A study of colour perception

and its corelation to scientific phenomena

Sumegha Mantri . Semester 5 . Exhibition design

National Institute of Design 2008
Index
Content

1. Sensation and perception

2. Sense of vision

3. Properties of perception and colour perception

4. Theories of colour perception.

5. Studies in colour perception

5.1 Noughts and crosses
5.2 Tangents
5.3 Brightness contrast
5.4 Volume colour
5.5 Nature of brown
5.6 Scale

6. Bibliography
1. Sensation and perception Steps in perception [trickle down, siphon up]

To sustain, all forms of life have to survive in their immediate
context. The knowledge of this immediate context is acquired by
the sensation and perception of the surrounding environment.
Human sense organs and their sensations.
Information from the environment trickles down the neural
system, is filtered and analysed, till it reaches the ‘inference’
stage, where ‘synthesis’ happens over the substrate of the
information. These synthesized ideas are ‘siphoned’ back into
the environment as physical actions or manifest themselves as
new ideas.

STIMULUS

Eyes : Vision Input of raw information

Ears : Hearing CHANGE IN TRANSDUCTION

ENVIRONMENT
Converting raw information
into neural signals.
Tongue : Taste

Nose : Olfaction [smell] Steps in perception

Skin : Touch ACTION PROCESSING

Channelizing the neural signals

Fig1.1: Five human senses. COMMAND FOR PERCEPTION

ACTION
1st level of meaning making

Sensation: The process of intake of information from the

environment through the sense organs is called sensation.

Perception: the process of converting these ‘sensations’ into the SYNTHESIS

RECOGNITION
‘richness of experience’ is known as perception. It is a very Generation of new ideas,
thoughts, physical actions. 2nd level of meaning making.
quick process that happens in our neural channels. Recording, matching with the
brain library. Infering.

Fig 1.2: Steps in perception.

2. Sense of vision
Out of the five human senses, our sense of vision has the Light is the external stimulus that activates the visual system
biggest role to play in the way we perceive our environment. [the eyes] and it carries information about the visual world.

Incoming optic array

light energy, structured Optic nerve
pattern of light reflected connects the eye and the brain
by the environment.

SENSATION TRANSDUCTION PERCEPTION >> INFERENCE

Retina
A thin layer of light sensitive Photoreceptors
nerve cells [photoreceptors] Rods [illumination sensitive]
at the back of the eye. Cones [colour sensitive]

Fig 2.1: The visual system

Colour vision Colour is therefore, a sensation created by our visual system.

Our sense of vision helps us perceive physical forms, depth and Different wavelenghts of light creating different sensations of
motion in our environment. Colour is an inherent part of colour.
normal human vision. Besides aesthetic enhancement, colour
vision empowers us to differentiate, associate and to make Visible spectrum
meanings. It is a tool for ‘perceptual organization.’ It is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum that activates
our visual system.
However, the colours that we see are not actually physically
present in our environments. Neither is the light reaching our
eyes coloured.
“The rays to speak are not coloured. In them, there is nothing else than a certain power and
disposition to stir up a sensation of this or that colour.”
- Isaac Newton in his book ‘Optiks’ Fig 2.2: The visible spectrum
3.Properties of perception and colour perception
Properties of perception. Colour primaries

(a) Relativity of perception. Those colours, which when combined with each other in
We do not perceive absolute values, we perceive differences and different proportions, would effectively yeild all the other
relative values. For example, we comprehend how high a colours.
building is, by observing it against the height of a man
standing beside it.
Additive primaries [Projected light, spectral colours]
Colours of light are additive. Starting from darkness
(b) Perceptual constancy.
(absence of light), each subsequent addition of these colours
Inspite of the large scale variations in the energy variation
produce progressively lighter colours.
reaching our senses, the perceptual world remains fairly
constant. For example, a man in the distance appears small,
If the three primaries [Red, Green and Blue] are mixed in
but we perceive him to be of normal height. We don’t perceive
equal proportion, then they create white light, as shown in
the man to be growing as he approaches us from a distance.
fig.3.1[a].
Our perception of colour also have the above properties

(a) Lightness constancy

Our perception of whiteness, blackness or grayness of an object
remains constant no matter how the illumination changes.

This is because,
1. We do not perceive absolute values, we perceive differences. Fig.3.1[a]: additive mixing of light. Fig.3.1[b]: subtractive mixing of pigments.

2. Regardless of the intensity of illumination, the percentage of

incident light reflected by a given surface remains constant
(b) Colour constancy
A colour is perceived as the same, regardless of changing light
conditions.For example, a given red colour is perceived as the
same red in a well lit and a dimly lit situation, and not as a
lighter or a darker red.
Subtractive primaries [pigment colours]
Starting from white, each addition of these colours subtracts
light and produces progressively darker colours.
If the three subtractive primaries, Cyan, Magenta and
Yellow are mixed equally, then they produce black, that is,
an absence of light, as shown in fig.3.1[b].
4. Theories of colour perception.
Trichromacy theory
[Thomas Young and Helmholtz]
The trichromacy theory states that
The retina processes colour information separately from
luminance information. Physiologically, the retina has two
types of photoreceptors, rods for luminance perception and
cones for colour perception
Colour vision is a result of three different photoreceptors for
the three primary colours - red, blue and green.
Connecting the trichromacy and opponent-process
theories.
The trichromacy theory operates at the retinal, receptor level,
[sensation] whereas the opponent-process theory operates at a
neural, output level [transduction and after]
The trichromacy theory explains how we sense colour and our
physical ability to sense colour. The opponent-process theory
explains how the ‘sensed’ colour information is encoded and
processed by the neural channels.

]
Retina: sensation
photoreceptors: rods + cones
A combination of responses of all three cones enables us to see
the ‘colour gamut’* that we see. Transduction Trichromacy
theory

The Opponent-process theory Optic nerve

[Ewald Hering 1858]

]
Neural channels
The trichromacy theory explained many observations, but left opponent-process coding
a few areas unaddressed. Ewald Hering pointed out that
Opponent-process
Yellow, which is supposed to be a combination of red and green
theory
was actually perceived as a primary colour, not as a greenish
red or a reddish green.

He therefore proposed a six colour system of visual perception. Fig 4.1: connecting the Trichromacy and opponent-process theory.

Yellow-blue, red-green and black-white pairs of colours, which

generate the entire colour gamut by an ‘opponent-process’. The opponent-process theory explains

For each pair, activation of one member inhibits the opposing - Simultaneous brightness contrast [afterimage in complement colours]
member. - Pairwise loss of colour in colour blindness.
- The primary ststus of yellow, despite there being no yellow cone.

* colour gamut: The entire range of colours that a device can

perceive and reproduce.
5. Class studies in colour perception
5.1 Noughts and Crosses

Mode: paint and brush technique + coloured paper

Given a x x y cm canvas, and three geometrical

shapes: a square, a triangle and a circle, compose
a ‘colour arrangement’ using these three shapes;
where the colour assigned to each shape remains
the same, but its position differs (remember
playing noughts and crosses?).

The colours to be used are red, blue and yellow.

Apply stroke and fill separately, against two

different backgrounds – white and black.
Choose which background to apply in either case.

The size of the circle and triangle, are to be

dictated by the square, whose sides measure 20cm.

Materials: 90 x 90cm canvas board, acrylic paints

(R, B, Y), brushes, plastic jar, turpentine

Discussion: Luminance, Brightness, Lightness,

Hue.
Noughts and Crosses: assigning colours to the shapes
Fig 5.1.1[a]: assigning colours to the shapes
Observations
Yellow has a higher luminance value, and
therefore, stands out the most on black,
due to the high contrast of the pair.
Hence, its used in the form of a triangle,
which has the least area of all the three
shapes.
Blue, being of lesser value, almost merges
with the black background. In the form
of the circle, it stands out relatively more,
as compared to the triangle and the
square respectively. This is probably
because of the continuous smooth shape
of the circular form.
Inferences Selected combination
Colours are never perceived in isolation, but
always ‘in relation to’ their context. In this
case, the interaction of the background and
foreground and the forms of the coloured areas
influence the perception of colour.
As the light intensity, 'lightness' of the
background and the foreground become
equal, the perceived boundaries of the forms
vanish. This is seen with yellow against a
white background and blue against a black
background.
Therefore, text in a colour of equal
lightness as the background becomes
difficult to read. Fig 5.1.1[b]: The assigned colours.
Stroke and fill
Observations
The perception of the colours and their forms as
strokes on the white background is hindered.
Especially that of the yellow of the triangle. In
comparison to this, strokes are clearly perceived
against the black background.

Filled colour forms of red and yellow stand out very

brightly against the black background. On the white
background these filled forms appear more balanced,
and easier to perceive.

Inferences
The white background reflects more light than the
coloured areas. To balance out this effect, the area
of colour required on the white background
is more. Hence, the colour filled shapes are more
visible than the strokes on the white background.

The black background reflects the least amount of

light as compared to any of the colours. Therefore,
strokes on the black [with much less colour area] are
easier to perceive than those on white.

For the same reason, the red and yellow filled

shapes stand out on the black background [the
lightness of the coloured area is not balanced by that
of the background.]

Stroke on black. Fill on white.

Fig 5.1.2: stroke and fill compositions on white and black backgrounds.
Final outcomes

Fig. 5.1.3: The final compositions.

The previously stated observations varied according to the brightness of the hues
chosen by the class. For example, a brighter yellow stood out more on the black
due to greater contrast, as compared to a less bright yellow.

Terms and their definitions

Hue: It is the property of colour defined by the wavelength of light associated
with that colour.

Brightness: It is the colour intensity of a given colour.

Lightness: We see light reflected off an object, or light coming directly from
the object [luminous bodies]. ’Lightness’ refers to the intensity of light coming
from an object. Image from the class display

‘Luminance' is a measure of this intensity. It is the proportion of incident light

that is reflected .
5.2: Tangents

Mode: paint and brush technique

You are required to form a composition

using once circle and five tangents, where
each element (line or circle) is assigned
one of the following colours – brown, pink,
cyan, purple, orange or grey.

You can vary the following parameters:

the diameter of the circle, the lengths of
the lines, and the weight or thicknesses
of the lines.

Materials: 60 x 40cm canvas boards,

acrylic paints (brown, pink, cyan, purple,
orange, Grey), brushes, jars, turpentine

Discussion: Cultural naming of

colours, 11 + 1 = 12 colour set
 Composition

Fig 5.2.1[a]: Deciding the composition Fig 5.2.1[b]: Deciding the colours of the composition

Fig 5.2.2: The final compositions of the class.

Observation Inference
As evident from the pictures above, some of the compositions were more successful Composition and colour are not separate entities, but are inherenlty dependent on each
than the others. Some of the compositions were balanced and interesting as compared other. The probability of a composition being successful is greater if it has been composed
to the others. in colour, instead composing first and adding the colours as a second layer.
Tangents: discussions
We are able to perceive thousands of different colours. Our visual system is also
capable of noticing subtle differences in colours. However, we have only limited
number of colour names.

Research shows that all the colours that we can distinguish, can be described by using
the colours red, yellow, blue, green and their combinations [Abramov & Gordon, 1994;
Hurvich, 1981].

Cross-cultural studies [Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, 1969] show that, although cultures
vary in the number of terms they use to address colours, the sequence of colours being
named in the language follows the sequence shown below.

Purple

white Green Yellow

Pink

Red Blue Brown

Orange
Black Yellow Green

Gray

Fig 5.2.3: sequence of naming of colours across cultures

All cultures use equivalent names of black and white, followed by red, yellow and green
[ or green and yellow], then blue followed by brown. The other colours are added later.

These 11 colours [black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, orange, pink, purple and gray]
form the basic colour set.
When Cyan is added to the above set, the 12 colour set is formed.

Images from the class display

5.3: Brightness Contrast

Mode: paint and brush / coloured paper / digital**

Given a x x y cm canvas, paint two squares, whose sides

measure 20cm each. The squares are to be painted green.
One of these squares is to be placed against a black
background.

Consistency is a key over here, as the hue of both squares

needs to be as identical as possible.

The use of coloured paper is well suited to this exercise.

Repeat the exercise with the colours red, blue, yellow,

black and white.

Materials: 25 x 30cm canvas boards, green acrylic paint,

green, black and white coloured paper sheets

Discussion: Brightness contrast, simultaneous

brightness contrast, colour constancy,
opponent process theory
Brightness contrast

It is the phenomena by which, a given hue

is perceived differently, when placed
against different backgrounds.

Observations
The perceptual green is a hue of green with
a little yellow. 100% green 100% red

Hues appear darker when placed against a

light [white] background and brighter when
placed against a dark [black] background.

For some hues, this perceived difference in

brightness is very stark [eg. Red and yellow],
for other hues, its relatively less.

This difference in brightness is least for

green. Hence, it is said that across the visible
spectrum, green maintains good brightness 100% blue
Perceptual green*
contrast.

Simultaneous brightness contrast: when we The after-image effect [simultaneous

stare at a hue for a very long time, and then
shift our focus to a blank area, the
complementary hue is seen in the place of the
original hue. For example, staring at green
shows red as the after-image.
Inferences
Perceived pure hues are different from the
actual hues. This difference is very subjective.
brightness contrast],essentially represents an
an instantaneous adjustment of the visual
system and produces dramatic effects in colour
perception. It is a psycho-physiological
phenomena explained by the oppenent-process
theory, which says that colour information is
encoded as opponent pairs [complementary
colours]. If one member of the pair is fatigued,
the other automatically fills its place.
100% yellow

The background subtracts its own light from

the foreground. This is why a given hue
appears darker on a light background and
lighter on a dark background.

*Subject to individual perception

Text and colour
With text, the concern is legibility. As observed,
the white text on the green and the blue
backgrounds and the black text on the yellow
background are more legible as compared to the
other combinations.

As inferred earlier, when the foreground and the

background are of similar lightness, then their
boundaries vanish. This is seen with the yellow
text on the white background.
In the opposite situation, when the lightness
contrast between the text colour and the foreground
colour is very high [white text on black], the body of
the font seems slimmer, and might also vanish in
some cases.

Both situations make the text illegible due to colour

considerations. This perceptual phenomena is called
‘chromatic aberration’. It is observed in illusion,
at the separation boundaries where complimentary
colours are juxtapositioned with each other.

Image from the class display

5.4: Gradation

Mode: observation, experimentation, workshop

This is a group exercise.

Cut out 2.5cm wide x 10cm high strips from transparency
sheets. Lay 10 strips in arithmetic order i.e. one
transparency sheet in row 1, two in row 2, three in row 3,
etc. Thus, the layering is sequential i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4…10.
Below this row of 10 stripes, create another row. This
time, the layering should follow a geometric progression
i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc.

There will be a distinct difference between the two rows.

The steps in the first row are not visually even, whereas
the steps in the second row should be perceived as
visually even. This phenomena is explained by the
Weber-Fechner law.

Materials: transparency sheets, mdf board, nuts and bolts

Discussion: Weber-Fechner law, logarithm, stimulus

 Observations
When transparencies are stacked, the decrease in transparency of the
stack is directly dependent on the number of elements in the stack.
Steps in the first row [Fig 4a] are not even. They are very gradual, and
there is no difference perceived in the last three steps.
Steps in the second row [Fig 4b] are more even, increasing
proportionately with every step. However, towards the end, the grayness
increases, but not in the same proportion. The increase becomes
progressively less, till a saturation point is reached and there is no
change of colour.
Fig 5.4a: Strips in arithmetic progression
Weber- Fechner law: The visual perception of an arithmetic progression
depends upon a physical geometric progression.

Inference
The observed phenomena only apply to transparent solids and fluids.
The resultant stack is an additive mixture with regard to colour and
a subtractive mixture with regard to light. As the volume of the stack
increases, so does the brightness of the hue and the transparency of the
stack decreases. This attribute is called ‘volume colour’. The effect is seen
commonly in swimming pools, where the water appears ‘more blue’ at the
deeper end.

Fig 5.4b: Strips in geometric progression

saturation
e
curv
t ion
ra
atu
S

Colour

Volume

Fig 5.4c: graph showing the observations.

 5.5 Nature of brown Inferences
The saturation of yellow is brown. Brown is a deep, beep yellow.
The aim was to investigate the nature of brown. Soya sauce, an ebible
deep brown pigment was slowly added to a jar of water, till the water
The phenomena is similar to the one studied earlier - volume colour.
was saturated with the colour of the pigment.
The saturation of yellow follows the same curve as shown in Fig. 5.4c.

Observations The mixture is additive with regard to colour and subtractive with
Initially, the water was a very light yellow. As more of the pigment regard to light.
was added, the colour of the water moved from light yellow to a deep
yellow, and getting deeper, it gradually turned brown and saturated
after a deep brown. There was also a gradual loss in the transparency.

1 2 3 4 5 6

12 11 10 9 8 7

Fig. 5.5a: change in the colour of water as the pigment was mixed.
Explaining the observations Conclusion
The colours yielded by mixing pigments [subtractive mixing] of the
Volume colour is the connecting link between the additive primaries of light [additive primaries, red, blue and green] are the
and subtractive colour systems. Volumes of yellow produce volume colour saturations of the pigment primaries [subtractive
brown, and in that process, the transparency of the system primaries, cyan, magenta and yellow].
is reduced, but not lost.
Therefore, as observed by mixing the pigment and water, and as
explained by fig 5.5b,
Fig 5.5b explains why brown is a deep, deep yellow.
Red + Green = Brown, which is the saturation of yellow.

Hence, it can also be stated that,

Turquoise is a deep, deep Cyan

Yellow light
Green + Blue = Turquoise, which is a saturation of Cyan [fig. 5.5c(i)].
Air

Purple is a deep, deep Magenta.

Red + Blue =Purple, which is a saturation of Magenta [fig. 5.5c(ii)]
Additive mixing of light
red + green = yellow light.

Additive zone Filtered light from the coloured water

Dividing surface
of water and air
Subtractive zone
brown

Red + green
The volume of water
acts like a colour filter

Water Fig 5.5c[i]: mixing of copper

sulphate crystals in water

Light entering the water

Fig 5.5b: explaining why brown appears yellow

Fig 5.5c[ii]: purple potassium

Fig 5.5c: The additive and subtractive colour relationship permanganate crystals dissolve
to give a magenta solution.
5.6 Scale

Mode: paint and brush technique, workshop

Construct a 3m wide x 2m high wall, at a scale

of 1:2. Construct a bench with appropriate
dimensions (width, length, depth, height
from floor), cantilevered from the wall.

Treat the wall as a canvas and the bench as a

band of colour. Paint a square patch above the
bench. This is a conceptual device.

Choose appropriate colours to apply for the

wall, the bench and the square. Ideally, all
colours must be of a different hue.

Materials: timber, canvas, paints

Discussion: colour interaction

The process followed

Fig 5.6.1[b]:The selected composition

Fig. 5.6.1[a]: Composing the bench, the square and the wall, so as to attain a balance.
Composing with colour

A study of lightness of hues

A composition was chosen and 3 different hues of green were
applied on it, in six combinations. The aim was to infer the
relative lightness values of the hues that would be applied
on the elements later. Green was chosen, because,
it maintains good brightness contrast.

The selected composition has the square in the lightest hue,

followed by the bench, which relatively darker than the
square and then the wall, which is the darkest [reflects
least light].

Fig 5.6.2[b]: The selected composition, with the square

as the lightest hue, followed by the bench and the wall.

Fig 5.6.2[a] compositions in green to study the lightness of colours to be assigned to the elements.
Composing with colour

Assigning the hues to the elements.

Based on the study of lightness overleaf,

the following combinations of hues were
tried out, as illustrated by fig. 5.6.3

Fig. 5.6.3[a]: different trials of hues for the elements.

Fig. 5.6.3[a]: different trials of hues for the elements.

Bibliography

- Albers, Joseph, ‘Interaction of colour’, revised edition,

New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975.

- Beck, Jacob, ‘Surface color perception’,

Ithaca Cornell Uni. Press 1970.
- Brian A. Barsky, Todd J. Kosloff, Egon C. Pasztor, Steven D. Upstill,
‘An opponent-process approach to modeling the blue shift of the
human colour vision system’, University of California, Berkley, California,
2004.
- Forgus, Ronald H. ‘Perception: the basic process in cognitive development’,
New York, McGraw-Hill, 1970.

- Fraser, Tom and Banks, Adam, ‘The complete guide to colour’,

ILEX Press, 2004.

- Gibson, James J, ‘The Ecological approach to visual perception’,

London Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

- Goldstein, E. Bruce, ‘Sensation and Perception’,

Mexico International Thomson Publishing, 2000.

- Hering, Ewald, ‘Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne (Principles of a new theory of

the colour sense)’ , translated by Kay Butler, Vienna, 1878.