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.Firstly
a PD controller had to be designed to move or steer the body from the origin to a desired point
(
) after an initial force. This PD controller has to then be configured so that it can meet criteria
for rise time, percentage overshoot and settling time outlined in the brief. In this case the 10% -
90% rise time (time taken for body to go from
to
.
If there are disturbances to the system at a frequency a Notch filter can be used to attenuate the
gain of the system at that particular frequency.
4
PD Controller Design
In order to understand the project, firstly a derivation of the closed loop transfer function must be
carried out.
A simple cart with mass (m) is shown in figure 2. This consists of a cart with mass m that rolls
with a forward force u without any friction.
Using, ,
Using Laplace transforms
m(
(x) - sx(0) -
(0) = U(s)
sx(0) = 0 and
(0) = 0
Therefore,
m
() ()
G(s) =
()
()
=
Using a PD controller the cart movement can be controlled and able to tune the controller in
such a way that some extra requirements are met by defining the error between the desired point
()
()
()
()
Using Laplace transforms
5
() (
) ()
()
()
()
(
)
X(S) =
()
)()
)(
() ())
() ()
()
()]
() *
+
()
()
In order to tune the PD controller to satisfy the requirements outlined in the brief, different
values of
and
were input into MATLAB. These values ranged between 0 and 1.5 for
and 0 and 4.4 for
and
values.
After some time these ideal
and
and
, thus the rise time recorded is 0.469s, the overshoot is 4.99% and the
6
settling time is 5s. It can be observed that when
is increased, the
overshoot is reduced but the system is made slower. If on the other hand,
is increased, the system is made faster but the steady state error is introduced. Since steady
state error is not being measured in this report, it as well as its effects can be ignored.
Modelling a spring mass damping system
Springs usually occur physically as a coil of metal, and their idealizations have pretty simple
behaviour: compressing the spring will result in the spring pushing back, and stretching the
spring will have it trying to pull back towards the start position, so any displacement along the
axis of the spring will be countered by an opposite force that will tend to move the spring back to
its original position. The fundamental spring equation is given as:
F = -kx
Where k is the spring constant (how loose or springy the spring is), x is the difference between
the springs current length and its rest length, and F is the force on both endpoints of the spring.
Usually one endpoint is fixed, the other is the one that bounces around- which is usually what
happens: an initial impulse displaces the spring, the unfixed end of the spring acquires some
velocity moving back, but it passes through the zero-displacement point, is pulled back in the
other direction, and may bounce perpetually in the absence of any dampening forces. Physical
springs have more complex behaviour (like the transverse vibration and accompanying sound
when they're bent away from their axis) and could be described by more complex models.
Dampers
Ideally, one could assume that all vibrating systems are free of damping. However, in actuality,
all vibrations are damped to some degree by friction forces. These forces can be caused by dry
friction, or Coulomb friction, between rigid bodies, by fluid friction when a rigid body moves in
a fluid, or by internal friction between the molecules of a seemingly elastic body. These all fall
under the category of free, damped vibrations. Hence, we have dampers of the viscous type,
Coulomb type or hysteresis type. The equation of motion (E.O.M) for viscously damped free
vibration is given by:
mx + cx + kx = 0
A derivation of () and () shown below as well as all steps leading up to these. Derivations
of equations 10, 11 and 12 are also shown to aid better understanding.
Applying Newtons second law of motion to figure 6:
ma F =
7
For mass 1 of 1kg,
Spring force = k(x y) K(y x)
Damping force = c(x y) c y x
( )
Resultant force = x m
1
m
1
x c(y x)+k(y x)
Assuming k= 20N /m and c = 5Ns /m
x
..
5(y x) + 20(y x) . (a)
For mass 2 of 0.1kg
Spring force = ) ( x y k
Damping force = ) ( x y c
Resultant force = u y m
2
) ( ) (
1
y x k x y c u y m =
Assuming k= 20N /m and c = 5Ns /m
u x y x y y + = ) ( 20 ) ( 5 1 . 0 . (b)
Equations of motion obtained from system:
x
..
5(y x) + 20(y x)
u x y x y y + = ) ( 20 ) ( 5 1 . 0 (10)
By taking the Laplace transform of equation (10), assuming the system is at rest:
)) ( ) ( ( 20 )) ( ) ( ( 5 ) (
0 ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
) ( 20 ) ( 20 ) 0 ( 5 ) ( 5 ) 0 ( 5 ) ( 5 ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) (
2
2
s Y s X s Y s X s s X s
y x x where
s Y s X y s sY x s sX x sx s X s
=
= = =
+ + + =
Also taking Laplace of the second part of 10
8
0.1[s
2
Y(s) sy(0) y(0)] 5 sY(s) y(0)
( )
sX(s) x(0)
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
20 5
20 5
20
20 5
20 5
5
20 5
20 5
1 0
2
2 2
2
) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( 400 ) 100 400 100
2
20
100
2
25 ) ( 100 ) (
2
25 ) (
3
5 ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) (
2 2
1 . 0
s U s s X sX(s X(s) sX(s) X(s) s
sX(s) X(s) s s sX s X s s X s s X s sX s X s s
+ + + +
+ + = |
.
|
\
|
+ +
) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 . 0 ) ( 1 . 0
2 3 2 3 4
s U s s X s s X s s X s s X s s X s + + = + +
) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( 22 ) ( 5 . 5 ) ( 1 . 0
2 3 4
s U s s X s s X s s X s + = + +
( ) ) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( 22 5 . 5 1 . 0
2 3 4
s U s s X s s s + = + +
( )
) (
22 5 . 5 1 . 0
20 5
) (
2 2
s U
s s s s
s
s X
+ +
+
= ...(12a)
Above equation (11b) follows that:
) .......(11 .....(b) U(s) X(s)) 20(Y(s) X(s)) 5s(Y(s) Y(s) 0.1s
2
+ =
....(a) )) ( ) ( ( 20 )) ( ) ( ( 5 ) (
2
s Y s X s Y s X s s X s =
U(s) X(s)) (Y(s) X(s)) s(Y(s) Y(s) s . + = 20 5 1 0
2
9
( ) ( )
20 5
) ( ) ( ) 20 5 1 . 0 (
) (
) ( ) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( ) 20 5 1 . 0 (
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 20 ) ( ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
2
2
2
2
2
+
+ +
=
+ + = + +
+ + = + +
+ + + =
+ + + =
s U s Y s s
s X
s U s X s Y s s
s U s X s X s Y s sY s Y s
s U s X s Y s X s sY s Y s
s U s X s Y s X s Y s s Y s
Now, if ) (s X is substituted into part (b) of (11), i.e.
(
+
+ +
+
+
=
(
+
+ +
) (
20 5
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
20
) (
20 5
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 1 . 0
5
20 5
) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
2
2 2
2
s Y
s U s Y s sY s Y s
s Y
s U s Y s Y s
s
s U s Y s sY s Y s
s
) ( 400 ) ( 100 ) ( 20 ) ( 400 ) ( 100 ) ( 2
) ( 100 ) ( 25 ) ( 5 ) ( 100 25 ) ( 5 . 0 ) ( ) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
2
2 3 2 2 3 4
s Y s Y s U s Y s sY s Y s
s sY s sY s sU s sY s s Y s s U s s Y s s Y s s Y s
+ + +
+ + + = + +
) ( 20 ) ( 5 ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( 20 ) ( 5 . 0 ) ( 5 ) ( 1 . 0
2 2 2 3 3 4
s U s sU s U s s Y s s Y s s Y s s Y s s Y s + + = + + + +
) ( ) 20 5 ( ) ( ) 22 5 . 5 1 . 0 (
2 2 3 4
s U s s s Y s s s + + = + +
( )
) (
22 5 . 5 2 1 . 0
20 5
) (
2
2
s U
s s s
s s
s Y
+ +
+ +
= (12b)
Thus, we have transfer function:
.....(13)
) 22 5 . 5 1 . 0 (
20 5
) ( ,
) 22 5 . 5 1 . 0 (
20 5
) (
) (
) ( `
) ( (12b) from
) (
) (
) ( (12a) from
2 2
2
2 2
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
= =
= =
s s s
s s
s H
s s s
s
s G
s U
s Y
input
output
s H
s U
s X
input
output
s G
X(s) =
G(s)U(s)=G(s)C(s)E(s)=G(s)C(s)[
()
()()()
X(s)
=G(s)C(s)
()
()()()()
X(s) =
()()
()
()()()
U(s) X(s)) (Y(s) X(s)) s(Y(s) Y(s) s . + = 20 5 1 0
2
10
()
()()
()()()
The closed loop transfer function obtained for figure 7 can be shown:
Next the step response plot for the closed loop system given in figure 7 was plotted (also shown
below). For this plot, the same values for both
and
and
.
11
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e
(
d
e
g
)
-30
-20
-10
0
10
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
(
d
B
)
From this, values for and may be found. Thus by using equations,
and
and . Also seen at 0.7
, therefore,
.
Notch Filter Design and Tuning
The use of tuned system is another widely used passive vibration damping treatment. These
devices are viscously damped 2nd order systems appended to a vibrating system. Proper
selection of the parameters of these appendages, tunes the systems to one of the natural
frequencies of the under damped flexible system, resulting in the addition of damping to that
resonance. Unlike dashpot which is most effective in adding damping to the first mode, tuned
system can target any mode, including the first, and add considerable amount of damping to it.
Another distinction between tuned system and dashpot is that tuned system is a single point
device and can simply be attached to a system at one end with its other end being free. tuned
system consists of mass, which moves relatively to the system and is attached to it by a spring
and a viscous damper in parallel. The system vibration generates the excitation of the tuned
system. As a result, the kinetic energy is transferred from the structure to the tuned system and is
absorbed by the damping component of the device. The tuned system usually experience large
displacements. tuned system incorporated into a system where the first mode of the system
response dominates, it is expected to be very effective. The optimum tuning and damping ratios
that result in the maximum absorbed energy have been studied by several investigators. tuned
systems have been found effective in reducing the response of system to winds and harmonic
loads and have been installed in a number of buildings.
A poor step response (in terms of rise time, percentage overshoot and settling time) is often due
to the presence of resonances. A notch filter can be used to eliminate the resonance without
changing the high and low frequency characteristics of the system. Below is a derivation of
12
equation 14 showing the transfer function of a notch filter. Also shown is values for
and
.
()
(14)
The magnitude of its frequency response satisfies following properties which are given with
derivation:
1
st
property
|()|
)
|
(
( )
( )
)
( )
)
( )
)
( )
2
nd
Property
|()|
(
)
( )
|()|
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
+
(
+
= =
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e e
~
/ 4 1
~
1
~
~
/ 4 1
~
1
~
~
lim lim
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
~
i F i F
3rd property
|()|
)
( )
( )
|()|
) *
( )
( )
( )
+
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) 1
~
lim lim , 1
1
1
lim
~ 2
2
= = =
=
e e e
e e e
i F i F i F
13
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.96
0.965
0.97
0.975
0.98
0.985
0.99
0.995
1
1.005
(
) *
( )
( )
( )
+
( )
( )
So substituting back into |()|
(
()
()
) (
()
()
()
()
)
|()|
)
|()|
Below is a graph of the amplitude of the oscillations in respect of time for a system with a notch
filter. It can be seen that the amplitude reaches an asymptote when time approaches infinity.
14
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e
(
d
e
g
)
-150
-100
-50
0
50
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
(
d
B
)
On the following page is a system step response plot and Bode plot for the transfer function with
the notch filter in parallel (figure 8 in appendixes). It can be seen that there is a linier increase of
amplitude with time until T=17.7s. Once amplitude reaches the value of 1, it suddenly becomes
horizontal, indicating that both the overshoot and settling time are zero. This would be ideal
however with current technology also impossible. This has been put down to errors in the
MATLAB programme. This can be solved by simplifying the transfer function (divide both top
and bottom by