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MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION
Metals
Definition and Physical Properties of Metals
In general, a metal is typically described as a chemical element, or mixture of elements, with the following properties: Metals are typically hard when they are in their solid state (although there are exceptions, such as lead). They are usually shiny or lustrous. Metals are typically heavy; that is, they have relatively high density. They are malleable (able to be formed and shaped) and ductile (easily drawn or bent). They are good conductors of both heat and electricity. Of all the known elements, about 75% are metals. Many of the remaining elements are gases at normal temperatures, leaving only a handful of other elementslike sulfur, carbon, phosphorus, and bromineto make up the balance. Metals are part of a formal, scientific classification system of all the chemical elements. The basic unit of any element is the atom. The word derives its name from the Greek word atomos, which means indivisible. Atoms are the basic building blocks of all materials. A single atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged particles called electrons. In a normal atom, the electrical charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal, but opposite. Thus, the overall electrical charge of an atom is neutral. The outermost electrons in the atoms of metals are held loosely. They can travel easily from atom to atom. The main characteristic that distinguishes a metal from a nonmetal is the presence of these free electrons. They give metals their many unique properties, such as their excellent heat and electrical conductivity. As with any liquid, the atoms of a molten metal move freely around each other. If the temperature of a molten metal is lowered to the point
2001 ASM International Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 Phone: (440) 338-5151 Fax: (440) 338-4634 9 IN THIS SECTION YOU WILL LEARN: differences between metals, alloys, blends, and composites what the four basic classes of thermal spray materials are examples of widely used coatings for each class and their properties typical applications where coatings are used

Materials

where it solidifies, its atoms lose energy. At that point, the force of attraction between atoms becomes strong, and they arrange themselves into an orderly crystalline structure. Metal crystals form in fixed geometric patterns, called space lattices. The three principal crystal patterns that metals form (Figure 3.1) are body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc), and hexagonal close-packed (hcp). These different crystal patterns give metals their special properties. For example, the bcc type includes some of the stronger metals such as iron and chromium. The fcc types are softer and more ductile. They include copper, aluminum, and gold. The hcp metals tend to be more brittle and include zinc, magnesium, and titanium. Another important concept in the study of materials is bonding between dissimilar atoms. If enough electrical energy is applied to an atom, one or more of the outer electrons can be removed, and the atom becomes positive charged. The atom is now called a positive ion. An atom can also gain an extra electron and become a negative ion. Ions of opposite charges can attach to each other to become a neutral molecule, which is the basic building block of a chemical compound. This kind of bonding of atoms is known as ionic bonding. Another kind of bonding is known as covalent bonding. In this case, molecules are held together by atoms that share their outer electrons with each other. Common gases such as oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) are bonded in this manner. Ceramics, discussed later, are important examples of covalent compounds.

Face-centered cubic (fcc)

Body-centered cubic (bcc)

Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

Figure 3.1 The three principal crystal patterns that metals form.

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Materials Classification

Pure Metals, Alloys, Blends, and Composites

A pure metal consists entirely of atoms of only one element. It has its own unique physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, and thermal or heat conductivity. Examples of some important pure metals are aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). In the commercial world, producing metals with purities near 100% is not usually a practical reality. The pure metals in use are typically at least 98% pure, however. Higher levels of refinement are sometimes necessary. In the semiconductor industry, for example, even slight contaminants in metallic components can have a major effect on performance, so the materials are more highly purified. An alloy is the intimate combination of two or more pure metals that have been dissolved, while molten, one into the other. Alloys usually have properties different from those of their individual constituents. An alloy could be harder, softer, stronger, less easily corroded, and so forth, than the individual metals composing it. When an alloy is prepared, consideration must be given to the atomic interrelations between the constituent elements and their crystal structures. Alloys are usually manufactured by melting the metals together in a special furnace to form a simple solution. Alloys are important because they often have very useful properties that cannot be obtained from the pure metals alone. The scientific study of alloys is a science in itself. Some familiar examples of alloys are brass, NiChrome, Monel, and Stellite. Blends are a formulation of materials that are frequently used as thermal spray powders. Blends are a simple, physical mixture of two or more metallic or nonmetallic powders (Figure 3.2). They are not melted or fused together as in the case of alloys or composites. For this reason, blends can be separated into their original components by mechanical means, such as vibrating tables, to separate heavy from light materials. Sieves can also be used to separate powder particles that are distinct in size. When blends are thermally sprayed, the resulting coating is a fine mixture of each of the individual ingredients. This is a useful way to create new coating materials with unique properties. The components of a blend may also be glued together using organic or water-soluble binders, which burn off during spraying. One example is aluminum powder blended with a polyester plastic powder. This mixture, which is normally plasma sprayed, is used as an air seal in almost every jet engine in use today. Since aluminum and polyester are both low-density materials, the mixture remains uniform during handling or spraying. This is important, because blends of powdered materials should be similar in particle size and density to be successful; otherwise, the particles will tend to separate. The metal blends used commercially are commonly blends with ceramics or plastics rather than with other metals.

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Materials

20 m

Figure 3.2 Micrograph showing a blend of two metals.

Composite powders are unique to the thermal spray industry. A composite implies something made up of diverse parts, and so it is with composite thermal spray particles. A composite powder consists of two or more powder materials whose particles are held together with a glue-like binder. Thus, each composite powder particle consists of an amalgam of the individual components. The binder burns away during spraying and does not participate in the coating. The composite method of powder manufacture is an important way to create new materials. It eliminates the problem of powder separation that can occur with blends. One well-established use of thermal spray composites is the fiberglass/ polyester materials that are used to manufacture lightweight automotive and aerospace parts.

Typical Metals Used in Thermal Spray

The most important and widely used pure metals, alloys, blends, and composites in the thermal spray industry are shown in Table 3.1.

Examples of Application Areas

Pure Metals. Atmospheric Corrosion. Wire-sprayed zinc applied using either flame or electric arc guns is a standard for protecting steel that is exposed to industrial and rural environments. In fact, this is one of the oldest uses of the thermal spray process. Some examples of parts that are coated for corrosion protection are bridges, guard rails, transformer cases, and lamp-posts. The rough texture of sprayed zinc also provides an excellent base for the application of paint. Marine Corrosion. For protection against salt spray or saltwater immersion, pure aluminum is the recommended choice. It will last longer than zinc in this kind of environment. Thermally sprayed aluminum is widely used by the U.S. Navy for shipboard protection. Interestingly, however,

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Materials Classification

Table 3.1 Typical Metals, Alloys, Blends, and Composites Used in Thermal Spray
Coating Pure Metals Al (aluminum) Cu (copper) Mo (molybdenum) Zn (zinc) Alloys AlSi CuAlFe (aluminum bronze) FeCrSiMnC (stainless steel) NiCr NiCrAlY Soft-medium RH90 Medium RB 5065 Hard RC 4050 Medium RB 9095 Medium RB 8595 Wire, combustion powder, plasma All Wire Combustion powder, plasma, HVOF Plasma, HVOF Excellent machinability Excellent bearing Repair of steel parts High-temperature protection or bonding High-temperature protection or bonding Soft RH 4050 Soft-medium RH 6085 Hard Soft All All Wire, plasma Wire Corrosion resistance, heat protection High conductivity and machinability Friction and scuff resistance Corrosion resistance Hardness Spray Method Application

Blends AlSi polyester Soft R15Y 6575 Hard RC 6570 Plasma Plasma, HVOF Abradable seals Wear resistance up to 815 C (1500 F)

Cr2C3-NiCr (nickel chrome/chrome carbide) Intermetallics NiAl NiAlMo

Medium RB 80 Medium RB 80

All All

Bonding Bonding

zinc provides better performance than aluminum in fresh water. Today, AlZn alloys, such as 85/15, are also being used successfully. Piston Rings. The outer diameters of piston rings are coated with wiresprayed molybdenum (Figure 3.3). This produces a hard bearing surface that resists scuffing or scoring on the cylinder walls of automobile engines. The molybdenum (or moly) coating provides protection during cold engine starts because of its low friction against cast iron, and its abil-

Figure 3.3 Piston rings with combustion wire-sprayed molybdenum coatings.

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Materials

ity to absorb oil due to its surface porosity. Tests have proven that molybdenums resistance to scuffing is superior to chrome plate by an almost two-to-one margin. Alloys. Machinery Repair. Type 421, a hard stainless steel, is used in a wide range of machine repair applications. These include repair of lathe bedways, engine crankshafts, pump shafts, and engine pulleys on farm tractors. Previously, these were typically replaced with new parts. Aluminum bronze, an alloy of copper, aluminum, and iron, is used for machine repair and also to provide quality bearing surfaces. This alloy has the necessary hardness to stand up to high loads and speeds, yet is soft enough for use on bushings and wear rings. Some of the many applications for aluminum bronze include repair of pump impellers, automotive transmission housings, and marine pump shafts. High-Temperature Resistance. Thermally sprayed alloys of nickel chromium aluminum yttrium (NiCrAlYs) are used to protect jetengine turbine blades from high temperatures and corrosion. These coatings are also used as high-temperature bond coats for ceramic thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) that are used on jet-engine combustion chambers and blades (Figure 3.4). Blends. Abradable Clearance Control. A blend of aluminum-silicon alloy and special high-temperature polyester powder is applied by plasma spraying to most jet engines to reduce the spacing between the tips of the compressor blades and the inner wall of the engine shroud. During startup and flight, the rotating blades make contact with the coating and cut a groove into the coating (due to abrasion), forming a tight air seal. These kinds of coatings are therefore called abradables. Without these coatings, the engines would consume much more fuel and their overall power would be reduced. The coating that is removed by the abrasion travels

Figure 3.4 Jet-engine combustion chambers and other components with high-temperature thermal barrier coatings.
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Materials Classification

harmlessly through the engine. It does not interfere with the compressor or turbine blades. Jet Engine Repair. Jet or gas turbine engines are routinely repaired during maintenance overhauls with many different thermal spray coatings. One widely used blended material is chromium carbide and nickelchrome alloy. This is a high-temperature coating that survives temperatures approaching 982 C (1800 F). This is an excellent choice for parts that constantly run hot, are being blasted with fine dust, or are subjected to constant, small vibrations (fretting). Some jet or turbine parts that are treated this way are fuel nozzles, flanges, and stator blades.

STOP READING. GO TO VIDEO.

VIDEO CLIP 2: Metallic Thermal Spray Coatings

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Materials

QUIZ 2. Now take some time to check your knowledge of metals, metal alloys, composites, and blends. Check your answers against the answer key in the back of this workbook. 1. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because of: (A) free electrons that move between the atoms. (B) their crystal structure. (C) ionic bonds. 2. A pure metal contains: (A) two or more elements. (B) alloys. (C) only one element. 3. Metal alloys are: (A) blends of powders. (B) two or more types of metal atoms combined together. (C) easily separated into individual components. 4. In thermal spray, composites are referred to as: (A) powder particles that contain one or more finer powder components. (B) powder particles that contain a binder to hold the components together. (C) both (A) and (B). 5. An important application of thermal spray zinc is: (A) high-temperature resistance. (B) piston rings. (C) atmospheric corrosion.

Ceramics
Definition and Physical Properties of Ceramics
Ceramics used in thermal spray are usually chemical compounds of a metal and a nonmetal such as oxygen (Table 3.2). These types of ceramics are known as oxides. In general, ceramic materials can also include cement, clays, and many other common materials. Characteristics of ceramics include: Ceramics are frequently hard (mechanically resistant), yet brittle (crack easily).

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