculovestibular reflex. Case was very tense in the welding situation. The welding helmet trembled while the patient welded as could be seen on the videotape and the EEG signals turned into an EMG pattern at that moment. Ex tensive neurological examination in both case A and showed no other neurological disease as causative of the reported symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Thus patients with neurological symptoms described at welding have been verified in a real welding or simulated welding situation by the use of neurophysiological methods. REFERENCES 1. dkvist LM (1982) Acta Otolaryngol, suppl. 386: 249251. 2. dkvist LM (1982) Acta Otolaryngol 94: 487493. 3. Larsby B (1982) Acta Otolaryngol, suppl. 386: 246248.

415

ACUTE A

PNEUMONITIS PROGRESSING

TO

PULMONARY

FIBROSIS

IN

WELDER SILBERSCHMID

MARTIN

Dpt. of Occupational Health, Centralsygehuset, DK-4200 SLAGELSE (Denmark) INTRODUCTION Clinical reports on welding related, non reversible pulmonary disease are rare. This case history describes the sudden, work related onset of an acute pulmonary disease and its rapid progression to diffuse pulmonary fibrosis in a welder. The precise etiology of the disease is not clear. All alternative etiologies, besides welding fume or gas have been excluded. This case is unique because both the working environment and the morphology and function of the lungs have been studied in detail from the start of the disease. CASE HISTORY A male welder, born i 1955, who has never suffered from any pulmonary disease previously, was trained as a blacksmith from 1972 to 1975. During this period he only welded occasionaly without feeling any ill effects. In 1977 he was employed as a full time welder in a factory manufacturing agricultural machinery. At this time he was completely healthy. A chest X-ray taken in 1976 was normal. The welding job consisted mainly of MMA-welding on non-coated mild steel using basic and rutile electrodes. Only occasionaly MAG- and TIG-welding on stainless steel or aluminium was used. The welder had been working for 5 months without any lung complaints, when he started coughing up sputum, having chills with fever and dyspnea on exertion. He was then working with MMA on mild steel. The symptoms were work related and disappeared during the night and were not present on week-ends. Despite of several tratment periods with antibiotics his condition became worse. After 2 months he had persisting cough, sputum, chest tightness and worsening of dyspnea. Furthermore he complained of headache, general weakness and weight loss. He was then admitted to the hospital where the doctors described him as chronically ill and pale. His temperature was 38 C and he

416

had dyspnea on minor excertion. The laboratory tests showed normocytic and -chromic anemia no leucocytosis or eosinophilia, normal liver-, kidney- as well as coagulation function tests. The tests for collagenous, atopic (IgE) and viral disease were negative. EKG was normal. The chest X-ray showed irregular opacities, laterally in both lungs. Forced vital capacity and one second forced expiratory volume were at 68 and 72% of reference value respectively. The arterial oxygen saturation was normal. At bronchoscopy the bronchial mucosa was swollen and red. No signs of hemorrhage were seen. Mucous bacteriology was negative. No bronchial lavage was done. At thoracotomy, one month after admission, the surface of the upper part of both lungs was diffusely covered with small nodules. The histologic picture of the lung biopsy revealed an extremely polymorphous picture with both acute and chronic pathological changes at all levels. The pleural epithelium was thickened. Inflammatory changes of all stages, acute to organized collagenous fibrosis could be seen in the lung parenchyma. There were many areas with hemorrhage into the interstitial and alveolar spaces.The alveolar wall was edematous and irregular in some areas, without thickening of the alveolar membrane. The alveolar epithelium was partly covered with type-2 pneumocytes. Alveolar spaces were filled with edema and/or cells - mostly macrophages and erythrocytes and some pneumocytes. A great number of macrophages with iron pigment spots could be seen diffusely all over the lung parenchyma. The bronchioles showed acute inflammatory changes ressembling bronchiolitis. Some blood vessels showed mild muscular thickening. The histological picture was not typical of sarcoidosis or any other granulomatous lung disorder. Furthermore, the mediastinal lymph nodes showed no sign of sarcoidosis. The welders clinical condition improved. The temperature became normal, cough and sputum and chest tightness disappeared. Dyspnea became less severe. It is not possible to say, if these changes were due to steroid treatment. Anyhow, despite of continued steroid medication for several years the welders lung disease has remained unchanged after the initial improvement. The welder quit his job and eventually became a bus driver. His condition has remained unchanged for the last 7 years. At pre-

417

sent he has excertional dyspnea and bronchial hyperreactivity. He has recurrent pneumonias and his working capacity is reduced because of general physical weakness. The chest X-ray shows irregular reticular opacities diffusely spread over both lungs. Lung function volumes are within normal limits, while FEV-1 and peak flow are at 72 and 65% of predicted value respectively. Single breath diffusing capacity is reduced to 50% of predicted. Arterial blood gases are normal at rest. WORKING ENVIRONMENT The factory where the welder was employed had air pollution problems,in the welders section. Welding fume measurements made by the Dansih Welding Institute from the breathing zone of a welder using MMA and MAG on non-coated mild steel showed a time average fume concentration of around 20 mg/m . The composition of the fume is shown on table I. TABLE I WELDING FUME MEASUREMENTS; PARTICULATE CONCENTRATION Irontotal fume cone. oxide concentra- . tion mg/m composition,weight % 19.93 5.92 20-34 Manganese 0.76 2-3.8 Copper 0.06 0.3-1.2 other particulates 13.19 48-66

The background fume concentration in the factory was 3.5 mg/m . Welding gases were measured below 2 ppm for nitrous oxide,below 5 ppm for CO and no detectable ozone levels. The exhaust ventilation at the sick welders working place was not functioning at all upon inspection. No other cases of pulmonary disease occured at the factory at that time. A special effort was made to find other possible sources of exposure for organic dust or fumes which could have caused the welders lung disease. No such exposure could be found, neither at work nor at home. DISCUSSION An acute lung disease occured in a welder. The onset of the

418

disease, which seems to be work related, ressembled bronchioloalveolitis. Later it developped into chronic airway obstruction and possibly some degree of fibrosis. The welding fume concentration was above hygienic standards. Also welding gases can have reached high peak values for short periods. It seems very likely that the lung disease was caused by the welding proces, but the precise cause is not known. Several welding fume or gas components such as manganese or nitrous oxides have been shown in experimental animals to cause acute lung changes , such as chemical pneumonitis and hemorrhage. According to many authors such acute lung disorders can progress to chronic fibrosis, even in the case of nitrogen dioxide (1). But there is no actual proof so far, that such lung diseases also occur in welders. CONCLUSION An isolated case of a lung disease caused by welding fume and/ or gases is described. The causal relationship seems plausible but is not proven yet. REFERENCE 1. Horvath EP, doPico GA, Barbee RA, Dickie HA (1978) J occup Med 20:103-1 10

419
CHANGES IN THE RESPIRATORY AND CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS OF ALLOYED STEEL WELDERS E.P. KRASNYUK, I.P. LUBYANOVA, N.T. TIMOFEYEVA Research Institute of Labour Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Kiev (USSR)

The study of the effect of alloyed steel welding aerosols often ends only in their cancerogenesity (11, 13, 17, 18). Information on frequency and character of the pathology of the bronchopulmonary system in alloyed steel welders is contradictory (2, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 19, 20). Less attention is paid to the study of the cardiovascular and other systems (1). Epidemiological research on health in about 500 alloyed steel welders was devoted to the status of respiratory and cardiovascular systems as the systems being mostly exposed to chemical substances belonging to the content of welding fumes and gases . Two occupational groups being almost identical in number and age - high- and low-alloyed steel welders - were subjected to medical examination. Higher manganese, chromium and nickel concentration levels in welding aerosols differed work conditions when welding high-alloyed steels from lowalloyed steel welding. The analysis of data showed that the frequency of the changes of the respiratory system in alloyed steel welders was higher than in the control group (200 persons of the engineering staff of the same enterprise). Chronic bronchitis and pneumosclerosis were the main forms of respiratory system pathology. Chronic bronchitis in low-alloyed steel welders was observed twice as often as that in high-alloyed steel welders. The frequency of this pathology when standardised for age became higher with extension of length of employment in welding low-alloyed steels. At the same time lung diseases, especially pneumosclerosis and pneumoconiosis, were detected with somewhat higher frequency in high-alloyed steel welders. The data on the study of lung function carried out in workers without expressed bronchopulmonary pathology, testify to disturbances of ventilatory functions of lungs developing early, manifested in decreasing vital capacity of lungs, its relation to the proper value. The degree of manifestation of these disturbances was in evident relationship with the length of employment. The restrictive type of disturbances were manifested in high-alloyed steel welders more distinctly. In the group of welders-smokers, the disturbances of external respiration function were markedly more evident. One may assume that fumes and gases during low-alloyed steel welding possess mainly irritative effects contributing to the development of diffuse chronic bronchitis. The aerosols during high-alloyed steel welding possess sclerosing and

420

and i r r i t a t i n g effects but the i r r i t a t i v e one i s weaker than that during lowalloyed s t e e l welding. Neurocirculatory dystonia with hypertensive vascular reactions and dystrophic changes in the cardiac muscle can be a t t r i b u t e d to the main manifestations of the changes of the cardiovascular system. The indicators of a r t e r i a l (diastolic) blood pressure in high-alloyed s t e e l welders were d i s t i n c t l y higher than in workers welding low-alloyed s t e e l s . The significance of t h i s difference became greater when comparing the indicators of frequency of a r t e r i a l hypertension having been standardised in age. In a p a r t of the high-alloyed s t e e l welders, some changes of vascular regulation t h a t took the form of cerebral angiodystonia were found. The frequency of these disturbances became higher with extension of the length of employment. In low-alloyed s t e e l welders, functional disturbances of the central nervous system including cerebral angiodystonia were observed less often than in the previous occupational group. For determining the character of brain vascular disturbances, rheoencephalography was carried out in welders within one age group (from 30 to 40 years) with signs of cerebral angiodystonia, and in healthy workers. As a r u l e , in welders with cerebral angiodystonia a high tone of brain vessels in combination with decreasing vascular blood f i l l i n g was r e g i s t e r e d . In the group of welders without neurologic pathology a high tone was registered when the length of employment was 6 to 10 years or more; normal vascular tone remained only in welders without long working duration (up to 5 y e a r s ) . These changes reflected the beginning of the i n f e r i o r i t y of brain blood supply. The changes of the tone of cerebral vessels in healthy welders without neurologic symptoms can be considered as an early form of cerebral i n f e r i o r i t y of vessels caused perhaps by welding aerosols. Their e t i o l o g i c a l importance in developing cerebral angiodystonia i s confirmed by the high correlation of the changes of vascular tone and the mangenese level in the blood. Myocardial dystrophy was also more often diagnosed in high-alloyed s t e e l welders. Besides the differences in frequency of pathology mentioned above, some p e c u l i a r i t i e s in the character of the ECG were observed. I t should be noted that the mangenese level in the h a i r of high-alloyed s t e e l welders was rather higher than in those welding low-alloyed s t e e l ; the chromium level in the blood was high in both groups. The data cited allows one to suggest t h a t a toxic effect of components of welding aerosols on the cardiac muscle in high-alloyed s t e e l welders i s p o s s i b l e . Besides, in high-alloyed s t e e l welders the manifestations of the overloading of the r i g h t cardiac segment were observed more often in the ECG and they were in connection with changes of the respiratory system.

421

On t h e b a s i s o f

t h e d a t a i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l l o y e d s t e e l s t e e l workers) are t o be c o n s i d e r e d and as a

welders high-risk

(especially high-alloyed group for

the development of p a t h o l o g y of t h e r e s p i r a t o r y they need t o be under medical control.

cardiovascular

s y s t e m s and t h a t

REFERENCES 1 . G o r b a n LN, K r a s n y k E P , F a k t o r o v 19:40-49 ?.. D e i n e g a GE, P r i l u t s k y niya 12:12-15 3. VI, IE (1983) In: Gigiena truda -Kiev: Zdorov'ya

K o r e n e v s k y NA ( 1 9 8 3 )

Gigiena truda i

profzaboleva-

L i k h a c h e v a EI (1979) I n : G i g i e n i c h s k i y e a s p e k t y p r o f i l a k t i k i sosudistoi patologii p r i vozdeistvii faktorov okruzhayuschei vennoi s r e d y . pp 85-89 Lubyanova IP (1978) Vrachebnoye d e l o 2/123-126

serdechnoi proizvodst-

4.

5 . L u b y a n o v a I P , T i m o f e y e v a NT, R o s s i n s k a y a LN, I s c h e n k o AD, M a k a r e n k o T I In: Gigiena truda-Kiev: Zdorov'ya 19:51-56 6.

(1983)

S u v o r o v IM, G r a t s i a n s k a y a LN, K h a i m o v i c h ML, T s i r u l n i k o v a I I , Z e n k e v i c h E S , Knysh SV, P l a t o n o v AA, R e v n o v a NV, D o b r y n i n a VK, K l i m e t s I S , G o r l i k AS, F i l i p p o v a GG ( 1 9 8 0 ) V r a c h e b n o y e d e l o 7 : 9 8 - 1 0 2 Kardiologiya 5:54-6

7 . C h e k u n o v a MP ( 1 9 7 8 )

8 . C h e k u n o v a MP, S u v o r o v IM ( 1 9 8 2 ) : I n : G i g i y e n i c h e s k i y e a s p e k t y p r o f i l a k t i k i serdechno-sosudistoi patologii pri vozdeistvii faktorov okruzhayuschei i p r o i z v o d s t v e n n o i s r e d y pp 38-41 9 . C h e k u n o v a MP, M i n k i n a NA, S u v o r o v IM e t profzabolevaniya 5:22-25 1 0 . S h a t o k h i n a LE ( 1 9 8 4 ) 1 1 . Beaumont J J , 1 2 . F a w e r RJ e t 13. al (1983) Gigiena truda 8:24-27 i

Gigiena truda i profzabolevaniya J O c c u p Med 23 12:839-844

W e i s s NS (1981) al (1982)

B r i t J I n d u s t r Med

39:149-152 of the Health

K n u d s e n I B , S t e m RM (1980) The D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e / R e p o r t Working E n v i r o n m e n t R e s e a r c h Group V I I I - 9 4 6 - 8 1 PL, K a l l i o m k i K, K o r h o n e n O e t a l 31:112-118 36:85-97 6:197-200 (1982)

14. Kalliomki 8:117-121

J Work E n v i r o n

1 5 . M c M i l l a n GHG ( 1 9 8 1 ) 16. Rosenman KD (1979)

J S o c O c c u p Med

B r i t J I n d u s t r Med

17. S j g r e n B (1980)

S c a n d J Work E n v i r o n H e a l t h

1 8 . Thomsen E, S t e r n RM (1980) The D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e / R e p o r t E n v i r o n m e n t R e s e a r c h Group V I I I - 9 5 4 - 8 1 1 9 . What e f f e c t s d o e s w e l d i n g h a v e on w o r k e r s ' F a b r i c a t o r 72:16-22 2 0 . Z o b e r A (1981) Z b l B a c t Hyg I A b t O r i g health? (1981)

of

the

Working and

Canad Welder

173:148

Epidemiological Studies of Mortality and Cancer Incidence Among Welders

423
CANCER MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY STUDIES OF WELDERS JULIAN PETO Section of Epidemiology, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5PX, United Kingdom. INTRODUCTION That welding may cause both acute and chronic respiratory effects has been recognised for many years, but its effects on mortality, and in particular on cancer incidence, have still not been adequately investigated. A review of the published data may nonetheless be useful, if only to draw attention to the reasons for our continuing uncertainty and to indicate what further studies might be worthwhile. NON-MALIGNANT RESPIRATORY DISEASE The SMR (standardised mortality ratio) for non-malignant respiratory disease among "welders, cutters and braziers" in England and Wales was 124 in 1970-72. It has been suggested that this excess may be occupational in origin (1), as their SMR was higher for pneumonia than for bronchitis, whereas an increase in smoking would be expected to increase mortality more for bronchitis than for pneumonia. The opposite effect has however been observed in the United States, where a proportional mortality analysis showed a more marked excess of bronchitis than of pneumonia among welders (2), and Sjgren et al. (this meeting) observed no excess for either disease among welders in Sweden. NON-RESPIRATORY CANCERS Statistically significant excesses of cancers of the nose, larynx, kidney and bladder among welders have been reported (2-7; Table 1). The excess of urinary organ cancers observed among welders in an Italian shipyard (5) also occurred in other workers in the shipyard, however, and may not have been specifically related to welding. Nasal and laryngeal cancers are too rare for a moderate excess to be easily detected in a cohort study, and further case-control studies will probably be required to determine whether or not these reported excesses were due to chance.

424

TABLE I STUDIES SUGGESTING NONRESPIRA TORY CA NCER RISKS A MONG WELDERS

STUDY

METHOD

SITE

NO. OF CA SES

REL. RISK

Milham, 1983 Olsen et al., 1984 Hernberg et al., 1983 Puntoni et al., 1979

PMR C/C C/C

S MR

Kidney Larynx Nasal Kidney + Bladder

20 42 21

1.8 1.6 2.8 4.2

* (McLaughlin, 1982 * (Howe et al., 1977 + *

Kidney ) Bladder) (C/C).

Proportional (PMR)or standardised (SMR) mortality ratio, or casecontrol Unpublished or insufficient details.

LUNG CA NCER Studies of lung cancer among welders are summarized in Tables 24. into three groups. These fall

The first consists of studies based on all deaths or cancer If the analysis is

registrations in a country or region (Table 2; 1,2, 810).

based on the occupation recorded on death certificates by PMR (proportional mortality ratio) or case/control analysis (2, 10) or by reference to the number of welders estimated from census data (1, 9 ) , the results are of questionable validity. In Sweden, however, welders identified in the 1960 census were matched

individually against national cancer registration (8) and mortality data (Sjgren et al., this meeting), thus providing an unbiased cohort study. The

similarity of the various relative risk estimates from th larger studies is striking, and the excess observed in Sweden (SMR = 1.44; < 0.001) can hardly be due to bias or chance. The lung cancer incidence among men whose usual current

occupation is welding thus appears to be about 40% greater than that of the general population. The second group consists of studies that include a substantial proportion of shipyard welders (Table 3; 5, 1114). These are difficult to interpret, as only

one (11) included enough lung cancer deaths to provide a reasonably precise estimate of the relative risk, and the lung cancer risk among other shipyard workers is sometimes higher than among shipyard welders (5, 13), due perhaps to_ exposure to other occupational carcinogens, including asbestos. The presence or

absence of mesothelioma in shipyard studies does not provide a very useful indication of the contribution that asbestos and other shipyard exposures may

425
have made to any observed excess of lung cancer. High mesothelioma rates have

sometimes been reported in shipyard workers who suffered little or no excess of lung cancer (15), but the opposite appears to have occurred in certain areas of the U.S. (13). TABLE 2 STUDIES OF LUNG CANCER IN WELDERS BASED ON OCCUPATION RECORDED ON DEATH CERTIFICATES AND/OR CENSUS RETURNS

STUDY Milham, 1983 (Washington, U.S.) Registrar General, 1978 (England , Wales) Sjgren et al., 1982 (Sweden) * Menck & Henderson, 1976 (Los Angeles, U.S.) Gottlieb, 1980 Louisiana, U.S.)

METHOD+

NO. OF CASES

REL. RISK

PMR SMR SIR SMR C/C

153 246 96 48 8

1.35 1.51 1.44 1.37 4.01

+ SIR = standardised incidence ratio; see also footnote to Table 1. * Mortality (1968-70) plus incidence (1972-73) Studies of shipyard workers can therefore only provide upper bounds for the specific hazards of welding. The relative risks observed among shipyard welders are in fact similar to the population-based estimates shown in Table 2, but these must also have included some shipyard welders, and average duration of welding work is not well defined in either group. Until the duration of welding work for the men in these studies and among men whose "usual occupation" is recorded as welding on census returns or death certificates has been better characterized, such data cannot provide reliable estimates of the effects of prolonged exposure to welding fumes. The third category, studies of non-shipyard welders, are shown in Table 4 (16-23). These should be the most informative, as they can in principle provide information on the magnitude of risk in relation to the type of welding and duration of exposure, but most of these studies were either too small for useful analysis or were not analysed in such detail. Polednak (17) observed little difference in relative risk between men employed for under or over 50 weeks, but duration of employment in the workplace where a study is carried out may be

426
TABLE 3 LUNG CANCER STUDIES AMONG WELDERS EMPLOYED MAINLY OR ENTIRELY IN SHIPYARDS

1. COHORT STUDIES Beaumont & Weiss, 1981 (Washington, U.S.) Puntoni et al., 1979 (Genoa, Italy) *McMillan & Pethybridge, 1983 (Devonport, England) CASE-CONTROL STUDIES Blot et al., 1978 (Georgia, U.S.) Blot et al., 1980 (Virginia, U.S.)

NO. OF CASES 50 7 5

REL. RISK 1.32 1.38 LOA

11 11

0.7 1.3

* Comparison with other shipyard workers 3 mesotheliomas also occurred TABLE 4 LUNG CANCER STUDIES AMONG NON-SHIPYARD WELDERS

1. COHORT STUDIES * Dunn & Weir, 1968 (California, U.S.) Polednak, 1981 (Tennessee, U.S.) Redmond et al., 1979 (Pennsylvania, U.S.) Ott et al., 1976 (Michigan, U.S.) + Sjgren, 1980 (Sweden) CASE-CONTROL STUDIES Breslow et al., 1954 (California) Decoufle et al., 1978 (New York, U.S.) Gerin et al., 1984 (Quebec, Canada)

NO. OF CASES 49 17 14 2 3

REL. RISK 1.05 1.50 1.51 1 (approx.) 4.41

14 9 12

7.0 0.9 2.4

* Comparison with other union members. + Stainless steel welders

Number of shipyard welders not stated

427
virtually unrelated to lifetime exposure, as qualified elders may well have done similar work both before joining and after leaving. The report of the only large cohort study shown in Table 4 for which lifetime exposure data were collected (16) states that no gradient in risk with duration of employment as a welder was observed, but the data were not presented. Apart from this early study, in which the relative risks in this group of expected numbers were calculated internally,

studies are also generally consistent with an overall excess of the order of 40%. SMOKING There are large differences in lung cancer incidence between different social classes and occupational groups, between different countries, and within countries at different times. Most of these differences are probably due to differences in cigarette smoking, but it is not possible to record smoking histories in enough detail to allow for this accurately, and Doll (24) has suggested that relative risks for lung cancer of less than about 1.5 cannot be reliably attributed to occupational exposure unless a clear relationship with intensity or duration of exposure can also be shown. The General Household Survey provided estimates of the proportion of current smokers in each occupation in England and Wales in 1972-73, and the relationship between this smoking index and the SMR for lung cancer for the 25 principal occupational groups and for welders (1) is shown in Figure 1. The correlation is quite high (r = 0.72), and in view of the crudeness of the smoking index and the intrinsic inaccuracy of occupational SMRs

150' LUNG CANCER SMR

WELDERS

100-

50 I 100% PROPORTIONAL SMOKING RATIO 507 I 150%

Fig. 1. Lung cancer SMR and current smoking ( of average) for % 25 principal occupational groups and for welders in England and Wales, 1970-72. (O.P.CS., 1978)

428
it appears that much, and perhaps all, of the lung cancer excess among welders, at least in Britain (an SMR of 151), could be attributable to the effects of smoking, as their smoking index was 22% higher than the average (1). Conversely, however, the variation shown in Figure 1 suggests that as much as 30% of their lung cancer excess could be occupational in origin. An increase of 30% in the SMR would constitute a substantial hazard; but an occupational risk of this magnitude may be virtually impossible to demonstrate by epidemiological observation unless subgroups with heavier or longer exposure than the majority of welders can be shown to suffer a higher lung cancer risk. ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS Allowing for random variation and the selective bias of analysis and reporting that is inevitable in exploratory case-control studies, the results shown in Tables 2-4 are all generally consistent with a relative risk for lung cancer of the order of 1.3 or 1.4. There are three possible interpretations of these data. The confounding effects of smoking The first is that the risk is negligible.

and exposure to other specific carcinogens could certainly account for the results, and the choice of an inappropriate reference population for the calculation of expected numbers can produce a surprisingly high relative risk for lung cancer. In the Tyneside conurbation in Britain, for example, the SMR for lung cancer in 1970-72 was 141 at all ages and 180 (based on 53 cases) below age 45 (1), and even higher rates must occur locally in certain social groups. The statistically significant excess of lung cancer observed in a recent study of shipyard welders in this region was therefore greatly reduced when expected numbers were based on local rather than national rates (Newhouse et al., this meeting). The second possibility, suggested by Stern (25), is that mild steel welding entails little or no excess risk, but some welding operations, and in particular stainless steel welding, cause a very high risk of lung cancer. He suggests that the observed excess can most plausibly be explained by some excess of smoking, occasional exposure to asbestos, and the exposure of a small proportion, perhaps 10%, of all welders to stainless steel welding. Three lung cancer deaths were observed compared with 0.68 expected in the only cohort study of stainless steel welders so far published (20; The third possibility, see also Becker et al., this meeting). and the most worrying, is that prolonged employment as The only large

a welder of any type may cause a substantial increase in lung cancer risk which does not appear until about 20 or 30 years after first exposure. study in which the pattern of excess risk has been analysed in some detail in relation to time since first exposure and duration of exposure (11) showed an overall excess of lung cancer similar to that of the other studies - an overall

429

relative risk of about 1.3 - but an apparently striking increase in relative risk with increasing time since first exposure (Figure 2). The relative risk 20 or more years after first exposure was 1.74 (39 observed, 22.38 expected; < 0.001). The numbers observed beyond 30 years were not stated, but were probably too low to establish whether the very high relative risk beyond 30 years (see Figure 2) was greatly inflated by chance. No mesothelioma deaths were observed, and the

authors state that stainless steel welding constituted only a small proportion of the work. There was, however, no relationship between risk and duration of This analysis alone, therefore,

exposure, and shipyard welders were included.

constitutes rather weak evidence that the eventual risks of welding are as high as Figure 2 appears to suggest. The possibility cannot be ruled out until other

studies have been analysed in the same way, however, and the suggestion that the relative risk may continue to rise with the passage of time is consistent with the proportional mortality data on American welders, whose PMR was highest in old age (2). We are therefore in the curious position of not knowing whether welding is

among the most important current occupational carcinogens or whether its effects are negligible.

XUNG CANCER SMR

.5 1 3-10

J1 30-40 10-20 YEARS SINCE FIRST EMPLOYMENT

40+

Fig. 2. Lung cancer in welders and other workers, by time since first employment. (Beaumont and Weiss, 1981)

IDENTIFICATION OF HIGH RISK SUBGROUPS The need to establish large cohorts of welders with specific exposures, particularly to stainless steel welding, is now generally recognised (8, 25; Becker at al. and Hansen, this meeting). The establishment of retrospective

cohorts of lifelong welders with a range of more common exposures is also important, however, as substantial occupational risks may be difficult to detect in cohorts with inadequate follow-up that include many men with brief or occasional exposure. For example, the data in Table 5 show observed and expected

430
numbers of lung cancers among moderately exposed asbestos textile workers (26). The overall relative risk for lung cancer in this cohort was 1.31, which is similar to the average for the welding studies shown in Tables 2-4; but when the data are broken down by duration of exposure and time since first exposure a clear and highly significant excess of lung cancer is apparent among men with 10 or more years' exposure observed 20 or more years after exposure began. Further

studies and re-analysis of existing cohorts are needed to ensure that such a sub-division of the data on welders would not show a similar pattern of risk. The published accounts of most of the studies shown in Tables 2-4 do not indicate whether observation beyond 20 years after first exposure, particularly of men with at least 20 or 30 years' exposure, constituted a substantial proportion of the overall data.

TABLE 5 LUNG CANCER MORTALITY AMONG ENGLISH ASBESTOS WORKERS (Peto et al. 1985)

DURATION OF EXPOSURE UNDER 20 OBS UNDER 10 YEARS 10 OR MORE YEARS

0

YEARS SINCE FIRST EXPOSURE 20 OR MORE OBS 53 40 EXP 45.44 19.13 OBS 83 49 TOTAL EXP 74.67 25.79

EXP 29.23 6.66

TOTAL

39

35.89

93

64.57

132

100.46

TEMPORAL DETERMINANTS OF CANCER RISK Reports of occupational mortality studies should thus include analyses by duration of exposure and time since beginning exposure, particularly when the risk, if any, is relatively low and individual studies are unlikely to provide clear evidence. The results of different studies cannot be usefully combined if

data on less heavily exposed workers who have not been followed for many years cannot be separated from those on the eventual effects of prolonged or heavy exposure. The relationship between lifelong risk and the initial incidence pattern varies considerably between carcinogens, and sometimes between different cancers caused by the same exposure. Among Welsh nickel refinery workers, for example, the

relative risk for lung cancer, although not for nasal sinus cancer, was high initially but very much lower in old age (27), and the assumption that the relative risk for lung cancer would remain constant after exposure had ceased

431
would therefore lead to a gross over-estimate of lifelong risk. In contrast,

the incidence of mesothelioma among asbestos workers is low up to 25 years after first exposure but subsequently increases rapidly (28). Such differences, and the strong dependence of eventual risk on age at first exposure for certain carcinogens, must be taken into account in any calculation of lifelong risk. Such sophisticated analysis may seem irrelevant in relation to welding, as we do not yet know whether it causes any increase in cancer risk. The subgroups of age, duration of exposure and time since first exposure in which any excess can most readily be detected are determined by such differences, however, and such subdivision of the data from different studies might reveal a consistent pattern when they are pooled. DURATION OF EXPOSURE The absence of any clear relationship between duration of exposure and risk in the data reported by Beaumont and Weiss (11) would 5 or 10 years ago have been regarded as strong evidence that the observed excess was not related to occupational exposure. There have however been several examples in the recent literature of a weak or inconsistent relationship between lung cancer risk and duration of exposure (24), including workers exposed to amosite asbestos (29), beryllium (30) and zinc and lead Chromate pigments (31). These risks were so high, at least for the asbestos and Chromate pigment workers, that a causal relationship with the occupational exposure can hardly be doubted. Such results may reflect differences in intensity of exposure or smoking between short- and long-term employees and the effects of previous or subsequent occupational exposures, or perhaps unusual mechanisms of carcinogenesis; but they certainly indicate that the conventional assumption that the observed risk will vary consistently with recorded duration of employment is not always true. CONCLUSION The experimental evidence that some of the wide variety of exposures encountered by welders may be carcinogenic has been discussed by other speakers. In our present state of ignorance of the mechanisms of carcinogenesis, however, the risks of welding must still be estimated from epidemiological observations. If the investigators who have established cohorts of welders could characterize the exposure of their cohorts, at least by approximate duration of welding work, and preferably by the type of work, an analysis of the pooled data might answer certain questions quite quickly, and would certainly do so eventually. Interviews with surviving relatives of recent lung cancer cases and matched controls from the same cohort, or more careful examination of their employment records, might immediately prove or disprove the suggestion that prolonged

432
welding work of any sort causes a high risk 30 or more years after first exposure, and the effects of certain specific processes such as stainless steel welding could also be studied in this way. Very large cohorts of men exposed only briefly or intermittently are unlikely to be useful, and the most valuable data are those on men who have worked primarily as welders tor at least five years and preferably for most of their working lives. The compilation of detailed work histories is expensive, and the

inclusion of a large number of less heavily exposed men may actually detract from such a study, either by delaying its completion or by reducing the quality of the employment data that are collected. Data on men first employed after about

1965 are also unlikely to be informative, and those recruited earliest (who are now the oldest, if they are still alive) are the most useful. A retrospective

cohort study of a thousand men who spent most of their working lives as welders in which more than half have already died might provide more conclusive evidence than the combined literature so far published on the effects of mixed exposure, and similar cohorts of men exposed to specific processes such as stainless steel welding that have been practised for many years could also be assembled and analysed immediately. The effects of more recent changes in technique and Detailed studies of the

worker protection cannot yet be observed directly.

individual exposures of current employees may eventually provide a useful basis for future dose-response studies, but the collection and analysis of more immediately relevant data must be the first priority. Responses without exposure

measurements are of very much more practical value than exposures without responses in the detection and control of occupational hazards.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Office of Population Censuses and Surveys (1978). 1970-72, England and Wales. H.M.S.O., London. Occupational Mortality

Milham, S. (1983). Occupational Mortality in Washington State, 1950-1979. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services (NIOSH) Publication No. 83-116. Olsen, J., Sabroe, S. and Lajer, M. (1984). Welding and cancer of the larynx: a case-control study. Eur. J. Cancer Clin. Oncol. 20 : 639-643. Hernberg, S., Westerholm, P., Schultz-Larsen, K., Degerth, R. , Kuosma, ., Englund, ., Engzell, U., Hansen, H.S. and Mutanen, P. (1983). Nasal and sinonasal cancer. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 9 : 315-326. Puntoni, R., Vercelli, M., Merlo, F., Valerio, F. and Santi, L. (1979). Mortality among shipyard workers in Genoa, Italy. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 330 : 353-377. McLaughlin, J.K. (1982). Epidemiology of renal cell and renal pelvis cancer in Minneapolis St. Paul Minn, metropolitan area, 1974-1979. PhD thesis, Department of Epidemiology, University of Minnesota, unpublished. Howe, G.R., Chambers, L., Gordon, P., Morrison, B. and Miller, A.B. (1977). An epidemiological study of bladder cancer. Am J. Epidemiol. 106 : 239.

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Sjogren, ., Hogscedc, C. and Malker, . (1982). Chromium and asbestos as two probable risk factors in lung cancer among welders. J. Occup. Med. 2_ : 874875. Menck, H.R. and Henderson, B.E. (1976). Occupational differences in rates of lung cancer. J. Occup. Med. 18 : 797801.

9.

10. Gottlieb, M. (1980). Lung cancer and the petroleum industry in Louisiana. J. Occup. Med. 22 : 384388. 11. Beaumont, J.J. and Weiss, N.S. (1981). Med. 23 : 839844. Lung cancer among welders. J. Occup.

12. McMillan, G.H.G. and Pethybridge, R.J. (1983). The health of welders in naval dockyards : proportional mortality study of welders and two control groups. J. Soc. Occup. Med. 33 : 7584. 13. Blot, W.J., Harrington, J.M., Toledo, ., Hoover, R., Heath, C.U. and Fraumeni, J.F. (1978). New England J. Med. 299 : 620624. 14. Blot, K.J., Morris, L.E., Stroube, R., Tagnon, I. and Fraumeni, J.F. (1980). Lung and laryngeal cancers in relation to shipyard employment in coastal Virginia. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 65 : 571575. 15. Rossiter, C.E. and Coles, R.M. (1980=. H.M. Dockyard, Devonport : 1947 mortality study. In : Biological Effects of Mineral Fibres (eds. J.C. Wagner and W. Davis), I.A.R.C. Scientific Publication No. 30, Vol. 2, I.A.R.C, Lyon, pp 713721. 16. Dunn, J.E. and Weir, J.M. (1968). A prospective study of mortality of several occupational groups : special emphasis on lung cancer. A rch. Environ. Health j 7 : 7176. _ 17. Polednak, A.P. (1981). Mortality among welders, including a group exposed to nickel oxides. A rch. Environ. Health 3( : 235242. 18. Redmond, C K . , Wieand, H.S. and Rockette, H.E. (1979). Long term mortality experience of steelworkers. Update for NIOSH, contract no. HSM:99 : 71: 32. 19. Ott, M., Holder, B.B. and Langner, R.R. (1976). Determinants of mortality in an industrial population. J. Occup. Med. j 8 : 171177. _ 20. Sjogren, B. (1980). less steel welders. A retrospective cohort study of mortality among stain Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 6 : 197200.

21. Breslow, L., Hoaglin, L., Rasmussen, G. and Abrams, H.K. (1954). Occupations and cigarette smoking as factors in lung cancer. Am. J. Public Health 44 : 171181. 22. Decoufle, P., Stanislawczyk, K., Houten, L., Bross, I.D.J, and Viadana, E. (1978). Retrospective Survey of Cancer in Relation to Occupation. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National Institute for Occupation Safety and Health, Publication No. (NIOSH) 77178. 23. Gerin, M., Siemiatycki, J., Richardson, L., Pellerin, J., Lakhani, R. and Dewar, R. (1984). Nickel and cancer associations from a multicancer occupation exposure casereferent study : preliminary findings. In : Nickel in the Human Environment (ed. F.W. Sunderman), I.A.R.C. Scientific Publication No. 53, I.A.R.C. Lyon, pp 105115. 24. Doll, R. (1984). Occupational cancer : problems in interpreting human evidence. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 28 : 291305. 25. Stern, R.M. (1983). A ssessment of risk of lung cancer for welders. Arch. Environ. Health 38 : 148155. 26. Peto, J., Doll, R., Hermon, C., Clayton, R. , Goffe, T. and Binns, W. (1985). Relationship of mortality to measures of environmental asbestos pollution in an asbestos textile factory. A nn. Occup. Hyg. In press.

434

27. Peto, J., Cuckle. H., Dell, R., Hermon, C. and Morgan, L.G. (1984). Respiratory cancer mortality of Welsh nickel refinery workers. In : Nickel in the Human Environment (ed. F.W. Sunderman), I.A.R.C. Scientific Publication No.53, I.A.R.C, Lyon, pp 37-47 28. Peto, J., Seidman, H. and Selikoff, I.J. ( 1982). Mesothelioma mortality in asbestos workers : implications for models of carcinogenesis and risk assessment. Br. J. Cancer 4 5 : 124-135. _ 29. Acheson, E.D., Gardner, M.J., Winter, P.D. and Bennett, C. (1984). Cancer ir a factory using amosite asbestos. Int. J. Epidemiol. L3 : 3-10. 30. Mancuso, T.F. (1979.). Occupational lung cancer among beryllium workers. In Dusts and Diseases (eds. R. Lemen and J.H. Dement). Pathotox Publishers, Park Forest, Illinois, pp 463-472. 31. Davies, J.M. (1984). Lung cancer mortality among workers making lead Chromate and zinc Chromate pigments at three English factories. Brit. J. Indust. Med. 41 : 158-169.

435

A I EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY ON H EALTH OF STAINLESS STEEL WELDERS I WITH SPECIA!. REFERENCE TO THE RISK OF RESPIRATORY CANCER. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION KLAUS STAG-IS HANSEN Dpgrt m^rit" of Occupational Medicine, Odense University H ospital 5 Odense C (Denmark) INTRODUCTION I- appears from detailed analysis of the known epidemiological studies of cancer incidence among welders that welders as an occupational group exhibit an excess risk of lung cancer approximately 30^ above that of a non-welding population which annot be accounted for by tobacco use or bystander exposure (primarily to asbestos in shipyards . In most of the studies it is not possible to divide the welding population into well defined exposure groups. It is, e.g. not always possible to sort out the group of pure stainless steel wel lers. If the biological activity of chromium VI in welding fumes is not different from that of chromium VI found in other industries t hen stainless stel welders who have a cumulative exposure to a respiratale aerosol containing various solubilities of chromium VI equivalent to the average cumulative chromium VI exposure in the generel Chromate producing and Chromate utilization industry should be expected to have an equivalent risk of lung cancer. Since the average excess risk ratio in the Chromate industry is lot ween .5 and 10, the stainless s'teel welding population which omprises approximately 10^ of ""he welding work force could be responsible for a significant fraction of the overall excess risk observed. Verification of this hypothesis can only be accomplished by epidemiological studies where special attention is paid to the iefini^ion and sele-tion of exposure groups having adequate latei, -y time and appropriate reference populations. MATERIAL AND METHODS In the following I will summarize the design of a Danish cohort study of stainless steel welders' cancer incidence which is "arried out in collaboration with the Danish Welding Institute

436

who is responsible for the exposure measurements and estimates. The main aims of the study is: 1. To determine whether, and if so to what extent, stainless steel welders have an increased risk of respiratory cancer and, secondly, of other types of cancer. 2. To determine whether stainless steel welding involves an increased risk of other respiratory diseases e.g. chronic bronchitis and asthma. 3. To describe the general health profile of stainless steel welders. Establishing of the study population has been done on the basis of the Danish Welding Institute's survey of the stainless steel welding industry in Denmark,(1). There were approximately 3-500 stainless steel welders listed in this survey, more than 700 of them engaged fulltime on a specific welding proces. The other 2.500 - 3.000 were engaged part-time on one or more welding processes, which could mean that some of them may have been employed for their combined total working time on stainless steel welding. The welders were spread over a little more than 400 companies throughout Denmark. Companies with less than 6 stainless steel welders were excluded from the study material reducing the number of undertakings to about 150 only with a little reduction of the number of welders. The total study population will be at appr. 12.000 with 4.000 stainless steel welders, 4.000 mild steel welders and 4.000 controls. Personal data and exposure data about the members of the cohort were collected respectively from the personal card index and technicians, directors and foremen in the companies. From the cohort the following information will be obtained by means of a postally delivered questionnaire: 1. Personal data 2. Work history a. Work done prior to/after welding b. Assessment of lifetime welding exposure - onset and duration of welding exposure - proportion of working time spent on welding - types of: industry welding techniques

437

welding materials electrodes welding on surface treated base material exposure (directly/indirectly) to: asbestos quarts cutting oils other generel working condirions: exhaustion protective devices welding in small enclosed spaces 3. Health a. Pulmonary symptoms and diseases b. Eczema c. Other complaints and symproms from other organs (CNS, kidney, liver etc.) d. Allergic symptoms/diseases e. Predisposition to ilmonary, skin and allergic diseases f. Sick leave g. Medical treatment 4. Smoking habits 5. Alcohol consumption Kstimation of current and previous levels of exposure will be done by means of: 1. Questionnaire P. Lnformation from undertakings 3. Staristi^s currently available on exposure conditions 4. Measurements of alcohol exposure conditions The data register containing data from the companies,exposure data and data from the questionnaire will b linked to the m l ional Cancer Registry and *he national Register of Patients which will enable us to calculate the morbidity ratios, the relative risk, first of all, of respiratory cancer among stainless rt' c welders, takine potential confounders into account. Results of the study will be available late in 1986. St lies of effects on lung f motion and oxicogene^ic effects of stainless steel welding fumes with poin^ of origin in the cohort is planned to follow *he above described study.

438
REFERENCES 1. Hansen EB. Survey of stainless steel welding and cutting in danish industries (1982).Danish Welding Institute, Copenhagen. In press

439
CONFOUNDING AND EFFECT-MODIFYING FACTORS IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL

STUDIES IN WELDERS SVERRE LANGARD Department of Occupational N-3900 Porsgrunn, Norway Medicine, Telemark Central Hospital,

Welders are exposed to a great number of metal oxides, noxious gases such as NO and 0,, CO, organic compounds and inert particulates. A great number of welders are also exposed to tobacco smoke, ethanol, and exposure factors in their homes and in their environment. The WHO protocol (Interim Document 15; Studies In Epidemiology, WHO/EURO, 1984) has suggested epidemiological collaborative studies on mortality and cancer incidence in order to investigate the possibility that exposure to welding fumes causes increased mortality rates in welders, and in particular on lung cancer in stainless steel welders. Since the documented increased cancer incidence in some welder studies may be due to confounding factors or to interaction between exposure factors in the welding fumes and other exposure factors, a survey on how previous studies have dealt with confounding and effect-modifying factors seems necessary. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES Breslow et al. presented a case-control study on the relationship between smoking habits and occupational exposure and the development of lung cancer. Their 518 cases included 493 lung cancer cases in males. An association between welding for more than 5 years and lung cancer was indicated, since there were 10 welders and only 1 control who had welded for more than 5 years. In the further analysis the authors added sheet metal workers to the welder-group. When doing this, there were 14 cases and 2 controls who had done this kind of work for more than 5 years, giving an odds ratio of 7.0. When they considered the smoking habits in these cases, one appeared to be a nonsmoker and 12 cases had smoked more than 20 cigarettes per day for the last 20 years. By applying the proportion of cases among total cases and controls in each smoking category, they estimated the expected number of welder cases to be 9.0, giving an estimated observed/expected

440

ratio of 14/9.0 or 1.56. Provided that this estimated O/E ratio is correct, it would have been of great interest to have a detailed occupational history for these cases, with special emphasis on asbestos exposure, in order to exclude the possibility that asbestos or other carcinogenic agents had confounded the result. These results led to a follow-up of a large welder cohort car2 ried out by Dunn and Weir . The exact number of welders included in the study was not given, but there were 81.389 person-years under observation, and the follow-up was from 1954 to 1962. The study in welders was a part of a large cohort study in 68.000 workers from 14 different occupations. The large cohort served as a reference for the welder sub-population. All results were corrected for smoking habits. Among the welders, 49 lung cancer cases were observed against 46.5 expected. The lung cancer deaths were also assigned to exposure time groups based on number of years of employment as a welder. No death rate gradient was observed related to the number of years as a welder. Therefore, these results did not confirm the suspicion which had been aroused by the previous study , and no dose-response relationship between exposure time and lung cancer death rates was found. On the other hand, since the authors used mainly industrial workers as reference, the non-positive results may still cover a hidden excess of lung cancer within the welder sub-population. Menck and Henderson traced the last occupation of 2.161 workers who had died of lung cancer in California in 1968 to 1970, and 1.777 incident lung cancer cases during 1972 and 1973; all white males aged 20 to 64. Expected deaths and expected incident cases were calculated for each specific occupation. The ratio of observed deaths plus incident cases to expected deaths plus incident cases was used as the measure of risk for each occupation. This ratio ( ) was called standard mortality ratio (SMR) and was 137 % for welders, based on 48 cases. No information was collected on smoking habits. As there was no information on previous occupations, the possibility of exposure to asbestos and other carcinogens in the welder cases cannot be excluded. Since welder as "last occupation" was used as criterion for being a "case", a possible selection to non-welder occupations by the end of the career, may have given an underestimation of the cancer risk due to welding. One has to agree with the authors that there are limitations in the epidemiological method and that the increased

441

ratios may be due to differences in smoking habits. These results may therefore be considered to be non-informative. 4 Milham reported 67 lung cancer cases in a proportionate mortality study (PMR) in welders and flame-cutters in Washington State, versus 49 expected (PMR = 137) based on US age-adjusted figures. No further information on occupational exposure or tobacco smoking was given. Seven deaths due to chronic bronchitis and emphysema, versus one expected, and 12 due to cancer in the urinary bladder against 7 expected, were also observed. The total number of cancer deaths was 257 versus 246 expected. These excesses of bladder cancer and of chronic bronchitis may indicate that the lung cancer results have been confounded by exposure factors which also cause bladder cancer and chronic bronchitis. Smoking is the only exposure factor which is known to cause such high rate ratios of chronic bronchitis, and which is also known to contribute to the causation of bladder cancer. In a cohort study of a large group of shipyard workers in Genoa, Puntoni et al. studied the cancer mortality in 136 autogene welders and 78 electric welders in a cohort study in males. They used two different reference-populations; the age-specific death rates of the male population of Genoa and the male staff of a nearby hospital. Among the autogene welders there were 4 cancer deaths from lung and bronchial cancer versus 3.20 and 1.89 expected in the reference populations. There were 11 deaths due to respiratory diseases versus 4.63 and 3.47 expected, and 4 deaths versus 0.79 and 0.68 expected due to cancer of the kidneys, bladder and other urinary organs. Among the members of the electric welder sub-cohort, there were 3 lung cancer deaths versus 1.88 and 1.18 expected, and the figures for cancer in the kidneys and the urinary bladder were 1 versus 0.40 and 0.30 expected. The authors state that exposure to asbestos was widespread in the shipyards, and was considered to be the most significant general exposure factor in the yards, but cigarette smoking was not considered in detail. Although the given data are not specific enough, a combination of tobacco smoke and asbestos exposure cannot be excluded as significant contributors to the observed lung cancer excess. In two different case-control studies of lung cancer by BLot et al. ' , smoking habits were taken into consideration. In the first study there were 11 welders among the cases and 20 among the referents (odds ratio = 0.7), and in the other there were 11

442 welders among the cases and 9 among the referents. In a small cohort study of 234 male stainless steel welders who g welded for more than 5 years during 1950-65, Sjgren found 3 pulmonary tumour cases versus 0.68 expected. The smoking habits of this group appeared to be quite similar to the general male population, indicating that differences in smoking habits could not explain the whole increase in the cancer rates. No individual working history and smoking history was reported for the subjects with pulmonary tumours. In such small studies individual exposure histories should be presented in order to exclude or demonstrate other possible causal factors. Since this study included only subjects who had welded for 5 years and more before 1965, dilution of the results by inclusion of low-risk persons was avoided. In a cohort study of 536 nickel-alloy pipe welders most of whom had observation exceeding 19 years, and 523 "other welders", with 9 a slightly shorter observation period, Polednak found 7 and 10 lung cancers respectively, versus 5.65 and 5.71 expected. Smoking habits were taken into account on a cohort basis, but not in the individual cases. Although cancer development time (latency) was taken into account, even this study could have provided more information on other possible causal factors, if individual exposure histories had been taken in each of the lung cancer cases. In a cohort study on lung cancer mortality in 3247 welders from Washington State, Beaumont and Weiss ' found 50 deaths versus 37.95 expected (SMR = 132) based in US statistics. When 20 years of latent period was excluded from the calculation, 39 deaths versus 22.38 expected (SMR = 174) were found. Even in this well designed study, more information could have been extracted by taking detailed exposure histories and possibly by doing an internal case referent study. COMMENTS The above quoted studies provide some evidence for excess lung cancer incidence in welders with long welding experience. Also, there is some evidence that stainless steel welders constitute a separate risk group due to exposure to Ni-compounds and Cr 12 compounds . However, it is still possible that the Jung cancer excess in mild steel welders is due to unspecific factors in particulate matter and fumes . In the WHO collaborative studies, therefore, care should be taken to collect as much information as

443

possible on assumed confounders and on possible effectmodifying factors, both in the cohort studies, in subpopulations, and the cancer cases. Internal casecontrol studies within the cohort studies are preferable, and might enable us to identify very low risk groups and high risk groups on the basis of combinations of welding fume exposure and exposure to effectmodifying factors, such as documented exposure to asbestos and tobacco smoke, similar 14 to the results recently presented by Pastorino et al. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Breslow L, Hoaglin L, Rasmussen G, Abrams HK (1954) Am J Public Health 44:171181 Dunn JE, Weir JM (1968) Arch Environ Health 17:7176 Menck HR, Henderson BE (1976) JOM 18:797801 Milham S (1976) Ann NY Acad Sci 271:243249 Puntoni R, Vercelli M, Merlo F, Valerio F, Santi L (1979) Ann NY Acad Sci 330:353377 Blot WJ, Harrington JM, Toledo A, Hoover R, Heath CW, Fraumeni JF (1978) Engl J Med 1978:620624 Blot WJ, Morris LE, Stroube R, Tagnon I, Fraumeni JF (1980) J Natl Cancer Inst 65:571575 Sjgren (1980) Scand J Work Environ Health 6:197200 Polednak AP (1981) Arch Environ Health 36:235242 Beaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1980) Am J Epidemiol 112:775786 Beaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1981) JOM 23:839844 Langrd S, Stern RM (1985) In: Nickel in the Human Environment. International A gency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, pp 95103 Kjuus H, Lislerud A , Lyngdal PT, Omland H, Stave O, Langrd S (1982) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 49:281292 Pastorino U, Berrino F, Gervasio A, Pesenti V, Riboli E, Crosignani (1984) Int J Cancer 33:231237

13. 14.

445

LUNG CANCER AMONG WELDERS IN SEATTLE, WASHINGTON (USA) JAMES J. BEAUMONT, PH.D. AND NOEL S. WEISS, M.D. Northern California Occupational Health Center, Occupational and Environmental Health Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis California 95616 (USA) (Dr. Beaumont); and Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle Washington 98195 (USA) (Dr. Wei3s) INTRODUCTION To assess the lung cancer mortality of welders, a cohort of 3247 men from Local 101 of the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers in Seattle, Washington, was studied. These welders worked in a variety of industries, primarily shipbuilding, field construction, and metal fabrication. The welders were exposed to a variety of metal oxides, gases, and other substances that were present in the welding fume. The content of the fume was dependent upon the type of metal being welded; the presence, if any, of coatings such as paint or galvanizing on the metal; the content of the rods and fluxes; and the kind of shielding used to protect the weld from oxidation. METHODS Welders who were union members for a minimum of three years, including at least one day between January 1, 1950, and December 31, 1973, were the subjects of the study. Their vital status wae determined as of January 1, 1977. Follow-up showed that 529 (16J) were deceased a3 of the study cutoff date, January 1, 1977 (Table 1). Table 1. Vital Status of the Welders in Boilermakers Local 10t as of January 1, 1977. Status Alive Deceased Unknown Total Number 26U9 Percentage 82 16 2 100

3247

529 69

Person years were calculated for five-year age and time categories, and multiplied by the corresponding age- and time-specific U.S. mortality rates to yield expected numbers of deaths.

446

RESULTS The distribution of the 3 > 247 welders by year of entrance to the union is given in Table 2, where it can be seen that one-third of the welders Joined the union local in the 1940's, reflecting an increase in shipyard employment that occurred during World War II.

Table 2. Distribution of Welders by Year of Entrance to Boilermakers Local 101. Year of Entrance 1910-1919 1920-1929 1930-1939 1910-1949 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970+ Total Number of Welders 11 1 53 1114 457 1273 335 3247

Fifty of the deaths were due to lung cancer, when 38 were expected on the basis of U.S. statistics (Standardized Mortality Ratio = 1.32, = 0.06). When only the deaths occurring 20 or more years from first employment were considered, the observed and expected figures were 39 and 22.38, respectively (SMR = 1.74, < 0.001). Length of exposure and latency were strongly associated with excess risk for lung cancer. These two variable were highly correlated with each other, however. When duration of exposure was examined with latency strata, the effect of length of exposure largely disappeared. When latency was examined within exposure strata, however, the effect of latency remained strong. Welders were compared to other ("nonwelder") members of the union local (Table 3). There was no excess in either group until 20 years from firet exposure, after which the excess risk rose at a much greater rate among the welders.

Table 3. Lung Cancer in Welders and Nonwelders in Boilermakers Local 104: Standardized Mortality Ratios (and Observed Deaths) by Latency (Years from First Employment). Latency (years) 3 10 20 30 - <10 - <20 - <30 - <40 40+ Welders 0.72 0.70 1.40 2.32 4.44 (4) (7) (21) (16) (2) Nonwelders 0.59 1.02 1.22 1.30 1.31 (7) (23) (32) (18) (8)

Direct comparison of the welders and nonwelders (no reference to U.S. statistics) yielded an attributable rate of 23.1 lung cancers per 100,000 welders per year, and a relative risk of 1.28.

447

CONCLUSIONS Lung cancer was in excess among local 104 welders. The overall Increase was 32$ relative to the U.S. population, and when only the risk 20 or more years after first employment wae considered, the excess was 74$. Internal comparison of welders and nonwelders in local 104 also demonstrated a relatively high rate of lung cancer for welders: the attributable rate was 23.1 lung cancers per 100,000 welders per year, and again the excess risk was greatest 20 years from first employment. While it was clear that welders had a high lung cancer risk, it was not clear that welding fume was entirely responsible for the excess risk. Asbestos in shipyards may have been partly responsible, and another question was the contribution of cigarette smoking, a variable which could not be measured. Internal comparison to other members of the union, who were probably similar to the welders regarding shipyard work and smoking habits, indicated that welding fume may have been partially responsible for the excess risk.

REFERENCE 1. Beaumont JJ and Weiss NS (1981) Lung cancer among welders. J. Occup. Med. 23:839-844.

449

CANCER RISK IN ARC WELDERS EXPOSED T O CHROMIUM-NICKEL-CONTAINING

FUMES

NIKOLAUS BECKER. JENNY C L A U D E . RAINER

FRENTZEL-BEYME

Institute of Documentation, Information and Statistics, German Cancer Research Center, P.O. Box 101949, 6900 Heidelberg, FRG

BACKGROUND AND METHODS The quantify mam objective of this epidemiologic investigation was to identify and to

possible

carcinogenic

properties of nickel

compounds in the welding arc

fumes. welders for in an the in

In the course of working

the data acquisition, it turned with Arc nickel-containing welders possibly

out that the number of was too

exclusively study. all

electrodes subjected were to thus

small exposure in the

epidemiologic above

a mixed included

sense, i.e.

chromium-nickel

welders,

study

order to answer all. The

the basic question of whether any health risk can be established at follow-up into study took welding A procedures, follow-up duration study of was was

retrospective and

exposure

smoking habits

consideration.

historical

feasible since the welding of stainless steel in the Federal introduced at the beginning of the fifties. In order

Republic of Germany

to obtain a justifiable cohort size

(aimed at 1 , 5 0 0 ) , a total of 25 factories manufacturers of sanitary installations, power plants and boilers distributed throughout included in the s t u d y . ' The complete coverage of the persons employed at the time was facilitated by the fact that regulations in the manufacture of pressure that those vessels used in boilers, workers to be power with at all the Federal Republic of Germany had to be

plants and high alloy

installation steel

construction require work undergo an

entrusted (TV)

welding

official to

technical set up

examination

intervals of

two years.

Thus, it

was possible

a complete

listing of

chromium-nickel

welders ever employed through the

use of the certificates

available

in most of the factories from the very beginning. In order control to narrow down the "healthy was defined, which was worker effect" in the evaluation an internal to be similar to the group of welders with etc.)

group

regard to the basic

characteristics (such as type of industry,

physical s t r e s s ,

* The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Metal Division of the Mutual Accident Insurance Association (AG der Eisenund MetallBerufsgenossenschaften) and in particular the great efforts of Dipl. Ing. I. Grothe in the preparation and assistance in technical matters of the study. Thanks are also due to Mr. H. Holzgen for advice during data collection.

450

but

definitely

not

exposed milling,

to

nickel

and was

chrome. chosen, and

The where

work the The

area waste data

of

mechanical only

processing consists of

(turning, particles

drilling)

product of the

which are not airborne

inhaled.

control

group ("turners") was also c o l l e c t e d in most of the 25 factories. The study account cohort was to include persons first 10 years. exposed before 1970 in order to

for a latency period of at least

The f o l l o w - u p was

complicated

by restrictions 1983. In addition,

due to the regulations of data protection and lasted until January 15,

an external

comparison

was

carried

out

with

the

total

population the

mortality.

Quinquennial of

age-calendar

time and from

causespecific mortality 1952 to 1978 were used

rates of to

Federal Republic

Germany

for males

calculate

expected values and standardized mortality ratios (SMR). Approximate limits assuming the Poisson distribution were computed.

95% confidence

RESULTS The result of the f o l l o w - u p is shown in Table 1 . up. Only 2 . 3 * were lost to follow-

Death certificates were available for about 9 6 * of the 77 deaths in the w e l d e r s ' , The age distribution of the two cohorts is shown in

and 163 in the turners' cohort.

Table 2 and shows that the turners' were younger in general. Table 3 shows system the causes 27 of and death 75 in both groups. as Diseases well as of the

cardiovascular

with

cases

respectively

malignant

neoplasms with 23 and 30 cases were most frequent (Table 3 ) . With the exception of the violent deaths, other causes of death ranged below 12 cases e a c h .

TABLE

1 of the follow-up of welders and turners

Results

Welders

Turners

Total

Total Person-years at risk

1221 23492

1694 41243

2915 64735

Alive Dead Lost to follow-up

1119 77 25

91.6* 6.3% 2.1%

1491 163 40

88.0* 9.6% 2.4%

2610 240 65

89.5* 8.2% 2.3%

Death

certificates 76 1 155 8 231 9

- a v a i lable - n o t avai lable

451
TABLE Age 2 of study and comparison cohorts at entry into the study

distribution

Age

group

We I d e r s

Turners

numbe r

%
6. 5 14.3 20. 2 24 . 7 15.7 10.0 5 . 1 2. 3 0. 7 0. 5 0. 1

numbe r

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64

79 175 247 301 192 122 62 28

4 1 6

24 . 6 2 2 .6 17.0 12.9 8 . 0 5 . 7 4 .0 3 . 3 1 . 5 0 . 4 0. 1

382 288
21 8

136 96 68 56 26 7 1

6 1

tot a II

1221

100.0

1694

100. 0

TABLE

3 causes for of death among w e l d e r s period of and turners

Selected (rate

ratios

the

total

Observation)

Cause

of

death

(ICD8)

Number Welders

of

deaths Turners

Rate ratiott

Confidence limits

All

causes

(000999) diseases neoplasms (000136) (140209)

77 2 23

163 2 30

1.1 1.5 2.4

0.81.3 0.73.1 1.15.1

Inlectious Malignant

Circulalorv Respiratory Digestive

system system

(390458) (460519)

27 2 5 2 3

75 6 12 4 10

0.5 0.6 1.5 1.5 6.1

0.14.5 0.018.3

system

(520577) (580607)

Gen tour nar s y s t e m

0.212.5

S ymp t o m s . s i g n s a n d i l l defined conditions (780796) violence

Accidents, (800999) Others

poisonings,

13

20

2.5

(230289)

# A d|usted
D

bv

stratification

for

age

<

0.05

452

"Internal Comparison" To consider the confounding factor smoking a stratification by smokers, non-

smokers, and former smokers was done. a simple evaluation showed no

The results of this evaluation compared to differences in the rate ratios, so that

significant

smoking was not considered in further analysis.

When age was adjusted for (using four age groups, 0 -

3 4 , 35 -

5 4 , 55 -

69 and

over 70) the rate ratio of malignant neoplasms for welders is statistically above 1.0 ( T a b l e 3 ) .

significant

Table 4 also shows the deaths from malignant neoplasms according to sites ICD-Codes). Cancers of the respiratory organs with 6 and 10 cases

(and

respectively

ranked first followed by 2 respectively figures lay at 5 and below. Two cases of and one peritoneal

5 stomach cancers. With most other sites the

malignant neoplasms of cancer occurred

"other respiratory welders where

organs" none

(mesotheliomas) found among

among

was

turners ( T a b l e 4 ) . Analysis by groups. duration of exposure did not show any striking differences between

"External Comparison" Comparing the observed with e x p e c t e d numbers on the basis of the mortality of

the general population, the standard mortality ratios the SMR for all causes of welders and turners are predominantly below 100 (Table cancer 5) i. e. much lower

both than

expectation.

Although the SMRs for a few specific are above 100, they should be

sites (such as melanoma chance fluctuations

prostate, leukemia)

ascribed to

due to extremely small numbers. Analysis malignant by time since first exposure was performed for all causes results of for death, welders the time

neoplasms and

lung

cancer

(Table

6).

Although

the

clearly show the "healthy SMR is markedly below

worker e f f e c t " , in that for the first two time intervals 100 with increasing observation

1 0 0 , it increases a b o v e

and reach statistical significance for malignant neoplasms in the last time interval of 30 years since first exposure. Contrary to w e l d e r s , the rates of the turners show upward trend, many of them being significantly below no

100. Thus the mortality of the

turners accentuates the extent of the health risk involved in the welders. In view of the different composition of the welding fumes, the exposure of welders techniques

working mainly with coated electrodes and those engaged in other welding

were separately analysed. For all of the different causes of deaths considered (as far as available data a l l o w e d ) , the SMRs, though mostly still below 100, were always

higher for the welders using coated e l e c t r o d e s . This finding is strengthened by the results from the analysis by time since first

exposure ( T a b l e 7 ) . The SMRs increase more rapidly with time for

the welders using

453

TABLE 4 Cancer (rale deaths ratios among w e l d e r s (or the total and turners of observation)

period

Cause

ot

death

(ICDa)

Number WeIders

of

deaths Turners

Re 1 e ratio#

Coni

dence

limits

Malignant

neoplasms

(140209)

23 6 2 2 1

30 5 1 0 10

2.4 1 . 4 1 . 4 3 . 7

1.15.1

Gas t r t es t na I tract S tomach Paner eas (151) (157) ( 158) lung

(150159)

0.82.4 0.212.5 0.624 . 5

Pe r t oneum Trachea,

bronchus,

(162)

Other

respiratory (172) ( 15 ) organs

organs

(163) 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 5
3 . 7 4 . 0 15.0 3 . 8 3. 7

Me I anoma Prostate Urinary Brain

0.265.8 0.350.2

(188189)

3 2

( 191 ) neopla sms and (197)

0.531.2 0.354 . 2

Secondary Leukemia system fl A j u s t e d d < 0.05 TABLE 5

1 0

lymphatic

(200209) by stratification (or age

Mo rial tv a n a l y s i s

(or w e l d e r s

and

turners

(SMR )

Ceuse

ol

death

(ICDB)

WeIders Deaths Obs. Exp. SMR

Turners Deaths Obs. Exp. SMR

All

causes

(000999) neoplasms (140209)

77 23 6 2 6 1 1 0 27 2 5 2 13

117.4 23.7 6.5 3. 6. 0. . 0.

4 3 3 9

65.6* 97.1 92.3 58 95 318 115

. . . . 3 4 4 1

163 30 8 5 10 1 1 5 75 6 12 4 20

254.3 53.1 15.3 8. 1 4. 0. 2. 2. 3 5 5 6 3

64.1* 56.5 52.2 59 69 203 38 214

. 5

Malignant

G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l tract (150159) S tomach (151) T r a c h e a , b r o n c h u s , lung Me I anoma (172) Pros ta t e (185 ) Leukemia (204207) Circulatory Respiratory Digestive syst em system

(162)

2
. 6 . 5 . 8

2 1 .
35 . 7 .

(390458) (460519)

75.. 6
34 . 46

82 . 7 14 . 9 20.. 4 5 . 1 .0 43 .

90 . 7 40..3 58..
78 . 0 . 46 . 5 .

5. 7 . 10.. 7 2. 1 23. 7

sysl em

(520577) (580607)

.a . . a

Geni tour inary Accidents, viol enee

system

96 . .6
54 . .9

poisonings. (800999 ) ratio

SMR = 3 tandardized m o r t a l i t y
< 0.05

Obs.=observed
Exp.=expected

cases
cases

TABLE

6 by time since lirst epos

TABLE

7 by time since first and exposure welders tor the subgroups techniques

Mo r t a I anslvsis for w e l d e r s end

Wo r t a I I t y a n a l y s i s of w e l d e r s using

turners

coated

electrodes

using

other

Time

since first

e x p o s

We I d e r s Dea ths Obs./Exo. SMR

Turners D e a t hs Obs./Exo. SMR Time since lirst exposu coated

WeIders electrodes

using other techniques

(years)

(years)

Dea t hs Obs./Exp. SMR

Deaths Obs./Exp. SMR

Al I c a u s e s < 9

ICD

000999) 10/32.3 24/42.3 32/34.7 11/ .1 31.0 56.7 92.2 135.9 15/43.5 5 1 / 6 8 .4 6 9 / 8 1 .3 28/61.1 34.5* 74.6 84.9 45.8 Al I c a u s e s
< 9

( ICD

000999)

1019 20 > 29 30

8/22.8 21/32.6 30/28.6 9/ 7.2 68/91.2

35.0 84.4 104.9 125.7 74.6*

2/9.5 3/9.7 2 / 6 . 1 2/ 0.9

21.1 30.8 32.9 215.2

10 19 20 29 2 30

77/117.4

65.6*

163/254.3

64.1

Malignant 1 1 0 - 1 9 2 0 - 2 9 1 30 9

neoplasms

f I CD

140209) 1/4.8 6/8.7 20.8 69.3 1/ 6.2 16.2 72.7 69.2 41.8 Malignant < 1 0 - 1 9 20 > 29 30 9 neoplasms (ICD 140-209) 1/ 3.5 28 .2 73,. 3 144 . .9 234 . 7 0/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1 .3 1 . 8 1 . 4 0.2

10/13.8 13/18.8 6/14.4

54 .5 72. 1 428.4

1 1 / 8 . 3 1 3 2 . 7 5/1.9 258 . 1*

5/6.8 10/ 6.9

4/1.7

Tot a I

23/23.7

97.1

30/53.1

56.5 20/19.0 105.4

Lung

cancer < 9 19 29 30

ICD

162) 0 / 1 . 0 1/2.3 4/ 1/ 2.5 0.6 43.3 163.0 175.6 0 / 1 . 3 3 / 3 . 7 4 / 5 . 4 3/ 4.1 82.0 74.0 73.3 20 Lung cancer L 1 0 - 1 9 > 10/14.5 69.2 5/5.1 96.9 29 30 9 (ICD 162) 0/0.7 1/ 4/ 1.9 2.1 53.8 194.0 0 / 0 . 2 0 / 0 . 5 0/ 1/ O.i 0.1 141.0

10 20

>

0/0.5

Oba.^observed Exp.=expected

caaes caaes m o r tal tv Obs.=observed ExD.=expected caaes csea ratio

SMP = s t a n d a r d i z e d * < 0.05

SMR = st a n d a r d zed m o r t a t y *
D

<

0.05

455

coated

electrodes

although

the

numbers

are

still

too

small

to

allow

reliable other both

interpretation, since for example a single case of welders is responsible for the

lung cancer last

in the group of time interval for

unusually high SMR in the

malignant neoplasms and lung cancer.

DISCUSSION This study points steel. to an increased cancer risk for arc welders of high alloy

chromium-nickel

The cancer

mortality

is increased

in the

internal

comparison population.

with turners as well as in the external comparison with the general male A s far as the risk for individual cancer sites is concerned, nothing

definite can be

stated at the present time.

Among tumors of 'other respiratory organs' two cases of

mesothelioma- among the welders are a most unusual finding (since these mesenchymal tumors are typically related the two to exposure to asbestos), and prompted to further asbestos textile

investigation. In one of could be confirmed.

cases a

former occupational to use

exposure

A l s o , welders

were known

asbestos

containing

material for protection. A separate analysis of the two most frequent welding processes shows that the

increased risk of cancer with chromium-nickel

welding is primarily an increase of risk

in welders who have welded with coated electrodes. A certain carcinogenic potential derived from experimental evidence ( 1 , 3 ) may be

reflected in the fact that welders emerged as a risk population for cancer but not for other causes of death in a study by Ott et al. (2) determining mortality in an of

industrial population, where welding. Due to the

exposure includes combustion

and pyrolytic

products

ubiquitous mixed exposure to nickel

and chromium, no

definite

answer can be given to the question of a specific cancer risk due to nickel exposure. Since the share of hexavalent chromium compounds in the welding fumes is greater with coated electrodes after than with other processes, shielded than the confirmation of a more

favorable outcome cohort study

predominating gas observation

welding, would that presented

require here.

a larger It is the

and a

longer

period

intention to carry out another off 1982, beginning in 1987.

f o l l o w - u p of these cohorts after a five year period as The material presented in this short contribution will be

published and discussed in full in the Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health.

REFERENCES 1. Armstrong (1981) Epidemiologic identification Cancer detection and prevention 4 : 1 - 7 of occupational carcinogens.

456

Flessel C P , Furst A , Radding SB (1980) A comparison of carcinogenic metals. In: Sigel H (ed) Metal ions in biological systems. Volume 10. Carcinogenicity and metal ions. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York Basel, pp 2 3 - 5 4 Ott M G , Holder BB, Langner RR (1976) Determinants of mortality population. J occup med 1 8 : 1 7 1 - 1 7 7 in an industrial

457

MORTALITY AMONG SWEDISH WELDERS AND GAS-CUTTERS BENGT SJGREN 1 , JAN WEINER2, LARS-GUNNAR HRTE 3 and JOHN CARSTENSEN 4 'Section of Occupational Medicine, National B oard of Occupational Safety and Health, S171 84 Solna, Sweden Section of Medicine at the National B oard of Occupational Safety and Health, S171 84 Solna, Sweden ^Statistics Sweden, S115 81 Stockholm, Sweden ^Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Radiumhemmet, Karolinska Hospital, S104 01 Stockholm, Sweden

INTRODUCTION Welding has been associated with diseases in the respiratory tract such as cancer and chronic bronchitis. This study is focused on the mortality pattern among Swedish welders and gascutters. MATERIAL AND METHOD In the National Census of 1960 25,747 males stated their occupation during the census week 28 October 1960 as welders or gascutters. Females have been excluded due to their small number (n=186). The 1960 population census, in which individuals are identified according to their IDdigit identification number, has been linked with the Register for Statistics of Causes of Death during the period 19611970. The expectancy values are based on the outcome of the total population in the 1960 census. These expectancy values take into account sex, age and region.

In 1963 smoking habits (current smoking habits in 1963 and age when started smoking) in different occupational groups have been studied in a population sample of 25,000 males (1). The lung cancer risk in different smoking categories was obtained from a followup of this sample. B y combining these risk estimates with estimates of the proportions of different smoking categories in different age groups in welders and gascutters as well as in the total sample a new expectancy value for lung cancer was obtained. As the information regarding smoking habits was obtained from a sample this new expectancy value has a sampling error which has been taken into account in the calculation of the pvalue for the observed expected ratio.

458

RESULT The total number of deaths was lower than the expected among welders and gascutters (p=0.004), table 1. Pulmonary tumors were more common than expected (p=0.04). The rate-ratio is however somewhat lower after the correction for smoking habits (RR = 1.29, p=0.12). The number of deaths from ischemic heart disease and diseases of the respiratory system was close to the expected. Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and the urogenital system were less common.

Table 1 . Observed and expected number of deaths among 25,747 welders and gascutters, 1961-1970. ICD8 1-999 140-239 160 161 162 163.0 Cause of death A l l deaths A l l tumors Nose, ear and nasosinal tumors Laryngeal tumors Pulmonary tumors Pleural mesothelioma Observed Expected Rate-ratio

961 243 1 2 48 1 256 38 20 6 6 32 15 214

1054.7 230.0

0.91 1.06 1.83 1.74 1.34 1.65 0.99 0.89 0.96 0.93 0.79 0.64 0.60 0.97

06 . 12 .
35.7

06 .
257.3 42.5 20.9

410-414
460-519 480-486 490-492 493 520-577 580-607 800-989

Ischemic heart disease

Diseases of the respiratory system Pneumonia Bronchitis and emphysema Asthma Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract Diseases of the urogenital system Violent deaths

64 . 76 .
49.9 25.0 220.1

DISCUSSION The lower number of total deaths could probably be referred to what is generally known as the "healthy worker effect" (2). This study showed a 30% increased incidence of pulmonary tumors and such an increase is not unusual according to earlier investigations (3). Asbestos and hexavalent chromium have been pointed out as two possible agents for the development of these tumors (4).

459

An 'increased risk of deaths due to pneumonia and chronic nonspecific lung disease has been observed for welders in some studies (57), but such findings could not be confirmed in the present study. Some cases of asthma has previously been associated with welding with coated electrodes in stainless steel (8). A weakness of a registerlinkingstudy of this type is the unprecise adherence of a person to a specific occupational category. Persons have regarded themselves as welders or gascutters as their usual occupation during one week in 1960. This rough occupational categorization does not allow for subgrouping into neither long term or shortterm exposure nor into more specific exposures, e.g. asbestos, hexavalent chromium, ozoneor nitrogen dioxideexposure, which might be very important for specific diseases. Welders with different degrees of exposure are thus .diluted with lowexposed welders and the figures presented rather underestimate the risks for longterm specific welding exposures.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Statistiska Centralbyrn. (1965) Rkvanor i Sverige: En postenktunderskning vren 1963 (Smoking habits in Sweden). Stockholm (English summary). McMichael AJ (1976) J Occup Med 18:165168. Stern RM (1983) Arch Environ Health 38:148155. Sjgren B , Hogstedt C, Malker (1982) J Occup Med 24:874875.

5. B eaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1980) Amer J Epidem 112:775786. 6. 7. 8. McMillan GHG, Pethybridge RJ (1983) J Soc Occup Med 33:7584. Milham S Jr (1983) U.S. Department of Social and Health Services, Cincinnati, Ohio. Keskinen H, Kalomki PL, Alanko K (1980) Clin Allergy 10:151159.

461

CANCER MORB IDITY AMONG SWEDISH WELDERS AND GAS-CUTTERS BENGT SJGREN 1 and JOHN CARSTENSEN 2 ^Section of Occupational Medicine, National B oard of Occupational Safety and Health, S171 84 Solna, Sweden ^Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Radiumhemmet, Karolinska Hospital,

S104 01 Stockholm, Sweden INTRODUCTION Welding has been associated with diseases in the respiratory tract such as cancer and chronic bronchitis. This study is focused on the incidence of cancer among Swedish welders and gascutters. MATERIAL AND METHOD In the National Census of 1960 23,464 males from 20 to 69 years of age stated their occupation during the census week 28 October 1960 as welders or gas cutters. Females have been excluded due to their small number (n=163). The 1960 population census, in which individuals are identified according to their 10digit identification number, has been linked with the Cancer Register during the period 19611979 (1). The expectancy values are based on the outcome of the total population in the 1960 census. These expectancy values take into account sex, age and region.

In 1963 smoking habits (current smoking habits in 1963 and age when started smoking) in different occupational groups were studied in a population sample of 19,000 males which included 161 welders (2). The lung cancer risk in different smoking categories was obtained from a followup of this sample. B y combining these risk estimates with estimates of the proportions of different smoking categories in different age groups in welders and gascutters as well as in the total sample a new expectancy value for lung cancer was obtained. As the information regarding smoking habits was obtained from a sample this new expectancy value has a sampling error which has been taken into account in the calculation of the p value for the observedexpected ratio.

462

RESULT The observed number of all tumors was slightly higher than the expected number, table 1. Pulmonary tumors were more common than expected (p<0.001). The rateratio is somewhat lower after the correction for smoking habits (RR=1.30, p=0.02). An increased incidence of renal tumors was observed (p=0.04) as well as a decreased incidence of malignant melanoma of the skin (p=0.01).

Table 1. Observed and expected number of tumors among 23,464 welders and gascutters, 1961-1979. ICD 7 140-205 150-159
160 161

Type of tumor A l l tumors Gastrointestinal Nose, ear and nasal sinuses Larynx Trachea, bronchus and lung Pleural mesothelioma Prostate Renal parenchyma Urinary bladder Malignant melanoma of skin Nervous system Bone

Observed 1245
314

Expected 1183.3 330.6

4.1

Rate-ratio 1.05 0.95 1.21 1.27 1.42 1.49 1.10 1.30 1.06 0.58 1.20 1.03

22
193

17.3 136.0
2.7

162.0,1 162.2
177

4
176

159.8 54.0 75.8 37.8 56.9

3.9

180.0 181.1
190 193 196

70 80 22 68
4

DISCUSSION This study shows a 30% increased incidence of pulmonary tumors and such an increase is not unusual according to earlier investigations (3). Asbestos and hexavalent chromium have been pointed out as two possible agents for the development of these tumors (4). An increased risk for the development of nasal and sino-nasal tumors has recently been observed among welders exposed to chromium (5)but this could not be confirmed in the present study. A tentative association between tumor of the larynx and welding has been presented recently (6). An increased incidence of renal tumors has been reported in one study (7). A possible chemical agent causing this tumor is however not identified.

463

A weakness of a registerlinkingstudy of this type is the imprecise adherence of a person to a specific occupational category. Persons have regarded themselves as welders or gascutters as their usual occupation during one week in 1960. This rough occupational categorization does not allow for subgrouping into neither long term or shortterm exposure nor into more specific exposures, e.g. asbestos, hexavalent chromium, ozoneor nitrogen dioxideexposure, which might be very important for specific diseases. Welders with different degrees of exposure are thus diluted with lowexposed welders and the figures presented rather underestimate the risks for longterm specific welding exposures. In the Swedish Cancer Register and the general statistics on mortality there are errors in the form of excessive as well as deficient registration. The reliability of diagnosis registration has been shown in a number of studies to be fairly good. In a recent investigation 4.5 per cent of the cancer cases known from death certificates issued in 1978 had not been recorded in the Cancer Register (8). The deficiency fell somewhat when the diagnoses multiple myeloma and leukemia were excluded. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wiklund K, Einhorn J, Wennstrm G, Rapaport E (1981) Scand J Work Environ Health 7:6467. Statistiska Centralbyrn. (1965) Rkvanor i Sverige: En postenktunder skning vren 1963 (Smoking habits in Sweden). Stockholm (English summary). Stern RM (1983) Arch Environ Health 38:148155. Sjgren B , Hogstedt C, Malker H (1982) J Occup Med 24:874875. Hemberg S, Westerholm P, SchultzLarsen K, Degerth R, Kuosma E, Englund A, Engzell U, Sand Hansen H, Mutanen (1983) Scand J Work Environ Health 9:315326. Olsen J, Sabroe S, Lajer M (1984) Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 20:639643. Milham S Jr (1983) U.S. Department Cincinnati, Ohio. of Social and Health Services,

6. 7. 8.

Mattsson B , Wallgren A (1984) Acta Radiol Oncol 23:305313.

465

MORTALITY STUDY OF DOCKYARD WELDERS SURGEON COMMANDER GRANT McMILLAN, ROYAL NAVY Office of Flag Officer Plymouth, Mount Wise, Plymouth, England Introduction The Ministry of Defence (Navy) and the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom funded a major research project to determine if the health of civilian welders in Her Majesty's Dockyards had been adversely affected paper by their work. This included a In this and retrospective study of the cause of the death of welders and two control groups. the methods and findings relating to respiratory Difficulties

diseases are described

discussed in relation to comments about welders' health by the Registrar General in his Supplements on Occupational Mortality. which may be encountered in epidemiological studies in allocating welders to a meaningful occupational classification, and taking account of factors in the working environment such as asbestos and social habits particularly smoking habit are emphasised. The study is described more fully in the Reference. Study population A population of 2568 men who had been employed in one dockyard for at least six months between 1 January 1955 and 31 December 1974 and who had died in employment or otherwise left the dockyard by 31 December 1974 was investigated. It comprised 131 welders, the primary subjects of the study, 1442 boilermakers and shipwrights (who had moderate intermittent exposure to welding fumes and who constituted control group 1) and 995 electrical fitters, painters and joiners (who had little or no exposure and were control group 2). Sources of exposure to welding fume The relative use of welding systems in 1976 was MMA 68%, MAG 12%, TIG 14%, others 6%. 44.1% of work was done in confined spaces, mainly between decks in ships. Some 87% of welding time was on ferrous materials. Aluminium was involved in 72% of the During the early years of the

remainder. Stainless steel formed a very small proportion.

study period 1955-74 manual metal arc welding formed a higher proportion of the welding time, mild steel would have been used more, and aluminium and stainless steel hardly at all.

466

Methods All those in the population were traced to determine who had died by 31 December 1975 and Certificates of Cause of Death were obtained. For each cause of death studied, and after adjustment for age, the mortality of each group was expressed as a proportional mortality relative to that of the t h r e e groups combined and the proportional mortality ratios were tested by a chi-squared t e s t . Additionally, Certificates of Cause of Death were obtained for all men in Occupational Unit 036 who were included in the Registrar General's mortality statistics for pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema and asthma in the Occupational Mortality Supplement 1970-72. Results and discussion Six hundred and fifty six men were found to have died; 52 welders, 395 control group 1 men and 209 control group 2 men. No evidence was found that exposure to welding fumes and gases was associated with increased mortality from respiratory diseases. The overall respiratory disease proportional mortality ratios were Welders 89, Control group 1 94 and Control group 2 115. There were no large discrepancies between observed and "expected" deaths in any age group compared with deaths in the whole group in this or any other system or disease specific statistical analysis. Bronchitis and Pneumonia Several c o m m e n t a t o r s and researchers have remarked that welders have a high risk of dying from bronchitis and some, including the Registrar General, have reported that there is an especially high risk of welders dying from pneumonia. In the dockyard study only one welder died of bronchitis giving welders the lowest proportional mortality ratio. welder died of pneumonia. The Registrar General allocates welders to Occupational Unit 036 and bases his No

comments on the ratio of standardised mortality ratio (SMR) for pneumonia against that for bronchitis over the period 1950 to 1972. In the general population there is an excess of deaths from bronchitis over deaths from pneumonia. The opposite has been observed in One Occupational Unit 036 but it is interesting to note that the excess of pneumonia over bronchitis has been reducing during the period when welding has been increasing. wonders why - improved exposure control, better t r e a t m e n t of pneumonia? Were they all Welders? Occupational Unit 036 includes gas and e l e c t r i c welders, steel c u t t e r s , burners and braziers. In the 1970-72 Unit 12 of the 149 were c u t t e r s and burners rather than welders. As the fume they may be exposed to probably differs significantly they should be excluded

467

from any analysis designed to investigate the health of welders. between welders using different e l e c t r i c processes.

Similarly significant

differences in exposure may be expected between gas welders and e l e c t r i c welders, and Unfortunately the Certificates of Only Cause of Death give insufficient information to separate gas and e l e c t r i c welders. sufficient only to indicate the range of potential exposures. Pneumonia due to Welding? There are several distinct types of pneumonia. The type most commonly associated with a pollutant such as might arise from a welding process is more correctly called pneumonitis but it would be included in the deaths relating to the certificates under examination. One could reasonably expect that when a pollutant was thought to be responsible for the excess of pneumonia there would be cases of pneumonitis or that one type of pneumonia would be predominant. There were no cases of pneumonitis in Unit 036 "welders". No single type of pneumonia was outstanding. There were 2 cases of viral pneumonia, 33 of bronchopneumonia and 20 of lobar pneumonia. Is this the distribution in the general population? In the Dockyard study there were altogether 20 cases of If this represents the bronchopneumonia and only 2 of lobar pneumonia in the Controls. pneumonia in the Registrar General's "welders".

39 of the 137 c e r t i f i c a t e s for "welders" gave any indication of process and that in terms

situation in the general non-welding population then there may indeed an excess of lobar

Respiratory System Malignancy Dockyard welders often worked in environments heavily contaminated with asbestos. This exposure has resulted in a number of welders developing asbestosis or mesothelioma. In this study one welder died of asbestosis and t h r e e from pleural mesothelioma. emphasises the need to take account of exposures other than to welding fumes. Welders' proportional mortality ratio for bronchial carcinoma was 104 compared to 82 and 131 for control groups 1 and 2 respectively, with five welders dying of this disease. This does not necessarily mean that the welders' occupational exposure did not put them at extra risk of developing the disease as the analysis took no account of smoking habit probably the most powerful influence in the incidence of that cancer - as no data were available on the smoking habits of the dead. Data was available about the smoking habits of virtually all welders and controls who had been employed in the dockyard between 1971 and 75. Non-smokers formed 20.796 of welders, 25.8% of control group 1 and 27.4% of Control group 2. If these rates did apply to the whole of the study and control groups it would be unlikely that discounting the This

468

bronchial carcinoma rates for smoking habit would produce an excess in non-smoking welders. Mesothelioma and bronchial carcinoma are entirely different diseases. Most cases of the former are attributable to asbestos exposure. There is no suggestion that exposure to welding fumes causes mesothelioma. Yet it is not unknown for cases of mesothelioma and of bronchial carcinoma to be summed and the total expressed as the number of cases of "lung cancer" or "respiratory malignancy" in discussions about a causal relationship between lung cancer - the popular term for bronchial carcinoma - and exposure to welding fumes. Conclusions arising from this manoeuvre can be very misleading as is illustrated when it is applied to data from the dockyard study. When all respiratory malignancies are considered together the proportional mortality ratios for welders, control group 1 and control group 2 are 124, 88 and 117 respectively not notably different but sufficiently so for some to base an argument in favour of a carcinogenic hazard for welders. separately. However, the picture changes when the ratios for mesotheliomas (259, 116, 24) and bronchial carcinomas (104, 82, 131) are examined The apparent excess in respiratory malignancy for welders is seen to be related to the relatively high incidence of mesotheliomas. References McMillan G H G and Pethyoridge R 3 Proportional Mortality Study of welders and two control groups Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine 1983; 33, 75-84

469 MORTALITY STUDY AMONG AUTOGENOUS AND ELECTRICAL WELDERS IN THE PORT OF GENOA (ITALY) RICCARDO PUNTONI*,MARINA VERCELLI**,FLAVIA DI GIORGIO*, FEDERICO VALERIO*STEFANO BONASSI*,MARCELLO CEPPI*,LEONARDO SANTI** *Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Viale Benedetto XV,10 16132 Genova - Italy **Istituto di Oncologia dell'Universit di Genova, Viale Benedetto XV, 10 - 16132 Genova - Italy A mortality study on causes of death among dockyard workers in the period from January 1st to December 31st 1979 was carried out in Genoa. Of the 2702 workers at work or retired on January 1st 1960, 147 were autogenous and 141 electrical welders, with 2254 and 2486 person year respectively. The mortality pattern was compared with the causes of death of the male population of Genoa town, in the same period. Causes of death of the autogenous and electrical welders are presented in tables 1 and 2. An increase Relative Risk (RR) is observed among autogenous welders for total death (p<0.01), digestive tract cancer (p<0.10), lung and bladder cancer (not significant), cardiovascular diseases (p<0.10) and all other causes (p<0.05). Among electrical welders the pattern is quite different with slight increase in RR for luna and bladder cancer (although not significant) and respiratory diseases (p<0.10). The loss of statistical significance could be due to the low number of workers. Considering the whole cohort of dockyard and observing the causes of death increased by job categories of work, the data are more suggestive (1). In tables 3-4 the observed deaths and RR regarding the two main causes of death in different job categories of work are reported. During welding activities many other workers are present in the same environment, so that many categories of workers are exposed to welding fumes and gases. In conclusion we observe: Table 3: luna cancer seems to be more related to asbestos exposure

470

TABLE 1 : EXPECTED AND OBSERVES DEATH AND RELATIVE RISKS AMONG AUTOGENOUS WELDERS (1960-1980) CAUSES OF DEATH Total deaths Cancer of all sites CBF and esophagus Stomach and intestine and rectum Liver and pancreas Larinx Lung,bronchus and trachea Kidney,bladder and other urinary organs Lymphomas and leukaemia All other cancers Cardiovascular diseases Respiratory diseases Liver.biliary tract and gallbladder diseases All other causes OBS
71 19 0 7 0 0 7 3 0 2 24 5 2 21

EXP (1)
49 13 .72 3 1 .1 .47 3, .8 .91 .64 2. .36 16 5. .7 2.. 1 12.,3

RR (2 )
1 .45 1 .46
<0.01

N.S.

2 . 33

<0. 10

1 .9 3. .3

N.S. N.S.

.85 1 .5 , .88 .97

1 .7 .

N.S. <0. 10 N.S. N.S. <0.05

(1)Expected deaths based on age-specific death rates of male population of Genoa. (2)RR: relative risk

TADi.L 2: EXPECTED AND OBSERVES DEATH AND RELATIVE RISKS AMONG ELECTRICAL WELDERS (1960-1980) CAUSES OF DEATH Total deaths Cancer of all sites CBF and esophagus Stomach and intestine and rectum Liver and pancreas Larynx Lung,bronchus and trachea Kidney,bladder and other urinary organs Lymphomas and leukaemia All other cancers Cardiovascular diseases Respiratory diseases Liver,biliary tract and gallbladder diseases All other causes OBS
45 13 0 1 2 0 5 2 1 2 13 10 1 8

EXP (1)
43 12.3 .68 2.7 .95 .46 3.8 .84 .65 2.2 13 4.8 2. 1 10.8

RR (2)
1 .05 1 .06

N.S. N.S.

.37 2. 1

N.S. N.S.

1. 3 2 .4 1 .5 , .91 1 .0 2. 1 .48 .74

N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. <0.10 N.S. N.S .

(1)Expected deaths based on age-specific death rates of male population on Genoa. (2)RR: relative risk

471

TABLE 3: RELATIVE RISKS FOR LUNG CANCER BY JOB CATEGORIES JOB CATEGORIES Insulation workers Stakers Carpenters Ironsmiths Caulkers Fitters Painters Electricians Polisher Metallurgical workers Masons Autogenous welders Smiths and shipwrights Careeners Ship demolishers Plumbers and coppersmiths Electrical welders * < 0.05 **p < 0.10 OBS 7 20 10 28 6 12 11 6 2 19 3 7 7 4 3 8 5 EXP 1 .4 5.7 3.6 11 2.4 4.9 5.0 2.7 .93 9.3 1 .5 3.8 4.4 2.7 2.2 6.3 3.8 RR 4. .9* .5* 3. .8 2. 2. .6* 2. 5** .4* 2. .2* 2. .2 2. .2 2. .0* 2. 2. .0 1 .9 , 1 .6 , 1 .5 . 1 .4 , 1 .3 . 1 .3 .

TABLE 4: RELATIVE RISKS FOR KIDNEY,BLADDER AND OTHER URINARY ORGANS CANCERS BY JOB CATEGORIES JOB CATEGORIES Masons Metallurgical workers Autogenous welders Electrical Welders Smiths and shipwrights Carpenters Ship demolishers Fitters Caulkers Ironsmiths Stakers Plumber and coppersmiths Joiners < 0.05 OBS 2 9 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 EXP .38 2.4 .91 .84 1 .1 1 .2 0.6 1 .2 .68 2.8 1 .4 1 .7 .99 RR 5.2 3.7* 3.3 2.4 1 .8 1 .7 1 .7 1 .6 1 .5 1 .4 1 .4 1 .2 1 .0

472

(insulation workers, stakers etc) than to welding fumes. Table 4: bladder cancer can be considered a tumour associated with welding exposure. Metallurgical workers, smiths and shipwright and carpenters very often work close to welders. This observation is reenforced by chemical investigation carried out in the working environment (2). Regarding the other neoplasms, digestive tract cancer appear to be important among autogenous welders, but not in electrical welders. Respiratory diseases are increased in electrical welders: They do not show an increased risk for lung cancer. Liver diseases (in the whole cohort of 59 causes are cirrhosis of

the l i v e r ) , do not appear to be associated with welding fumes exposure. In our further investigation, we will consider another five years of follow-up (1960-1985) using environmental data to try to catagorize

the exposure in different jobs.

REFERENCES

1) R.Puntoni,M.Vercelli,M.Ceppi,F.Valerio,F. Di Giorgio, L.Gogioso, S.Bonassi,G.Alloro,R.Filiberti,L.Santi: "Epidemiological investigation of causes of death among dockyard workers in Genoa, by type and lenght of exposure (1960-1980)". Proceedings of the International Congress on: "Risk assessment of occupational exposures in the harbour environment", Genoa, October 3-5, 1984. 2) F.Valerio, R.Puntoni, A.Lazzarotto: "Mutagenic activity of fumes produced by gas-cutting during refitting operations in oil tankers". Proceedings of the International Conference on Health Hazards and Biological Effects of Welding fumes and gases, Copenhagen, February 18-21, 1985.

473
MORTALITY OF WE LDHRS AND OTHER CRAFTSMEN AT A SHIPYARD IN THE NORTH-EAST OF ENGLAND MURIEL L. NEWHOUSE, DAVID OAKES, ALVIN J. WOOLLEY TUC Centenary Institute, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1. For the past 10 - 15 years there has been concern about a possible excess of respiratory disease and lung cancer among welders. This concern relates both to acute and chronic respiratory disease, and cross sectional studies have indicated that welders, particularly smokers, are more prone to respiratory disease than their controls. in several studies of welders. Increased lung cancer risks have been found Currently the role of chromium (Cr.)

and nickel, which are found in stainless steel welding is the main focus of interest, but previous mortality studies of mild steel workers in the UK have not given definitive information. In 1980 a set of personnel records from a North East shipyard containing identification and brief job details became available and it was decided to initiate a mortality study of welders together with caulker burners and platers occupied in the basic construction of the ship, and also electricians, a large group occupied at a later stage in the fitting out of the ship. EXPOSURES AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS Welders Chiefly working with rutile electrodes on unprimed steel, often in Some welders seconded to confined spaces without local exhaust ventilation. Caulker Burners

fitting out trades have better ventilation but possible asbestos exposure. Work in proximity to welders preparing joints for welding. Usually worked Metal often cold, Burning and oxypropane cutting were part of their job, they were exposed to fume similar to welding fume with high levels of nitrogen dioxide. in workshops or open spaces. Platers Mark and position steel plates ready for welding. but occasionally exposed to fume from welding. Electricians Not usually exposed to welding fume, but work in proximity to Amphibole and chrysotile No measurements of welding fume or lggers and may disturb insulation when wiring. asbestos both used during the period.

levels of asbestos in air were available, but it was clear that welders and caulker burners were most heavily exposed to fume and electricians to asbestos, but that all workers might have exposure to either. Personal smoking histories were also not available, but it was assumed that the four groups of similar socio economic status would have similar smoking habits.

474
METHODS Identification and job details of all those recorded in the four selected occupations were abstracted and entered onto cards suitable for computer analysis and search by the Office of Population Census and Surveys (OPCS). Vital status was ascertained and copies of deatli certificates coded according to the eighth revision of the International Classification of Diseases were received. Expected deaths were calculated using the man years method of Hill. Mortality from lung cancer and other causes is raised above the national levels in the Newcastle area. Therefore the expected figures were based on The standardised mortmortality rates for the Newcastle on Tyne Conurbation. variable were calculated.

ality ratio and two sided 90% confidence limits using the limits of a Poisson Shipyard workers move from yard to yard as work becomes available, so the dates of employment at this particular yard did not necessarily represent the total work experience or the first date of exposure. The tabulations are presented therefore without regard for length of employment or latency. RESULTS There were over 1000 welders and more than 1600 electricians in the population, but the numbers of caulker burners and platers were small. 99.5%. The trace rate was Approximately 15% of the population was deceased at December 1982 (Table 1). Over

half the population was still under 60 at the time of analysis. 65% have been followed for over 20 years. TABLE 1. Status of population at December 1982

Alive Welders Caulkers Platers Electricians Total 784 183 445 1385 2734

Emig. 53 2 24 64 143

Dec'd 195 50 87 211 543

Untrc'd 5 1 1 10 17

Total 1027 235 557 1670 3489

475
Mortality There were 13 deaths from mesothelial tumours, 9 among electricians, 2 among platers and one each among caulkers and welders. Panel. In all but one the cause of death was validated by autopsy and examination by the Newcastle Pneumoconiosis The mortality from all causes, lung cancer and other selected causes It must be noted that in the smaller group particularly Nevertheless is shown in Table 2.

the caulkers, the number of deaths is small and the confidence limits on the SMRs are wide and the results must be interpreted with caution. even above the Newcastle figures. the SMRs for all causes for welders and caulkers is significantly raised Combining welders and caulkers the excess of deaths for lung cancer is also significant whereas among the electricians in spite, of the asbestos effect shown by 9 deaths from mesothelial tumours the SMR is 104. limits are wide. Table 2. Standardised Mortality Ratios for four groups of craftsmen Welders All causes All Neoplasms Lung Cancer (excl.Mesothelioma) ICD 162-163 Mesothelioma (in numbers) Pneumonia ICD 480-486 Bronchitis, Emph. and Asthma ECD 490-493
IUI) ICD 400-414 Accidents ICD EXVII

Welders and caulkers also show a raised mortality from

pneumonia not shown by the other 2 groups, here again however the confidence

Caulkers 131 168 232 1 165 2

Platers 96 111 100

Electricians 82 110 104 9

114 103 113 1 184

33

36

85
130

164
125

17
90

44
85

115

233

112

66

476

CONCLUSIONS In spite of the marked asbestos effect, as shown by the number of deaths from mesothelial tumours among the electricians, welders and caulker burners appear to have a higher mortality rate particularly from lung cancer and pneumonia than the other group examined. Notable also is the excess mortality Mortality will accelerate as the

from ischaemic heart disease among welders. population ages and the study will continue.

A fuller report of this investigation will appear in the British Journal of Industrial Medicine during 1985.

REFERENCES

(1)

McMillan, G.H.G. The Health of Welders in Naval Dockyards: Proportional mortality study of welders and two control groups.J. Soc. Occ. Med., 1983 33(2), 75-84.

(2) Fawer, R.F., Ward Gardner, ., Oakes, D. Absences attributed to Respiratory Diseases. B rit. J. Ind. Med., 1982, 39, 149-153. (3) B eaumont, J.J. Weiss, N.S. Lung Cancer among Welders. J.Occ. Med., 1981, 23(12), 839-844. (4) B lot, W.J., Fraumeni, J.F. Cancer among Shipyard Workers. Banbury Report No. 9, Quantification of Occupational Cancer. (1981). Ed: Richard Peto and Marvin Schneiderman. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 37-49. Registrar General Decennial Supplement, England and Wales, Occupational Mortality 1970-1972, 1978 HMSO, London. Department of Employment. Fumes from welding and flame cutting. Report of this shipbuilding and shiprepair industry. 1970 HMSO London.

(5) (6)

477

MORTALITY OF 100 ARC WELDERS

A. ESNAULT, D. HENRY, D . R I E T , C. YHUEL Chantiers de l ' A t l a n t i q u e Saint-Nazaire

INTRODUCTION
Special years attention h a s been drawn i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c lung cancer literature in recent in t o the r i s k of w e l d e r s ' (1). Articles published mortality risk in French in the

1981-82 a s s e r t e d building

t h a t a r c w e l d i n g was a s i g n i f i c a n t So f a r , through our experience

ship-

industry. it

as s h i p b u i l d i n g

industry mortal-

physicians, ity. This

had n o t appeared

t o us t h a t w e l d e r s were s u b j e c t a group of

to excess male

led us to study the m o r t a l i t y in from 1967 u n t i l

100 w e l d e r s ,

sex, a

observed

1 9 8 3 . T h i s g r o u p was s e t u p i n

1967 on t h e o c c a s i o n o f at

s t u d y on a r c w e l d e r s ' least 10 y e a r s ' of

breathing pathology, in the e n t e r p r i s e . life.

and c o n s i s t e d of a r c w e l d e r s w i t h They have a l l worked i n a shipyard

service

for

most or a l l

their professional

WORK CONDITIONS These w e l d e r s have worked in s t e e l aboard ships under construction. approximately became zinc and structure fabrication workshops and

The m i l d s t e e l p l a t e s h a d n o t b e e n c o a t e d w i t h p r i m e r u n t i l the years greater 1967-68; later, some o f t h e s e p l a t e s , first the p r o p o r t i o n

of which

and g r e a t e r ,

were c o a t e d

with z i n c oxide and,

later

on, with

silicate.

W e l d i n g w o r k was e i t h e r p e r f o r m e d spaces. In t h e l a t t e r

i n t h e open a i r o r i n c o n f i n e d t h e r e was fume e x t r a c t i o n fans.

poorly ventilated

case,

practised

a t s o u r c e by means of i n d i v i d u a l e x t r a c t i o n

STUDY POPULATION In 1983, the ages of t h o s e s t i l l a l i v e were i n the range 53 t o 79, w i t h an average of 6 4 . 7 y e a r s . T h i r t e e n w e l d e r s were s t i l l working, 67 r e t i r e d o r and 20 have d i e d . Number of w e l d e r s by y e a r s of exposure Years 10 t o 14 15 t o 19 20 t o 24 Welders 1 3 11 Years 25 30 35 40 to to to to 29 34 39 45 Welders 30 42 12 1 left,

478
The exposure time to fumes ranges between 14 and 42 years old. The average is 29.5 years. MORTALITY RESULTS We have counted 20 deaths in this group of welders which occurred between 1967 and 1983 Distribution of the deaths by age Years 40 45 50 55 to to to to 44 49 54 59 Deaths 1 3 3 1 Years 60 65 70 75 to to to to 64 69 74 80 Deaths 5 2 3 2

The average age of death is 60.7 years. Distribution of the deaths by duration of exposure Years 15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 Deaths 1 2 5 Years 30 to 34 35 to 39 over 40 Deaths 7 4 1

The average exposure to fumes is 30.4 years. There is no mortality rise in relation to increasing years of exposure. Using mortality rates for skilled workers in the private sector (2,3), there are 38 deaths expected in this cohort, giving a ratio of observed to expected of 0.52 (significantly less than 1 (p < 0.01)). Cause specific SMRs were calculated using the mortality rates in 1975, the median year of the study, for the French male population (4). The following results were obtained. Observed and expected deaths by selected cause Cause Liver cirrhosis Myocardial infarction Lung cancer Prostate cancer Oesophageal cancer Laryngeal cancer Observed deaths
5 2 2 2 1 1

Years exposure
18, 26, 33, 34, 32 30 25, 39 42 33 27, 23,
30

Expected deaths
2.0 4.2 2.3 0.6 0.9 0.8

Ratio observed /expected

2.5 0.5 0.8 3.3 1.1 1.3

479
For none of the above results is the observed significantly different from the expected. The 7 other deaths consisted of: 1 pancreatic cancer, 1 lymph node cancer, 1 rheumatoid lung, 1 cerebral haemorrhage, 1 road traffic accident, 1 acute pneumopathy and 1 dementia. All the cancer deaths occurred after age 60 and all after at least 30 years' exposure, except for the lymph node (27 years' exposure). The welders who died from lung cancer and larynx cancer used to smoke over 10 cigarettes a day. DISCUSSION Overall mortality It is significantly lower than that of the reference population: 20 deaths against 38 expected. The following reasons may help explain this apparently contradictory result. First of all, good health is required to work in a shipyard (the physically handicapped, or those with chronic disease, do not apply for a job or remain at work only for a short time). There is a beneficial effect brought about by the geographical situation - a small town on the western coast of France where work populations still practise open air/rural activities - and this can compensate for fume inhalation. Finally, the working conditions have always been subject to a prevention policy, thanks both to strongly unionised workers and to managerial staff, keen on improving the working conditions. However, it appears that the work of the welders studied does not generate over-mortality. Mortality by cause - Lung cancer, respiratory tract: the analysis of the mortality by cause does not reveal any increased risk. - Liver cirrhosis: excessive deaths by cirrhosis have a connection with a formerly elevated level of alcoholism in our region. - Prostate cancer: we have no explanation to put forward for the observed excess. REFERENCES 1. S t e r n R M Assessment of r i s k of lung c a n c e r for w e l d e r s . R e p o r t . The Danish Welding I n s t i t u t e 2 . Desplangues G La m o r t a l i t des a d u l t e s s u i v a n t l e n i v e a u s o c i a l . Les c o l l e c t i o n s de l'INSEE D 44, p . 92 3 . Desplangues G (1984) La m o r t a l i t masculine s u i v a n t l e n i v e a u s o c i a l . Donnes s o c i a l e s Ec p . 348 4 . Causes m d i c a l e s de d c s . Anne 1975. INSERM

HEALTH SURVEILLANCE, RISK ASSESSMENT AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES

483
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH SURVEILLANCE

by
GIDEON GERHARDSSON

P r o f e s s o r , Scientific Adviser to the Swedish E m p l o y e r s ' C o n f e d e r a t i o n , S-103 30 S t o c k h o l m , Sweden

ABSTRACT The welding industry employing 1-2 % of the work force has been of particular interest to occupational medicine for d e c a d e s . In the industrialized countries the welders exposed to potentially harmful substances and agents have been investigated more carefully than most other g r o u p s . The International Institute of Welding ( 11W ) established in 1949 has by its Permanent Commission on Safety and Health forcefully stimulated international cooperation in the research and development field as well as in national standard setting and workplace supervision. In the early 1970s a particular interest in routine health examinations was visualized. In 1976 the IIW issued general principles of health supervision. Welders would be given opportunity for a comprehensive medical examination every five years including radiographic examination of the chest and lung function tests. (Ref 1) . These first guidelines have been under continuous discussion within IIW. A health screening programme was suggested in 1979 which limited expensive routine medical e x a m i n a t i o n s . (Ref 2 ) . Routine periodic medical examinations are currently in many cases challenged and they must be made more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e . Health multifactorial life style criteria are on the move and the need of life time health monitoring programmes are emphasized. In many countries w e l d e r s ' health surveillance in the future will be considered as segments of total health p r o g r a m m e s . The particular risk profile for welders still needs consideration but should be dealt with from such general base lines. Medical examinations should be cost-effective

484
and costbeneficial and systematic preventive measures should include behavioral habits. In this paper this philosophy will be illustrated, describing more trends than detailed programmes. References a r e , h o w e v e r , made to such programmes. INTRODUCTION Welders' health surveillance is from modern approaches part parcel of company health promotion programmes containing not preventive t e c h n i c a l , medical and psychosoc i al aspects but ergonomie requirements aiming at an optimization of w e l d e r s ' and work content. (Ref 3 ) . and only also work

Classical primary prevention is the prevention of any clinical manifestations of disease. Secondary prevention is the early detection and treatment of such diseases and tertiary prevention is the avoidance of c o m p l i c a t i o n s , including therapy and rehabilia tion. Ergonomie targets go still further, covering physical overload in work (static and dynamic) as well as psychic load (mental over and unders tra i ) . For the most part man has been regarded as a somewhat inflexible component in technical systems that are mainly focused on raising productivity and the technical quality of the product. Higher productivity has in turn determined what resources are available for social development in the community. This has resulted in the content of work being watered down in far too many cases: people have been forced to realize their human potential outside their work. Higher productivity has been partly achieved through greater standardization of manufactured products and further division of w o r k , which has at the same time led to higher pay. The contribu tion of the worker has been defined in the same terms as for mechanical components: t i m e , p o w e r , speed of m o v e m e n t , reach. Once the w e l d e r , or any other skilled w o r k e r , has learnt the pattern of the job the opportunities for further development of his skills have often been rather limited. N o w a d a y s , research into job design and the organization of p r o d u c t i o n , is largely focused on studying the effects of a t t i t u d e s , job motivation and job satisfaction. In a number of studies it has been shown that such subjective variables can be of considerably more significance for the production result than the

485
physiological TECHNICAL parameters previously investigated. (Ref 4)

SURVEILLANCE

In the technical field it is the engineers themselves who best understand the variables that influence technical c h a n g e , so they therefore have particular responsibility for what h a p p e n s . The role of the technologist today must not only be to solve technical problems to order but also to contribute to the analysis of their human e f f e c t s , (ref 6, 7, 8) The relationship of working environment factors to health which should be covered may be subdivided into five main categories to be quantified: level of activity (physical and m e n t a l ) , physical impact ( n o i s e , v i b r a t i o n s , r a d i a t i o n , electromagnetic f i e l d s , c l i m a t e ) , chemical impact ( f u m e s , g a s e s ) , biological impact ( m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s ) , social impact (man as a fellow b e i n g ) . T h u s , health surveillance is closely connected with the technical planning of each job. Consequently technical health surveillance routines should cover industrial p r o c e s s e s , e q u i p m e n t , instructions and work r o u t i n e s , and be based on the risk described and the exposure to the risk, (ref 2 1 , 2 2 , 23) Occupational hygiene surveys and routine measurements are used to determine the w e l d e r s ' exposure and provide basic material for efforts to increase the quality of the work e n v i r o n m e n t , (ref 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 ) . Epidemiological studies need own appropriate s t r a t e g i e s . (Ref 5 ) . Technical supervision should involve all potential hazards and also include reliability assessment of protective systems. In the systematic management of technical surveillance of the w e l d e r s ' work and working environment m a n a g e r s , safety e n g i n e e r s , d o c t o r s , trade union members and other are involved, (ref 2 7 ) . The p r o c e s s dependent parameters should be used to structure the preventive efforts (ref 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 3 ) . In Appendix I some examples of types of parameters are given.

486
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE

Within the International Institute of Welding the Safety and Health Commission deals with medical surveillance in numerous d o c u m e n t s . The first general principles of health supervision of welders were published in 1976. (Ref 1 ) . A draft prepared by Mr Dr M c M i l l a n , U.K. - who was assisted by the other medical experts in the Commission - contained a minimum standard which requires little medical supervision and clinical a c t i o n , thus achieving little cost and lost production. These guiding principles have been received with great interest. (Ref 2 , 3 0 , 3 1 ; App 2 ) . His health screening scheme identifies oversusceptible individuals such as those with obstructive airways disease. The base is pre-employment medical e x a m i n a t i o n , sickness absence s u r v e i l l a n c e , interviews after absence and periodical health reviews. The interval between the health reviews can vary between groups of welders and the updating depends on health status and working c o n d i t i o n s . In many cases the nurse performs most of the e x a m i n a t i o n s . Indications of obstructive airways disease is brought to the attention of the doctor. Further action is individually linked to the welder's health status and working conditions and preventive measures to be undertaken individualized. PSYCHO-SOCIAL SURVEILLANCE

The quality of life concept also have a "quality of working life" component. In a broad sense the quality of working life encompasses numerous f a c t o r s ; wages and h o u r s , work e n v i r o n m e n t , benefits and s e r v i c e s , human r e l a t i o n s , career and other. In a narrow sense it may be restricted to such positive individual values that can be gained by changes in work organization and increased work content. As a part of health surveillance work organization and work content are issues of increasing importance. (Ref 9 ) . Historically such aspects were defined as organizational problems to be dealt with by the personnel department and not a responsibility of the

487
h e a l t h and s a f e t y t e a m . T h i s p h i l o s o p h y is now c h a n g i n g . The need of c o n s i s t e n c y and a c l o s e r c o n n e c t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l l i f e s t y l e m a k e a s s i s t a n c e from the h e a l t h team i m p o r t a n t . H o w e v e r , q u a l i t y of w o r k i n g life i s s u e s must be u n d e r s t o o d in the h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d to the c o u n t r i e s ' n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y and c u l t u r e . S t r e s s r e a c t i o n is the c o m m o n n a m e for p h y s i c a l a n d / o r m e n t a l d e v i a t i o n from the b o d y ' s c o n d i t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m . S t r e s s at w o r k is c a u s e d by both o v e r and u n d e r l o a d i n g . E x p e r i e n c e of s t r e s s has its p o s i t i v e as well as n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s . So s t r e s s s h o u l d not be c o n f u s e d w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of p r e s s u r e . (Ref 1 0 ) . All j o b s need to have a s t r u c t u r e that the i n d i v i d u a l k n o w s and has b e c o m e used t o . If this u n d e r l y i n g s t a b i l i t y is m i s s i n g , t a s k s are e x p e r i e n c e d as i n s e c u r e . The d e m a n d for s t a b i l i t y v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y from one i n d i v i d u a l to a n o t h e r . S o m e p e o p l e p r e f e r r e l a t i v e l y m o n o t o n o u s w o r k , w h e r e e v e r y t h i n g that can o c c u r is k n o w n a b o u t in a d v a n c e . O t h e r s w a n t a g r e a t e r e l e m e n t of u n e x p e c t e d s i t u a t i o n s . W h i l e they are y o u n g p e o p l e o f t e n a c c e p t less i n t e r e s t i n g w o r k if it is well p a i d : pay is m o r e i m p o r t a n t than job s a t i s f a c t i o n . At l a t e r s t a g e s of l i f e , p a y is o f t e n not so i m p o r t a n t ; it is then m o r e i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e o n e ' s a p t i t u d e s . It is o f t e n the case that w e l d e r s go t h r o u g h such a c o n f l i c t of i n t e r e s t s a f t e r a r o u n d 5 to 7 y e a r s w o r k as a w e l d e r . The w o r k has b e c o m e r o u t i n e and t h e r e is n o t h i n g m o r e to be g a i n e d as far as the c o n t e n t is c o n c e r n e d . Job e n r i c h m e n t , that is to s a y , h a n d i n g out e x t r a t a s k s , has s h o w n i t s e l f to help some p e o p l e , but it can c a u s e s t r e s s for o t h e r s . H o w e v e r , the v a l u e s of m a n y p e o p l e c h a n g e o v e r the y e a r s . Such c h a n g e s are l i n k e d to the i n d i v i d u a l and c o n s e q u e n t l y of i m p o r t a n c e in h e a l t h s u r v e i l l a n c e . V a r i o u s a t t e m p t s h a v e been m a d e to a d a p t w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n s to t e c h n i c a l c h a n g e s but m u c h r e m a i n s to be d o n e . I m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s in this c o n t e x t are the d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a u t h o r ity. A f u n c t i o n a l d i v i s i o n of p r o d u c t i o n used to be the p r e d o m i n a n t p a t t e r n . In r e c e n t y e a r s v a r i o u s t y p e s of g r o u p or team w o r k have been t r i e d : for e x a m p l e , the p r o d u c t i o n f l o w can be split up a m o n g a n u m b e r of p a r a l l e l w o r k g r o u p s . T h i s m a k e s the w o r k less tied and p r o v i d e s l o n g e r w o r k c y c l e s . W e l d i n g and

488
polishing of car bodies can for example be allocated to teams working in parallel. Work cycles can be further extended by the use of buffers between workstations. It should be observed that the WHO guidelines for environmental and health monitoring in occupational health pay particular attention to changes in working conditions. Job related mental and emotional factors should be considered and psychological methods and criteria used in the assessment of occupational demands and human strain. CONCLUSIONS In the health surveillance of welders air pollutants are important and late effects should be carefully considered. (Ref 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 ) . Such r i s k s , however are decreasing and should not be over-emphasized. Process-oriented changes are now ongoing. (Ref 1 4 ) . Many of the existing adverse environmental factors can be eliminated or reduced through mechanization and automation. Welders no longer need to observe the appearance of the weld pool and are therefore freer. This is an obvious a d v a n t a g e , but it is important to make sure that the demand of the welder for job content and opportunity to influence his own work is not forgotten . Computer-aided production and the use of industrial robots often mean that some people get more interesting work, while many others get more monotonous and boring jobs. Experiences of welding robots to date is good. As long as the welder programs the robot himself the robot does the boring, uncomfortable or dangerous part of his work. He has time for various extra tasks, feels that he retains his trade skill and indpendance. At even higher levels of automation the tasks of the welder are also transformed into supervisory and service tasks. In this case the level of qualification of some operators is raised. They acquire responsibility for even more advanced tasks: programming, machine tending, control work. For o t h e r s , probably the majority, the tasks become monotonous and unqualified: magazine loading, picking out, simple monitoring tasks.

489
Automation is obviously and f u m e s , t e m p e r a t u r e , H o w e v e r , recruitment is welders but among young trend. beneficial in welding work or awkward working positions not primarily among trained untrained o n e s . This is not where gases are p r o b l e m s . and skilled a desirable

The need to save energy and m a t e r i a l s , the d e v e l o p m e n t of new materials and processing m e t h o d s , demands for improvements in the work environment and job content all speed up technical d e v e l o p ment in their own way. Welding methods will have to undergo major changes during the eighties in order to be functionally integrated into both large-scale and small-scale manufacturing and m a i n tenance sys terns. Risk- and consequence analyses and cost benefit studies are useful tools in the preventive work. What the employees expect from their work will influence the development of m e t h o d s , the adaptation of methods and organizational developments in quite different ways from in the past. The adaptation of methods will involve existing methods as well as new o n e s . Between the technical front-line and the rear we will continue to have welding work at different levels of complexity. (Ref 1 5 ) . Repair welding will employ many part-time w e l d e r s . The strategies for health evaluti on and health supervision should be adapted to the particular groups of welders but must continuously be revised and adapted to time-related c h a n g e s . (Ref 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 ) . Flexibility in medical supervision is particularly important. (Ref 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 ) . Special attention should be paid to delayed e f f e c t s . (App 3 ) . Such re-evalution involves both the scientific basic for medical and other criteria and the c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the s u r v e i l l a n c e . Available resources - which differ - should be carefully utilized. Lifetime health monitoring programmes (LHMP) have a bearing both on lifestyle and type of work and to ages of e m p l o y m e n t . LHMPs for welders must be based on the adequate risk profile - which is under change - and encourage self-help m e a s u r e s . Organized programmes are needed to correct life-style f a c t o r s , conferring excess risk during both working hours and leisure. The periodic health assessment can be ruled out from the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the welders exposure and the cost-effectiveness of the programme

490
elements. It may need to be more individualized and contain environmental characteristics. Computer-aided plotting of data is now a very useful tool. (App 3.) Technical preventive measures are closely linked to the production systems and consequently much more process and time dependent. (Ref 1 9 ) . The strategies for technical and medical supervision must be integrated. (Ref 2 0 , 3 3 ) . There must be a continuum of design-, engineering-, specification- and performance standards for the process dependent factors. REFERENCES

IIW: Health supervision of arc welders. Guiding principles. Welding in the World 1 4 , 79 1976 McMillan G.H.G.: Health of W e l d e r s , Those in Similar T r a d e s , their Assistants and Neighbourhood Workers. IIW-VIII-823-79 Frankenhaeuser M., Gardell B.: Underload and Overload in Working Life - outline of a multidisciplinary approach J. Human Stress 2:3, 35 (1976) Frazer T. M.: Human S t r e s s , Work and Job Satisfaction. ILO. Occupational Safety and Health Series No 50. Geneva (1983) Stern R. M.: Risk Management and Risk Assessment in the Stainless Steel Welding Sector. IIW. Congr. on Welding Research. Boston (1984)

6.

A r a k i Y.: An Example on Environmental Hygiene in Japan . IIW-VIII-967-81 I LO : Optimization of the Working Environment - New Trends. Occupational Safety and Health Series No 4 3 . Geneva (1978)

8.

Halen S.: Adaptive Systems and Presentation of Injuries in Welding. IIW-VIII-884-80 Srivastva S., Salipante P., Cummings T., Notz W., Bigelow J., Waters J.: Job Satisfaction and Productivity. Western Reserve University. Cleveland, Ohio ( 1975 )

10.

Kreibich H., Meister W., Metz A-M., Backman W.: Psychological Methods as Part of the Environmental and Health Monitoring in Occupational Health. XXI Int. Congr. Occupational Health. Dublin (1984) Gray C.N., Hewitt P.J., Dare P.R.M.: New Approach would Help Control Weld Fumes at Source. I -111 . Welding and Metal Fabr. Febr. Sept. Oct. (1982)

11.

491

12.

Kobayashi M., Maki S., Hashimoto Y., Suga T.: Investigations on Chemical Composition of Welding Fumes. IIWVIII107183 Kreibich H., Heuchert G., Schulz G.: The Connection of Analysis in Occupational Hygiene with Monitoring the Workers' State of Health within the Framework of Preventive Examinations. XXI Int. Congr. Occupational Health Dublin (1984) Kosnc Ludovit: Welding and Human Factor. IIWVIII123384 Zober .: A rbeitsmedizinische Undersuchungen zur inhalativen Belastung von L i c h t b o g e n s c h m e l z s c h w e i z e r n . Forschungbericht nr 3 1 7 . Verlag fr neue Wissenschaft GmbH, Bremerhafen (1982) Zober .: Weltle D.: Cross Sectional Study of Respiratory Effects of A rc Welding. IIWVIII118284 Wright C. C. : Cost Containment through Health Programs. J. Occ. Med. 2 4 , 965 (1982) Promotion

13.

14. 15.

16. 17. 18.

Guidotti T.L.: A daption of the Lifetime Health Monitoring Concept to Defined Empioyee Groups not at Exceptional Concept Employee Ri Risk. J. Occ. Med. 2 5 , 731 (1983) Viscusi W: Setting Eff i c i ent Standards for Occupational Hazards. J. Occ. Med. 2 4 , 969 (1982) Rappaport W., A nderson R.: ComputerSupported Health Surveillance. Experiences and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . XXI Int. Congr. Occ. H e a l t h , Dublin (1984) A leksejeva I.S., Norkin Y . I . , Korjukajev Y.S.: Occupational Hygiene at Welding Operations on Mechanized Production Lines. IIW Colloquium on Welding and Health. Lisboa (1980) Mudde A . Technical Precautions Fumes Generation. IIWVIII 91280 Magnusson E.J., Rosendahl C.H.: Studies of the Possibilities of Classifying Welding Electrodes. IIW Colloquium on Welding and Health. Lisboa (1980) Stern R.M.: Production and Characterization of a Reference Standard Welding Fume. IIWVIII86180 Sipek L., Smars E.: Reduction of Ozone Generation by means of Shielding Gas. IIW Colloquium on Welding and Health. Lisboa (1980) Bartley D.L., McKinnery N.W., Wiegand K.: Ultraviolet Emissions from the A rcWelding of AluminiumMagnesium A l l o y s . J. Ind. Hyg. A s s . 4 2 , 23 (1981)

19. 20.

21.

22.
23.

24. 25.

26.

492
27. 28. 29. LBS, Japan: Use of Eye Protectors. IIW-VIII - 1191-84 Pekkarinen J., Starck J.: Noise in Welding IIW-VII I-990-84 Shops.

Golovatjuk A.P., Glebov A . Z . : Creation of Optimum Labour Conditions for Electric Welders with regard to Ergonomie Requi rements. IIW Colloquium on Welding and Health. Lisboa (1980) McMillan G.H.G.: Welders' Health J. Soc. Occ. Med. 2 9 , 87 (1979) Examinations.

30. 31.

JWE, Japan: Ultraviolet Emissions in Welding, Transmissions of Safety Glasses and Eye Hazards of Welders. I IW-VIII-968-81 Hernberg S: Fact and Fiction in Occupational Epidemi ology. J. Roy. Coll. Physicians of London 17, 139 (1983) Keane J.W.: Computer-based Occupational Health Management. XXI Int. Congr. Occ. Health Dublin (1984) Burack Th. S., Burack R.W., Knowlden N.F.: Cancer II. Distortions in Stadardized Rates. J. Occ. Med. 2 5 , 737 (1983)

32.

33. 34.

493

APPENDIX 1

TECHNICAL

SURVEILLANCE OF WELDERS factors must be

Process dependent work and environmental quantified. I.A. EXAMPLES OF WORK CONDITIONS WELDING SHOP (Ref 21 ) factors

IN AN ASSEMBLY AND

Work condition

Unmechan i zed produc t i on Fitters Electric welders monotony

Mechanized production Production line operators up to 60 at some operations

Opera tion changes per hour Hand 1 i ng heavy tool s (ti me in % per shift) Work under harmful conditions (t i me in % per shift) Forced working posture (time in % per shift) Dust concentra t i on,a t work station, mg/m CO concentrations, mg/m3 HF concentrations, mg/m3 Total work stress, kca1/hour Effect of noise and unfavourable environment

up to 100

445 40%

5%

30% 203

75%

40%
20-34

905
80-100

50-753

4.1 - 5.5 (maxi mum 40 ) 5.0 - 40.0 2.0 - 20.0 250

none

60-120 4.5 - 10.0

250
moderate

250

moderate

moderate

494

APPENDIX 1 (continued)

EXAMPLES OF WORK STRESS AT AUTOMATIC AND MANUAL ASSEMB LY AND WELDING OPERATIONS (Ref 21) Description of operation Energy consumption

Operation

kcal/hour Automati c operation Manual operation 330-470

1.

Installation of sheets under parts to be welded Installation and fixation of beam parts to be welded One-sided automatic welding

150

2.

150

330-470

3. 4.

200-250

250-300 150

Two-sided automa250-270 tic welding of parts to the shield Pressure contact Semiautomatic welding Manualelectric tacking of beam parts to be welded 120 160-180

5. 6. 7.

150

495
APPENDIX 2 A. MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE OF WELDERS (Ref 30]

Potential and current welders, their assistants and neighbourhood w o r k e r s AM pre-employment or initial examinando

'

Plus on r e c r u i t m e n t or move to special

Visual acuity

FEV,

FVC

I
Abnormal referred to opuciap

Respiratory symptoms questionnaire

Special tests e.g audiometry m arc air gouging

T~

Employment selected f r o m surveillance of sickness absence records and those returning from absence of specific length and cause

Chrome or Chronic or Dyspnoea or Chest cough phlegm grade 2 pain

Normal

Normal

Nurse interview

Abnormal

Fit

I n t e r v i e w physical examination and investigations by doctor

Fit. unrestricted duties

I
Fit: restricted duties e.g only w h e r e t h e breaking zone concentration never exceeds the value used as a T L V Unfit

* Dyspnoea when walking up hills at a normal pace w i t h others of same age

Proposed scheme of health surveillance of welders and those who work closely with welders

496

APPENDIX 3 The efficiency of a study is related to the latency time of the disease. A. EXA MPLES OF LONG LA TENCY TIME (Ref 32)

40

Time (years)

Rrst exposure

Study becomes informative

Schematic outline showing that Q cancer study can be informative only when the latency time has passed.

B.

EXAMPLE (Ref 34)

OF

THREEDIMENSIONAL

PLOTS

OF

DATA

FOR

POPULATION

SUB SETS

1965

^^60

s l o M W

Thret-dimensionil trip h k riprtstntation of trtndi in igt-sptcrfic mortality ritti byfivt-year {roups for eanctr of lung in w h i t fem aln. Two vawi of "mountain" a n ntctuary to show triads.

497

HEALTH EFFECTS AND MEDICAL WASTAGE DUE TO COMB INED EXPOSURE IN WELDING R.L.ZIELHUIS and S.P.WANDERS meli Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, The Netherlands PART I SUMMARY This paper reviews the literature on welding and health, and reports on the results of pilot studies on welders' health in the Netherlands. The emphasis is on nonrespiratory health effects of welding and in particular on "medical wastage", the temporary or permanent drop out from welding because of sick ness, disability or death. In addition to fumes and gases, welders are exposed to high noise levels (frequently in excess of 85 dB A), infrared and ultraviolet radiation, extremes of temperature and problems related to work posture. The most important risks perceived by some welding shop foremen were knee, shoulder and back pain, metal spatter and arc eye. Among some interviewed welders, d r a u g h t , fumes and noise were the most frequently repeated problems. There is evidence of a higher risk among welders of medical wastage, particularly due to locomotor disability. The impact of welders' static physical load deserves further attention as so the other components of total welding environment.

Amsterdam,

PART II INTRODUCTION II. 1 Total exposure and health

The phenotype of man develops from conception to death. The genotype offers a range of potentialities. The impact of the "environment" in utero, infancy, adolescence, adulthood and in senescence to a large extent determines the phenotype; it may even affect the genotype. The external "environmental factors" can be categorized as follows: Activity pattern: physical activity (dynamic and static); mental activity (perception > choice and decision performance* perception, e t c . ) >

498

Life and working conditions: chemical, e . g . nutrients and food additives, water, beverages, welding fume and gases, ambient pollutants; physical, e . g . sound and noise, radiation, climate, barometric p r e s s u r e , vibration, illumination; biological, e . g . bacteria, v i r u s , fungi, animals, plants; social, e . g . human relations (fellow beings), work organization, wage s t r u c t u r e , time s t r e s s , socio-political system. All human subjects live in an environment determined to a large extent by factors from all categories. Optimal development of the phenotype requires the impact of several of these factors.Health may become impaired when the impact of these essential external factors is too strong/longterm/frequent or too weak/shortterm/rare. These essential factors should be optimized (Ergonomie Rule). On the other hand, non-essential (xenobiotic) external factors never serve a positive goal; they only may hamper optimal development; at best the intensity and/or duration of the impact may not be intense/longterm/frequent enough to exert an adverse effect. Such non-essential factors should always be minimized as much as possible (Hygienic Rule). Moreover, man is exposed at work, at home (e.g.life style) and in the ambient environment, often simultaneously. For the "average" worker life style may even exert a larger adverse impact on health (medical wastage: morbidity, disability and mortality) than the occupational and/or ambient environment. In Western developed societies the socio-economic-cultural status (SES) to a large extent generally corresponds negatively with exposure to several factors, which may have a negative impact on health: life style, education, housing, wage, function classification at work and consequently working conditions. Mortality (and morbidity) are negatively related to SES and to occupational classification. Adelstein (1980) even estimated that in Britain the variation in cancer and cardiovascular mortality among 25 occupational orders might be explained to a large extent by the SES. Several studies report a higher percentage of smokers among welders than among reference groups; this may be one of the reasons why in some studies welders appear to have a moderately increased lung cancer mortality (Stern, 1983). However, similar indirect relationships may also apply to non-fatal diseases, e . g . locomotor diseases. Epidemiological studies on welders' health should consider the comparability of life style, ambient environment, leisure time activities and SES between welders and the control groups (see also the paper by Peto in this i s s u e ) . Also the decreasing social ranking of welders (III.2) may have an important impact on observed risks to health and wellbeing.

499

11.2 Combined exposure "Combined exposure" may have different meanings: 1) Exposure to two or more adverse environmental factors, sometimes within the same category, e . g . chemicals at work, alcoholics, d r u g s , but often from various categories, e . g . exposure to welding fume, noise, static work posture, time s t r e s s . 2) Exposure to the same factor: 2a) Exposure to the same metal element, but as different metal compounds with different health r i s k s , , e . g . Cr-compounds. It may not be permitted to extrapolate from data on Cr-smelter and Cr-pigment industry workers to health risk in SS-welders, as has been done by Stern (1983), because the type of Cr-compounds very much differs; another example is exposure to industrial noise at work and to impact-noise when shooting in leisure time; 2b) Simultaneous exposure to the same factor at work by different routes of entry; this may apply to metal d u s t s : inhalation and ingestion; e x posure to UV radiation on eyes and on skin. 2c) Simultaneous exposure to the same factor at work, in the ambient environment, at home, e . g . CO in welding gases, from smoking, traffic exhaust; exposure to noise at work, at home and in recreation. The increased emphasis upon combined exposure to a large extent refers to study of interaction and in that case mainly to interaction of chemicals at work or of workplace chemicals and d r u g s , alcoholics, smoking. One still too much neglects the impact of maybe independent effects on health from the total work situation. The present working document first of all will draws attention to the impact of the total working conditions of welders on health and particularly those with an impact on non-respiratory systems, irrespective of interaction. Safety and accidents in welding are not discussed. 11.3 Selection mechanisms and epidemiological design The majority of studies on welders' health are crosss-sectional: a group of welders is compared with a control (referent) group. Cross-sectional studies too easily underestimate health risks because of selective dropout. In order to estimate health risks in welders, we have to conduct longitudinal ( c o h o r t studies: a followup of e . g . morbidity and mortality, if possible from the start of welding, compared to that of a comparable control group of non-welders. Only a cohort-design permits to estimate the actual health risks run by welders. We may distinguish at least eight selection mechanisms in gainfully employed welders: (1) Subjects may not apply for jobs as welders, e . g . those with chronic nonspecific lung diseases (CNSLD) or with locomotor disability. (2)

500

Preemploymerit examination may reject some applicants because of manifest or maybe still borderline incapacities. (3) During work welders may experience discomfort and they may voluntarily apply for another job. (4) Welders may voluntarily leave their job, because they consider it not up to their qualifications ( I I I . 2 ) . (5) Welders may be transferred to other jobs in the same industry because of medical reasons (selected employment). (6) Welders may be promoted to higher job levels, leading to a much improved physio-chemical work situation. (7) Welders may become incapacitated, because of jobrelated or non-job related diseases. (8) Welders may die from jobrelated or non-job related diseases. Similar selection mechanisms may also play a role in the control group. The impact of various selection mechanisms (except (1) and ( 2 ) ) , both in the group of welders and in the control group, can only be studied in a longitudinal follow-up. By assessing comparable well-defined endpoints, e . g . voluntary drop-out, diagnosis-specific sickness absenteism for longer than 4 weeks, transfer for medical reasons, permanent work incapacity or mortality in both groups, the relative risk (RR) of various endpoints can be assessed. Consequently, the extra incidence of such endpoints in welders can be established. Moreover, confounding factors, i . e . those related both to the "cause" and to the endpoint (the "effect"), can be taken into account. II.4 Non-specificity of endpoints Man is exposed to a legion of environmental influences in and outside work, whereas man can only respond with a limited number of endpoints. Lung cancer may be due to smoking, to some Cr- compounds, to asbestos, to ionizing radiation in uranium mining, to bischloromethyl ether, etc. The same applies to e . g . skin carcinoma, locomotor diseases and respiratory diseases. On the other hand, occurrence of a mesothelioma in welders is probably due to exposure to asbest, either when welding, or in a previous job as asbestos-worker, because only about 15% of mesotheliomata are estimated to be due to non-asbestos causes. So, mesothelioma is a rather specific effect. This non-specificity of most health effects, together with the selection mechanisms, makes it necessary to examine also a control group, which is as similar as possible in environmental factors, except in welding experience. I I . 5 . Coincidental, conditional and causal relationships A statistical association between working as a welder and a specified endpoint may be: (1) coincidental (casual) : the "effect" is not related to welding as such; (2) conditional: a welder with a preexistent decreased capacity may not be able to cope with his work load; consequently, a maybe asymptomatic

501

decreased capacity may develop into overt temporary or permanent incapacity; the same may apply to extra functional impairment of e . g . the respiratory system; (3) causal: the work load as such can be regarded as the main cause of incapacity or of functional impairment. When the reference group is well chosen, then the incidence of coincidental health impairments will not significantly differ between index- (welders) and control group. Because of the cause-non-specificity of most endpoints it may be impossible to distinguish between the three relationships in individual welders. 11.6 A pilot study in the Netherlands In 1980, the Dutch Directorate-General of Labour expressed the need to start a project on: "Improvement of working conditions of welders": inventarisation of total working conditions, in order to develop measures to improve conditions. The Institute for Sanitary Engineering and the Environment-TNO received a grant from the Directorate General of Labour, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment,for assessment of working conditions of welders (fume, radiation, noise, climate), and the Coronel Laboratory received a grant to carry out a 12 months-pilot study. The objectives of the pilot study w e r e : ( l ) to make an inventarisation of working conditions and of health effects in welders in several industries, in order to assess the desirability of a more in-depth study; (2) to gather information on various selection mechanisms, (3) to assess the feasibility of a retrospective longitudinal (cohort)study. Occupational health services who carried out medical supervision over industries with at least 25 welders were contacted; 38 have been visited. At each industry we had an interview with the occupational medical officer, a visit at the worksite and a short interview with the 'welding boss'. The Pilot Study lead us to distinguish two groups of welders: (a) welders usually working at variable worksites: the welder has to go to the object. Examples of these industries are: shipbuilding, boilerproduction, oil-rigconstruction and other large construction plants (S + C-industries) ; also maintenance welders belong to this group, and (b) welders generally working at a fixed worksite; to this "other" group belong two main types of industries: 1. industries with production in large series (carbodies, compressors, agricultural machines, office equipment, e t c . ) ; in these industries welding robots are being introduced. 2. industries with specialized and qualified production of small series. The total survey covered 16 S + C-industries, "other" industries, with about 1000 welders. with 1900 welders and 22

502 III. THE WORK LOAD OF WELDERS

III. 1 The activities of the welder Welders are not only arcing but they also have other activities: deslagging, grinding, selecting electrodes and machine, raising and lowering headshield, fitting and rotating workpieces, moving man and gear around, fetching electrodes, instruction time, time between jobs, crane waiting time and personal time (Jack, in Moretn, 1983). The operating efficiency (ratio arcing time: total working time) highly depends on the organization of the work. If welders are assisted by helpers they have a high operating efficiency. Another factor is the amount of work on one workpiece. When the amount is small, they have to move the equipment often. Also the effect of arc radiation, heat and working posture will affect the operating efficiency. We collected operating efficiency data from a shipyard: on board it varied between 30-40% and in a hall 30-60%. Moretn (1983) quotes Jack, who mentions 25 to 33% (with an expected variation of + 10%) for MMA welding. McMahon (Moretn, 1983) considers that on site operating efficiencies for MIG may vary between 25 and 60%. Another development is the degree of mechanisation and automation. Robots allow the welder to absent himself from the immediate vicinity of the arc for some or all time of the welding cycle. Total automation may permit the complete removal of the operator (Moretn, 1983). III.2 Social ranking of welders

A Dutch sociologist (Bertels, 1984) recently discussed the social role of welders. The social ranking of jobs can be regarded as an aspect of the a s sessment of risks to health and wellbeing of workers, and, therefore, a short discussion appears to be relevant. The welder as craftsman was at first regarded as the most important pivot in construction, but in the last decades he became one of the many wheels within a complicated technological organization.The social ranking of the welder appeared to drop : the technological object-side of welding and the social subject-side of the welder drifted more and more into opposite directions. The function classification of welders often is rather low; the Dutch system of function classification underestimates the mental work load, the often heavy physical work load and the psychological impact of frequent quality controls. Technologists complain about the low level of vocational training schools, which have lagged behind in the actual developments in welding techniques: young trainees are insufficiently trained for the tasks they are required to carry out.

503

From sociological point of view the job of welding involves aspects which may negatively affect self-esteem, social ranking, wellbeing and health , e . g . dirty work environment, work in confined spaces, sometimes outdoors, often a high static work load, sometimes demanding "acrobatic" working posture; many welders are not able to carry out their work after 45 - 50 years of age, although reliable data on this drop-out are not available (IV. 13 and 14). A high degree of disciplining has become predominant: repeated often highly sophisticated quality controls, rigid programming, repeated performance t e s t s , all this more than in many other jobs. Moreover, the rapid industrial growth in the 60's and the difficulty to get enough experienced welders, the slogan, propagated by e . g . electrodes-manufacturers, that "one can learn to be a welder within a few months", and the increasingly rigid programming, has also lowered the social ranking and the welders' own self-esteem. III.3 Welding fumes

Exposure to welding fume is so extensively discussed in literature (AWS, 1979, 1981; WI, 1981), that we will focus on the main conclusions. Fume levels in the welders' breathing zone are influenced by the welding process, efficiency and the degree of mechanisation and automation (Moretn, 1983). Welding process ad woRKPIEce n The total fume generation rate is affected by the welding c u r r e n t , arc voltage, electrode polarity, electrode diameter, speed of welding, and welding practice. The fume generation rate depends on the process: generally TIG MIG/MAG MMA. In general the TLV of 5 mg/m 3 for total fume is not exceeded in the TIG process. The data on exposure levels in the Netherlands are discussed by van der Wal in this issue. Welder`s posture Jenkins (Moreton, 1983) examined the impact of three welding postures. When sitting the lowest breathing zone levels were measured, when crouching highest, when standing intermediate. Welding position. Principal welding positions are flat (downhand), horizontal-vertical and vertical, and overhead. The flat position is used most frequently and has been shown to induce the greatest fume levels in the welder's breathing zone. Ventilation For diminishing the fume in the breathing zone the following ventilation workpiece, the welder's posture, the welding position, the ventilation, the operating

504

p r i n c i p l e s can b e u s e d : Gases

isolation o r s e g r e g a t i o n ,

d i l u t i o n of a i r b o r n protection.

gases

and

f u m e s , c o n t r o l at o r n e a r s o u r c e a n d r e s p i r a t o r y

Welders c a n b e e x p o s e d to s h i e l d i n g g a s e s , e . g . a r g o n o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e a n d a t m o s p h e r i c g a s e s of which ozone a n d n i t r o g e n o x i d e s a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l produced hydrogen during chloride welding. and Welders may i n c i d e n t a l l y which are be exposed to diacetyl chloride produced from the gases photoin phosgene,

chemical o x i d a t i o n of c h l o r i n a t e d h y d r o c a r b o n

s o l v e n t s t h a t may b e p r e s e n t

t h e a t m o s p h e r e (AWS, 1 9 7 9 ) . At t h e w e l d i n g p r o c e s s e s MMA, MIG/ MAG w e l d i n g on n o n o r low alloyed s t e e l a n d TIG on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l v . d . W a l find a n y l e v e l s e x c e e d i n g t h e T L V - C p l e s of N 0 2 a n d 0 3 nium t h e TLV for 0 3 (9 m g / m ) for N 0 2
3

(1983) did not samhead-

Fixed and spot within t h e

did not e x c e e d t h e T L V ' s .

Only at MIG w e l d i n g of a l u m i samples

was e x c e e d e d 5 times in s p o t

s h i e l d at 10-20 cm from t h e a r c , b u t not at 50 cm. III.4 Noise are The exposed impuls to noise from as their own by activities several (e.g. authors welding, (Wansink chipping, g r i n d i n g , h a m m e r i n g , e t c . ) a n d from a c t i v i t i e s of t h e i r c o noise-levels presented

Welders burning, workers.

( 1 9 8 4 ) , H e r m a n s ( 1 9 8 2 ) , AWS (1979)) h a v e b e e n combined in t a b l e I I I . 4 . 1 : Activity AAC MMA FCAW MIG/MAG TIG Burning Plasmacutting Grinding Chipping Arc. air-Gouging R a n g e of impuls n o i s e - l e v e l s in dB (A) 84 - 97 62 - 86 50 - 95 70 - 102 50 - 74 98 100- 110 95 - 105 1 0 3 - 105 102

T a b l e I I I . 4 . 1 . : A c t i v i t i e s a n d r a n g e of n o i s e l e v e l s ( a s far as we could e s t a b l i s h t h e s a m p l e s w e r e t a k e n at t h e w o r k site without o t h e r activities being carried out)

505

There is an enormous range in the impuls noise level of the welding p r o cesses. TIG is a relatively silent process. More interesting for the welders' health is the noise-dose level for an 8-hr working period (Leq). Wansink (1984) surveyed 14 welders and 21 iron-workers for one day each in a shipyard. All 35 workers had a personal noise dose level exceeding 85 dB(A); 11 of the 14 welders and 20 of the 21 iron-workers were exceeding 90 dB(A). In total 23 of the 35 workers had peak exposure over 120 dB(A). TNO (v.d.Wal, 1983) measured noise exposure of 10 welders: all had a personal noise dose level over 80 dB(A); most of them exceeded 85 dB (A). From the data collected from the Occupational Health Services also the

conclusion-could be drawn that welders belong to the highest exposed group, when compared with other groups in the same shop. III.5 Radiation UV (200-400 nm), visible (400-750 nm) and IR (750-1300 nm) radiation is produced by all arc welding and cutting processes. The spectrum of the welding arc is similar to that of the sun and the radiation intensities are also similar (Pattee, 1973). The intensity of radiation produced by a welding arc is a function of the welding process itself and of the welding variables. Less ultraviolet and visible energy is radiated at comparable current levels during WMA and FCAW than during MIG/MAG, because the dense smoke and fumes tend to shield the arc. Welders can also be exposed to ionizing radiation, applied to check the grooves. Uy^radiation UV-radiation can exert a direct and indirect effect on health (IV). An indirect effect of UV-radiation is the production of ozone and the formation of phosgene and dichloroacetyl chloride when using chlorinated hydrocarbons as degreaser. The ACGIH (1984) and the WHO (1979) threshold limit values for occupational exposure to UV-radiation incident on skin and eye, when irradiance values are known and exposure time is controlled, are as follows: (1) For UV-A (315-400 nm) the total irradiance incident on the unprotected skin or eye should not 2 exceed 10 W/m for periods exceeding 1000 seconds (approx. 17 min.); for 2 shorter exposure times it should not exceed 10.000 J/m ; (2) for UV-B and UV-C (200-315 nm) the radiant exposure incident on the unprotected skin or 2 eye should not exceed the effective irradiance (I f f ) of 0.001 W/m for 8 h r s , and 0.002 W/m for 4 h r s , etc. To determine the effective irradiance a weighting formula is used (ACGIH, 1984) weighted against the peak of a spec-

506

tral effectiveness curve (270 nm). This curve is mainly based on acute effects (IV. 10 and IV. 11). The permissible exposure time (in seconds) incident upon the unprotected skin or eye can be computed by dividing the effective i r r a diance (in W/m2) by 30 J/m 2 . From the data of Moss et al (1979) and Hinrichs (AWS: 1979) it can be concluded that the order of radiation will be as follows: MIG > MMA > TIG. The same conclusion can be drawn from the data of v.d.Wal (1983): for M1G welding an I . . on 1 meter of 22 W/m2; for MMA welding- a range of 0.7-2.5 W/m2 and for TIG welding on stainless steel 0.35-0.9 W/m2. This means that welders are allowed to work with uncovered eyes or skin for a very short period, e . g . about 30 seconds if the effective irradiance is 1 W/m2. The intensity of radiation varies inversely with the square of the distance from the a r c . This means that co-workers when they work with a welder with an operating efficiency of 50% and an I , , = 1 W/m2, are allowed to work with unprotected skin or eyes for 8 hours at a distance of 16 meters or more! Infrared radiation Heat is also generated in welding operations. The intensity may be expected to increase when welding or cutting in confined spaces. Fabrics differ in their heat transmission and reflective properties; therefore a welder's protective clothing may affect the intensity of exposure. A safe level for longterm e x posure has been reported to be an average of 0.01 W/cm 2 , whereas 0.34 W/cm2 has been reported in some welding processes. Grozdenko et al (1982) reported that in welding arc emissions maximal IR-emission (3500 W/m2, i . e . 0.35 W/cm2) was 100-fold larger than UV-immission. Although the arc may be active for only a few seconds at a time, the welders may be exposed to IR for as much as 50% of their time. Reradiation may occur, not only from shields but also from clothes (Pabley et al, 1931). III.6 Climate I n d o o r a n d outdoor climate When working in workshops the climate appears to be moderate to adequate in the Netherlands. The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) ranged from -1.6 to 1.8 (v.d.Wal, 1983). However, an air velocity up to 0.5 m/s was measured in the halls. Draught may then become a problem. In dockyards (new construction, shiprepair) work is often carried out partly in the open air and partly in workshops. This means in wintertime a frequent change of in- and outdoor work sites and so a change in temperature. We agree with Jensen (1972) that weather conditions are of particular significance for welders, because they suffer more than other workers when working on the outside of hulls in frosty and windy

507

weather. During welding they cannot move about, but they have to remain standing or sitting in the same position. Heatlqad Working in preheated constructions or working in confined spaces, when heat is generated from the welding process, may cause a considerable heatload (Domont, 1983; Pattee, 1973). Van Vianen (1983) studied 22 situations of p r e heated constructions (75-220C), where the welders had to work within the workpieces. When we consider welding as a moderately heavy physical activity (IV.9), the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) for continuous work (moderate work load) was exceeded in 60% of the situations. It means that in general within an object with a temperature over 100C rest periods have to be taken. Golden -layer shields are especially useful when working on pre-heated objects. Conventional glass welding shields contain UV-, visible and IR-absorbers, but IR-absorbers cause heating and secondary reradiation. Thin layers of gold with proprietary coatings, however, proved to provide cool reflection; a thin layer of gold reflects more than 98% of incident infrared. Use of such shields reduces temperature rises above the ambient by 150 to 175%, if compared to conventional green glass filter plates without interfering with the welders' vision (Pabley et al, 1981). III.7 Illumination In general the lighting is poor. Even in the welding booths there was often no spot illumination. Illumination is not only important for achieving a good quality of welding, but also because the risk of excessive visible light is larger, when the welders do not look immediately through their protective lenses. In general older welders have a decreased visual acuity and they need more illumination. The closer they come to the arc the more fumes and gases will be inhaled. We found one literature reference on illumination standards for welders. The IES-code (in WI, 1983) has the following entries in its general schedule:

508

welding and soldering shops standard service illuminance (lux) - gas and arc welding, rough spot welding - medium soldering, brazing, spot welding e . g . domestic hard ware - fine soldering, spot welding, e . g . instruments - very fine soldering, spot welding, e . g . electronics The type of work encountered in the normal welding shop low reflectance cause, and so the figures in parentheses cable. 300 (500) 500 (750) 1000 (1500) 1500 (3000) will come within the will be those appli-

111.8 Vibration Gouging, grinding and slagging are activities whith require a vibrating equipment. The more qualified a welder, the less he has to work with this equipment, because a 'vibrating hand' will decrease the quality of his work. 111.9 Physical activity and working posture A static working posture is typical for welders in contrast to other metal workers as shipwrights, fitters, etc. We will especially discuss the working posture in shipbuilding and construction industries. Kuorinka (1972) assessed aspects of the dynamic physical workload in ship2 yard welders: welding at heart level 85 Kcal/m / h , welding below heart level 87 2 2 Kcal/m / h , but when moving equipment 216 Kcal/m / h , and when removing slag 2 100 Kcal/m / h r ; this corresponds to a "normal" dynamic physical workload of 2 1.0 to 1.5. 1 0/min (160-240 Kcal/m , pulse rate 100-125/min). However, when having to move objects in confined environments, the workload may considerably increase. Kuorinka also emphasized the importance of anthropometric factors. The fact that ships often are designed according to the "minimum measurement" principle, already leads to environments which are barely sufficient for normal use at sea. However, during the building phase the aisles are full of tools, parts and machines, which further restrict the working environment. This requires

509

extra attention in the design of shipbuilding, but also in the design of boilers, offshore constructions etc. Jrvenp (1972) studied the workload of shipyard welders (n=155) by means of oral and written interviews and physiological t e s t s . Of the welders 40% worked at board, 20% in the hull or outdoors on assemblies, another 20% on welding parts and 10% on fitting out the hull and in the pipe shop. The static work load was indirectly assessed from the interviews: approximately 37% of welders considered their job to be very heavy or fairly heavy; this will at least be partly due to the fact that the welders experienced the static load as a heavy one. The different workphases were classified in the following order of increasing difficulty: (1) waiting/pause(2) transport of tools and equipment(3) walking, moving about horizontally>(4) idem, v e r tically >(5) slag chipping>(6) welding while sitting, hands above shoulder level(7) welding while standing or sitting, hands under shoulder level> (8) welding while bending over, stooping or kneeling, hands above shoulder level (9) idem, hands below shoulder level ) (10) welding in prone position. However, the mean heart rate did not follow the same trend; this may reflect the extra static load, particularly on legs and back, resulting in a moderately increased heart rate in e . g . 5,7 and 8. The Dept. of Biomechanics of the Faculty of Human Movement Studies, Free University of Amsterdam (Veeger, 1983) made during one workweek each 5 min a video-recording of the working posture of one welder (electric arc welding of pipes in a welding hall of a powerplant): of the working time 38% was spent in a standing position with trunk bent forward (partly up to 90 degrees), 9 % sitting with trunk bent forward, 4% kneeling and/or squatting. We did not find any studies of welders working in cyclic activities. We presume the workload to be comparable with that of other metal workers having cyclic activities. III.10 Conclusion The results of the survey can be summarized as follows: shipyards/large constructions (S+C) "other" industries welding site - variable - usually fixed welding process - usually MMA, low and - usually MMA, non-alloyed steel in low and non-alloyed ship-yards; in boiler steel production also SSsteel

510

exposure to welding fume forced ventilation

- high - difficult to apply

- high or low - usually easy to apply, not always in function - >85 dBA (Leq) only incidentally usually indoors high incidentally often repetitive

exposure to noise heat load climate radiation (UV) vibration variation in type of work posture

- >85 dBA (Leq) sometimes often outdoors high incidentally variable

- standing or sithighly variable, ting, much static much static work and heavy dynamic work work

The overall working conditions were more unfavourable in the s+c-industries than in the 'other' industries, particularly in regard to working posture, climate and intensity of exposure to welding fumes. Moreover, it was clearly shown that welding implies a combination of sometimes very adverse working conditions. In the full Report we discussed some examples of reviews on working conditions of welders. The conclusion could be drawn that several reviews, also those from 'official' organizations, almost cyclopically paid attention to exposure to welding fumes and gases, and UV-radiation. Exposure to noise, vibration, difficult working posture were not or hardly discussed.

Part IV - HEALTH RISKS AND HEALTH EFFECTS IV.1. Health risks and health effectin welders Part III demonstrated that the job of welding, particularly in the S+C-industries, involves exposure to occupational factors out of most categories, mentioned in II. 1. Moreover, most welders belong to the lower socio-cultural/economic classes, which is associated with relatively unfavourable life style, housing, level of education. The total workload is characterized b y : static and dynamic physical workload (category I ) , sometimes also a mental workload (category I I ) , exposure to welding fume, relatively unfavourable smoking habits, poor nutrition (category III), exposure to noise, vibration,

511

radiation, high and low temperature, draught (category IV), variable welding site, variable working conditions, relatively little freedom to determine the total working conditions themselves, low SES (category VI). This paper particularly discusses the non-respiratory effects on health, in relation to total work load, with emphasis upon medical wastage. The large majority of studies on health risks in welders refer to exposure to welding fume and gases; other adverse health risks are largely neglected. One of the few authors, who drew attention to the impact of total working conditions on British welders is Ross (1978). He listed the following health risks in addition to welding fume: UV-radiation, leading to arc eye ("flash"): 926 British MMA-welders with heavy engineering and ship building experience reported over a period of 6 years (1970-1975) the following incidence per year: 11% 4 times; 18% 1-3 times; 27% less than once; 44% never. There were no long term effects on vision. Superficial skin b u r n s ( " r a y b u r n " ) , most on the front and sides of the neck, occurred more often in younger welders than in more experienced older welders. Hot metal spatters may also cause small skin b u r n s , and when passing nylon or cotton even larger b u r n s . The prevalence of skin burn scars were: 47% more than 3; 25% 3; 14% 2; 9 1; 4% none. No data were % presented on skin cancer. metal spatter, particularly in MMA-welding and during deslagging, leading to foreign bodies in the conjunctiva and, rarely, in the eye itself: 21% more than 10 times per year; 10% 3-9 times; 16% 1-2 times; 13% less than once; 41% never. noise: in 305 subjects, 40-59 yr of age, over 80% had a hearing loss of 40 dB and about 30% even 60 dB at 4 kHz. (see also IV.9). vibration: 11% of welders reported that their fingers went white or blue in cold weather, associated with numbness, tingling and pain, i . e . "the Raynaud phenomenon"; most of these were probably due to vibration. handgrip: in 4% of welders palmar aponeurosis, ("Dupuytren's contracture") was observed, particularly in older welders. This may be due to trauma and maybe also to tightly holding the heated handgrip. working posture: in about 9 (85) orthopaedic lesions were reported, in 2.5% % of the knee, in 3.5% of the back and 7% "other" orthopaedic laesions; in 3.5% back movements were restricted. Data on controls were not presented; whether the prevalence was excessive, was not discussed by the author.

512

IV.2. The Dutch pilot study: health effects "Most important" heaUh_risks The occupational physicians were asked to mention adverse working condi tions and health risks for welders. They particularly stressed the importance of static work load and of exposure to welding fume. Probably because most phy sicians "accepted" the risk of loss of hearing in workers in metal industries, they did not emphasize this as an explicit "health risk"for welders. Moreover, it should be acknowledged that most occupational health services usually did not register data on medical wastage and on signs and symptoms of health impair ment separately for welders. L^ctjon_a_preemp_lo^men_examinaJiqn The occupational health services usually did not follow a strict protocol. However, they usually particularly paid attention to pulmonary function and anamnesis of CNSLD. Only one occupational health service applied strict criteria for respiratory function: an applicant was regarded as not acceptable for the job of welder, when: the VC/FEV. quotient was below 75% of the CECstandard, the respiratory flow indicated obstructive or restrictive functional impairment, and/or when the Histamin Provocation Test induced a decrease of FEV, and/or of FEV. of more than 10% of the preexposure level (only in the case of a po sitive family anamnesis of CNSLD or of the applicant himself). Moreover, physicians tended to examine more carefully the function of the locomotor system. In order to achieve a more objective impression of possible selection criteria, the investigator offered 6 (written) case histories of young applicants for the job of welders and of fitters: (1) positive CNSLDanamnesis; (2) obesity and moderately limited locomotor function of the back; (3) respiratory allergy; (4) noiseinduced loss of hearing; (5) slightly oblique pelvis and loss of vision in one eye; (6) regulated epilepsy. The physician had to answer with: (a) fit; (b) notfit. For the S+Cindustries cases (1) and (3) were more liable to be r e garded fit for fitters than for welders (YatesCochran, < 0.05). For "other" industries this only applied to case (3): welders tended to be particularly rejected in the case of a positive respiratory anamnesis. Moreover, the physi cians of the S+Cindustries also tended to reject more applicants than those from the other industries, both for welders and for fitters ( P < 0 . 0 1 ) , although more welders than fitters were regarded unfit because of a positive respiratory anamnesis. This suggests a positive selection of applicants for welding, p a r t i cularly on the basis of the respiratory anamnesis. As far as known, scientific research to assess the actual significance of various criteria applied in preemployment examination of welders in terms of

513

future turnover and medical wastage has never been carried out, neither has one tried to develop consistent criteria. However, the same may be stated for many criteria applied in medical preemployment examination, irrespective of the future job. SJgiTS aj^d_symj^tojns_rejDored_q_h^_qcc^ The occupational physicians were asked to present data on the incidence of signs and symptoms of health impairment reported to them by welders. No systematically collected data were available. The "impression" was that locomotor problems (of back, neck, shoulder, knee, elbow) were reported relatively fre quently. Signs and symptoms of the respiratory tract were definitely of less importance. ?frfY^ h^al h _ e f fects_ Heads of 34 welding departments were also interviewed. According to the respondents working in S+Cindustries, older welders often experienced signs and symptoms of the locomotor system (knee, shoulder, b a c k ) ; in the "other" industries this was mentioned less frequently. Most respondents mentioned the risk of metal s p a t t e r s ; arceyes particularly occurred in inexperienced young welders. Older welders, who became distance sighted and started to wear rea ding spectacles, tended to diminish the distance to the welding point, which may result in increased exposure to welding fumes/gases. In a boiler production industry a team of sociologists interviewed 100 welders and 100 nonwelders; they had to rank in order of importance the following working conditions: working posture, noise, welding fume, work r a t e , other symptoms. The following conditions were considered most important by the welders: draught by 24, welding fumes by 20, noise by 15, working posture by 13; the nonwelders ranked as most important: noise by 31, draught by 22, welding fume by 10 and working posture by 9. Very probably, e x exposure to noise hardly differed between both groups, but this was regarded relatively less important by welders than by nonwelders; because both groups worked in a boiler production industry static work load may have occurred both among welders and nonwelders. In another factory two physiotherapists made an observation of the working posture of welders; they interviewed 8 subjects (age 2045 y r s , duration of work 5 to 30 y r s ) : 3 welders regularly and one welder sometimes experienced low back pain; 4 welders regularly had shoulder pain; one welder experienced pain in the elbow, and another welder experienced pain in the neck. According to the physiotherapist and the occupational physician the reported signs and symptoms of the locomotor system were probably related to the working posture. Of the 8 welders 5 complained about noise, but also the other 3 had a loss of

514

hearing in their audiogram. Only 2 welders complained about effects of welding fume. In a shipyard (ship reconstruction and repair) occupational physicians interviewed 79 welders and 633 other production workers according to a va lidated questionnaire. Welders complained more frequently than the controls about: poor working posture and locomotor symptoms, noise and problems with hearing acuity (67% with hearing loss of >15 dB at 4000 Hz), cold, draught and humidity; the groups did not differ in: mental work load, psychosomatic symptoms and other social factors. Dicussionand_ conclusions The whole body of data corresponds to what might be expected on the basis of the total work load, as described in Part III: signs and symptoms referring to the respiratory system do not take a high ranking. Even although welders may give a high ranking to welding fume, they actually do not report frequently respiratory health effects. probably more important is the working posture, particularly in the S+C industries, sometimes leading to locomotor disability to what extent selective criteria applied in preemployment examination actually serve to prevent future signs and symptoms and temporary or p e r manent incapacity due to locomotor disease, has never been studied. The same may be stated for periodic medical surveillance. Moreover, in practice criteria are at best inconsistently applied. most Dutch physicians consider exposure to noise as an aspect of working in the metal trade and not as an aspect of welding. Hardly no data exist on the incidence of medical wastage, let alone on diagnosisspecific morbidity or disability, neither on the various selection mechanisms, discussed in I I . 3 . IV.3 A limited Dutch cohort study A cohort study was carried out by Mensink (1983) in a boiler production factory. This pilot study had a limited design, due to restricted number of workers, impossibility to form adequately comparable control groups. The study covered 107 welders (W, av. age 38.5 y r s ) ; period of observation 10 y e a r s : 1.1.1972 to 12.31.1981. New entrants were not included. Two control groups were formed: group B , 132 boilermakers/pipefitters (av. age 37.5 y r s ; this group also had a rather unfavourable work p o s t u r e , and might also in directly have been exposed to welding fume) and group C: 128 administrative workers (av. age 38.1 y r s ) , most of them working as constructiondesigners (drawing b o a r d ) . Group C had a better level of education and a higher function

515

classification t h a n W a n d B . G r o u p C was not c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e p r i m a r y group (B ), but C was i n c l u d e d in o r d e r to c o m p a r e medical w a s t a g e of lived in t h e same r e g i o n a n d w e r e u n d e r

control "blue super were B ecause

collar" w o r k e r s (W a n d B ) with t h a t of " w h i t e collar" w o r k e r s ( C ) . All s u b j e c t s w o r k e d in t h e same f a c t o r y , calculated. vision of t h e same o c c u p a t i o n a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e . P e r s o n y e a r s of o b s e r v a t i o n T h e g r o u p s w e r e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o s u b g r o u p s of similar a g e . t h e s u b g r o u p s w e r e small, s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a d r a w n on t h e b a s i s of q u a l i t a t i v e t r e n d s . T h e following d a t a w e r e a v a i l a b l e : a g e ; s e x (all male s u b j e c t s ) ; medical senteism reasons; (average days permanent to number (mental, disability job of spells (social level; per year insurance voluntary retirement; promotion higher dropout; transfer sickness for ab and

t r e a t m e n t to c a l c u l a t e R e l a t i v e R i s k s T e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s h a d to b e

a n d l e v e l s of s i g n i f i c a n c e was not c a r r i e d o u t .

compensation);

death;

of o b s e r v a t i o n and

( 10 y r s )

a v e r a g e d a y s lost p e r n u m b e r of s p e l l s ) ; d i a g n o s i s s p e c i f i c a b s e n t e i s m for s p e l l s d u r i n g >28 accidents). At 1 2 . 3 1 . 8 1 57 of t h e 107 W, 64 of t h e 132 B a n d 100 of t h e 128 C w o r k e r s were still at work in t h e same f a c t o r y in t h e r e s p e c t i v e j o b s . T h e d a t a showed t h e following t r e n d s : Endpoints p e r m a n e n t work i n c a p a c i t y t r a n s f e r for medical r e a s o n s death (voluntary) dropout promotion retirement unknown total were: W locomotor mental cardiovascular respiratory accident other total 15 5 3 3 2 3 31 B 24 3 2 2 4 4 39 50 W 21 10 2 10 4 3 14 10 3 2 68 28 31% cardiovascular, respiratory locomotor diseases,

B 16 23 29%

T h e d i a g n o s i s for p e r m a n e n t work i n c a p a c i t y a n d t r a n s f e r for medical r e a s o n s

516

The following trends appeared in sickness absenteism: (1) W has highest number of spells/year, highest number of days lost and highest percentage of days absent; (2) W and had much more absence than C. Moreover, when divided into age groups, the following trends appeared: per age group W usually shows highest av. number of spells per year and/or high est percentage of days lost; C showed per age group usually lowest sickness absenteism. For long term (>28 days) absenteism the following trends a p peared: W> > C, both in terms of duration of absence and of number of spells/year. When calculating the percentage of days of sicknessabsenteism ac cording to diagnosisspecific shortterm (^28 d) and longterm absenteism, then the highest percentages existed in W for total percentage of days lost by long term absenteism and by absence because of locomotor diseases. The observed trends indicate a considerably higher medical wastage in "blue collar" workers (W and B ) than in "white collar" workers (C) and usually more unfavourable for W than for . It can be argued that the difference between W/B and C is not relevant, because C differs both in level of education and socioculturaleconomic status from W/ B . However, in occupational health one should not "accept" too easily differences in medical wastage between factory floor workers and office workers: from viewpoint of health protection and promotion, there is every reason to try to improve overall working conditions of "blue collar" workers, as far as possible down to the level in higher function classes in the same i n d u s t r y . Group certainly was not an adequate control group, particularly in regard to working posture. This fact tends to underestimate a possible excess risk in welders. Even in this study welders showed more unfavourable trends in a b senteism and permanent disability than the boilermakers/pipefitters. This highly suggests an adverse impact from physical work load (particularly static load) on welders' health. Moreover, the study also clearly showed that welders had no excess medical wastage because of respiratory diseases. IV.4 Intoxications Welding fume may contain various metals, e . g . Mn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Al, Ti, V and F, either emitted from the welding rods or the welded steel itself, or from surface coatings, contamination, etc. Moreover, welding gases may contain e . g . NO , 0 3 , CO, SiO and decomposition products of chlorinated hydrocar bons. These wellknown, mostly systemicically acting agents are not discussed. However, in view of their potential importance to health four biologic functions are discussed in IV.58.

517

IV.5. Effects on renal function A few studies have been carried out in SS-welders. Tossovainen et al (1980) examined the biological halftime ( t , ) of Cr-excretion in 4 SS-welders exposed to 0.02-0.30 mg Cr/m 3 (t, =15-41 h ) . The linear one-compartment model explained about 80% of the variance of the Cr-level in urine(CrU) .Tola et al (1977) examined 6 SSwelders during 1 5 days; individual exposure levels ranged from 3-10 /Ug Cr/m 3 to 180-520 /ug Cr/m 3 ; the soluble Cr fraction was >50% when using covered electrodes (n=5), <10% for inert gas welding (MIG). Urine was sampled before and after work. The increase of CrU during the workshift ( C r U ) was better correlated with the Cr-level in air, than the CrU at the end of the workshift. The authors concluded that in exposure t o > 5 0 / u g soluble Cr/m 3 - 8 h-twa the .CrU = +7 ^ug C r / g creat (corresponding to about CrU = 30/Ug C r / g creat at end of workshift). In both studies the renal function was not investigated. Mutti et al (1979) studied two groups of welders, age (25-57 y r s ) , duration of exposure 18.9 (2-40) y r s . A group of 6 subjects (A) had high internal exposure to Cr, another group (n = 8, B) had low internal exposure (estimated on the basis of renal clearance of C r ) : (A) Cr clearance >10 ml/min, (B) Cr clearance <5 ml/min at similar Cr-concentration in air. In group A the regression equation was: y (CrU i n / j g C r / g creat) = 2.269 + 0.198 X (soluble Cr in air in Ag C r / m 3 ) ; in group B: y = 0.034 + 0.086 X. In A the CrU level in morning urine was higher than in B at same levels of external exposure. This study leads to a ACrU = 4 to 12 AJg/g creat at exposure to >50 /) ug Cr/m 3 in air, which reasonably corresponds with the findings of Tola et al (1977). Mutti et al (1979) also observed increased internal exposure levels of Cr in two subjects who were followed up during one month, and who had no previous exposure; there was an increase both in the Cr level in urine and in the Crclearance. Mutti et al (1979) also studied the impact on renal function in: (A) 39 SSwelders, (B) 36 welders, welding armoured steel and (C) 24 chromium platers. The data have been summarized in table I V . 5 . 1 . These data suggest an adverse renal effect in welders with av.CrU above about 13 / a g / g creat. However, it should be realized that the number of subjects and particularly the duration of exposure was limited. Welinder et al (1983) studied 9 retired (for av.4 yrs) SS-welders; they had higher CrU-levels than 21 non-exposed controls; the Cr-excretion did not differ from that in 14 active SS-welders at the end of their 31 days vacation. This shows that there exists a very slow compartment for Cr in the body. For 4 weld e r s , followed for 31 days, the t i of the slow compartment was 14 days, whereas in the fast department in 12 welders, followed for 60 h , t, was 7

518

Table I V. 5 . 1 : Data on Crexcretion and parameters of renal function in welders and chromiumplaters (Mutti et al, 1979) group, duration of exposure Crexcretion number of subjects with CrU Cr impaired renal function /ugCr/g creat clearance glucuro proteinuria lysozym (ml/min) nidase urie
% % %

,=39; 4.5+3.2 y r s ,=36; 1.0+0.4 y r s C,n=24; 8.9+7.3 y r s (435) h, which is

5.3+3.7 33.3+6.9 24.5+12.5

8.8+3.8 10.3+5.1

0/39 8/36 9/24

22 37

T39 3/30 4/24

0739 10 0/9 17 1/24

0 4

much

less

than

the

t,

suggested

by

Tossovanen

et

al

( 1 9 8 0 ) . In t h e w e l d e r s s t u d i e d n o n e p h r o t o x i c e f f e c t s w e r e o b s e r v e d . L u n d q v i s t (1983) o b s e r v e d s u g g e s t i v e e v i d e n c e of an a c c u m u l a t i o n of w e l d e r s with k i d n e y d i s e a s e d u r i n g a s h o r t p e r i o d in 1979. D u r i n g 19781981 18 w e l d e r s (17 male, 1 female s u b j e c t ( s ) ) , with r e n a l functional a v e r a g e a g e 34 (1965) y r s , reduction in 6, kidney biopsy were admitted to in glo con in but to t h e medical D e p t . ; t h e a u t h o r did not r e f e r specifically to S S w e l d e r s . In 14 of 18 s u b j e c t s terstitial was p e r f o r m e d : nephritis in 3, The author nephritis was e s t a b l i s h e d minimalis in would and the IGA g l o m e r u l a r group

merular nephritis cluded that the risk probably

1 a n d a r t e r i i t i s in 2 p a t i e n t s . because few studies

w e l d e r s c o n s t i t u t e a t h e o r e t i c a l at r i s k b e small, reported. In t h i s pilot study

for k i d n e y

disease; work

on k i d n e y

disease

welders have been place, ventilation

no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

s e v e r i t y of r e n a l d i s e a s e could b e e s t a b l i s h e d , s t u d y of r e n a l h a z a r d s in w e l d e r s a p p e a r studied the the kidney function in 17

Lundqvist concluded that further be i n d i c a t e d . Recently Each welder Littorin et al (1984)

MMASS (741). exceeded kidney

w e l d e r s , a v e r a g e a g e 45 y r s was m a t c h e d

( 3 4 6 4 ) , d u r a t i o n of e x p o s u r e a v . 20 y r s C r U l e v e l s in w e l d e r s

to o n e c o n t r o l ;

v e r y much t h o s e in c o n t r o l s ; t h e function studied (albumin the

A C r U was a v . 5 a n d 11 / u g C r / g c r e a t , i . e . of lysozyme and (not /S^micro signifi

similar m a g n i t u d e a s in t h e s t u d i e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T h e p a r a m e t e r s for clearance, a hexosamidase, were e v e n higher globulin all in u r i n e ) and hexosamidase did not differ levels between both g r o u p s ;

for ^ m i c r o g l o b u l i n

in t h e c o n t r o l s

519

c a n t ) . The author concluded that there was no evidence of glomerular or t u b u lar dysfunction, although the Crlevels were considerably increased. It should be noted that the lysozyme level was also not increased in the group studied by Mutti et al (1979), whereas the most prominent feature was increased excretion of glucuronidase, which was not studied by Littorin et al. Nickel may also induce renal effects, at least in animal studies. A review has been presented by B rown and Sunderman ( e d ) , (1980). The highest Nitissue levels after administration of soluble Nicompounds occur in the kidney, p a r ticularly the renal cortex. Moreover, in the course of the workweek the level in urine increased, at least in electroplate workers exposed to rather high levels in air (Tola et al, 1979). However, in welders the Ni concentrations in urine usually are rather low, e . g . Kalliomki et al (1981): < 1 4 / i g Ni/1 in TIG and M A welders. M The fact that studies on kidney function have only rarely been carried out in welders, does not yet permit to conclude that renal impairment hardly does occur. At least a potential risk appears to exist, more so in welders exposed to soluble chromiumcompounds than in exposure to nickel. IV.6 Effects on reproduction Haneke (1973) studied 61 arc welders, of whom 57 were married; 51 had fathered children. Pathological findings in semen were regarded not significantly different from those in young controls. No effect on male fertility was esta blished. However, this smallscale study is insufficiently informative. In view of suggestive evidence of effects on fertility from heat load particularly in the pelvis area in other occupations, further study may be indicated. When one takes into account the fact that female welders may be exposed during p r e g nancy, with possible effects on the fetus in utero in exposure to some metals and CO and, moreover, that there exists suggestive evidence of menstrual dis turbances in exposure to e . g . lead (reviews by int.alia Clarkson et al, 1983, and Zielhuis et al, 1984), further study of potential effects both in male and female welders seem to be indicated. (See also the contribution in these Pro ceedings by Hemminki). IV.7. Gastrointestinal effects In a study of more than 3000 shipyard workers, including welders and 1000 controls, Dreesen et al (1947, quoted by AVVS) did not observe any difference in the prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms between shipyard welders and

520

other shipyard employees. However, a survey of acute symptoms in shipyard workers in Poland (Chmielewsky et al, 1974, quoted by AWS) revealed that 20 welders working in confined spaces and s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s reported symptoms of diarrhea, nausa and abdominal pain more frequently after working hours than 20 galvanizers, but less than pipefitters and blacksmiths. Very probably these symptoms were due to high exposure to ZnO fume (10 to 1000 mg/m 3 ) in workroom air. AWS (1979, 1981) discussed several other conflicting data. In his study of 926 British MMA-welders with heavy engineering and shipyard experience Ross (1978) provided data on the medical history: age group (yrs) M n symptoms - nausea - occasional
indigestion

20-29 401 % 4
21

30-39 220 n 2
51

40-49 191 n 3
46

50-59 141 n % 6
25

20-59 926 n % 27
209

% 0.9
23

% 1.5
24

16
87

4.2
17

2.9
22

- frequent indigestion - peptic ulcer

17 3

4.2 0.7

17 23

7.7 10

7 10

3.6 5.2

1 15

0.7 10

42 51

4.5 5.5

These data do not suggest any relationship neither with age, nor probably with duration of exposure; however, no data on a control group were presented and it is not clear whether all symptoms referred to different subjects or whether combinations occurred. Recently Magni et al (1984) studied the prevalence in one year of peptic ulcer and chronic gastritis with onset after the beginning of employment in 917 male blue collar workers (av. age 38.3 y r s , range 18-60 y r s ) in a metal working industry in a rural area in Italy (rather high local alcohol consumption). The authors particularly paid attention to the impact of noise, temperature, vibration, shiftwork and physical workload as elucidating factors. Of the total group 86 (9.4%, av. age 43.5 y r s ) were affected: 60 with peptic ulcer and 26 with chronic gastritis. The factory departments were divided according to the intensity of adverse working conditions into L(ow), M(edium) and H(igh): the prevalence increased from L (5.9%) to M(9.2%) to H (12.2%); moreover, the p r e valence increased with duration of exposure in all three groups; age could not fully explain this gradient. This study probably included an unknown number of welders. It may serve as an indirect signal.

521

MacMillan (1979) presented data on medical discharges, death and selected employment due to disability (medical transfer) in 274 male craftsmen welders (av. age 46 yrs) in the Devonport naval dockyard in the UK, compared with several other groups (boiler makers, shipwrights, electrical fitters, painters, joiners); the total study population referred to 1769 subjects. The period of observation was 5 y r s (1971-1975). Among the total group of welders there were 17 medical discharges and deaths, i . e . 18% of these for gastrointestinal diseases, for the control groups combined 2 of 75, i . e . about 3%. This suggests an increased risk of medical discharge and/or death among welders; however, the absolute numbers were small. The prevalence was higher than for respiratory diseases. MacMillan and Pethybridge (1983) also studied the proportional mortality of welders and of two control groups, who had been employed for at least 6 months and had retired or died while employed at HM Dockyard Devonport between 1.1.1955 and 12.31.1974. Deaths due to gastrointestinal diseases was the only grouping with a significantly higher PMR ( P < 0 . 0 5 ) than expected on the basis of the PMR experience of all three groups. However, the lesions were in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the total number of death was small, and a PMR is less informative than an standard mortality rate (SMR). Polednak (1981) studied the mortality among 1059 welders employed at three plants in OakRidge USA; about half of them were exposed to Ni-oxides. The SMR (comparison with death rates of US-males) was 0.76 (95% confidence interval 0.35-1.44) for diseases of the digestive system. This review of studies on of gastrointestinal diseases (symptoms, sickness absenteism, medical transfer, disability, death) does not permit to conclude that an increased risk exists. However, several studies are at least suggestive for a somewhat increased risk, probably particularly when working in unfavourable conditions, as in the S + C-industries. There is no cogent reason to assume that exposure to welding fume is the only causal/conditional factor. IV.8 Immunologic and hormonal effects

Lange et al (1977) observed no difference in the levels of IgG, IgM and ANA (anti-nuclear autogens) between welders and controls (forgers); however, the IgA-level was increased in welders with more than 10 y r s exposure, both when compared to those with less than 2 y r s exposure and controls. The normal increase of IgA with age seemed to be speeded up in welders. In addition the haptoglobin level was increased, also in welders with less than 2 y r s exposure. In a study of 23 workers, aged 30-50 y r s , working as welders for 10-30

522

y r s , and who showed a picture of bronchial asthma with an obstructive lung function, Ebeid et al (1981) observed a high basal plasma Cortisol level with a normal diurnal rhythm but a depressed cortical reserve capacity; 11 healthy adult males served as controls. The authors suggested that exposure to welding fumes and gases of welders who are suffering from bronchial asthma, may act as a real s t r e s s , hazardous to suprarenal cortical function. IV.9 Auditive and extra auditive effects of exposure to noise Ajidi i v e _ e f fecrts Ross (1978) carried out hearing tests in 926 B ritish welders with heavy engineering and shipyard experience: in 4049 yr old welders 70% had a loss at 4 kHz of over 40 dB in the left ear and 60% in the right ear; over 20% had a hearing loss > 60 dB . We collected data from hearing tests of welders in 3 shipyards; 80% had a hearing loss of more than 15 dB at 4000 Hz after age correction. In view of the high noiseexposure levels, relatively few data exist on hearing acuity in welders. ?2^^5 LY _.?c_t s Several extraauditive effects have been described in literature, e . g . disturbed equilibrium, nuisance and s t r e s s , increased diastolic blood p r e s s u r e particularly when simultaneously an increased mental load exists. Although not explicitly focussed on welders, these data may be extrapolated to this group, in view of their working conditions. The data of negative studies on systolic bloodpressure in welders, quoted by the American Welding Society (1979, 1981) are not so relevant, because the data refer to the systolic bloodpressure. Ross (1978) did not observe any significant difference both in systolic and diastolic bloodpressure in 926 welders and in controls. In the Coronel laboratory van Dijk (1984) carried out studies on e x t r a auditive effects of noise exposure in several industries. About 75% of the workers were exposed to noise (> 8085 dB ( A ) ) . Annoyance increased with duration of exposure ( i . e . no habituation). When carrying out activities with an increased mental load, susceptibility to noise increased; this caused problems with concentration and probably nervousness, irritability and feelings of fa tigue. More than 50% of the workers had a decreased auditory threhold; in a shiprepairyard 75% of those with longterm (>30 y r s ) exposure had a serious loss of hearing. The conclusion of this study was that particularly the combination of adverse working conditions, e . g . noise, mental load, time s t r e s s , in addition to difficult working posture (static load) and a negative appreciation of total

523

working conditions, increases the incidence of extra-auditive effects. The working conditions of welders, particularly in the S + C-industries, involve exposure to noise, often time stress and mental load, static work load, isolated worksite. Therefore, it can be expected that welders are at risk, not only in respect of loss of hearing acuity, but also of extra-auditive effects of noise. IV.10 Opthalmic effects Eye discomfort from overexposure to radiation, fume and gases may occur; this may partly be due to contraction of the ciliary muscles that control the shape of the lens, when exposed to intense visible radiation. Jrvenp (1972) reported that in shipyard welders eyestrain was the most important complaint after backsrrain. Keratoconjunctivitis (arc-eye) is an acute self-limited superficial irritation and inflammation, due to overexposure to UV-radiation. The unprotected cornea, conjunctiva and iris absorb UV-wave lengths of 175-400 nm; transmission to deeper s t r u c t u r e s is prevented. Wave lengths of 265 to 275 nm have been r e ported to have a peak absorbance in the cornea and conjunctiva; keratitis has been reported to be produced by the wavelength around 285 nm, conjunctivitis by 297 nm. Arc eye particularly seems to be due to prolonged overexposure and not so much to exposure to a single flash. Unlike the skin, the eye does not become less susceptible in repeated exposure. Exposure to UV-radiation may also cause diffuse scleritis (dry eyes, blepharitis, painful eye b u l b ) , which disappears within a few days of sickness absenteism. As mentioned in IV. 1 Ross (1978) reported in British welders the following incidence: }4 times per year 11%, 1-3 times 18%, less than once 27% and never 44%. Pabley et al (1981) quoted the following data from the US. Welding and cutting injuries comprised 0.5% of the total workmen's compensation cases. Of these 67% involved ocular injuries and 37% actinic keratitis. Of the injured welders 66% were working with arc equipment and 19% with gas flame equipment. Only about 50% were wearing goggles or a helmet with filter lenses at the time of injury. Lenticular effects, int. al. cataract, may be the result of absorption in the iris of infrared (IR) radiation. However, epidemiologic studies have not observed an increased incidence in welders. It is wellknown that with increasing age a considerably higher level of illumination is needed to maintain similar visual acuity. Therefore, older welders tend to choose lighter welding shades during work, exposing the eye to more radiation. On the other hand, presbyopia may increase the distance between the eye and the welding point, and, moreover, more experience may limit unnecessary exposure.lt has been reported (Kodarna et al, 1952, quoted by AWS)

524

that welders may suffer a reduction of accommodation after a continuous arc welding task, similar as in Vit .deficiency; the excretion of B . was reduced after welding (also in mice kept in the welding a r e a ) . However, reduced ac commodation was not confirmed by Ross (1978) (IV. 1 ) . Visible and nearinfrared radiation (400 to 1400 nm) is transmitted through cornea, lens and vitreous humor, and is absorbed by the retina: thermal damage to the retina increases in proportion to the duration of exposure. Only a few cases of actual injury have been reported in welders, who did not use eye protection; there was no permanent loss of vision. There also has been published evidence of decreased glare recovery or readaptation time (RAT) in welders; moreover, the RAT also decreases with age (Linde, 1980). Wearing contact lenses has been reported to carry risks (keratitis), when looking to the welding a r c . Van Norren (1984) recently reviewed the literature and the sources of information. He concluded that in practice no actual risk exists. Most effects reported will not occur when welders make adequate use of eye protection, not only protecting themselves but also those working in their im mediate environment. On the other hand it should be realized that more opthal mic effects may occur than the wellknown arceye. One should also pay more attention to older welders with presbyopia. IV.11 Diseases of the skin Ross (1978) observed in 926 B ritish heavy engineering and shipyard MMA welders (2059 y r s of age) 20 cases of acne, 21 of warts, 6 of callus on palms, and 81 of "other" nonspecified skin conditions, e . g . scars of small skin b u r n s or of deeper b u r n , and in 34% also "athletic feet" ( T . p e d i s ) . The AWS (1979, 1981) mentioned the potential risk of skin cancer, because UVradiation may cause skin burn ("rayburn") and ultimately (pre)malignant skin diseases. The wavelengths probably responsible for skin cancer (290315 nm) are present in the welding a r c . Hanke and Guttschmidt (1976, quoted by AWS) reported a case of probably welding related skin cancer with metastasis; RocquetDoffiny et al (1977, quoted by AWS) described a case in a welder with 30 yr exposure with chronic actinic dermatitis, erythema, atrophic plaques, teleangiectasis and pruritic keratotic lesions; moreover, eight tumours were removed over a period of four years from face and neck (5 basal cell and 3 squamous cell carcinomas). The AWS concluded solely on the dearth of reports that it does not appear that welders have an elevated risk of skin cancer when reasonable protective measures are taken. However, no well designed epidemio logic studies have been published sofar; there seems to be a need for such s t u

525

dies.

One should

not

forget

that

the risk

may become manifest

in

retired

welders. IV. 12 Locomotor system According to Van Wely (1970) the relationship between "bad posture" and probable sites of symptoms (int. al. pain) of the locomotor system can sche matically be summarized as follows: (x) (x) (x) (x) (x) (x) Standing, particularly pigeonfooted stance Sitting without lumbar support Sitting without support for back Sitting with elbows rested on too high working surface arms reaching upwards head bent back trunk bent forward, stooping position lifting heavy weight with back bent forward any cramped position maintenance of any joint in its extreme position feet, lumbar region lumbar region erector trunci muscles shoulders, upper arms shoulders, upper arms cervical region lumbar region, erector spinae muscles lumbar region, erector spinae muscles the muscles involved the joint involved

Van Wely observed a relationship with the working posture in about half the cases with symptoms. We marked with those working postures, which parti cularly may be relevant for welders in S+Cindustries; those marked with (x) may occur less frequently. In welders symptoms (pain, stiffness) particularly may be expected in the lumbar region, shoulders, knee and elbow. The fact that static work posture is typical for welders is of special relevance; stooping, stretching, hyperextension etc. considerably increase the s t r e s s on the loco motor system. In the study of 155 Finnish shipyard welders (III.9) Jrvenp (1972) r e ported that the strain induced by work posture was surveyed in several items of a questionnaire; most pains were reported in the knees, with back pain a close second. Over 500 answers from the total group stated that the welders were often or almost constantly in pain; on average, every welder experienced

526

three different kinds of pain at least (often in addition to frequent eye s t r a i n ) . A cross-sectional study of 149 trackwelders and 70 outdoor working controls of the Swedish State Railways (Sjgren et al, 1979) did not find any difference in symptoms of backpain. In Sweden Petersen et al (1976) and Kadefors et al (1976) carried out electromyographic studies of the shoulder muscles in 10 inexperienced and 10 experienced welders, 20 to 35 y r s of age. They observed a more rapid fatigue in the m. deltoidus in the inexperienced welders, particularly when welding above the head; the more pain in the deltoid area and more changes in the electromyogram when welding above the head than low or high vertical. Herberts et al (1976) examined 10 older welders, 50 to 65 y r s of age, who complained about shoulder pain; they found suggestive evidence of tendinitis of the m. s u p r a spinatus. Herberts et al (1981) also carried out a study on symptoms of shoulder pain and signs of supraspinatus tendinitis in 131 welders (20-65 y r s of age) and 56 male office clercks. Of the welders 35 had symptoms of pain, whereas this was reported by only one office worker. Of 23 with a positive questionnaire 16 had supraspinatus tendinitis, of those without (n=18) only one. There was a tendency towards a heavier load to the shoulder in the subjects with shoulder pain. Recently Sllstrm et al (1984) studied the prevalence of cervico- bracheal disorders in certain occupations with special reference to compression in the thoracic outlet. The thoracic outlet syndrom (TOS) particularly occurs in workers with heavy work load, repetitive straining and unnatural static positions; particularly the last two conditions are relevant for welders. The TOS is a symptomcomplex with pain, paresthesias, numbness and early fatigue in the upper limb, due to nerve compression. Cervico-brachial disorder (CD) is a collective term, including signs and symptoms in neck, shoulder and upper e x t r e mities; TOS is not included in CD. The authors interviewed and examined 192 workers, 92 (83 men, 9 women) with heavy industrial work, 62 office workers and 37 cash register operators. Of 83 male industrial workers 57% had no symptoms, 14% had symptoms of TOS and 30% had symptoms of CD, whereas of 27 male office workers no one had TOS and only one CD. The study indicated that particularly the awkward working posture and the amount of continuous tension (static contraction) seemed to be important. In the cohort study on medical wastage because of respiratory disease McMillan (1979) presented the percentage (disability rate) of welders and control groups in the Devonport Naval Dockyard, who had been placed in s e lected employment for medical reasons. The disability rate was 10.6% of 274 welders, 3.8% of 291 boilermakers, 3.7% of 408 shipwrights, 2.0% of 299 electric

527

fitters, 4.3% of 161 painters, 4.2% of 336 joiners. The disability rate in welders was 2 to 5 times that in the other groups; the risk of locomotor disability in welders was considerably increased; disability due to respiratory diseases was very much lower. McMillan concluded that the apparent high rate of musculoskletal disability deserved further investigation. It should be realized that symptoms and signs of the locomotor system may be due to either preexistent, maybe asymptomatic predisposition, aggravated by the job (conditional), or even predominantly caused by the job activities as such (causal). It may be concluded that a poor working posture may carry an important risk in terms of locomotor discomfort, sickness absenteism and permanent work incapacity of welders, particularly of those working in the S+C-industries. IV.13 Medical wastage The term "medical wastage" refers to temporary or permanent drop-out from the job because of longterm sickness absenteism (>28 d a y s ) , transfer for medical reasons, permanent disability and death. This can only be studied in longitudinal studies (II. 1). Only very few such studies are available. The limited Dutch cohort study (IV.3) provided suggestive evidence of excess permanent disability because of locomotor diseases, and not for respiratory or other diseases; sickness absenteism days also was highest in welders. Mc Millan (1979) studied medical wastage in 274 welders (1196 person-years) in the Devonport Naval Dockyard, albeit only over a period of 5 y r s ; the welders were compared with 1495 other (boilermakers, shipwrights, electrical fitters, painters, joiners) shipyard workers (5745 p e r s o n - y e a r s ) . The mean length of spells in welders was 23.3 days, higher than in all other groups; this suggests an excess of spells with absence >28 days. Discharge for medical reasons or deaths of welders >45 y r s of age was not excessive in welders: 39.5% of 43 welders, against 36-40% in most other groups (only electrical fitters much lower: 13.6%). Welders (all ages) had higher rates of selected employment because of cardiovascular and locomotor diseases (see IV. 12). Mc Millan and Molyneux (1981) later on published data of a 5 yr cohort study in three naval dockyards, in total 533 welders and 3519 other workers; the other workers were divided into two control groups: boilermakers and shipwrights (CI), who may also be intermittently exposed to welding fume, and other groups (CII), unlikely to be exposed to welding fumes; all subjects had worked in the 5 yr period for at least 6 consecutive months. For those aged 39 y r s and over the rate of medical discharge and death was for all systems: 6.1% for welders, 12.4% for C I and 9.3% for C II, at a mean age of respectively 57.6, 54.5 and 59.7 y r s ; there was

528 no increased risk in older welders, neither did discharge or death occur at younger age in comparison to CI and CII. There was no excess medical discharge + death rate for cardiovascular and locomotor diseases among the welders. Although the study was longitudinal, the period of observation was only 5 y r s ; the possibility of a healthy workers' effect exists. Very little attention has been paid in the literature to medical wastage in welders in comparison to other groups of workers in the same industries. Respiratory diseases do not appear to contribute to excess medical wastage in welders; however, locomotor and cardiovascular diseases may do so. IV.14 Voluntary drop-out and promotion Welders may change their job on their own request in the same industry or they may seek an other job elsewhere or become welders in another i n d u s t r y . In view of relatively low job satisfaction and social ranking of welders, dissatisfaction with the working conditions may be a reason. Welders may also experience discomfort and decide to seek an other job. Very few data on voluntary drop-out of welders are available in the occupational health literature. This drop-out may create a bias in cross-sectional studies. There is need to carry out cohort-studies to assess the impact of this bias.

Part V - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A Working Document has been submitted to the CEC and the Conference on "health effects and medical wastage due to combined exposure in welding", with emphasis upon non-respiratory health effects and medical wastage (transfer for medical reasons, temporary or permanent disability, d e a t h ) , most of these in relation to other adverse working conditions than exposure to welding fume and gases. The report was based upon a survey by the author's laboratory in 38 Dutch industries, assessment of exposure conditions in several welding situations by the Institute for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Engineering-TNO, and on a review of literature. The study was supported by grants from the Dutch Directorate-General of Labour. The conclusions of this report can be summarized as follows: 1. The large majority of studies, published in literature, refers to health hazards from exposure to welding fume and gases. 2. The studies particularly refer to effects on respiratory function, whereas there is a dearth of studies on the actual impact on medical wastage.

529

3. Most reviews on health hazards in welding neglect to a large extent health hazards due to those other working conditions. 4. The large majority of studies have a crosssectional design. This may lead to an underestimation of the true incidence of health effects, because various selection mechanisms cannot be taken into account, notably the selective impact of reemployment examination, voluntary dropout because of work dissatisfaction, sickness absenteism, selected employment for medical reasons, permanent incapacity to work. Therefore, there is an urgent need to carry out longitudinal (cohort) studies, which permit to assess the true incidence of health effects. 5. Studies on the incidence of lung cancer in welders usually disregard the impact df the socioeconomic cultural status on lungcancer mortality. The Standard Mortality Ratio (SMR) of 130140 in welders, as observed in various studies, may reflect the social gradient of the SMR. 6. There is reason to assume that, particularly since the second World War, the social ranking of welders and their selfexteem are decreasing. There is need to assess the impact of this development on voluntary dropout, sick ness absenteism and disability. 7. There is an urgent need to study the total impact of all adverse working conditions in welding on health and disease and on voluntary dropout in a cohortdesign with a long period of observation. 8. The increasing emphasis on study of interactions should not close the eyes to the total impact of maybe to a large extent noninteractive health hazards. 9. The working conditions of welders are generally more unfavourable in shipyards, boilerproduction plants and large construction plants (S+C group) than in other industries which produce large series of e . g . compres sors, office equipment or which have qualified production of small series. This particularly refers to the following conditions: variable instead of fixed working sites, higher exposure to fume and gases, difficulty to apply adequate ventilation, more heatload, combination of indoor and outdoor work, variability in welding t a s k s , more static work with unfavourable working postures. In both groups of plants exposure to noise usually is >85 dB(A). 10. There is a need to study particularly in the S+Cplants effects on renal function, the gastrointestinal system, loss of hearing acuity and e x t r a auditive effects, risk of skincancer, effects on reproduction, the immunolo gical system, adverse effects of heat load, cold and draught.

530

11. There is an urgent need to study the impact of the static physical work load, often in very confirmed environments, on the incidence of locomotor signs and symptoms. There is evidence that medical wastage because of locomotor disability is higher in welders than in several groups of other workers in the metal i n d u s t r y . Improvement of the ergonomics of welding already in the design phase is necessary. 12. Emphasis upon prevention of health effects due to exposure to welding fume only serves the protection of medical wastage to a limited extent. Improve ment of particularly the nonrespiratory health hazards will probably have a considerably more favourable impact on health and wellbeing of welders, particularly in the S+Cplants.

REFERENCES ACGIH, American conference governmental industrial hygienists. Threshold limits values for chemical substances and agents in the workroom environment with intended changes for 1984/1985. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1984 Adelstein, A.M. Lifestyle in occupational cancer. J.Toxicol. Environ. Health 6 (1980) 953962 AWS, American Welding Society. Effects of welding on health; Vol.1, Miami, 1979 AWS, American Welding Society. Effects of welding on health; Vol.11, Miami, 1981 Bertels, C . P . De plaats van de lasser in de maatschappij (The social role of the welder), In: De lastechniek na 1984, p.7584. Den Haag, NIL, 1984 Brown, S . S . and F. W.Sunderman ( e d s ) . Nickel toxicology. London e t c . , Acade mic P r e s s , 1980 Clarkson, Th.W., G.F.Nordberg and P.R.Sager ( e d s ) . Reproductive and de velopmental toxicology of metals. New York/London, Plenum P r e s s , 1983 Dijk, F . v a n . Effecten van lawaai op gezondheid en welzijn in de industrie (Effects of noise on health and wellbeing in i n d u s t r y ) . Thesis Univ. of Amsterdam, 1984 Dmont, . , T.Rive, J . A e r t s et J.Proteau. Evaluation du bilan thermique des oprateurs lors de la conception d'un atelier de soudage chaud. Arch. Mal. Prof. Med. Trav. Secur. Soc. 44 (1983) 516518 Ebeid, N . , M.T.Abdel Aziz, H.Abdel Hamid, K.Fahmy and S.Gobba. Suprarenal cortical function in asthmatic welders. J.Soc. Occup. Med. 31 (1981) 6164. Grozdenko, L.A. and A.S.Kuzina. Study of the health effects of the welding arc under present industrial conditions (in Russian). Gig. T r . Prof. Zabol. (1982) n o . 5 , 3134. (Cis Abstract 84241)

531

Haneke, E. Ejakulatbefunde bei Elektroschweissern. Dermatol. Monatsschr. 159 (1973) 1036-1040 Herberts, P. and R.Kadefors. A study of painful shoulder in welders. Acta Orthop. Scand. 47 (1976) 381-387 Herberts, P . , R.Kadefors, G.Andersson and I.Petersen. Shoulder pain in ind u s t r y : an epidemiological study on welders. Acta Orthop. Scand. 52 (1981) 299-306 Hermans, I. Lrmprobleme beim Schweissen; Ursachen, Folgen, Vermeidung. Schweissen und Schneiden 34 (1982) 107-108 ILO, International Labour Office. Safety and health in ship- building and ship repairing. Geneva, ILO, 1972. Occupational safety and health series 27 Jrvenp, .E. A picture of the workload and work environment of shipyard welders. In: ILO, 1972, 179-187 Jensen, J. Safety and health problems of arc welding. In: ILO, International Labour Office. Safety and health in shipbuilding and ship repairing. Geneva, ILO, 1972. Occupational and health series 27, 127-132 Kadefors, R. , I.Petersen, and P.Herberts. Muscular reaction to welding work: an electromyographic investigation. Ergonomics 19 (1976) 543-558 Kalliomki, P . - L . , E.Rahkonen, V.Vaaranen, K.Kalliomki and K.Aittomiemi. Lung-retained contaminants, urinary chromium and nickel among stainless steel welders. Int.Arch.Occup.Environ.Health 49 (1982) 67-75 Kuorinka, J. Ergonomics in the shipbuilding i n d u s t r y . In: ILO, 1972, 139-152 Lange, A, R.Smolik, W.Zatonski, D.Garncarek, O.Krojek and Z.Gilgier. Serum immunoglobin and other protein levels in arc welders. Int. Arch.Occup.Environ. Health 38 (1977) 189-196 Linde, C.J. The effect of welding fumes on ocular readaption time. Scand.J.Work Environ.Health 6 (1980) 135-145 Lindqvist, B. Kidney disease in welders. IRCS Med.Sci. 11 (1983) 99 Littorin, M., H. Welinder, B. Hultberg. Kidney function in stainless steel welders. Int.Arch.Occup.Environ.Health 53 (1984) 279-282 Magni, G., R.Rizzardo, D.De Loe, A.Salmi. Adverse environmental factors, peptic ulcer and chronic gastritis in the metal working i n d u s t r y . Med.Lav. 75 (1984) 215-220 McMillan, G.H.G. Studies of the health of welders in naval dockyards. Ann.Occup.Hyg. 21 (1979) 377-392 McMillan, G.H.G. and M.K.Molyneux. The health of welders in naval dockyards; the work situation (1981) 43-60 and sickness absence patterns. J. Soc. Occup. Med. 3_1

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McMillan, G.H.G. and R. J . P e t h y b r i d g e . The health of welders in naval dock y a r d s : proportional mortality study of welders and two control groups. J.Soc. Occup. Med. 33 (1983) 7584 Mensink, H.A.J. Cohort onderzoek lassers Stork Hengelo (Cohort study of welders Stork Hengelo). Report. Nijmegen, Kath. Univ., 1983. Report 11th course occupational health Moretn, J. Welding fume. Vol.3: a critical literature review. Cambridge, The welding institute, 1983 Moss, C.E. and W.E.Murrey. Optical radiation levels produced in gas welding, torch brazing and oxygen cutting. Welding J. 9 (1979) 3746 Mutti, . , A.Cavatorta, C.Pedrone, A. Borghi, C.Giaroli and I. Franchini. The role of chromium accumulation in the relationship between airborne and urinary chromium in welders. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 43 (1979b) 123133 Norren, D.van. Contactlenzen geen extra gevaar bij lassen (Contact lenses no extra risk in welding). T.Soc.Gezondheidszorg 62 (1984) 663684 Pabley, A . S . and A.H.Keeney. Welding process and ocular hazards and protec tion. Ophthalmol. 92 (1981) 7784 Pattee, . E . , L.B .Mijers, R.M.Evans and R.E.Monroe. Effects of arc radiation and heat on welders. Welding J. (1973) 297308 Petersen, I . , R.Kadefors and J.Persson. Neurophysiologic studies of welders in shipbuilding work. Environ. Res. 11 (1976) 226236 Polednak, A.P. Mortality among welders, including a group exposed to nickel oxides. Arch. Environ. Health 36 (1981) 235242 Ross, D . S . Welders' health nonrespiratory aspects. Metal construction 10 (1978) 204209 Sllstrm, J. and H.Schmidt. Cervicobrachial disorders in certain occupations, with special reference to compression in the thoracic outlet. Am.J.Ind.Med. (1984) 4552 Sjgren, B . , J . P e r s s o n , E.Randura and A.Swensson. Welding problems con nected with work environment; Part 9: a crosssectional study of track welders at the Swedish State Railways (in Swedish with English summary). Arbete och Hlsa 159 (1973) 10361040 Stern, R.M. Assessment of risk of lung cancer for welders. Arch. Environ. Health 38 (1983) 148155 Tola, S . , J.Kilpi, M.Virtamo and K.Haapa. Urinary chromium as an indicator of the exposure of welders to chromium. Scand. J.Work Environ Health 3 (1977) 192202

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Tola, S . , J.Kilpi and M.Virtamo. Urinary and plasmaconcentrations of nickel as indicators of exposure to nickel in an electroplating shop. J.Occup. Med. 2_1 (1979) 184188 Tossavainen, ., M.Nurminen, P.Mutanen and S.Tola. Application of mathema tical modelling for assessing the biological halftimes of chromium and nickel in field studies. B r. J . I n d . Med. 37 (1980) 285291 Veeger, H . E . J . B elasting van de r u g bij laswerk (The load to the back in wel d i n g ) . Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Vakgroep Functionele Anatomie, 1983. Rapport Vianen, W.J.van. Warm laswerk (Warm welding work). Amsterdam, 1983. HVK course 19791981 Wal, J . F . v a n der De belastende agentia en factoren bij het assen. Eindrapport. TNO. Delft 1983. Wansink, J . G . Geluidsbelasting van lassers op een scheepswerf (Noiseexposure of welders on a s h i p y a r d ) . Amsterdam, CORVU, 1984. Report Course Occu pation health 19821985 Welinder, H., M.Littorin, B .Gullberg and S.Skerfving. Elimination of chromium in urine after stainless steel welding. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 9 (1983) 397403 Wely, P.van. Design and disease. Appi. Ergon. II (1970) 262 WI, Welding fume: sources, characteristics, control; 2 vols. Cambridge, The Welding Institute, 1981 WI, Health and Safety in welding and allied processes. Ed. N.C.B alchin, The welding Institute, Cambridge, 1983 World Health Organization. Ultraviolet radiation. Geneva, WHO, 1979. Environ. Health Criteria 14 Zielhuis, R . L . , A.Stijkel, M.M.Verberk and M.van de PoelB ot. Health risks to female workers in occupational exposure to chemical agents. B erlin, e t c . , Springer Verlag, 1984

535
ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT, AND REDUCTION OF RISK FOR WELDERS R.M. STERN The Danish Welding Institute, Park Alle 345, DK-2605 Brndby, Denmark ABSTRACT Although health the on and gases accidents contribute significantly to the recorded time lost for reasons among welders, and complaints and anectodatal stories concerning and perceived risk of the working place abound, the major focus hazards has been with respect to the toxicity of fumes and health A wide in the

discomfort welding which flames.

are unavoidably produced by almost all technologies involving arcs range of toxic substances are present at potentially high vicinity of the arc, but the exposure of individual excess pulmonary fibrosis,

concentrations welders been suggested or and

depends as greatly on personal skills as on the technology used. It has that welders might lung Attempts reports some most or cohort suffer from upper obstructive possibly processes. in case Although by disease, to and lower respiratory tract suspected causality for

restrictive infection, with effects related of

cancer, associated with either welding in general, or demonstrate cross-sectional studies have largely been studies are suggestive of occupationally

specific found health and

unsuccessful. monitoring, excess welders. difficult difficult specific well-being place can the of agree working well-being lung to

effects,

are compromised by the absence of good hygienic Evidence be is in however beginning to emerge that an with high fume exposures among the work place, it has been extremely efforts are costly and their that a sense of

the possible effect of excess tobacco use, and by dilution risk known may associated

not-at-risk Inspite

individuals. of

cancer

hazards since

develop quantitative risk assessments for welders. This creates a problem, are remedial If one benefits unknown. considers

management health on that

the job contributes to good health, then a wide range of working contribute to possible sources of health hazard. If one reduction and hence of fume levels and attention to the organization of health, then there are strong arguments for such

characteristics place

reduce both discomfort and fear, and lead to improved sense

remedial action even in the absence of quantitative risk data. INTRODUCTION Our society of is becoming and in increasingly in the both of aware of and well informed about the the general (outdoor) and working of known and hidden technopresence (indooor) hazardous risks chemicals general.

environments,

prevalence

logy-associated

The

need for the management of such risks

536
arises more which from urgent alcohol A wide sector. as acute A soon clear as they are perceived: the greater the awareness to risk, the is apparently made, however, between those risks as with regard to the siting of industrial

becomes the need for risk management in both the public and private distinction decisions stations and driving such those

are imposed by society (i.e. associated with the work place, or resulting political power (especially risks and seat nuclear) and the like), which require belt use, etc.) and which should be

facilities,

management,

which are self-imposed (e.g. tobacco and

consumption, range of

self-managed. of characteristics of the working place contribute to possible hazards, resulting in some average risk-profile for a particular trade or job category. For welders, as for most trades, the most common recorded cause of lost time is accidents, of which and the has, until two decades ago, been the chief concern of safety first (1), health offices. Since accident statistics show rates risk management policy has been sources other the health

characteristic manual control the force

occupational during work The is toxic e.g. The recent imagined of "good

year of employment to be 3-4 times those for the rest of the traditional

education-oriented. shift of emphasis away from prevention of accident related health effects due of to the recent recognition that the consequences of exposure to at the workplace, may only become evident after a The effects of chronic low level exposure to employment. chemicals, especially mainly

lifetime

varied

carcinogens being expressed as a clinically observable tumour only after a definition proposal risk and health" of that detracts "risk the to health" is also changing, most notably with the anxiety which accompanies the perception of real or

latency period of 10-30 years after first exposure.

from the feeling of well-being associated with a state agencies, can be expected to strongly affect local

(2). The degree to which this concept is accepted by unions, regulatory

management, The undue able terms. Operational (pragmatic) must lie be below to

attitudes towards risk management in the future. ultimate risk. goal This many of can risk management is the maintenance of average risk at the of insuring be risk that specific individuals do not suffer accomplished by the development of assessment which at the same time must be of incommensurable risk in comparable only acceptable levels, and

(semi)guantitative measure

methods

different

types

approaches d e minimis _

to risk management fall between two extremes (3). The philosophy is based on the proposition that all risks

managed. The only exceptions are those risks which are demonstrated to that absolute level of risk which is defined (specifically for this

537

purpose) risk of the after is

as being negligible. The "reactionary" approach requires that before a to be managed, it must be demonstrated to be significant, and in need Both of approaches those although risks the share a common need for risk quantification having risks identified the hazard, and for establishing priorities for selected. Neither preclude the elimination of vigilance with which these are pursued varies

regulation. first management

unnecessary greatly.

RISK PERCEPTION AND ASSESSMENT IN WELDING The with gases, every than Some with The kg of of 7-10 welding the industry is nominally that segment which is directly occupied production and distribution of welding machines and consumables (i.e. of industry: approximately 0.2-2% of the work force welds more in a wide variety of job

w.ire, and electrodes), while welding as a trade is carried out in almost branch occasionally ten major (A), involving journeymen

categories, several best

only some of which are specifically identified as welders by title. technologies are available for use on five classes of material proprietary of welding consumables resulting in 5-10.000 different activity is that of monitoring the use of hundred measure 1500

exposures. consumables: extensive certain today, having kg of wire per man year for inert gas welding (MIG) and 1000 in the industry in the period 1945-1975 with a doubling time significant The a exposures the number increase in use of MIG over MMA processes in experienced introduction in of 1945 are still experienced new technologies and new

electrodes per man year for manual arc welding (MMA). Trade figures show growth years, and countries. perhaps taken are by place aware

slightly larger work force: most of the growth, however, through of a

applications. Welders every since One limited the of hazards associated with welding: almost once - although few more than once, other welder experiences arc-eye

experience is so uncomfortable and the remedy is always at hand (use in three has experienced heavy metal fume fever associated with a of not-well pay an specified exposures. Most find that job-shops and attention to organization of the work and little

of goggles and care with respect to bystander exposure). welder number

especially workplace, unnecessary Although available. pationally

shipyards giving high

impression of danger due to risk of common accidents and

exposures (5) although some industry leaders have shown great compromised by poor reporting, accident statistics are in Sweden in 1979, of the reported 4.136 occu-

enlightenment on this point (6). anecdotally For 40.000 related

i

welders

lost time incidents, only 524 (12%) were not accident rela-

538

ted Thus The and term

and if

of these 111 (2.6% of the total) could be related to welding fume (7). this data is typical, of the order of 10% of the workforce annually

suffers an occupationally related lost time health incident. major concern, however, rests with the unquantified problem of assessment management may of delayed health risks due to chronic exposures, which by these factor long term effects of sets: 1) workshop only appear after the average worker has left his long or short The infrastructure consists which of surrounding three major exposure decisions

definition welding practices technology given given work

employment. fume and

determine

the exposures for a given job (e.g.

and parameters used) 2) those factors which determine exposure for a position consists, by his his (e.g. for work organization, bystander exposure, etc.) for a 3) individual susceptibility. A lifetime of individual Thus welder, of a sequence of exposures situation, each job own

employment

employment determined which given Risk that

dynamics, and changes in lifestyle (e.g. smoking) the degree of risk which characterizes a

effect welder

sensitivity.

arises from the (multiplicative) interaction of the relative risk (and risk Fig. reduction) There Here job 1. strategies all are based on the assumption most probably, and however, exist high risk high risk individuals as shown

level contributed by each of these three effects to his risk profile. management risk is high in homogeneous.

technologies, schematically exposures question only some (D)

situations, are shown

the interaction between high risk

(E), high placed The

risk individuals (Q), and the incidence of the disease in on the varied non-occupational risk background. Note that hindrance delayed to the development effects, and and implementation of in establishing the

individuals who suffer a particular disease belong to both high risk major term strategies on the part of industry is the difficulty in establishing for long health

populations. management causality

relative risk levels associated with each one of the factor sets. RISK AND RELATIVE RISKS FROM DIFFERENT FACTOR SETS In sets Fig. several be that if order to appreciate the different ways in which each of the three factor contributed to a risk profile, it is instructive to examine the results of 2 shows the idealized cumulative distributions of average exposures for technologies is the are of over a from time (A). If risk is related to exposure (as it should dose-response relationship), then one can recognize technologies shown provides by a a range of exposures: these individual is similar, a number of work places, but it can be assumed that the experienced single for one individual being equivalent to integration over

several recent comparative studies. common there each of

measurements distribution integration

exposures

539

Fig. 1. Schematic description of the relationship between high risk individuals (Q), high risk exposures (E) and disease prevalence (D), superimposed on the time varying background of non-occupational exposures. If the high risk individuals being studied are welders, at the time of study they have each had a different period of time at risk. This makes determination of causality difficult. The object of risk management is to remove the exposures, and thereby to remove welders from the group affected by the disease in question. The object of epidemiology is to establish causality among the high risk group.

SHIPYARO MMA (oprn) SHIPYARD MMA (confined) A l / MIG

FUME CONCENTRATION

Img/mM

Fig. 2. Schematic cumulative distribution of welders exposures as a function of application and situation, The shop background distributions (BG) are also shown for several cases. After Ulfvarsson et. al and Beck-Hansen: data is valid only between 10%-90% levels, at best but indicates a wide spread in average values between applications and technologies, and for individual technologies as well. The range of exposures for a single individual in a given technology is unknown but assumed to be similir.

540

many that the with fume

individuals an a typical or

at

any may level

one time. As far as risk is concerned it can be seen on the average receive an exposure considerably above for inert dust of 5 mg/m3, either because he works which at produces high fume concentrations on average fume levels for that

individual control technology

(i.e. MIG/Al) but

average,

he is one of the smaller fraction of individuals working with less technologies, known above

producing is the

technology. Little determine Work and material levels. There resulting priori opacities, definition), British 1.7% years: exposure this variation considered show in of for is some evidence that workshop practice may vary from installation to locally or for a internationally, performing by such a degree that the the same job may be a_ exposures by nominally installation, wither presently extent (i.e. welding as to the relative contribution of factors which of exposure for a given user of a particular technology. ventilation), application (type of work piece and joint, choice of variables (current, voltage) and consumables, all influence the measured average exposure technique

situation individual

dimensions),

average if

incomparable. It has been pointed out that the prevalence of small round measured welders standardized East technique (i.e. following the ILO may provide a measure of welders' average exposure (A). Studies of (8) and German shipyard welders (9) could be to be of comparable populations. In the former study of 661 welders, "siderosis" (ILO classification 0/1) after the median exposure of 17 the latter study of 221 welders, 45% show "siderosis" after a median 14 years. Assuming that the diagnostic procedures are comparable, in job prevalence categories, supports with the set. the The argument of wide local of high risk of the comparability possibility difference similar from the

shipyard

extreme

contribution Since range same process welding existence approach use sum of of and

job-situation

factor

diagnostic procedures used is, however, undemonstrated. welding varies dependent fume, of simple the are and a fumes from different processes and applications contain a wide appropriately on average with composition. One way of generalizing this chemistries, with the acceptance of the of chemistries, it must be assumed that risk per unit exposure is not the chemistry is to assign a control level to each major type of range of chemical compositions within each such process. This

based

results

in a series of process dependent control levels, based on the of the for 2.8 permitted unity. MMA/MS concentration level for each of the Danish standards based on this

addition, formula to arrive at a fume concentration wherein the not exceed Current

fractions does 3.4

constituents reasoning for MIG/MS

mg/m3

on primed construction steel, 3.1 mg/m3

MAG/SS,

mg/m3 for flame cutting on mild steel, 2.7 mg/m3

541

for Fig.

TIG/SS 1 to

and shift

1.6

mg/m

for MMS/SS. These levels can be used together with

the

relative position of each of the process characteristic

distribution The fumes The health for data from

curves of

so that they are normalized to the relative control limits

rather than to the absolute levels. Fig. 2 can be combined with the average chemical composition of processes certain to estimate what fraction of welders exceed a welding by fumes a pose of a high risk for adverse jjl vitro toxicity of different that be

given control limit, as shown in Table I. possibility effects can fumes, system, has been investigated study

individual (RPM) The are risk base This to the NO2 rate the excess test of

provided is used

the in vitro bioassays can be shown to be relevant routinely to respond cases to determine the relative fibrogenic only to the particulate described in the

human health risk assessment. One such assay, the rat peritoneal macrophage industrial dusts, as it is particularly sensitive to alpha-quarts. shown of positively of lung fraction number might in it of stainless steel (S.S.) welding fumes (10). Since there reported fibrosis be imagined that if S.S. welding fumes were a significant fibrosis, then the cases observed, regardless of the show an excess of welders with exposure to S.S. fumes. to the tentative conclusion that if welders suffer an

activity assay a

(insoluble) large factor is S.S. literature

welders' might leading

population, however fumes) fibrosis is

not the case (only 2 out of 100 fibrotic welders were exposed risk because of their occupational exposures, it is not due to

particulate fraction of their exposures. Welders are exposed universally to which an experimental fibrogen. The major problem is that the absolute making an it impossible to draw any conclusion at all about risk among welders based on the published case of lung fibrosis is known neither among welding populations, nor among the population, of possibility excess

general

histories. LUNG CANCER RISK Studies processes be to grouped soluble of are welding fumes jn ^ vitro show that fumes from stainless steel genotoxic in a number of mutagenicity bioassays. The studies can two classes of test systems: those which are sensitive only

around

fractions and those which, because they utilize organisms which are response of these test systems is that they react positively to

capable of phagocytosis, can be used to test the particulate fraction as well. The the Ni that fumes general presence varies of Cr(VI) in those welding fumes with high Cr(VI) content, and to by several orders of magnitude in the same bioassay, indicating

in those fumes with high Ni concentrations. The potency of different welding there are different uptake rates for both the dissolved and, where tested,

542

TABLE I Estimated fraction of welders at administrativ/e risk defined as those exceeding the TLVs listed for v/arious substances as a function of process.

PROCESS: MILD STEEL MMA a = 75?; d = io?; e = IOS (?)

MATERIAL: STAINLESS STEEL a b c d e = 45?; = 75? = 98? = 5?; = 20?;

a c e f

ALUMINIUM

MIG

d = 60?; f = 2?; b c d e f = 30?; = 75?; = 5?; = 20?; = 20?;

= -

90?; 25?; 40?; 40?;

TIG

f = 2?;

a c e f

_ ?; = s?; - 5?; - ?;

SUBSTANCE: a Total Fume b = Ni Cr(VI) d = Mn e = NO,

TLV (uq/m 3 ): 5000 15 10 800 0.6 ppm 0.1 ppm

SOURCE: NIOSH accepted NIOSH proposed (1980) (carcinogenic) NIOSH probable (1980) (carcinogenic) NIOSH in effect 1980 NIOSH proposed (1981) Accepted

The fractional populations shown to exceed TLVs in TABLE I can only be estimated, and are therefore uncertain to about 20?; (with an absolute uncertainty of no less than 5?; for the small values).

543

the which been these

insoluble show

fractions.

A few in vivo studies have been carried out, some of

positive in is active is

results, although no lifetime inhalation studies have yet detail. The only general conclusion which can be made from from the welding of stainless steel contain

published studied

that Ni

fumes and

biologically health risk, risk if

Cr, although the interpretation in terms of human The results do indicate however that a lung cancer fumes, might be limited to fumes from stainless

difficult. in

present

welding

steel welding. Based on this information, one can examine the results of the large number of studies of made on cohorts of welders. The literature contains welders, of which 25 deal with

epidemiological some 28 studies

cancer

mortality Appendix

among

respiratory varies studies amount,

tract 0.7

cancer

(see

I). The

range of risk ratios found

between indicate while

and 7: the median risk ratio is approximately I.A. Several

values which differ from unity by a statistically significant most studies give values which are not statistically

significantly different from unity (11) (or from a 40% excess). One way in are which these to treat to such a large number of studies is to ask the

question same is By the root

studies

be considered independent measurements of the

phenomenon"

- i.e. the effect of welding exposure on cancer risk. If this

a true statement, its validity can be verified by a simple statistical test. definition, difference of the the standard deviations (the variance defined as the ratio of

between the observed and expected number of cases to the square number expected ((0-/\)) of these studies should be normally

distributed. contributes reference standard of

The as

results many data

of such a test are shown in Fig. 3. Here, each study points It can as there are independent exposure groups or be seen that the cumulative distribution of

cohorts deviations data

used.

follows

roughly a normal distribution, with the exception lie considerably outside the range of probable

several

points

which

values. The median value 1.4 of (i.e. the 40% a standard deviation corresponds to a risk ratio of excess respiratory cancer risk). The probability

approximately that a study by

produces chance.

result with a given standard deviation is just that

determined can they be

Thus all studies with the exception of the few outliers

considered to belong to the same group of independent measurements, and

reflect the apparent situation that welders in general have an excess lung

cancer risk of the order of 40%. The studies study when outlier shows studies that do not belong all belong to this group. Examination of the

they

to two classes: study "1" is a large British

of death certificates of some 128.000 welders, not corrected for smoking: corrected for smoking the data point "7" results, implying that the

544

(/. )

U0I3DJJ

dAjiDinuun3

Fig. 3. Cumulative distribution of standard deviations (defined from the number of observed (0) and expected (E) cases for a given study as (0-E)/yT), for those studies of lung cancer incidence among welders with more than 2 cases observed. Those studies internally corrected for tobacco use and indicated by filled symbols. The entire bibliography is listed in Appendix I: data points 1,7 from No. 14, 2,4 from No 1, 5 from No. 2, 6 from No. 3 and 3 from No. 15, therein. With the exception of a few outliers possibly associated with stainless steel welding, all of the studies are compatable with an average excess risk of 40% for lung cancer - for welders in general.

545

unlikely Data terms of the study which, mostly in a the lung The suffer related indicating of death of

result

of

data

point

"1" is due to the lack of smoking correction.

points "2" and "4" are from a study restricted to stainless steel welders, that perhaps they do not belong to the general welding population in lung cancer risk. Data point "5" is a large national study in Sweden of some 25.000 welders. It is not smoking corrected and is steel the Swedish national population. Data point "6" is a Data point "3" is a case control study, contain welders. group certificates stainless

reference if

stainless steel welders are at excessively high risk, might

stainless steel welders. The risk ratios from data points 2, 4 and 6 are range 3:1 to 6:1 indicating that perhaps stainless steel welders suffer cancer four an risk which is several times by that this of the general welding

population. testable average 3) e.g. to the to some hypothesis 2) generated analysis are: 1) welders excess risk of about 40% due to smoking or other nonwelding welders suffer a 40% excess risk due to general welding group steel of welders associated with certain high risk fumes, suffers a high excess risk which consmall

exposures,

exposures, exposures, tributes of all

stainless welding 40%

risk observed in the general welding population (i.e. the 10% stainless steel suffer a four fold excess risk, which excess risk in the entire population), 4) some small group

welders

contributes

of welders suffers a high excess risk due to nonwelding related exposures. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES The of underlying and philosophy high of risk in risk management is that there are high risk exposures high risk individuals. Since there is at present no a priori way individuals, management strategies must be directed techniques for epidemiological studies in the

determining absence

towards reduction of high risk exposures. The past to and e.g. standardized makes it impossible to utilize cohort studies, regardless of their nature, determine where known in the the ozone the the most probable sources of high risk exposure except in certain there is good agreement between the observation of health effects presence MIG of high concentrations of specific toxic substances, of stainless steel, and Cr(VI) in the fumes from associated with metal inert gas welding of aluminium, and ozone and welding

cases,

Cr(VI) Since in the

manual arc welding of stainless steel. effects of high exposure to a mixture of aluminium oxide and ozone and to ozone and Cr(VI) and Ni in MIG/SS welding cannot be risk first, management must be directed towards reduction of and then lower exposures, with these and other compared, exposures MIG/Al highest welding,

realistically technologies.

546

The should appears make

question remains as to whether or not management of potential carcinogens be to separated be from the management of toxic substances in general. This a matter of local priority: the HSE in the UK has chosen not to at the workplace. At present, Cr(VI) seems to deserve

a formal separation, while OSHA in the US apparently emphasizes control of carcinogens not because it is a carcinogen but because of the weight of evidence the concept to that deal perceived with risk is to be considered a

suspected priority, Having health areas theme consistent of

that it is a source of health risk in general. introduced risk, it is necessary risk and sources of perceived risk in a

manner. The most realistic management approach is to determine which perceived in of are most amenable to management techniques. A common description work of their perception of risk deals with and their negative response to sensitized to what they become scheduling, Welders workers'

found

job-site violations consider of management own lack The in 4

organization,

good-shop-practice.

is a disregard for their comfort and safety, usually occurring because approach of in this and case is to ensure the establishment of rules for rules, every individual welder will have his hence improper practice, leading to an extreme

nearing deadlines, or sloppy attitudes of workplace management. The rational Without proper in the such

good-shop-practice. definition of uniformity

degree of subjective risk experienced by the same

welding cohort. welding industry is extremely flexible from the point of view of adapting to new applications. It should in principle, be equally flexible of variation for of of current and voltage MMA/MS on the ratio of electrodes. The technologies to respond to the need for minimizing exposures. Fig. effect to fume produced, several common technologies adapting shows the

productivity systematic reduction It health must of be

introduction unnecessary

optimalized exposures.

parameters

should lead at least to a

Similarly shifting from short arc MIG/SS

spray arc reduces the Cr(VI) exposure by a factor of 10 (10). pointed out that the strong influence of tobacco use on welders' that nonsmoking, (or at least not-smoking on the job) belong to on the part of welders. Certainly this issue can be the basis implies

good-job-practice

for establishing a dialog between partners. RISK ESTIMATES It in is necessary if for in an to try Table (after to II present the results of some preliminary risk assessments, such shortening available only to demonstrate the nature of the difficulties encountered shows some preliminary estimates of lifetime 15) based on the extremely limited data welders age

exercise.

the literature. Since the sources of data are different, there is

547

POWER (KW) Fig. 4. Productivity/Ventilation profiles as a function of power, for a series of MMA electrodes. Ventilation requirement used is that needed to produce a fume of 5.0 mg/m^ in the standard facility. Starting from the point of lowest power, the upper boundary of the profile is generated by first considering the effect of raising the current at constant voltage (section a) then raising the voltage at (maximum) constant current (segment b ) . The lower boundary is produced by first raising the voltage at constant current (segment c) and then by raising the current at constant (maximum) voltage (segment d ) .

548

TABLE II ESTIMATED AVERAGE LIFETIME-SHORTENING FOR WELDERS (after age 15) CAUSE All Causes Excess Smoking Accidents Compared To Skilled Non Melding Workers 439 days 440 days 200 daysc'd Compared To Several Low Risk Groups 990-1400 days 440- 880 days 300- 320 daysc

Lung Cancer All welders 75 days 125 days SS welders 750 days 800 days a) Assuming an excess risk of 30? b) Assuming an excess risk of 300? c) A wide range in fatal accidents makes this number dependent on the control group chosen: equal risk for fatal and nonfatal accidents is used here. d) Compared to national average for all occupations e) Smoking corrected.

TABLE III ESTIMATED AVERAGE WELDERS' WORKING DAYS LOST PER WORKING LIFETIME (20-65 years) CAUSE Accidents All Diseases Respiratory Illness Lower Respiratory Tract Infection Nonsmoking Welders Smoking Welders Lung Cancer All Welders SS Welders Compared To Skilled Non Welding Workers 140 180 daysc Compared To Several Low Risk Groups 240 - 250 days 300 - 700 days 250 days

-50 -

50 days

All

-32 -- 180 days 4 50 days 16 -- 150 days

4 days 40 days

a) Assuming an excess ris of 30? b) Assuming an excess risk of 300?i c) A wide range in fatal accidents makes this number dependent on the control group chosen: egual risk for fatal and nonfatal accidents is used here d) Compared to national average for all occupations e) Smoking corrected

549

some such of

lack an

of

consistency such it who as is

for

the

result

of

all

causes of death, and for

individual welders first sources free of

causes estimate, to

excess necessary

smoking, and lung cancer, In order to make to choose a reference group against whom

are

be compared. There are two general choices available - cohorts do not weld, and cohorts of low risk occupations. The as lifestyle. The second class of cohorts is presumably nonwelding Note risk that exposures which are common to industrial the smoking data is from the UK while the

skilled of

workers risk of in

choice implies a certain correction for social class and non-occupational such the many

occupations A lost of of the both (11). It of second the 20-65

general. to

accident data is from the US. approach assessment can be made in terms of working days per lifetime. Table III shows some preliminary estimates made on the basis limited data in the literature, for a working lifetime between the ages years. is Here illness based or on a accident data is from the US, as in all diseases, while data is from the UK studies. The lung cancer data for an assumption of a 30% excess attributable risk for 300% attributable risk for stainless steel welders

respiratory tables in

welders

general

is not surprising that working days lost are a much less sensitive measure the health data effects is of welding than is lifetime shortening. The lifetime speculative, and based on little data. however extremely

shortening The to more hand.

There is no data on lifetime shortening due to respiratory illness. relative impact of accidents is extremely dependent on the ratio of fatal incidents. The data shown in these two tables is intended to be no suggestive is of many who lost of what might be achieved if reliable information was at possibility accidents of or estimating illness the degree to which time affects these estimates. little than nonfatal There

underreporting Unfortunately or individuals emphasis of which

nations do not identify occupational categories of welders, perform welding, making collection and comparison of risk

assessment studies difficult. The effects to not which In on respiratory tract cancer as a source of risk is based on the data for this disease: it may prove to be one of the few health is quantifiable. This implies that it may be extremely difficult existence

compare the magnitudes of preventable health risks if other risk sources are quantifiable. The data suggests however that smoking and accidents are most to is terms be not the major sources of working days lost for welders: a situation unique to welding but probably true of industrial occupations in

likely general.

of lifetime shortening (or perhaps "the quality of life"), the most point is to identify high risk exposures, of which, at present,

important

TYPICAL EXPOSURES (8 HOUR) ug/m Cr(VI) (WATER SOLUBLE/ INSOLUBLE) .25/.25 .5/.5

* OF WELDING POPULA TION 36 5 24 5

PROCESS MMA/MS UNPRIMED MMA/MS SHOP PRIMED SURFACES MMA/SS MIG/SS Al/MIG
1

TOTAL FUME 5,000 10,000 4)

Fe

34

TOTAL BENZO(A) ORGANIC PYRENE 5' (GASEOUS) .06

7

TOTAL Cr .5 1.0

TOTAL Ni

As 2.5 5

CUT TING ASBESTOS OIL

3 +

NO + +

2,000 4,000

15 3002)4)

50 125

+ 7

3 +

10 5 2 il 3 2

5,000 2,500 10,000

500 1 ,250 800

200 250 8

140/10 20/5 4/4

.25

+ +

+ + +

1) MIG/MS values are expected to be similar to corresponding MMA /MS exposure but depend to such a great extent on consumeables etc. that MIG/MS welders cannot be assumed to form a homogeneous exposure group. 2) Assuming a formation rate of 3 2 % of that of total fume. 3) Shipbuilding and structural steel trades. 4) Assuming a zinc based primer. 5) Also present in tobacco smoke.

551

smoking welders. table should of

and

stainless

steel

welding

appear

to be potentially important for

A survey of process dependent exposures to carcinogens is presented in

IV. With the exception of Ni and Cr(VI), most are bystander exposures. It be noted that animal experiments (12) have demonstrated that co-exposure particulates polycyclic effect industrial suffers an (ferric oxide) enhances and promotes the action of aromatic hydrocarbons. Thus there might be a

respirable

carcinogenic synergistic found in

between welding fumes in general and the organic background environments. excess It is suggested that the general welding 40

population

lung cancer risk of 4-6 fold but only after

years latency (13). It may therefore prove extremely difficult to collect adequate cohorts to demonstrate this effect in general: if true, however, it would

indicate a.substantial public health problem.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The unified that manual with reduction approach of to risk in the welding industry requires the development of a risk management. Although it is difficuTt to demonstrate

welders on the average suffer excess risk when compared to similar skilled occupations, certain welding there is some evidence of possible high risk associated

operations: currently available information is extremely

limited. It other is extremely difficult to rank various types of potential risk. On the

hand

it is possible to try to identify certain situations, exposures, or

combinations of circumstances which lead to excess occupational health risk. A complete survey of local of picture each of the risk infrastructure can only obtained by a Steps can immediately be taken for the

proper

enterprise.

elimination respect to

unnecessary health

risk, especially from accidents. The problems with effects, especially cancer, are less tractable. In

delayed much

particular small

effort risks

must be placed in the strategies for the management of of delayed health effects and large variations in

excess

interindividual risk susceptibilities.

REFERENCES 1. Roustang G, Arliaud (1977) Etude sur les accidents du travail dans la region provence-alpes-cote d'azur CNRS Aix en Provence 2. Zielhuis RL, Notten WRF (1979) Int Arch Occup Env Health 42:269-281 3. Ricci PF, Molton LS (1981) Science 214:1096-1100 4. Stern RM (1981) Env Health Perspect 41:235-253 5. Lyngenbo 0, Groth M (1983) Svejsernes arbejdsmilj og helbred Arbejdsmiljfondet Copenhagen

552

6. Fritschi E (1979) Schweiss technik/Soudure 6:144149 7. Lagerof E (1981) Arbetarskyddstyrelen A DP/ISA Solna, 18. March 8. Attfiels MD, Ross DS (1979) Br J Ind Med 35:113122 9. Mehl J (1976) Mater Szczecin Tow Nauk 19:113124 10. Stern RM, Pigott GH, Abraham JL (1983) J Appi Tox 3:1830 11. Stern RM (1983) Arch Env Health 38:148155 12. Safiotti VR, Montesano AR, Sellakumar Ar, Kaufman DG (1972, 1973) J Nat Cancer Inst 44:10781085, 50:507512 13. Beaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1981) J Occup Med 23:839844

APPENDIX I: Studies which permit the assessment of respirationy cancer amount welders. 1. Siemiatycki J, Grin M (1983) Nickel in the Human Environment. IARC, Lyon, March 811, in press 2. Sjogren B, Hogstedt C, Malker H (1982) J Occup Med 24:187475 3. Sjgren B (1980) Scand J Work Environ Health 6:197200 4. Blot WJ, Harrington JM, Toledo A, Hover R, Health CW, Fraumetti JF (Jr 1978) Engl J Med 229:62024 5. Decoufle F, Stanislawczyk K, Houten L, Bross IDJ, Viadana E (1978) Retrospective Survey of Cancer in Relation to Occupation No. (NI0SH) pp 77178 6. Blot WJ, Morris LE, Stroube R, Tagnon I, Fraumenti JF (Jr 1980) J Natl Cancer Inst 65:57175 7. Peterson GR, Milham S (Jr 1980) Occupational Mortality in the State of California 19791981 (NI0SH) pp 80104 8. Ott MG, B B, Langner RR (1976) J Occup Med 18:17177 9. Dunn HW, Weir JM (1968) Arch Environ Health 17:7176 10. Gottlieb MS (1980) Lung cancer and the petroleum industry in Louisiana J Occup Med 22:38488 11. Putoni R, Vercelli M, Merlo F, Valerio F, Santi L (1979) Ann NY Acad Sci 330:35377 12. Polednak AP (1981) Arch Environ Health 36:23542 13. Redmond CK, Wieand HS, Rockette HE (1979) Long term mortality experience of steelworkers. Update for NI0SH contract No. HSM997132 14. Office of Populations Censuses and Surveys (1978) Occupational Mortality 19701972 England and Wales. London:HSM0 15. Breslow L, Hoaglin L, Rasmussen G, Abrams HK (1954) J Public Health 44:17181 16. Menck HR, Henderson BE (1976) J Occup Med 18:797801 17. Milham S (Jr 1976) Ann NY Acad Sci 172:24349 18. Beaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1981) J Occup Med 23:83944 19. Beaumont JJ, Weiss NS (1980) Am J Epidemiol 112:77586 20. Hemberg S, Westerholm , SchultzLarsen et. al (1983) Scand J Work Env H 9:315326 21. Englund A. Eckman G, Zabriolski L (1982) Ann NY Acad Sci pp 188196 22. Walker H, Weiner J (1984) Arbete & Hlse 9:184 23. FrentzelBeyme R, Becker M, Claude J (1982) Erkrank Atm Organ 158:3225 24. Gallager RP, Threfall WJ (1983) Can Med Assoc J 129:11911194 25. Putoni R, Vercelli M, Ceppi M et. al (1984) Proc "Risk assess ment of occupational exposures in the harbour environment" Genoa 35 Oct pp 4354

553

TECHNICAL A ND INDUSTRIA L HYGIENE PREVENTIVE MEA SURES IN WELDING GUSTAV KHNEN Berufsgenossenschaftliches Institut fr Arbeitssicherheit Postfach 2043, 5205 Sankt Augustin 2 (FRG) INTRODUCTION This contribution is merely intended to touch upon those measures designed to protect the welder from inhaling the gases and fumes produced by welding and which are sufficient to prevent any hazard to health. Also with respect to the welding processes unter review, discussion must be limited to the process chief ly used in practice: arc welding. If it is suspected or known that concentrations are above the action level, then measuring of concentrations must be continued in order to provide sound in formation as to the actual level of exposure. If it is established that concen trations exceed the limit values for industrial hygiene (TLV, TWA, STEL, MAK, TRK) then measures to reduce the levels of concentration must be employed until compliance with these limit values is assured on an permanent basis. Application of the same measures is required if the parameters recorded during the medical examinations were seen to exceed the biological tolerance values. The following possibilities are available to reduce the concentrations of wel ding fumes primary measures: welding technique secondary measures: ventilation. In addition, personal breathing equipment can also be regarded as protection from inhaling impermissibly high welding fume concentration levels. Owing to the varying levels of pollutant emission for individual welding pro cesses and materials as well as the often very differing operating and spatial conditions, it is not possible to specify any single solution. On the contrary, it must be examined in every single case which measures or combination of mea sures are to be given preference. All technical possibilities should always be first considered, however, before respiratory protection is applied. Our knowledge of the concentration levels generated during the welding process allows us to make generally valid statements, for normal spatial and welding conditions, as to whether and which type of measures must be taken to combat airborne pollutants. Individual sitations may, however, show exceptional conditions which render it necessary to pinpoint the possible risk at large and redefine preventive measures. The following describes the methods tried and tested in practice.

554
PRIMARY MEASURES: WELDING TECHNIQUE Before ventilation measures are applied it must be examined whether to achieve the objective of rationally producing a quality, high-grade welding joint, it is necessary to use a process which, although frequently and time tested through practice, involves high pullutant emission levels. In addition, the question must be asked as to whether all parameters of the welding technique are - also with a view to pollutant generation - ideal and whether the technical requirements for an optimum welding position are met: low-pollutant welding process ideal settings suitable welding position. Low-Pollutant Welding Processes Changing the welding method can sometimes completely solve the pollutant problem. This is the case for the Chromate problem if the changeover, in most cases technologically unproblerratic, is made from manual metal arc welding with coated high-alloy electrodes to inert gas shielded arc welding. Due to the absence of oxygen in the arc in the inert gas shielded arc welding process, the conditions for the formation of Cr VI compounds are not given. A low-fume welding process does not always provide an answer to all pollutant problems. For instance, when welding AISi alloys using the TIG process, only very low levels of fume emission are generated which, however, promote ozone formation. Furthermore it should be examined whether MIG or MAG processes cannot be replaced by submerged arc welding. Ideal Settings The observance of various parameters can influence fume generation. Therefore it should always be examined whether - for manual metal arc welding, the sheathed electrode with the smallest possible core wire diameter is being used, - "low-fume" electrode types are being employed, - current and arc length are being kept as low as possible, - for inert gas shielded arc welding, the volumes of inert gas used are being kept as low as possible in accordance with manufacturer specification, - the nozzles are perfectly clean thus avoiding unnecessary spatter. Suitable Welding Position The welder should always ensure that his breathing zone - this also applies to the use of protection shields or guards - is as far away as possible from the rising smoke plume. The Distance between the breathing zone and the welding point should be

555
- as large as possible in the horizontal direction and - as small as possible in the vertical direction above the welding point. Welding in a position where the welder must bend over the welding joint is unsuitable as he is fully exposed to the rising fumes. Furthermore, it must be ensured that the fumes generated can escape from above. Welding in containers closed at the top normally leads to impermissibly high concentrations in the breathing zone. Such situations require extensive measures. SECONDARY MEASURES: VENTILATION If no satisfactory welding fume concentrations can be achieved in the workplace using primary measures, then ventilation measures can be applied. Here two different methods can be named: room ventilation extraction at the welding point. With room ventilation, welding fume generated is initially only diluted and can enter areas not used for welding. Only after the welding fume has been diluted it is fed into the open air through natural or forced circulation. Extracting the fume as closely as possible to the place where it is being generated (collection) prevents it from spreading out into the room. In most cases, the carrier air is separated from the extracted fume in separating devices and either fed to the outside air or back into the room. The volume and composition of welding fumes are determined by the welding process and by the welding consumables used, not so much by the basic material. The information in Table I can serve as a guideline for ventilation measures. TABLE I VENTILATION AND EXTRACTION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL AND PROCESS material process submerged arc welding tungsten inert gas welding metal inert gas welding metal active gas welding manual metal arc welding mild steel natural room ventilation natural room ventilation forced room ventilation forced room ventilation, extraction stainless steel forced room ventilation forced room ventilation extraction high-effective extraction

556
The information given applies to rooms with air volumes V of between approxi3 mately 100 and 500 m per welding workplace, for welding jobs of normal duration and for medium fume generation. If the welding duration is only short (less than 0,5 hours per shift) ano if there is a large air volume (more than 500 m ) available per welding place, then the next lower ventilation measure may be selected. In cramped conditions (small rooms with V below 100 m ) , with many welding workplaces in the room and where fume generation is high, the next higher measure must be applied. A more detailed breakdown is provided in the INRS Guide pratique de ventilation [4]. Room ventilation Two types of room ventilation must be discerned: - natural ventilation - forced (mechanical) ventilation. Natural ventilation is unterstood to be the natural change of air in a room, caused by draughts through open doors and windows. It is assisted by pressure differentials caused by wind and/or thermal convection currents if the rising air can escape from above (ridge turrets). In closed industrial areas an hourly air change rate of between 1 and 2 can be assumed. Forced room ventilation is achieved by air inlet ventilators and extraction ventilators. As welding fumes rise due to thermal convection, this direction of movement should be supported by the path of air circulation. This means that the supply air should be admitted as close to the ground as possible and the waste air in the area of the rising fumes extracted at ceiling height. It is recommended to align the current of air in such a way that the welding fumes are channelled off from the breathing zone of the welder. Fig. 1 shows one example.

Fig.

Good air circulation in a welding shop [6],

It must be ensured that the welders are not subjected to any harmful effects caused by draughts as a result of the way the air stream is directed. Air flow rates should if possible be no higher than 0.5 m-s" 1 and in winter the supply

557

air must be heated (at least to room temperature, better still, to 2 above room temperature). Required air change rates are difficult to specify. Values given in speciali sed literature fluctuate between 5 to 8 h"1 [7] and 16 to 32 h"1 [6]. This de pends on the number of welding workplaces, the way they are distributed in the room and the welding process. Bad air circulation can often been recognised by a layer of welding fume in the top third of the room. Extraction at the Welding Point (Local Ventilation) Here, as well two principles can be discerned which are determined by the type of welding work performed: stationary (fixed location) welding places mobile (variable location) welding places. Whenever possible, attempts should be made to install stationary welding work places as these can be ventilated much more easily and effectively than mobiles ones. This is always technically possible for workpieces with small diameters which can be transported into a welding cabin or on a welding bench. It is worth considering whether, in the case of mass production, transport of the workpieces into the final welding position cannot be performed semi or fully automatically. In the case of welding in a fixed position, extraction facilities can be created to suit conditions. Mobile welding workplaces require the repositioning of ex traction equipment which is not always effectively performed. Stationary welding workplaces. The welding cabin can be regarded as the connec tion link between a room and a welding bench. Extraction at the closed end crea tes a directed air current, the welding position is more or less in the centre of the cabin, the welder turns his back to the open end. In this way the welding fumes are automatically channelled away from the breathing zone of the welder. It must, however, be ensured that the welder never stands between the welding bench and the extraction wall while welding. A turntable to accommodate the work piece enables him to stand correctly. The extracted air volume should be selected in such a way that an air flow rate of about 0.5 ms prevails at the room end to prevent welding fumes from entering the work room (see Fig. 2 ) . A lamellar curtain across the open end additionally prevents welding fume from escaping as well as ultraviolet radiation. The welder, however, feels cut off from his surroundings. Welding benches with and without integrated extraction facilities are familiar in many variations. A lthough welding benches with extraction from below are in wide spread use, the effect they have is very often unsatisfactory. The rate of ther mal convection above a welding joint with arc welding is about 0.5 to 1 ms [8]. This convection must be overcome by extraction from below. Since the suction effect falls off rapidly as the distance from the metal grid increases (Fig. 3 ) ,

558

conduit d'extraction

lenles d asptrebon

caisson de rpartition du d e M d a

Fig. 2. Example of a welding cabin [4],

i%

!0%

20%

conduit dirtriction

caisson de rpartition

Fig. 3. Isotach pattern for extraction from below [7].

Fig. 4. Extraction from rear with side panels [4]. of efficiency

the fumes being generated can only be collected with any degree with the suction rates of several m-s

559
Welding benches with extraction from the rear have proved to be better, especially where the main effect is above the welding point as the direction of the welding fume then need only be diverted and not reversed. A side panel, as illustrated in Fig. 4 is also beneficial. The extraction effect can be improved further by an airstream as shown in Fig. 5. A similar solution with an even better effect is described in [7].

Fig. 5. Extraction from the side with airstream [9].

Fig. 6. Stationary extraction from above [9].

A further solution for extraction in stationary welding workplaces is the extraction hood above the workpiece (Fig. 6 ) . Since, with this type of extraction, the thermal convection moves in the same direction as the exhausted air volume welding fumes can effectively collected. A precondition for this, however, is that the volume of extracted air is greater than the air rising as a result of the ascending convection current. The hood must not be too shallow either (see Fig. 6 ) . Mobile welding. A cross between extraction at stationary workplaces and extraction at mobile welding workplaces is presented in the form of flexible suction arms which are either mounted on the wall or on a column and can be equipped with various suction heads (Figs. 7 and 8 ) . The effect of the suction heads is determined by the way they are shaped and by the volume of extracted air, but above all by the way they are positioned in relation to the welding fume source. To increase the suction area without

560

Fig. 7. Stationary workplace with flexible extraction facility [7].

Fig. 8. Wall-mounted suction arm with various suction heads [4].

moving the suction head, specially shaped slotted nozzles, for instance, can be fitted [11]. To enable efficient positioning of the suction heads, these can be mounted on vertically or horizontally adjustable wall arms or, where mobile welding fume separators are used, on stands. Mobile separators are generally equipped with a flexible hose, the exhaust hood can be fixed in the correct collection position by magnetic clamps. The correct fixture of the suction head assumes that - the technical possibilities are given and - the suction head is moved in line with work progression. Since, as experience has shown, the latter is in most cases not performed carefully enough, there has been no lack of attempts to carry out this repositioning process without any manipulation by the welder. Here a solution is presented by combining the welder's protection shield with the extraction facility. Fig. 9 shows a protection shield with handle and suction "nose" which can be connected to a portable suction unit. The collection capacity is generally inadequate as the volume of air extracted is very often only small. Where volumes of extraction are higher, hand-held devices, especially, become too cumbersome. A second possibility is given for inert gas burners by combining the burner with an annular extraction slot whose suction capacity can be rated in such a way to ensure that the inert gas shield remains intact (Fig. 10).

561

To exhauster-

Oas and electrode wire feed Max.

exhauster Inert gas shield

Fig. 9. Protection shield with extraction nose [7].

Fig. 10. Direct extraction on inert gas burner [9].

Recommended Air Volumes It is extremely difficult to specify an air volume necessary to adequately ven tilate a welding room or to effectively extract welding fumes generated. Conse quently, the values or bases for calculation spezified in specialised literature [e.g. 4, 7, 9, 10] do not lead to uniform results. Many of these specifications are based on Dalla Valle (1952) formulae derived from experiments [12]. An attempt is made here to clearly present values for the assessment of air volumes required. As a result of the varying working and spatial conditions, however, these can only serve as guidelines. For the forced ventilation of rooms the A CGIH [10] recommends the application of the following formula:
V = M MAT

whereby

the number of welding workplaces the welding fume mass flow per welding workplace [mg*s~ ] workplace [rngm _3 ] and

M C the maximum allowable concentration i n the A in [ 4 , 10].

a f a c t o r ( 3 . . . . 1 0 ) dependent on various parameters. More d e t a i l s

Diagrams are contained in [9] from which the required air volume can be esti mated. * Formula symbols normally used are explained in Table IV

562

For all types of welding fume extraction close to the point of generation, it must be noted that the suction effect directly in front of the collection head falls off very rapidly. For round suction openings with flange, the following general formula can be applied: w. = 10 w (for d

Fig. 11. Flow lines in front of a suction duct with flange [9]. The capshaped suction zone may be deformed where there are strong cross cur rents or convection currents such as can occur when welding. The values contained in Table II can be used as standard values for the re quired rate of collection w . They must be inserted in the formulae shown in Table IV. TABLE II RATE OF COLLECTION W x IN RELATION FOR DIRECTION OF SUCTION Extraction from above: from the side: from below: w
w w

xa

= 0 = >

1 ms1 1 ms 2 ms

xs

xb

From this it can be derived that extraction from above or from the side re quires the lowest volumes of air for the effective collection of welding fumes,

563
and is therefore always to be given preference. TABLE III ESTIMATE OF AIR VOLUME FLOW RATES REQUIRED FOR COLLECTION Type of collection device Cabin Welding bench with extraction from below from the side from above Suction funnel (round or rectangular L:h 5) extraction from the side without flange with flange on bench Suction slot (L:h > 5) extraction from the side without flange with flange on bench 5 L-x-w, V = 4 L-x-w V = 3 L-x-w Formula V = F-w (w=0.5) V = (10x+F) w . xb V = 0.75 (10x2+F) w V = 2 U-x-w

[10-xSF) w.
V = 0.75

xs xs

( I O X S F ) w.

V = (5x2+F) w r

xs

xs

TABLE IV FORMULA SYMBOLS AND THEIR DIMENSIONS Symbol

V
w

Dimension
m3-s m-s" 2 m

Meaning air volume flow rate for extraction required collection rate at welding point area of collection head at suction level circumference of collection head distance of welding point from suction level length of suction slot height of suction slot

x F

U
X

m m m m

L h

564
All pollutant problems can be solved by extracting welding fumes apart from the problem of ozone formation - in particular when using the inert gas shielded method to weld AT Si alloys. This is formed by UV radiation in the vicinity of the arc. The amount of ozone formed is greater, the lower the fume level is while work is performed. This can be overcome by shielding UV radiations in the vicinity of the arc. If this shielding is no longer in the extraction zone, additional ventilation measures may have to be applied. CIRCULATION OF FILTERED AIR The air extracted from a welding shop by room ventilation can, without hesitation be passed into the outside air without having been filtered. It must, however, be ensured that sufficient fresh air can take its place. Better is the installation of an air supply system to enable application of the necessarv diluent air when it is needed and heating it in winter. However, precisely this heating incur considerable energy costs where large volumes of air are concerned. The quantities of air required are significantly lower if extraction is performed directly at the welding workplace or, better still, at the welding joint. But in this case also there is the wish to save the heating energy for the supply air by passing the waste air, which in this case must be highly filtered, back into the room. It must be noted, however, that normally only filters to extract particles are used and not pollutant gases. Similar considerations also apply to mobile extraction and filter systems where air is fed back into the room automatically. In both cases, the degree of collection and the separation capacity must be geared to one another in such a way that the limit values of industrial hygiene in the breathing zone of the welder are observed. The efficiency of such a collection and separation system for mobile systems can be determined using a method described in [13]. As the feeding back o- filtered air into the work room always leads to an increase of the pollutant concentration, the application of a method frequently used in recent times is presented: Passing the extracted air into the outside environment after heat recovery. Heat recovery systems working recuperatively or regeneratively nowadays achieve efficiency levels of 0.5 to 0.8 which makes their use attractive [14]. RESPIRATORY PROTECTORS As already mentioned at the beginning, the use of respiratory protection can only be regarded as acceptable in extreme situations. It cannot be expected of the welder, in addition to carrying the protection shield, to wear a mask which causes an obstruction to his work. If such cases do occur for a limited period,

565
then the wearing of a suitable mask may be necessary. Protection against various gases (ozone, nitrous gases, carbon monoxide, etc.) must, in addition to protection against particles, also be afforded. This can be achieved by the use of multiple purpose filters [15]. The shielded helmet, - otherwise needed to protect the face of the welder from radiation -, combined with fresh air supply line or with filter unit and integrated blower, has proved to be a better solution. In the first case, fresh air of respirable quality is required (oil-free, warmed). MAINTENANCE; INSTRUCTION Just as production facilities, all ventilation equipment requires continual maintenance and repair if it is to fulfil its purpose of protecting the health of the welder. It is recommended, here as well, to draw up maintenance schedules. As many measures to prevent the inhalation of pollutants while welding require the active participation of the welder, he must be made aware of the possible health hazards, informed about the effects of protection facilities and reminded of their use. The preparation of easily unterstandable information sheets and operating instructions has proved worthwhile. Participation in instructional activities should not only take place once but wherever possible repeated once a year. REFERENCES [1] Gesundheitsschutz beim Schweien und Schneiden (1984) Die Nordwestliche: 288-297 [2] [3] [4] [5] Unfallverhtungsvorschrift (1978) Schweien, Schneiden und verwandte Arbeitsverfahren (VBG 15). Carl Heymanns, Kln Khnen G (1984) Technische und persnliche Schutzmanahmen beim Schweien. In: DVS-Bericht 90:77, DVS-Verlag, Dsseldorf INRS (1984) Guide pratique de ventilation, oprations de soudage l'arc. Cahiers de notes documentaires 115:143-158 Erdmann-Jesnitzer F, Knig R, Kstermann H, Trmner C (1980) Optimierung der Schadstofferfassung in Schweiwerksttten. In: DVS-Bericht 65:93-98, DVS-Verlag, Dsseldorf Pfeiffer w (1984) Lftungstechnische Manahmen am Arbeitsplatz BAD-Intern 2:1-6 Merkblatt DVS 1201: Absaugung an Schweiarbeitspltzen (1981) DVS-Verlag, Dsseldorf

[6] [7]

566

[8]

Hlzel G, Knig R (1981) Einflu des thermischen Auftriebs beim Schweien auf die Lftungsverhltnisse am Arbeitsplatz des Schweiers. Schweien und Schneiden 33:309315 Jenkins , Moreton J, Oakley PJ, Stevens SM (1981 ) In : Welding fume sources, characteristics, control . Welding Institute, Cambridge, pp 399452

[9]

[10] A CGIH (1982) Industrial ventilation. A manual of recommended practice, 17th Ed. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Michigan [11] [12] [13] [14] Hering L, Hlzel G, Gerritzen D, Knig R (1984) Mglichkeiten der Entsor gung von Schadstoffen an Schweiarbeitspltzen. Maschinenmarkt 90:531533 Dalla Valle JM (1952) Exhaust hoods. Industrial Press, New York Khnen G, Heimann M (1983) Prfung der Schadstoffemission technischer Arbeitsmittel. StaubReinhalt.Luft 43:429433 Pfeiffer W, Will ert G, Lautner R (1983) Wrmerckgewinnung aus Abluft als Alternative zur Reinluftrckfhrung. BIAReport 2/83. , Sankt Augustin Riediger G (1982) Atemschutz beim Schweien. Schweien und Schneiden 34: 112114

[15]

567
"WALL JET" USE IN THE REDUCTION OF EXPOSURE TO WELDING FUMES GIUSEPPE RIPANUCCI, PIERO ALTAROCCA, GENEROSO BOCCHICCHIO INAIL - Consulenza Tecnica Accertamento Rischi Professionali - Via Nomentana n.74 - 00161 Rome (ITALY) The local exhaust of welding fumes represents, by all means, the most effective method to reduce the risk of operator professional diseases. However, in particular cases (e.g. short duration spot-welding), fume ventilation, still technically possible, is not in practice done for various reasons. In such cases we have tested the use of "wall jet"; an air curtain between the welding and the breathing zone (Figs. 1 and 2 ) . The main benefit of the "wall jet" application in comparison with the usual local exhaust is represented by the fact that its effectiveness does not depena on the distance between the ejector and thewelding zone. Furthermore the wall jet does not interfere and does not disturb the protection mechanism of the on going process.

Fig. 1. Explaining sketch.

568

Fig. 2. Welding with air curtain. The Authors have studied and realized a protection hand mask for the operator, which has an air ejector and produces a fluid wall to protect the operator brea thing zone. The same ejector (Figs. 3 and 4) can be mounted on the operator chest with special props, if the operator does not use a hand mask.

F
E o -air' _slot w i d t h . _=_":'_-_'" _ j e t v e l o c i t y a t s l o t :v 0 x d i s t a n c e d o w n s t r e a m : vx - a i r v o l u m e f l o w r a t e : Gl

1 ^

s=1.5mm
'

v n = 3 m s _ 1 v_
O
0,5m

= 0 , 5 m s - 1 Q=110 m s-1

Fig. 3. Outlet (design criteria).

569

01 .

0.2

03

04

plane free jet:: { 2 )

Fig. 4. A curtain velocity profiles (x=downstream distance). ir Our tests have proved that, by adequately regulating the jet direction and the speed of air coming out from the nozzle, the exposure reduction is satisfactory. Controls are made under following conditions. Personal samplers (10 minutes/sampler) in breathing zone of welder; air volume flowrate 0.180 m^/hour; filters Gelman DM 800, 25mm in diameter; holder with coni .cal inlet, air face velocity 1.2 ms"l. Countinuous arc welding (30 electrodes/hour) with coated electrodes ESA B OK 43.39, 2.5 30 mm (ISO: 60tl20 Amperes. Total particulate components: without any control : 10.7 mg m"' E512RR32), 22t28 Volts,

with our curtain control : 1.2 mg m"3 It is understood that the welding must be done in ample rooms with sufficient dilution ventilation: it is like working windward in a very airy space without having air disturbing the welding zone. Other advantages:

small equipment and power cost, not maintenance costs low flows and low pressures connection possibility with air compressed pipe installation.

570
REFERENCES 1. Curd EF (1981) Possible applications of wall jets in controlling on contaminants. Ann Occup Hyg 24: 133-146 2. Baturin VV (1972) Fundamentals of Industrial Ventilation. Pergamon Press, Oxford

571
NEED FOR HARMONIZING MEASUREMENT STRATEGIES FOR MONITORING AT WELDING WORKPLACES ELEFTHERIA LEHMANN Bundesanstalt fr Arbeitsschutz, Vogelpothsweg 50 - 52, 4600 Dortmund-Dorstfeld, FRG INTRODUCTION Monitoring at welding workplaces is difficult to accomplish in practice due to (i) extensive sampling and analytical procedures needed and (ii) lack of valuable information about the composition of the materials involved in the welding process. To support enforcement of preventive measures in small industries development of simplified analytical methods and harmonization of measurement strategies is most desirable. CONDITIONS In the last years research in the field of welding progressed rapidly and some basic results about the influence of main welding parameters on the formation and composition of hazardous substances (fumes and gases) were obtained. Compilation of these data has shown that monitoring of welding workplaces can be simplified. In the following a simple concept for monitoring welding fumes is presented and criteria for evaluating exposure situations are proposed. Chemical analysis of welding fumes collected under laboratory conditions (fume box) and at various workplaces has shown that the composition of fumes mainly depends on the welding process and ma1 _D

terials used (especially electrodes, wires and flux coating) The contents of each fume component vary within narrow limits. Two examples will be given. Fumes from manual methal arc welding using stainless steel electrodes (basic flux coating) may contain up to 15% chronium. Almost 100% of the chromium is found to be soluble mostly being present as Chromate. Fumes from welding on mild steel contain in most cases iron as the main component. On the basis of the data available about formation, composition and particle size distribution of welding fumes the following simplifications seem to be reasonable:

572

Particle sizes found in fumes are respirable. Separate sampling to distinguish between respirable and total dust is not necessary. In most cases complete chemical analysis of fumes is superfluous. Choosing one main component with a low exposure limit value as an indicator or setting of process specific limit values refering to mass may be sufficient for evaluating exposure situations.

MEASUREMENT STRA TEGY For monitoring exposures at welding workplaces and controlling effectiveness of technical measures a standardized approach is proposed: 1. An exposure limit specific to the welding process or (alternatively) the limit value of one main component is used for evaluation of exposure situations. 2. Reference time is 8 hours. 3. Ceiling concentrations with a reference time of 15 minutes are limited to the twofold of limit value. 4. Standardized analytical methods for each limit value are developed. Monitoring is carried out in two stages: (i) initial exposure assessment, (ii) control measurements. Welding process and composition of the materials involved help to select appropriate limit value and analytical method. Initial exposure assessment. Compliance with the limit should be assessed on the basis of simple measurements when highest ex posure is expected (worst case). Time and duration of samples will depend on the welding process. For evaluation the (weighted) arith metical mean of the concentrations is calculated. For interpreting and relating the results to the exposure limits (TLV) practical guidelines are given below. At concentrations low er than 1/4 TLV compliance with the limit is propable. Control measurements will follow. At concentrations between 1/4 and 1/2 TLV further measurements should be considered. If the arith metical mean of two subsequent measurements exceeds 1/2 TLV, survey of the workplace situation shall be repeated and technical measures shall be investigated. At concentrations >1,0 TLV the limit is probably exceeded and technical measures followed by new measurements should be taken into consideration.

573

Control measurements. For planning control measurements and de cision making similar rules are used. Number, time and duration of samples should yield a representative value of the exposure during the shift. The first measurement should be planed immedi ately after finishing exposure assessment. The time interval be tween single mearurements depends on the ratio concentration/limit value. At concentrations 1/4 TLV monitoring is repeated after 64 weeks. At concentrations ^1/2 TLV monitoring is repeated after 32 weeks. At concentrations 51,0 TLV monitoring is repeated af ter 16 weeks. At concentrations >1,0 TLV exposure limit is ex ceeded and immediate action to improve technical measures shall be taken. Exposure assessment to check the effects of improvements is repeated. LITERATUR 1. Homma K, et al (1977) Welding and Health, pp 161 176 2. Eichhorn F, Trsken F, Oldenburg T(1981) Forschungsberichte Humanisierung des Arbeitslebens der Schweier, Band 2 3. Ulfarson U, Tech D (1981) Scand j work environ health 7: suppl 2 4. Lautner GM, Carver JC, Konzen RB (1978), Am Ind Ass J 39: pp 651 660 5. Mayer A, et al (1980) Cahiers de Notes Documentaires, Note no 1281 101 80: pp 485 497 6. Blomquist G, Nilsson CA , Nygren 0 (1983) Scand j work environ health 9: pp 489 495 7. Mutti A, at al (1979) Int Arch Occup Environ Health 43: pp 123 133 8. Grothe I, Khnen G, Pfeiffer W (1984) In: DVSBerichte, Band 90

575

PROCESS

DEPENDENT

THRESHOLD

LIMIT

VA LUES

IN

WELDING

Erik

Berk

Hansen Welding Institute, Park A lle 345, 2600 Glostrup,

The D a n i s h Denmark .

I N T R O D U C I ION Control important Since fore 1974 measurements tool the for Danish that use of in welding fume the exposure welding constitute an

improving

environment. have there to are

Factory

Inspection carry of

A uthorities such

legislated that and the

workshops

out

measurement hygiene

ensure'

requirements ventilation their

industrial or

satisfied, prevention The welding limited. costs In The 19B2 based

that

systems

other

pollution

measures of

fulfil

purpose. carried be for out so far to been in be the the very high

extent

control must, the from

measurements however, reasons

industry One of

considered this has

primary the

resulting the light

required

chemical The Danish

analysis. Welding Institute and in

of

this

situation of of

National the on

Institute

Occupational assessment threshold of

Health welding

investigated fume

possibility process

exposure

dependent

limit

values.

RULES As the sal hl

OF

A SSESSMENT fumes Labour on

OF

WEEDING of

FUME

EXPOSURE of different that the elements, assessment of the

welding Danish be

consist

a mixture has

Inspectorate additional must be

prescribed i.e. air

based in

the fume as

formula, The

effect

elements can be

the

added.

quality

requirement

expressed

where C

<
TLV. concentration limit value. components comparing of the the welding fumes the fume ) res of each element and TtV

represent

the

the

corresponding For the

threshold

solid

(particulate) made by

assessment

is n o r m a l l y with the

total limit

measured value (TLV

concentration of te h fume

resultino from Lhe

threshold

calculated

formula

576

T L V r e s = 100
TLV.

mg/m3

where TLV It

A *

is

the

fraction

(%)

of

each

element

in 3

the

fume

and

the c o r r e s p o n d i n g TLV of the e l e m e n t appears from the f o r m u l a for TLV only on the of chemical of analysis, elements

in m g / m . that the res i.e. in on the the fume.

assessment nature and

depends relative RESULTS The

content

each

the

distribution

of

the

TLV

res

values

as

function

of

p r roces

material combination are shown in fig. 1. Further the of TLV

dependence

on the extent of the chemical analysis, method of res ' ' measurements, type of filler material, surface treatment have been analysed.

95 90 75
y. ' s

/
/

'I

;/ '

50

25
y

'
s

10 5

/ *'
5

/
1

/
3

1 .0

2.0

3.0

4.0

TLV

mg/m'

Fig. Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve

1.

Cumulative 725

distribution of M M A

polygons welding

for of

TLV

f rom : steels.

measurements

unalloyed

98 98 37 20

measurements measurements measurements measurements

of of of of

MIG/MA G welding of unalloyed steels. Flame cutting of unalloyed steels. MMA welding of stainless steels. TIG welding of stainless steels.

577

In M M A

welding

of

unalloyed of of

steels, types

the of of

analysis

has

shown (rutile

no or

significant basic or

influence , or

the the

electrodes measurement cutting on in not the

electrodes box

methods In of the

(workplace there was

fume

measurements). no dependence of the in

flame LV

correspondingly method. chromium decisive welding unalloyed cesses of its in The is

flame

cutting whether a

extent

fume the the

analysis or

particular has,

included on as The

analysis TLV res

however, for cutting these A MM

influence as well

distribution and the flame from which

MIG/M G A results an

welding that of in TLV res

of pro

steels. general TLV

show

fumes

contain is of

amount

chromium the

because In
r

low of

importance the

assessment. values in box

MM A

welding

stainless are in

steels

workplace samples. as of the total

measurements The fumes

significantly this box as case tests

different is also

from to

fume

difference from as

due

chromium, amount af be

fume well do in

contain

a greater

chromium chromium fume' only the

a relatively

greater This of an

amount may

hexavalent because the

than

field the the

measurements. zone

measured partly total

inhalation welding The as

operator fumes

originates to to is in the of

from

background can the

contribute be due

exposure.

difference for

furthermore individual

p r o b l e m s with chromium The r a n g e of the TLV due to a number of

analysis. values res

processes r

factors

i.e. i n t r i n s i c degrees extent be of of made limit

differences accuracy the in values and in

materials, measurements the

background and The

pollution, in

differences errors

the may

analysis

samples. to to to

which

assessments should be

according compared according on a

process the the of

dependent in

threshold fume The

accuracy existing factors

measuring operator

assessment depends working it be

rules. such as

exposure

number

welding normal

efficiency, working

position, may be

ventilation assumed that

etc. the

Under

conditions fumes will

concentrations with a a

of

the

distributed deviation per the order cent of to

logarithmically about +60 1,6 i.e.

geometrical distribution value. res In

standard from 38

relative the of the

per

cent

around

mean TLV

comparison is in the

relative of 12 to

standard 23 per

deviation cent.

values

578

PROCESS DEPENDENT From

THRESHOLD LIMIT

VALUES Inspectorate has

the project results, the Danish Labour

in 1984 established as follows:

process dependent threshold values in welding

Process MMA-welding MIG/MAG welding Flame cutting MMA welding TIG welding

Material Mild Mild Mild steel steel steel

PD-TLV

mg/m'

3.4 3.1 2.8 1 .6 2. 7

Stainless steel Stainless steel

The have

process dependent TLV's are based on TLV res been calculated from the existing rules

values of fume

which

assessment elements TLV's of

applying threshold as stated do welding

limit values for the individual

in the TLV-list. Therefore the process dependent fume, or any change in the medical basis af to current practice. of process dependent

not constitute any change of the standards of

assessment

assessment,

but are only an administrative ment compared The establishment will simple

simplification of the fume assessTLV's results in a number for the be industry is quite

of advantages: The cost of control measurements be considerably and the assessment of results will

reduced, the method of assessment

unambiguous.

579
RESPIRATORY HAZARDS RESULTKIG FROM TOXIC GASES AND FUMES DURING WELDING PROCESSES : WHAT POSSIBLE APPROACH? MAURICE STUPFEL, M.D. , Sc.D. French National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM), Research Group on the Physiopathological Mechanisms of Environmental Nuisances, 44, chemin de Ronde, 78110, Le Vsinet, France.

The numerous current welding processes involve a great variety of physicochemical reactions with emission of either particles (Fe, Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, Ti, Cu, Zn, Mo, Co, Pb, Sb, As, Cd, Be, Ca, Mg) or gases (oxides of nitrogen, ozone, argon, hydrogen fluoride, phosgene, di-and tri-chloroacetyl chlorides). Uhen adequate preventive precautions are lacking welders may operate in confined spaces which, in addition to an increase of all the air concentrations of the welding emitted substances, results in carbon dioxide increases and in oxygen air concentration decreases. Moreover, welding can be performed in hyperbaric conditions or at altitude which modifies gas partial pressures and particle deposition, and later on in space. Many of these chemical and physical environmental parameters are known to endanger the pulmonary function. Among them long-term chromium (hexavalent) exposures have been estimated to increase lung cancer mortality (6) and it has been reported that various nickel compounds can provoke cancer of the respiratory tract in animals and humans (1, 3 ) . The noxious effects of high concentrations of nitrogen oxides, hydrogen fluoride and phosgene on the pulmonary function are well documented. Bibliographical data concerning this topic has been collected and reviewed within the scope of the welding industry (11). The way someone's health reacts to an environmental nuisance is influenced by other, more or less associated, health risks. Among them, tobacco smoking has proved to be of paramount importance in respiratory function disorders and pathology (5, among many others). Moreover, alcoholism, medications, can interfere in several pathological syndromes. Besides, many epidemiological surveys have pointed out the importance of sociodemographic factors in morbidity and disease (2, and many others). Furthermore, the use of animal models

580
has shown the importance of genetic inter and intraspecies differences, as well as the influence of the various environmental experiment parameters, in several acute respiratory challenges (ozone, hypoxia, carbon monoxide) (4, 9, 14, 15, 16). As for any environmental nuisance, the assessment of the health respiratory hazards of toxic gases and fumes, resulting from welding, must follow a triple and simultaneous approach : epidemiology, animal modeling and in vitro bioassays. The suspicion that welding activity may provoke lung cancers prompts epidemiological surveys in a 10-30 year range. This makes long-term prospective epidemiological surveys insuperable and reinforces the need of more data being derived from retrospective surveys. These latter consider the mortality ratio for lung cancers and diseases of the respiratory system. But the validity of the interpretation of their results depends on the reliability of the death certificats as well as on a good estimation of welding and other (tobacco smoke, asbestos, indoor and outdoor air pollution) respiratory exposures. Transversal and cohort epidemiological surveys are facilitated by data (air gases and particles monitoring, personal air samplers, hair and urinary metal measurements, magnetopulmonary, bronchoalveolar lavages) related to the environmental exposure. The medical survey should include a detailed (type of welding, operating conditions, training and precautions taken by the worker, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, medications...) questionnaire and a glood clinical amaneses. Ventilatory tests, in consideration of their chronological variations (10) should be repeated several times. The use of animal models, which are mostly mammalian, enables one to find the target reached and to determine, in standardized experimental conditions, the effects of different concentrations of gases and particles, in order to obtain a dose-effect relationship. Long-term effects of various respiratory pollutants (carbon monoxide, automotive and diesel engine exhaust) have been tested on small laboratory rodents (8, 12, 13, 18, 19) as these animals have short life expectancies (rats 2-3, mice 3-4 years). These experiments, which necessitate a good technical support and are time consuming, make possible investigations in various fields. Among them can be quoted : histopathology, cytology, biochemistry, hematology, electron probe X-ray microanalysis and the use of radioactive tracers. Furthermore, this approach is still actually the best way to determine a carcinogenic effect. Continuous

581

respiratory measurements have rarely been performed, but such techniques (17) have been recently proposed. However, as it has been previously men tioned, the possibility of genetical differences requires experiments on several species and strains of laboratory animals. The needs to quickly obtain results for the numerous new molecules that enter the human environment (approximately 1000 per year) have, since about 10 years, favored the development of rapid in vitro tests. A genotoxicologi cal methodology offers a quick approach to test mutagenic potentialities and also to screen carcinogenic substances (7). However, the discrepancies of results, obtained from these various bioassays, require the use of a battery of these assays for each tested parameter. The use of tissue cultures and also of simple biochemical systems aims to find molecular mechanisms such as an action on a receptor. However the disadvantages of these in vitro tests are that, with the exception of genotoxicity (?), their results are, for the moment, impossible to extrapolate in humans. In conclusion, in what concerns the respiratory hazards resulting from welding gases and fumes : 1. The state of the art shows that it is a "complex system" provided for the moment with limited and contaminated information. 2. The future need should consist in increasing data bank and mostly in de veloping prevention. This latter can be obtained by educating welders, decreasing associated health risks (tobacco smoking, asbestos, alcoholism, immunodeficiency, allergy) and developing robotics.

REFERENCES
1. B arton RT, Hogetveit AC (1980) Cancer 45:30613064 2. Damiani , Mass H, Stupfel M (1978) J Soc Stat Paris 119:131139 3. Furst A, Radding SB (1980) In : Nriagu J0 (ed) Nickel in the Environment. Wiley and Sons, New York 4. Goldstein B D, Lai LY, Ross SR, CuzziSpada R (1973) Arch Environ Health 27:412413 5. Huhti E (1982) Europ J Resp Dis 118 suppl:3541 6. IARC (1980) Some metals and m e t a l l i c compounds. Evaluation of the c a r c i nogenic r i s k of chemicals to man. IARC monograph 23, Lyon, pp 205325

582

7. Montesano R, B artsch H, Tomatis L (1980) Molecular and c e l l u l a r aspects of carcinogen screening t e s t s . IARC s c i e n t i f i c p u b l i c a t i o n 27, Lyon 8. Pepelko W (1982) In : Lewtas J (ed) T o x i c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of emissions E from Diesel engines. E l s e v i e r , New York, Amsterdam, Oxford, pp 121142 9. Perramon A, Stupfel M, Mrat , Demaria Pesce VH, Gourlet V, T h i e r r y (1983) A v i a t i o n Space Env Med 54:127131 10. Pham QT, Mastrangelo G, Chau N, Haluszka J (1979) B ull Europ Physiopath 15:469480 11. Stern R (1983) Extended b i b l i o g r a p h y p e r t i n e n t to studies of t o x i c M substances to which welders are exposed, and the r e s u l t i n g health ef f e c t s . Danish Welding I n s t i t u t e , Copenhagen 12. Stupfel M, B ouley G (1970) Ann NY Ac Sci 174, a r t 1:342368 13. Stupfel M, Magnier M, Romary F, Tran , Moutet JP (1973) Arch Environ Health 26:264269 14. Stupfel M, Perramon A, Mrat , Faure JM, Demaria Pesce VH, Mass H (1979) Compar B iochem Physiol 64A:317323 15. Stupfel M, Demaria Pesce VH, Perramon A, Mrat , Gourlet V, T h i e r r y (1983a) Compar B iochen Physiol 74A:933937 16. Stupfel M, Demaria Pesce VH, Gourlet V, Pltan Y, T h i e r r y H, Lemercerre C (1983b) Ecology o f disease 2:6773 17. Stupfel M, Damiani , Perramon A, B usnel MC, Gourlet V, T h i e r r y (1985) Compar B iochem Physiol 80A:225231 18. Vostal JV, Schreck RM, Lee PS, Chan TL, Soderholm S (1982a) In : C Lewtas J (ed) T o x i c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of emissions from Diesel engines. E l s e v i e r , 'Jew York, Amsterdam, Oxford, pp 143160 19. Vostal JV, White HJ, Strom KA, Siak JS, Chen KC, Dziedzic D (1982b) In : Lewtas J (ed) T o x i c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f emissions from Diesel engines. E l s e v i e r , New York, Amsterdam, Oxford, pp 201221

583
SOME APPROACHES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PERMISSIBLE LEVELS OF WELDING AEROSOLS IN THE AIR YURI KUNDIEV, LEV GORBAN Research Institute of Labour Hygiene a . Occupational Diseases, Kiev (USSR) rd Welding aerosols (WA) are multi-component, dust and gaseous mixtures of chemical substances. They may cause polytropic effects resulting in a variety of health impairments in welders (1-5). It is known that the character of biological effects of WA is defined not only by their composition, but also by such physico-chemical properties as solubility of components in biological media, their reactive capacity and others. These in turn depend on the electron structure of compounds, on the type of their crystal lattice (10,11). The results of recent electron microscope studies of the solid constituent of WA show the nonuniformity of their morphological structure: the presence of shell in some cases, multilayer and polynuclear particles (6,12,13,14). Taking this into consideration, it is reasonable to assume the existence of the significant dependence between the biological activity of the solid constituent of WA on these factors. The existence of chemically strong and relatively biologically inert shell is likely to considerably prevent the development of biological activity of even highly toxic elements and compounds situated in the deeper layers of such particles. It is also known that effects of any dust particles can be modified by gases; this was confirmed in experiments on models of different dust and gaseous mixtures (8,15) as well as that of WA (17,18). Thus, the biological effects of WA should be considered as a combined action of solid and gaseous constituents. In establishing the occupational exposure limits of WA in the air of the working zone, therefore, the integral estimation of possible adverse effects appeared to be most appropriate. The need of such an approach for the purposes of hygienic standardization of WA has often been discussed (7-9). The optimal way of its realization in practice is epidemiological studies on the health of welders exposed to WA of the same or similar composition. However, such studies are carried out rather seldom due to the difficulties in identification of cohorts relevant in quantity, levels and quantitative uniformity of exposures. The second way is to design appropriate experimental models for inhalation exposures and the further extrapolation of the obtained data to man. In our opinion, other procedures of establishing permissible levels of WA in the air, including calculation methods, cannot be considered reliable without further improvement.

584
Nowadays, it is important to work out unique international approaches to the establishment of permissible levels of WA in the air. This will present the possibility of assessing not only the biological effects of WA but also the potential risk of exposures to one or other welding material, process or equipment. The experience of many years in the study of the biological effects of WA of various compositions obtained in different scientific institutions in the USSR allows us to propose the following approaches : - to classify WA in large classes and to establish 'grouped' permissible levels for the most typical mixtures of chemical compounds. This is desirable because the majority of WA have relatively constant qualitative composition despite the variety of welding and smelting materials and welding processes; - the established TLV and MAC should cover realistic quantitative relations of solid and gaseous constituents and should be expressed by the weight proportion of the leading or main components in the air; - in such cases when biological activity of WA is defined by the effect of primarily gaseous constituents, the establishment of specific hygienic standards seems to be unreasonable because they have already been stated for certain gases; - long-term inhalation exposure on white rats and the setting of Lim,^ of WA as well as detailed study of the solid constituent in experiments on animals are required. The results of further epidemiological studies will help to make the safety levels of WA more precise. In the USSR the methodology of experimental studies on animals has been elaborated and unified. We used it for the experimental control of the calculation value of MAC for WA in the air. WA were produced during welding of alloyed steel with a high-manganese austenitic wire of the massive section in CO2 shielded environment. The composition of the welding aerosol was as follows: Mn 29.9%, Cr(III) 7.5%, Cr(VI) 0.03%, Ni 3.4% and Fe 24% (Ti and Si were admixture elements). The gas constituent of the welding aerosol was presented by small quantities of CO, NO2 and O3. The fibrogenic activity and toxic effects of WA of the above composition have been studied (19). A special welding inhalation exposure unit was designed, allowing to keep the concentration of WA at a given level and with high degree of precision ranging from 0.1 to 500 mg/m^ (based on the solid constituent of WA). The results of chronic inhalation studies on white rats revealed the nature and degree of toxic and carcinogenic effects and recommended MAC - 0.3 mg/m3 (based on the solid constituent of WA) or 0.1 mg/ra3 (based on Mn) . The experiments showed that despite the presence of Cr and Ni the threshold

585

of o v e r a l l effect.

toxic effect

o f WA i s n e a r l y 6 t i m e s

lower than t h a t of

carcinogenic

The d o s e e f f e c t with

relationship

in

t h e e x p e r i m e n t s was c o n s i d e r e d for transformed cells of the

in lung

accordance epithel of

t h e p r e s e n c e of a n t i g e n

specific

i u m . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n sensitized cells lymphocytes (20).

o f a n t i g e n was p e r f o r m e d in the

according

to the of

reaction

t e s t on e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m o b i l i t y

indicator

(EMtest)

I t is easy to notice given composition d i f f e r calculation the harmful o f WA. Our a p p r o a c h e s method i s

that experimental significantly.

and c a l c u l a t i o n

MACs f o r WA o f

the of the of

This confirms

t h a t the r e l i a b i l i t y

d e t e r m i n e d by t h e l e v e l of knowledge of of a t l e a s t

the dependence t h e main

a c t i o n on p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s

components

to the establishment

of

the

'grouped'

permissible

levels the of

of

W u s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d s p r e s e n t new p o s s i b i l i t i e s A combined e f f e c t biological future, toxicity welding of d u s t and g a s e o u s m i x t u r e s

for

t h e s t u d y of the dependence In

and t o r e v e a l

effects

o f WA o n t h e i r m a i n p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . allow us t o solve problems related

the of the and

this will

to the prediction

a n d h a z a r d s o f W d u r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new w e l d i n g m a t e r i a l s A processes.

REFERENCES 1. S t e r n R (1980) A p r e p a r a t o r y s t u d y of t h e e x p o s u r e of w e l d e r s t o t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s and t h e r e s u l t i n g h e a l t h e f f e c t s . F i n a l R e p o r t f o r C o m m i s s i o n o f t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s . The D a n i s h W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e . C o p e n h a g e n 2 . B eaumont J J 3. Kalliomaki 8:117121 4. 5. (1981) J O c c u p Med 2 3 : 8 3 9 8 4 4 K, K o r c h o n e n O (1982) IY ( 1 9 8 3 ) In: S c a n d J Work E n v i r o n Gigiyena truda,Issue Hlth No 19 delo

PL, K a l l i o m a k i

G o r b a n LN, K r a s n y u k EP, F a k t o r o v Zdorovya, Kiev, pp 4049

K r a s n u y k E P , G o r b a n LN, L u b y a n o v a I P , T i m o f e y e v a NT ( 1 9 8 4 ) 5:109112 Avtomaticheskaya svarka 3:51

Vrachebnoye

6 . V o y t k e v i c h VG ( 1 9 8 3 )

7 . B r a k h n o v a I T , G o r b a n LN, Mosendz CA, A n o k h o v a TN (1978) I n : P r o b l e m y ozdorovleniya usloviy truda vedushchich o t r o s l a c h narodnogo khozyaystva. Z d o r o v y a , Kiev pp 5 355 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. S h i r o k o v YG, V e l i c h k o v s k i B T, M a r t y n o v a AP (1978) k i y e p r o b l e m y c h a s t n o y g i g i y e n y t r u d a . Moscow, p p . S h e v c h e n k o AM, G o r b a n LN, G o l o v a t y u k I s s u e No 1 8 , Z d o r o v y a , K i e v p p 3 8 L e v i n a EN ( 1 9 7 2 ) In: Aktualniye 3753 teoretiches truda.

AP, S h k u r k o GA ( 1 9 8 2 ) Meditsina,

In: Gigiyena Leningrad

Obshaya t o k s i k o l o g i y a m e t a l l o v .

B r a k h n o v a IT (1975) T o x i c i t y o f p o w e r e d m e t a l s a n t s B u r e a u , New York Stern RM Production and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n

and m e t a l compounds. welding

Consult

of a r e f e r e n c e

fume.

586

IIW V I I I - 8 6 1 - 8 0 13. Voytkevich VG, Bezruk L I , Esaulenko GB (1984) Avtomaticheskaya s v a r k a 6:33-35 14. P i l y a n k e v i c h AN, Naumenko IM (1984) Svarochnoye p r o i z v o d s t v o 3:39 15. Shevchenko AM, Gagauz FG (1967) I n : Borba s s i l i k o z o m , Nauka, Moscow, I s s u e No 7, pp 279-284 16. Kustov BB, Tiunov LA, V a s i l y e v GA (1975) Kombinirovannoye d e i s t v i y e promyshlennych yadov. M e d i t s i n a , Moscow, pp 94-127 17. Erman MI, Degtyar TF (1974) Vrachebnoye d e l o 11:134-137 18. I l n i t s k a y a AV, K a i i n a OV (1980) Gigiyena t r u d a i p r o f e s s i o n a l n i y e 10:5-9 19. Gorban LN, P r i l i p k o VA, Cherednichenko V (1984) Gigiyena t r u d a i M a l n i y e z a b o l e v a n i y a 5:16-19 zabolevaniya profession-

2 0 . Novichenko NL (1984) I n : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Meeting on C e l l E l e c t r o p h o r e s i s . Rostock, pp 15

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WELDERS' HEALTH SURVEILLANCE SURGEON COMMANDER GRANT McMILLAN, ROYAL NAVY Office of Flag Officer Plymouth, Mount Wise, Plymouth, England Introduction This paper describes a system of health surveillance which has been devised in The consultation with fellow members of Working Group C of Commission Vili (Health and Safety) of the International Institute of Welding and approved by the Commission. system is described more fully in the References. Principles It is based on three principles. First, routine comprehensive physical examinations by doctors are time consuming, expensive and, in the case of welders in general, unnecessary. The recommended system envisages most of the health screening upon which the system is based being carried out by trained occupational health nurses seeking abnormalities by applying definitions and parameters defined by the doctor to their observations of the welder. Second, Exposure Control Limits and Threshold Limit Values are set at levels which should ensure that most of the exposed population will not suffer adverse effects. observed. This minority should be identified. Thus, by definition, a minority will be adversely effected even when guidelines are vigorously For example, scientific evidence suggests Those with respiratory that exposure to welding fumes may cause respiratory disease.

disease of another origin may be more susceptible to that effect of welding fume or the combination of two diseases co-existing is likely to have an additive effect on disability. Therefore, the minority with existing respiratory disease should be identified for special protection. A further example is the noise exposure to which some welders are submitted. This It is a c c e p t e d that some people are more susceptible to the damaging effect. minority should be identified, again for special protection. Thirdly, some welders have disabilities which reduce their power to work safely. For

example, welders with poor eyesight may have to work closer to the weld to see it clearly and consequently are exposed to higher doses of fume. These welders should be identified and advised to obtain suitable s p e c t a c l e s .

588

Surveillance Procedure The system is intended to provide the doctor with the basis of an organisation which can be expanded if there are special risk situations in the plant. When considering such additions the doctor should bear in mind that no medical examination should be conducted until the reasons for it have been defined and explained to the employees. Flow Diagram Potential welders Current welders Initial and periodic screening

Pre-employment screening

T Interview following

sickness absence

Normal?No
Respiratory questionnaire Lung function tests 1 Normal? )
1

Yes

Special tests I Yes No

t
Thorough medical examiantion

Unfit

Fit: restricted duties Fit: unrestricted duties

Pre-employment or Initial Medical Examination This is used to assess the health of potential employees, and current employees when the scheme is first introduced, in relation to their proposed duties to ensure that they are f i t for work, that the work will not aggravate any existing ill health and that they are not unduly susceptible to recognised hazards.

589

This examination may be conducted as a series a series of screening tests such as dynamic lung function testing, assessment of visual acuity, and can usefully be based on a respiratory symptoms questionnaire such as that produced by the Medical Research Council. These procedures can be delegated to trained ancillary staff who may authorise to pass the welder " f i t " if no abnormalities are found. subject is referred to the doctor. Sickness Absence Review It is often useful to interview employees on return from a period of sickness absence. The extent of the screening prompted by this will vary from case to case. For example, those who have been suffering from lower respiratory tract disease should be interviewed by the nurse and dynamic lung function performed to assess fitness tests for welding. This visit to the medical department provides an opportunity for rehabilitation or perhaps relocation and restricted duties. There should be routine formal review of sickness absence statistics comparing and contrasting welders with other groups. Lung Function Tests As the health surveillance scheme is designed primarily to detect obstructive disease, dynamic lung volume measurement (FEV, and FVC) is essential. More refined tests to specifically examine function of the smaller airways could be a useful addition. If there is a risk of significant asbestos exposure in the past gas transfer assessment should be considered. Special Tests Tests may be added to the general screening procedure if particular welders will be required to work in controlled special hazard situations. Examples of special hazards are noise, ionising radiation, extremes of temperature, abnormal atmospheric pressure. Previous exposure to asbestos may require chest radiography and additional lung function testing eg gas transfer factor. The scope for delegation of such examination to ancillary staff depends largely on the hazard and legal requirements. In many cases the nurse can perform most of the examination. The doctor may decide that the nature of the hazard is such that he should take the opportunity to discuss it personally with each employee. Chest Radiography Routine chest radiography is not included in this minimum standard of surveillance. While it is recognised that some welders may develop siderosis, the current consensus of If there are abnormalities the

590

opinion is that this is not damaging to health and there is no real advantage in detecting it. Similarly, t h e r e is no convincing evidence t h a t welders are at greater risk of developing other chest disease, other than asbestos related disease, which would be more likely to be d e t e c t e d at a t r e a t a b l e stage by radiography rather than the questionnaire and lung function t e s t s . Record and Research Careful contemporary records should be maintained. The form of the record should be Biological decided with an eye to easy d a t a retrieval for interest or formal research. t h a t t h e subject gives his informed consent. Periodicity It is impossible to make all-encompassing recommendation about the periodicity of t h e nurse's re-assessment of welders who a r e not involved in specifically hazardous processes such as a r c air gouging and have no significant sickness absence. As the objective of the scheme is to d e t e c t t h e oversusceptible, it would be rational to review new entries to the craft after a relatively short period, perhaps t h r e e months, then at the end of the first year. Intervals of five years may be appropriate for established welders. When abnormalities a r e detected at re-assessment, action should be decided on an individual basis and only after the man's welding technique and use of e x t r a c t o r s and other pollutant control measures have been investigated to ensure that he is minimizing his exposure. References McMillan, G H G Health of welders, those in similar trades, their assistants and neighbourhood workers, Welding in the World 1980; 18, 5-6

monitoring could be includea in t h e special t e s t s procedure for research purposes provided

McMillan, G H G Welders' Health Examinations, Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine 1979; 29, 87-92

591
A SIMPLE, ATRAUMATIC SAMPLING METHOD FOR SCREENING OF PRECANCEROUS AND TOXICOLOGICAL LESIONS BY CYTOLOGY IN THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. ALBRECHT REITH, RAGNAR VOSS AND SISSEL REICHBORN-KJENNERUD Laboratory of Electron Microscopy and Morphometry and Laboratory of Cytology, Department of Pathology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital and Institute for Cancer Research, Montebello, Oslo 3, and The Norwegian Cancer Society, Oslo, Norway. INTRODUCTION A number of epidemiological studies have shown an increased risk of developing cancers of the upper and low respiratory tract in workers exposed to nickel 1 2 3 or chromium, ' which are known carcinogens and mutagens. Screening for precancerous lesions which precede carcinoma is a method by which a health risk can be detected earlier, so that precautions can be taken. This has been successfully established for the uterine cervix and has recently also been shown for nickel refinery workers. Screening of all workers in the most exposed work places in the nickel refinery demonstrated that 12% of the work force had dysplastic 4 lesions of the nasal mucosa which showed little tendency towards regression and 5 had all the markers of preneoplastic lesions as also described for other organs. A third follow-up study by us is under way and will be completed in 1985. For the latter study we developed a cytologic technique and tested its indicative value by combining it with the bioptic technique applied in the former studies. The cytologic method for detecting precancerous cells of the nasal mucosa has the advantage of screening in an easy, atraumatic way large areas of the nasal mucosa. This is important since we have shown that dysplasia appears 5 focally and that the limited size of the biopsies (in the order of 2 mm 2 ) makes the samples less representative with respect to detecting the real pre4 valence of dysplasia, which may be around 24%. METHODS AND RESULTS The cytologic material was collected from the surface of the middle nasal turbinate (Fig. 1 ). The anterior part of the turbinate was gently brushed with an interdental brush mounted on a handle but leaving a small area from which the biopsy was subsequently to be taken. The cytological smears were immediately fixed with Asset-FIX and stained according to the Papanicolaou method. For further details see Voss Lai 7 et al.' This method yielded excellent cytologic material suitable for characterization by both light and electron microscopy (Figs. 2 and 3 ) . Pseudostratified epithelium and the different stages of metaplasia: cuboidal, squamous and dysplastic epithelium could easily be distinguished, being closely similar to the histologic

592

Fig. 1. Lateral wall of the nasal cavity and middle turbinate with area from which the biopsy and/or the brush cytology was taken.

findings in the bioptic material. Cytologic and histologic diagnoses corresponded in 26 of the 36 cases, i.e. 72%. 31 of the nickel workers had previously been diagnosed by histology as having dysplasia. When comparing the cytologic and histologic results of this investigation, only 18 dysplasia cases were detected by biopsy but 23 by cytology. DISCUSSION Statistically significant excesses of cancers of the nose and lung have been reported (see Peto in these Proceedings). Screening for precancerous lesions in the lower respiratory tract by sputum examination of the lung does not belong to the most reliable methods, as discussed in this conference. However, brush cytology of upper respiratory tract is a reliable method in detecting early preneoplastic changes. However, this statement is only valid if the diagnosis is made in a competent cytology department with a large routine (in our case more than 150,000 smears per year) by an experienced cytologist. Further improvements in diagnosis may be expected when applying scanning electron microscopic 5 techniques similar to those done for the bioptic material and/or quantitative techniques. The cytologic material is not only suitable for detecting precancerous lesions

593

-'ilfc
Fig. 2. Pseudostratified epithelium of the nasal mucosa by light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), (a) H&E stained paraffin section, (b) SEM aspect of the luminal surface with ciliated cells and mucus-producing goblet cells. Cytologic smears (c ) Papanicolaou-stained and (d) in SEM. Fig. 3. Dysplastic epithelium by light microscopy and SEM. (a) H&E paraffin sections, (b) SEM demonstrating the pleomorphic cell surfaces. Cytologic smears (c ) Papanicolaou stained and (d) in SEM.

594
but will also be useful in finding toxicologically caused epithelial alterations
Q

such as loss of cilia and the development of metaplasia . Moreover, the cytologic material may be used for detecting and characterization of fume particles depos ited in the mucosa. The simplicity of the method and the atraumatic means of obtaining cell mater ial makes this sampling technique particularly suitable for large scale screening and for situations in which multiple samples are desirable. Due to the represen 5 tativity of the technique, this cytologic method, like the bioptic method, is suitable for detecting groups at risk, but has additionally a diagnostic value for the individuals concerned. CONCLUSION A ND OUTLOOK 1. The cytological method we have evolved is as good or better than histology in detecting precancerous lesions. 2. It is a simple and easily performed method. 3. Brush cytology is noninvasive and painfree without anaesthesia. 4. Sampling is quick and more representative than biopsytaking. 5. The gentle brushing performed for some minutes causes only a negligible loss of work time, since workers may return immediately to work. 6. The method is also suitable for large scale screening of risk groups. This method has so far been successfully applied to workers at a nickel refinery. It will now be applied to welders in a joint NorwegianGerman study on "Health Risks by Chromium/Nickel Exposure during Welding", supported by the Bundesminis terium fr Forschung und Technologie (BMFT) and the Norwegian Council for Scien tific and Industrial Research (NTNF). REFERENCES 1. Magnus K, Andersen A a, Hgetveit A C (1982) Int J Cancer 30: 681685. 2. Langrd S, Norseth T (1975) Br J Ind Med 32: 6265. 3. Reith A , Brgger A (1984) In: Sunderman F Jr (ed) Nickel in the Human Envir onment, Oxford University Press, pp 175192. 4. 5. 6. Boysen M, Solberg LA , A ndersen I, Hgetveit A C, Torjussen W (1982) Scand J work environ health 8, 283289. Boysen M, Reith A (1982) Virchows A rch (Cell Pathol) 40, 295309.

Voss R, Reith A , ReichbornKjennerud S (1985) In: Brown SS, Sunderman F Jr (eds) Progress in Nickel Toxicology, London, Blackwells, in press. 7. Voss R, ReichbornKjennerud S, A beler V, Reith A . Submitted to A cta Otolar yngol (Stockh). 8. Reith A , Rigaut JP, Boysen M, Marton (1983) In: Reznick G, Stinson SF (eds) Nasal Tumors in Animals and Man Vol. II Tumor Pathology, Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press, pp. 5594.

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INDEX OF AUTHORS

Ahlberg. M.S.> 103 Aitio. ., 93. 169. 345, 319 Akselsson, K.R.. 31 Altarocca. P.. 567 Ansoborlo, E.. 99 Anttila. S., 353 Arkesteijn. C.W.M.. 311 Baud in. V.. 379 Beaumont. J.J., 445 Becker. N.. 449 Beems. R.B.. 329 Bellmann, ., 337 Berg. .O.. 333 Berlin, M.. 333 Bertrand, R., 99 Betz. M.. 379 Bjrseth, 0., 159 Bocchicchio. G.. 567 Bohgard. H., 31, 333 Bonassi, S., 469 Brresen, E., 159 Boy len, C T . . 383 Carstensen. J.. 457. 461 Casciani. G.. 153 Cavelier. C . 379 Cecchetti, G.. 117. 153 Ceppi, ., 469 Chalabreysse, J., 99 Chapman. E.T., 111 Christensen. J.M.. 181 Claude. J., 449 Coenen, W., 149 Collynd'Hooghe. M., 319 Cotes, J.E., 395

Glaser, U.. 325 Gorban, L., 583 Grekula. ., 81, 85 Groth, .V., 399 Groth, S., 399. 403 Grothe. I.. 149 Guidotti. T.L., 357 Gustafsson. T.E.. 93 Gustavsson. C . 185 Haguenoer. J.M., 341 Hansen. E.B., 575 Hansen. .. 305 Hansen. .S.. 435 Hansson, H.C, 103 Hemminki, ., 1, 291 Henquel, J.C, 379 Henry. D.. 477 HerlantPeers. M.C., 341 Hildebrand. H.F., 319, 341 Hochrainer, D., 325 Hooftman, F.N., 311 Hrte, L.G., 457 Hyvrinen, .., 81, 345 JSrvisalo, J.. 169 Jenkins, ., 61 Johansson, G., 31 Kalliomaki, ., 215, 223. 345. 349. 409 Kalliomaki, P.L., 81, 215. 223. 345. 349, 409 Kilburn, K.H., 363. 383 Kirchhoff, M., 181 Kobayashi, M., 77 Koch. W.. 337 KolmodinHednan, B.. 413 Korhonen. 0., 409 Krasnyuk, E.P., 419 Krause, H.J., 65 Khnen, G., 149, 553 Kundiev. Y., 583 Lakomaa, E.L., 345, 349 Langrd, S., 439 Lazzarotto, ., 315 Lehmann, E., 571 Levy, L.S., 267 Liebich, R., 391 Limasset, J.C, 141 Lindbohm, M.L., 291 Lippmann. M.. 199 Lohman, P.H.M.. 329 Lubyanova, I.P., 419 Lyngenbo. 0., 399, 403

61 Day. S.E De Raat. W... 329 Diebold. F. . 141, 379 i, F., 469 Di Giorg: Dirksen, . , 399, 403 Dolan, .P. , 387 Dolan, D .C. . 387 Drenck, ., 219. 403
f

Eichhorn, F., 51 ElGamal, F.M., 395 Engstrm, ., 163 Esnault, .. 477 Fngmark, I.. 103 FrentzelBeyme. R.. 449 Froats, J.F.K.. 137 Gambaretto. G.P.. 55 Gerhardsson. G.. 483

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Maintz, G., 391 Malmqvist, K.G., 31 Halvik, B., 159 Mason, P.J., 137 Massin, ., 379 McMillan, G., 465, 587 Mercier, J.F., 341 MeyerBisch, C , 379 Minni, E., 89 Moilanen, M., 215. 223 Moreton, J., 61 Moulin, J.J., 379 Kuhle, H., 337 Mur, J.M., 379 Newhouse, M.L., 473 Oakes, D., 473 Oldenburg, Th., 51 Oldiges, H., 325 Olsen, 0., 399 Pedersen, B., 47 Peto, J., 1, 423 Peura, R., 85 Phani, Q.T., 379 Press, H., 65 Puntoni, R., 315. 469 Rausa, G., 55 ReichbomKjennerud, S., 591 Reith, ., 591 Reuzel, P.G.J., 329 Riet, D., 477 Ripanucci, G., 567 Roza, P., 311 Rudeli, ., 333, 413 Ruspolini, F., 153 Salsi, S., 379 Santi, L., 469 Schaller, .H., 189, 193 Schmidt. G., 391 Schneider, W.D., 391 Schtz, ., 333 Silberschmid, M., 415 Sipek, L., 107 Sivonen, S.J., 85 Sjgren, ., 457, 461

Skriniar, J., 23 Smrs, E., 107 Stern, P.M., 1, 47, 219, 305, 319, 403. 535 Stupfel, M., 579 Sunderman Jr. F.W.. 229 Sutinen, S.. 353 Takenaka. S.. 325 Tanninen. V.P., 81 Teculescu. D., 379 Thomsen. ., 47 Tinofeyeva, N.T., 419 To. J.C, 137 Toamain, J.P., 379 Tossavainen, ., 93 Tsutsumi, S.. 77 Ulfvarson, U., 133 Valentin, H., 189, 193 Valerio, F.. 469 Van der Vial, J.F., 145 Varlerio, F., 315 Venitt, S., 249 Vercelli, M., 469 Verdel, U.. 153 Virtamo, M., 163 Von Hieding, G.. 285 Voss, R., 591 Wanders, S.P., 497 Warfvinge. K., 333 Warshaw, R., 383 Weck, R., 15 Weiner, J., 457 Weiss, M.S., 445 Welinder, H., 185 Ueltle, D., 189, 193 Wenngren, B.I., 413 Wiesener, W., 391 Wilhelm, E., 193 Wiseman, L.G., 111 Woolley, A.J., 473 Yhuel, C , 477 Zielhuis. R.L., 497 Zober, ., 189, 193 Zschiesche, W., 193

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