Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) that are primarily composed of minerals which differ from

their parent materials in their texture, structure, consistency, colour, chemical, biological and other characteristics. It is the unconsolidated or loose covering of fine rock particles that covers the surface of the earth. Soil is the end product of the influence of the climate (temperature, precipitation), relief (slope), organisms (flora and fauna), parent materials (original minerals), and time. In engineering, soil is referred to asregolith, or loose rock material: this is the 'drift deposit' lying on top of the 'solid geology'. However, in horticulture, the term 'soil' is defined as the humic layer of topsoil, or the depth of regolith containing organic material that influences and has been influenced by plant roots and may range in depth from centimetres to many metres. Soil is composed of particles of broken rock (parent materials) which have been altered by chemical and mechanical processes that include weathering (disintegration) with associated erosion (movement). Soil is altered from its parent material by the interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. It is a mixture of mineral and organic materials in the form of solids, gases and liquids. Soil is commonly referred to as "earth" or "dirt"; technically, the term "dirt" should be restricted to displaced soil.

History of the study of soil

The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to our urgent need to provide food for ourselves and forage for our animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils. The Greek historian Xenophon (450-355 B.C.) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green-manuring crops: "But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich the soil as much as dung." Columellas "Husbandry," circa 60 A.D., was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Dark Ages, Yahya Ibn_al-'Awwams handbook guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East with its emphasis on irrigation; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull, an English gentleman, introduced an improved grain drill that systemized the planting of seed and invented a horse-drawn weed hoe, the two of which allowed fields once choked with weeds to be brought back to production and seed to be used more economically. Tull, however, also introduced the mistaken ideas that manure introduced weed seeds, and that fields should be plowed in order to pulverize the soil and so release the locked up nutrients. His ideas were taken up and carried to their extremes in the 20th century, when farmers repeatedly plowed fields far beyond what was necessary to control weeds. During a period of drought, the repeated plowing contributed to the Dust Bowl in the prairie region of the Central United States and Canada. The "two-course system" of a year of wheat followed by a year of fallow was replaced in the 18th century by the Norfolk four-course system, in which wheat was grown in the first year, turnips the second, followed by barley, clover and ryegrass together in the third. The taller barley was harvested in the third year while the clover and ryegrass were grazed or cut for feed in the fourth. The turnips fed cattle and sheep in the winter. The fodder crops produced large supplies of animal manure, which returned nutrients ] to the soil. By the mid-19th century, the Norfolk four-course system was widely adopted throughout Europe.

Soil forming factors

Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological, and anthropogenic processes on soil parent material. Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated, and colloids washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum. As a result, horizons form in the soil profile. These constituents are moved (translocated) from one locale to another by water and animal activity. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons. How a soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil. They are: parent material, climate, topography (relief),organisms, and time. When reordered to climate, relief, organisms, parent material, and time, they form the acronym CROPT. An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock, which would produce the purely mineral-based parent material from which the soil forms. Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate, under heavy and frequent rainfall. In such a condition, plants become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient-bearing water that carries dissolved minerals from rocks and guano. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mycorrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time.

Physical properties of soils

The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance, are texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and resistivity. These determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held in the soil. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil particles, called soil "separates": sand, silt, and clay. Larger soil structures called "peds" are created from the separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, and silica with the organic constituent humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures.

Texture

Soil types by clay, silt and sand composition as used by the USDA

The mineral components of soil, sand, silt, and clay determine a soil's texture. In the illustrated textural classification triangle, the only soil that does not exhibit one of those predominately is called "loam." While even pure sand, silt, or clay may be considered a soil, from the perspective of food production a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is considered ideal. The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40% sand, 40% silt and the balance 20% clay by weight. Soil texture affects soil behaviour, in particular its retention capacity for nutrients and water. Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical weathering; clay, on the other hand, is a product of chemical weathering but often forms as a secondary mineral precipitated from dissolved minerals. It is the specific surface area of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic charges within them that determine their role in the cation-exchange capacity of soil, and hence its fertility. Sand is least active, followed by silt; clay is the most active. Sand has its greatest benefit to soil by resisting compaction and increasing porosity.

Structure
The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt, and clay forms aggregates and the further association of those aggregates into larger units forms soil structures called peds. The adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays, and silica, and the breakage of those aggregates due to expansion-contraction, freezing-thawing, and wetting-drying cycles form soil into distinct geometric forms. These peds evolve into units that may have various shapes, sizes and degrees of development. A soil clod, however, is not a ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance. The soil structure affects aeration, water movement, conduction of heat, resistance to erosion and plant root growth. Water has the strongest effect on soil structure due to its solution and precipitation of minerals and its effect on plant growth. Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or destroyed by our choice and timing of farming practices.

Density
Density is the weight per unit volume of an object. Particle density is the density of the mineral particles that make up a soil, i.e. it excludes pore space and organic material. Particle density averages 3 approximately 2.65 g/cc (165 lbm/ft ). Soil bulk density, a dry weight, includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume. A high bulk density indicates either compaction of the soil or high sand content. The bulk density of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g/cc (for comparison water is 1.0 g/cc). A lower bulk density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the influence of soil texture and structure.

Porosity
Pore space is that part of the bulk volume that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter but is open space occupied by either air or water. Ideally, the total pore space should be 50% of the soil volume. The air space is needed to supply oxygen to organisms decomposing organic matter, humus, and plant roots. Pore space also allows the movement and storage of water and dissolved nutrients. There are four categories of pores: 1. Very fine pores: < 2 microns 2. Fine pores: 2-20 microns 3. Medium pores: 20-200 microns 4. Coarse pores: 200 microns-0.2 mm

Consistency
Consistency is the ability of soil to stick together and resist fragmentation. It is of rough use in predicting cultivation problems and the engineering of foundations. Consistency is measured at three moisture conditions: air-dry, moist and wet. The measures of consistency border on subjective as they employ the "feel" of the soil in those states. A soil's resistance to fragmentation and crumbling is made in the dry state by rubbing the sample. Its resistance to shearing forces is made in the moist state by thumb and finger pressure. Finally, a soil's plasticity is measured in the wet state by moulding with the hand. The terms used to describe a soil in those three moisture states and a last state of no agricultural value are as follows: 1. Consistency of Dry Soil: loose, soft, hard, extremely hard 2. Consistency of Moist Soil: loose, friable, firm, extremely firm 3. Consistency of Wet Soil: non-sticky, sticky or non-plastic, plastic 4. Consistency of Cemented Soil: weakly cemented, indurated (cemented)

Temperature
Soil temperature regulates seed germination, root growth, and the availability of nutrients. Soil temperatures range from permafrost at a few inches below the surface to 38C (100F) in Hawaii on a warm day. The colour of the ground cover and its insulating ability have a strong influence on soil temperature. Snow cover will reflect light and heavy mulching will slow the warming of the soil, but at the same time they will reduce the fluctuations in the surface temperature.

Color
Soil color is often the first impression one has when viewing soil. Striking colours and contrasting patterns are especially noticeable. The Red River (Mississippi watershed) carries sediment eroded from extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils. Mollisols in the Great Plains of North America are darkened and enriched by organic matter. Podsols in boreal forests have highly contrasting layers due to acidity and leaching. In general, color is determined by organic matter content, drainage conditions, and the degree of oxidation. Soil color, while easily discerned, has little use in predicting soil characteristics. It is of use in distinguishing boundaries within a soil profile, determining the origin of a soil's parent material, as an indication of wetness and waterlogged conditions, and as a qualitative means of measuring organic, salt and carbonate contents of soils. Color is recorded in the Munsell color system as for instance 10YR3/4.

Resistivity
Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current. The electrical resistivity of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in contact with the soil. Higher moisture content or increased electrolyte concentration can lower resistivity and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. Soil resistivity values typically range from about 2 to 1000 m, but more extreme values are not unusual.

Soil water
Water affects soil formation, structure, stability and erosion but is of primary concern with respect to plant growth. Water is essential to plants for four reasons: 1. It constitutes 85%-95% of the plant's protoplasm. 2. It is essential for photosynthesis. 3. It is the solvent in which nutrients are carried to, into and throughout the plant. 4. It provides the turgidity by which the plant keeps itself in proper position. In addition, water alters the soil profile by dissolving and redepositing minerals, often at lower levels, and possibly leaving the soil sterile in the case of extreme rainfall and drainage. In a loam soil, solids constitute half the volume, air one-quarter of the volume, and water one-quarter of the volume, of which only half will be available to most plants.

Classification of Soil in INDIA

Alluvial Soils
Alluvial soils come from the silt that washes down into rivers. Found by rivers and nearby areas that flood, "alluvium consists of silt, sand, clay, and gravel and often contains a good deal of organic matter," according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. This fertile soil ranges from tan and coarse textured in the upper sections of rivers to dark and very fine textured in the delta areas. India's farmers grow cotton, jute, rice, sugarcane and wheat in alluvial soil, which is rich in potash and humus, but with a low phosphorous and nitrogen content, according to WiZiQ.

Vertisols or Black Soils

Vertisols, or black soils, have high clay content, and a high ability to retain moisture. Vertisols range from dark grey to black and develop cracks in the summer. Unlike alluvial soils, black soils lack organic matter, but like alluvial soils, Vertisols have low amounts of phosphorous and nitrogen. However, Vertisols have a great deal of iron, lime, calcium, alumina, carbonates and magnesium. Farmers grow cotton, groundnut, millets, oilseeds, rice and wheat in Vertisols.

Red Soils
Red soils are more sand than clay and do not retain moisture. Red soils form from the weathering of old crystalline rocks and this soil is slightly acidic. Like alluvium and Vertisols, red soils are poor in phosphorous and nitrogen. Red soils are also low in lime but have iron and a small amount of humus. Farmers grow groundnut, millet, potatoes, rice, sugarcane tobacco and wheat in red soils.

Laterite Soils
Laterite soils are formed when temperatures are high and there are wet and dry periods with high rainfall during the wet periods that leaches silica, but leaves iron and aluminum oxides behind, which is known as Laterite, according to WiZiQ. When exposed to air the brown to yellowish soil becomes hard, making it a good building material. Cashew, coconut, coffee, rubber and tea trees grow in the soil, which is rich in iron and poor in lime, magnesium and potash.

Desert Soils
Desert soils are porous and coarse being 90 percent sand and 5 percent clay, with a low moisture content. This soil comes from weathering and wind deposit. This soil is rich in nitrates and phosphates but lacks nitrogen. Drought resistant crops such as barley and millet grow in desert soil.

Mountain Soils
Mountain soils range from sandy to loamy in texture and are formed from organic matter from forests deposited in the slopes of hills. Farmers grow coffee, spices, tea and tropical fruits in it.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

Saline and alkaline soils are also sandy to loamy in texture but they contain salts, like calcium, magnesium and sodium and this infertile soil type is not suitable for agriculture.

Peaty and marshy soils were formed by an accumulation of organic material in humid areas, but this black soil is very acidic and heavy. Peat bogs and marshes are not used for agriculture.

Different Types of Soil

Soil horizon

A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Each soil type has at least one, usually three or four horizons. Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance) and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. coarser or sandier than the horizons above and below.

Layers
Soil generally consists of visually and texturally distinct layers, which can be summarized as follows from top to bottom:

O) Organic matter: Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form. A) Surface soil: Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer eluviates (is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents. When eluviation is pronounced, a lighter colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A-horizon is regarded as a "biomantle". B) Subsoil: This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation. C) Parent rock: Layer of large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds .

O horizon
The "O" stands for organic. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic material in varying stages of decomposition. The O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain decomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of rotting leaves), and O2 horizons containing only well-decomposed organic matter, the origin of which is not readily visible.

P horizon
These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The P designation comes from their common name,peats. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O Horizons. This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation.

A horizon
The A horizon is the top layer of the soil horizons or 'topsoil'. This layer has a layer of dark decomposed organic materials, which is called "humus".The technical definition of an A horizon may vary, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. "A" Horizons may be darker in color than deeper layers and contain more organic material, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or sesquioxides. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs.

E horizon
E, being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In regions where this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation e (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain gravels, due to animal bioturbation, a stonelayer commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon

B horizon
The B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil", and consists of mineral layers which may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminium oxides or organic material moved there by leaching. Accordingly, this layer is also known as the "illuviated" horizon or the "zone of accumulation". In addition it is defined by having a distinctly different structure or consistency to the A horizon above and the horizons below. They may also have stronger colors (is higher chroma) than the A horizon.

C horizon
The C horizon is simply named so because it comes after A and B within the soil profile. This layer is little affected by soil forming processes (weathering), and the lack of pedological development is one of the defining attributes. The C Horizon may contain lumps or more likely large shelves of unweathered rock, rather than being made up solely of small fragments as in the solum. "Ghost" rock structure may be present within these horizons. The C horizon also contains parent material.It forms the framework of the soil.The A and B layers are formed by this layer.

R horizon (bedrock)
R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.

Soil contamination

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree ofindustrialization and intensity of chemical usage. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil.[1] Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts ofgeology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modeling skills, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

Causes
Soil contamination can be caused by: Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents) Application of pesticides and fertilizers Mining Oil and fuel dumping Disposal of coal ash Leaching from landfills Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil.