The Technology of War OFFENSIVE WEAPONRY Development of the offensive technology of war was not as constrained by technological and

economic limitations as was defensive weaponry. Every significant offensive weapon was widely available, while defensive equipment of high quality was almost always confined to the elite. Perhaps as a consequence, a wide variety of individual offensive weapons appeared in antiquity. One of the most striking facets of ancient military technology is the early date by which individual weapons attained their form and the longevity of early offensive weapons concepts. Some of the weapons of antiquity disappeared as practical military implements in classical and medieval times, and all underwent modification, but, with the exception of the halberd and crossbow, virtually every significant pre-gunpowder weapon was known in antiquity. The ax. Limitations on the strength of bronze and difficulties in casting and hafting restricted the ax at first to a relatively broad blade mortised into a handle at three points and secured with bindings or rivets. The hafting problem became acute as improvements in armour dictated longer, narrower blades designed primarily for piercing rather than cutting. This led to the development of socketed axes, in which the handle passed through a tubular hole cast in the ax head; both hole and head were tapered from front to rear to prevent the head from flying off. This far stronger hafting technique must have been accompanied by a significant improvement in the quality of the metal itself. The pace and timing of these developments varied enormously from place to place, depending on the local level of technology. Sumerian smiths were casting socketed ax heads with narrow piercing blades by 2500 BC, while simple mortise-and-tenon hafting was still being used in Egypt 1,000 years later. The spear. Though early man probably employed spears of fire-hardened wood, spearheads of knapped stone were used long before the emergence of any distinction between hunting and military weapons. Bronze spearheads closely followed the development of alloys hard enough to keep a cutting edge and represented, with the piercing ax, the earliest significant military

application of bronze. Spearheads were also among the earliest militarily significant applications of iron, no doubt because existing patterns could be directly extrapolated from bronze to iron. Though the hafting is quite different, bronze Sumerian spearheads of the 3rd millennium BC differ only marginally in shape from the leafshaped spearheads of classical Greece. The spears of antiquity were relatively short, commonly less than the height of the warrior, and typically were wielded with one hand. As defensive armour and other weapons of shock combat (notably the sword) improved, spear shafts were made longer and the use of the spear became more specialized. The Greek hoplite's spear was about nine feet long; the Macedonian sarissa was twice that length in the period of Alexander's conquests and it grew to some 21 feet in Hellenistic times. The javelin. Javelins, or throwing spears, were shorter and lighter than spears designed for shock combat and had smaller heads. The distinction between javelin and spear was slow to develop, but by classical times the heavy spear was clearly distinguished from the javelin, and specialized javelin troops were commonly used for skirmishing. A throwing string was sometimes looped around the shaft and tied to the thrower's finger to impart spin to the javelin on release. This improved the weapon's accuracy and probably increased the range and penetrating power by permitting a harder cast. A significant refinement of the javelin was the Roman pilum. The pilum was relatively short, about five feet long, and had a heavy head of soft iron that made up nearly one-third of the weapon's total length. The weight of this weapon restricted its range but gave it greater impact. Its head of soft iron was intended to bend on impact, preventing an enemy from throwing it back. Like the spear, the javelin was relatively unaffected by the appearance of iron and retained its characteristic form until it was finally abandoned as a serious weapon in the 16th century. The sling. The sling was the simplest of the missile weapons of antiquity in principle and the most difficult in practice. It consisted of two cords or thongs fastened to a pouch. A small stone was placed in the pouch, and the slinger whirled the whole affair

around to build up velocity before letting go of one of the cord ends to release the projectile. While considerable velocity could be imparted to a projectile in this way, the geometry of the scheme dictated that the release be timed with uncanny precision to achieve even rudimentary accuracy. Almost always wielded by tribal or regionally recruited specialists who acquired their skills in youth, the sling featured prominently in warfare in antiquity and classical times. It outranged the javelin and even--at least at some times and places--the bow (a point confirmed in the 4th century BC by the Greek historian Xenophon). By classical times, lead bullets, often with slogans or epigrams cast into them--"A nasty present!"-were used as projectiles. The sling vanished as a weapon of war in the Old World by the end of the classical period, owing mainly to the disappearance of the tribal cultures in which it originated. (In the New World, on the other hand, both the Aztecs and Incas used the sling with great effect against Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century.) The sword. The advantages of a long, sharp blade had to await advanced smelting and casting technology before they could be realized. By about 1500 BC the cutting ax had evolved into the sickle sword, a bronze sword with a curved, concave blade and a straight, thickened handle. Bronze swords with straight blades more than three feet long have been found in Greek grave sites; however, because this length exceeded the structural capabilities of bronze, these swords were not practical weapons. As a serious military implement, the sword had to await the development of iron forging, and the first true swords date from about 1200 BC. Swords in antiquity and classical times tended to be relatively short, at first because they were made of bronze and later because they were rarely called upon to penetrate iron armour. The blade of the classic Roman stabbing sword, the gladius, was only some two feet long, though in the twilight years of the empire the gladius gave way to the spatha, the long slashing sword of the barbarians. The bow. The bow was simple in concept, yet it represented an extremely sophisticated technology. In its most basic form, the

bow consisted of a stave of wood slightly bent by the tension of a bowstring connecting its two ends. The bow stored the force of the archer's draw as potential energy, then transferred it to the bowstring as kinetic energy, imparting velocity and killing power to the arrow. The bow could store no more energy than the archer was capable of producing in a single movement of the muscles of his back and arms, but it released the stored energy at a higher velocity, thus overcoming the arm's inherent limitations. Though not as evident, the sophistication of arrow technology matched that of the bow. The effectiveness of the bow depended on the arrow's efficiency in retaining kinetic energy throughout its trajectory and then transforming it into killing power on impact. This was not a simple problem, as it depended on the mass, aerodynamic drag, and stability of the arrow and on the hardness and shape of the head. These factors were related to one another and to the characteristics of the bow in a complex calculus. The most important variables in this calculus were arrow weight and the length and stiffness of the bow. Assuming the same length of draw and available force, the total amount of potential energy that an archer could store in a bow was a function of the bow's length; that is, the longer the arms of the bow, the more energy stored per unit of work expended in the draw and, therefore, the more kinetic energy imparted to the string and arrow. The disadvantage of a long bow was that the stored energy had to serve not only to drive the string and arrow but also to accelerate the mass of the bow itself. Because the longer bow's more massive arms accelerated more slowly, a longer bow imparted kinetic energy to the string and arrow at a lower velocity. A shorter bow, on the other hand, stored less energy for the same amount of work expended in the draw, but it compensated for this through its ability to transmit the energy to the arrow at a higher velocity. In sum, the shorter bow imparted less total energy to the arrow, but it did so at a higher velocity. Therefore, in practice maximum range was attained by a short, stiff bow shooting a very light arrow, and maximum killing power at medium ranges was attained by a long bow driving a relatively heavy arrow. The early bow. The simple bow, made from a single piece of wood, was known to Neolithic hunters; it is clearly depicted in cave paintings of

30,000 BC and earlier. The first improvement was the reflex bow, a bow that was curved forward, or reflexively, near its centre so that the string lay close against the grip before the bow was drawn. This increased the effective length of the draw since it began farther forward, close to the archer's left hand. The composite recurved bow. The next major improvement, one that was to remain preeminent among missile weapons until well into the modern era, was the composite recurved bow. This development overcame the inherent limitations of wood in stiffness and tensile strength. The composite bow's resistance to bending was increased by reinforcing the rear, or belly, of the bow with horn; its speed and power in recoil were increased by overlaying the front of the bow with sinew, usually applied under tension. The wooden structure of this composite thus consisted of little more than thin wooden strips supporting the horn and sinew. The more powerful composite bows, being very highly stressed, reversed their curvature when unstrung. They acquired the name recurved since the outer arms of the bow curved away from the archer when the bow was strung, which imparted a mechanical advantage at the end of the draw. Monumental and artistic evidence suggest that the principle of the composite recurved bow was known as early as 3000 BC. A prime advantage of the composite bow was that it could be engineered to essentially any desired strength. By following the elaborate but empirically understood trade-off between length and stiffness referred to above, the bowyer could produce a short bow capable of propelling light arrows to long ranges, a long, heavy bow designed to maximize penetrative power at relatively short ranges, or any desired compromise between. Arrows. Arrow design was probably the first area of military technology in which production considerations assumed overriding importance. As a semi-expendable munition that was used in quantity, arrows could not be evaluated solely by their technological effectiveness; production costs had to be considered as well. As a consequence, the materials used for arrowheads tended to be a step behind those used for other offensive technologies. Arrowheads of flint and obsidian, knapped to remarkably uniform standards, survived well into the Bronze Age, and bronze arrowheads were used long after the adoption

of iron for virtually every other military cutting or piercing implement. Arrow shafts were made of relatively inexpensive wood and reed throughout history, though considerable labour was involved in shaping them. Remarkably refined techniques for fastening arrowheads of flint and obsidian to shafts were well in hand long before recorded history. (The importance of arrow manufacturing techniques is reflected in the survival in modern English of the given name Fletcher, the title of a specialist in attaching feathers to the arrow shaft.) Damascus steel, also called DAMASKED STEEL, one of the famous steels of the pre-industrial era, typically made into weapon blades. Manufacture involved a secret carburization process in which a form of wrought iron was heated to red heat in contact with various carbonaceous materials in closed vessels. The result was an iron-carbon alloy containing as much as 1.8 percent carbon. It is probable that the carburized product was then annealed to dissipate some of the carbon before being hammered into bars for later fashioning into articles such as swords. Damascus steel is characterized by exceptional hardness and by a watered, streaked appearance caused by the varying carbon levels of the original material. Sometimes a single bar is welded up from various kinds of steel. The bar is doubled over, welded, redoubled, and rewelded until the various layers of steel become intertwined, and it is then worked out to form the blade. The patterns that result after quenching and finishing are distinctive and complex. Damascus blades are judged largely by their watering, which serves as a guide to the quality of the steel.