Classification of Dyeing Auxiliaries according to function : Dyeing Auxiliaries 1.Sequestrant 2.Lubricants/Anticreasant. 3.Pretreatment Chemicals 4.Levelling and Dispersing Agent.

5.Sewuestering, Dispersing and Levelling Agentfor Reactive dyeing. 6.Antifoam. 7.pH Control and buffer system. 8.Desizing Agent 9.Yarn Lubricant 10.Mercerising agent 11.Dyefixing agent 12.Optical Brightener. 13.Soaping Agent / Washing off Agent. 4.5.1 Sequestrant The most undesirable impurities in Fibre, Common salt, Glauber salt, CausticSoda and Soda ash are the di- and tri-valent cations, e.g., Ca ++ , Mg ++ Cu ++ , Fe +++ etc.These ions increase hardness of the process bath and generate iron oxides in the bath.Calcium and Magnesium reacts with alkali and precipitates as a sticky substance onthe textile material, which creates patchy dyeing and discoloration of the fibre. Theferric oxide with cellulose and creates small pinhole on the fibres also damages themachinery by scale formation in the nozzles and base.To overcome these deleterious effects in the scourin g and bleaching bathadequate amount of sequestrant must be used. Sequestrants prevent di-and tri-valentmetal ions, e.g., Cu

++ , Fe +++ , Mn ++ , Ca ++ , Mg ++ etc from interfering with the chemical processing of the textile material. It prevents catalytic damage of cellulosicfibres in bleaching hath during hydrogen peroxide bleaching.48

In Dye-bath Ca ++ , Mg ++ , Fe +++ attack the dye molecules and forms aggregatesof molecules which deposits on the fabric as dye spots and also they prevent

the reaction process. Dye bath sequestrant should be of different strength than that of thescouring and bleaching baths. Because some dyes have metal compounds and if powerfu l chelating agents are used than it will attack the metal compound of dye. 4.5.2 Lubricating / Anticreasant . Wet processing and dye-bath lubricants are used in any operation in whichrope marks, creases, crows feet buffing, abrasion can occur on textiles. In low liquor ratios, full-loaded winches and jets when heavy materials re processed, fiber lubricantis essential. The basic requirement is that is it should from a thin uniform protectivecoating around the fiber to lower the surface friction and flexural rigidit y, thusminimizing the formation of durable creases during high temperature processing. Themost suitable lubricant should have the properties so that it helps to emulsify, it doesnot undergo phase separation with extreme changes in pH and temperature, e.g. it isstable in high temperature and over a wide range of pH; and it should have excellentcompatibility with all the chemicals in treatment bath, Suitable products are relativelyhydrophobic surfactants, many of which also contain a proportion of solubilized or emulsified oil or wax. 4.5.3 Pretreatment Chemical : a.Detergent & Wetting agent for cellulosic fibers. b . O i l s t a i n r e m o v e r c.Hydrogen peroxide S t a b i l i z e r . d.Single0Bath Scouring & bleaching Agent.e . H y d r o g e n P e r o x i d e K i l l e r ; f . B i o p o l i s h . In both 1-bath and 2-bath process, a number of important auxiliaries with specific properties are necessary along with 2basic chemicals, as shown in the blocks below Peroxide killer is used after both processes for eliminating residual hydrogen peroxide.Detergent & Wetting agent or Cellulosic fibres:The purpose of scouring is to reduce the level of fats, waxes, oils, dirt and soforth on the substrate. Apart from the aesthetic benefits of clean fabric, the major technical reason for scouring is to improve the extent and uniform of

absorbency for subsequent processes, especially coloration.I n s c o u r i n g 1 , s u r f a c e - a c t i v e p r o d u c t s f u n c t i o n a s p r i m a r y , r a t h e r t h a n auxiliary agents as the basic requirements are for good wetting power and detergency,the latter property generally including the ability to remove, emulsify and suspend theextraneous matter in the liquor. Not all good detergent s possess good wetting properties; hence a combination of surface-active agents to provide both wetting anddetergency may be preferable. Detergency can be significantly improved with the useo f a d d i t i o n a l c h e m i c a l s u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s b u i l d e r s t h e c h i e f o f w h i c h undoubtedly alkali in the form of sodium carbonate or hydroxide. 4.5.4 Levelling and Dispersing Agent : Unleveled dyeing problems can be of two categories: Gro ss unlevelnessthroughout the material or localized unlevelness e..g. barriness, skitteriness. There aretwo fundamental mechanisms that can contribute to a dyeing.a.Control of the exhaustion dye so that it is taken up evenly. b.Migration of dye after initially unleveled absorption on the fibre.c.Non-ionic agent usually from water soluble complexes with the dye, some degreeof solubilization being involved.d.Ionic agent are primarily dye-of fibre-substantive ; in the former case they tend toform complexes with the dye and there is competition between the leveling agentand the fibre for the dye, while in the latter case the competition is between theleveling agent and the dye for the fibre. 4.5.5 Sequestering, Dispersing and Levelling Agent for Reactive Dyeing : It increases the solubility of dyes and controls the exhaustion of dyes so thatthese are taken up evenly on the substrate. It effectively chelates Ca, Mg ions whichotherwise create while spots on the substrate. It also sequesters other di-and tri-valentmetal ions without impairing the metal complex dyes, and thus yiels uniformly dyedfabric. 4.5.6 Antifoam : Where the present and persistence of foam is a nuisance, defoaming agents or antifoams are used. For maximum efficiency deform

should be added to baths whennecessary.There two groups of defoamers one that is water-soluble surfactants and other i s w a t e r i n s o l u b l e e m u l s i o n s o f s i l i c o n e s o f o r g a n i c - b a s e d t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e defoamers are where the water-soluble compounds are used as vehicles for siliconesof organic emulsions.50 4.5.7 pH Control and buffer system : Many disperse dyes required controlled 4.5-5 and practically all disperse dyesgive good results in this pH range and are much more sensitive to minor changes in pH. Thus there is greater awareness of the actors that not only determine pH but alsohelps to stabilize it against interferences, in particula r, from any acids or alkalies carries over from previous process.A buffered system is necessary for precise control of pH. By the use of thattends to resist changes arising from contaminations entering y way of the substrate of the water supply. 4.5.8 Desizing Agent: Desizing is essentially a part of the scouring process, and rapid removal of sizeis very important in the present trend towards continu ous preparation processes.Starch-based products and especially solubilised starches are still the sizes, mostcommonly used on cellulosic goods. The are most frequently removed y enzymest r e a t m e n t , w h i c h s i n c e e f f e c t i t a f f e c t s o n l y t h e s t a r c h p r o d u c t e n s u r e t h a t t h e cellulosic fibre is undamaged; baterial amkulase id increasingly replacing malt and pancreatic enzymes. The efficiency of desizing is often taken for granted, whereasincomplete of uneven size removal is just likely to be the cause of uneven dyeing or printing as inadequate scouring. 4.5.9 Yarn Lubricant : In the textile industry, a smooth production process is essential for perfectr e s u l t s a n d s m o o t h p r o d u c t i o n n e e d s y a r n a n d

sewing thread lubricants. Yarnlubricant are essentia l for dyed yarn used in modern knitting machine. Th e y significantly improve the slip properties of yarn and sewing thread, increased heatresistance, better sewabilitym, reduced thread breakage and increase the lustre. 4.5.10 Mercerizing Agent : The objective of mercerizing is to oil the cotton fibre, increase its lustre strength and dyeability. Traditionally a cold solution of 25-26% by mass of sodiumhydroxide is used, although better penetration and more even treatment is obtainedwith the more recent hot mercerizing technique. The addition of a wetting agent to them e r c e r i z i n g l i q u o r g i v e b e t t e r p e n e t r a t i o n a n d m o r e e v e n t r e a t m e n t , t h e m a i n requirements being for a combination of stability and powerful wetting action. 4.5.11 Dye Fixing Agent: Properties of a good fixing agent includes good capability with cross linkingagents without promoting yellowing effect; good leveling and migration properties,does not affect the shade, has good affinity for the fiber, stable to steaming and dryheat, and improved all round fastness properties of the fabric or yarn. Fixative isgenerally used after completing the dyeing or in printing paste.51 4.6.12 Optical Brightener : An Optical Brightening Agent (OBA), also called Fluorescent BrighteningAgent (FBA) or Fluorescent whiteners (FW), are strongly fluorescent substance thatemits light in the blue-violet region of the visible spectrum. In the Color Index, OBAor FBAs are classified and are given C.I. number, i.e. they are treated as dyes. When present on a substrate, OBA increase the apparent reflectance of the substrate andmakes it appear whiter than white. To evaluate an OBA it is necessary to apply the product and measure the whiteness, preferably with a spectrophotometer. 4.5.13 Soaping Agent / Washing off Agent :

The important of proper washing after dyeing is pai n f u l l y k n o w n t o a l l d y e r s , particularly the difficulty in washing off the unfixed dye in order to meet the requiredfastness standard. The main functions of soaping agent are to:a) Disperse the unfixed substanted hydrolyzed dyes, and solubilise and emulsify theseinto the aqueous medium and keep these substances in suspension. b ) P r e v e n t r e d e p o s i t i o n o f h y d r o l y z e d d y e s a n d o t h e r p a r t i c l e s o f c o l l o i d a l substance into the textile material.c) Removes the alkaline earth metal ions which have already deposited on the dyedmaterial.d) Prevent the precipitation of insoluble calcium or magnesium salt. 4.5.14 Finishing Chemicals : The Quality of softness is very difficult to define, although it is often confused withonly lubricity. Softness is more than lubricity, but these other attributes are difficult todefine scientifically. The various products used soften are divided into silicone,anionic, non-ionic, amphoteric and reactive types, all of which falls under two basicchemical classes: (a) Fatty acid derivatives and (b) silicon derivatives, by far the mostimportant softness today are the silicon derivative s and fatty acid cationic types;however nonionic softeners is used for textile materials because of its nonyelloweffect and compatibility with OBA. Relevant properties of softeners include aqueoussolubility, exhaustion, durability to washing, and compatibility with other additives tothe textile materials 4.6 Water in the Textile and Carpet Industry Quality of process water is very critical and important for a successful dye and printoperation. Especially water hardness is of importance. Hard water will result in higher usage of chemicals, thickeners and in bad results of dyeing and printing. A water softener is recommended and in any way needed for the water used by the steamgenerator. In case of high concentration of other minerals, elements and impurities itis strongly recommended to use filters, chemicals and other methods to reduce or remove them.52

anionic charge which repels the dyes. Adding salt into the dye bath, it will reduceanionic on the fibers so the dyes can get closer and adsorb into the fibers.Advantage: cheap, easily dyed on fibersDisadvantage: poor wet fastness and some dyes have poor light fastness. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce negative charges on the fibers 2. Water - dyeing media 3. Fixing Agent - enhance wet fastness but usually reduce light fastness Dyeing Conditions: (Exhaustion): dyeing lOOoC x 30-90 mm fixing 6OoC x 20 mm. (Continuous) pad --> dry --> steam --> wash --> soap --> dry Reactive Dyes (Anionic): They can be dyed on cellulosic fibers. The mechanism isnearly the same as described in direct dyes. Advantage: high wet fastness due to covalent bonding (Chemical Bonding) betweenfibers and dyes, easily dyed on fibers. Disadvantage: Expensive. Dyeing Conditions:1. Continuous Process:1.1 Pad-dry-bake This is very easy method for cotton or cotton blends fibers. 1.2 Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical)-Steam This will give brighter and more intense color than method 1.1. 1.3 Pad-batch This will put the goods into the dye solution and squeeze with 2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water and then batch at room temperature for 1-2 days. 2. Exhaustion Process: This method will be used in small factory. Dyeing conditionswill be 40-8OoC for 30-90 mm depending to the types and structures of the dyes. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce negative charges on the fibers2. Water - dyeing media.3. Soda Ash - excite the dye to link with the fibers with

covalent bonding. Therefore,it enhances wet fastness4. Fixing Agent - enhances wet fastness for heavy shade but usually reduce lightfastness. Vat Dye (Anionic when soluble): The dye is named from the container (Vat) that used for rotting the dye with alkalisolution. This crucial process will reduce the dye fr om insoluble to soluble dye(suitable for exhaustion in the cellulosic fibers). Now the manufacturer can synthesizeman-made vat dye. Dyeing Process: 54

1. Dissolve dye into water (insoluble dye)2. Vatting process by reducing the insoluble dye in alkali condition. (Soluble dye)3. Absorb into fibers (soluble dye)4. After dyeing, oxidize the dye with oxidizing agent (insoluble dye)5. Wash and soap the goods Dyeing Conditions:1. Continuous Process : 1.1 Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical): The solution of the dye is prepared without addingreducing agent to ensure leveling dyeing. After that, the goods are passed to chemical bath to reduce the dye into soluble dye and fix within the goods. Oxidizing agent isadded to the goods and converted to insoluble dyes. 1.2 Pad-oxidize-pad-oxidize (many times): This will put the goods into the dyesolution and squeeze with 2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water, oxidize with theair and then immerse into the dye solution again and again to allow the dye penetrateinto the goods. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce the negative charges on the fibers2 . S o d i u m h y d r o x i d e - a d j u s t s p H t o t h e d y e i n g b a t h a n d m a k e s t h e s u i t a b l e conditions for reducing agent.3. Sodium hydrosulfite - reducing agent for the vat dyes.4. Water -

dyeing media5. Oxidizing agents - (Hydrogen peroxide or Acetic acid or Air) oxidize the soluble toinsoluble dye (Sulfur Dye Anionic when soluble) : The dyeing process has the same process as described in the vat dye except that usingSodium sulfide instead of Sodium hydrosulfide. Dyes for Synthetic Fiber:Disperse Dye (polyester, nylon, and acetate) (non-ionic): The dye is named fromless water soluble and normally appeared in dispersion in water. The dye shows nocharge due to the groups presented in the dye molecules. Dyeing Conditions: 1. Insoluble dye in water 2. Less water soluble3. Water insoluble in polyester fibers 1. Exhaustion Process: 55anionic charge which repels the dyes. Adding salt into the dye bath, it will reduceanionic on the fibers so the dyes can get closer and adsorb into the fibers.Advantage: cheap, easily dyed on fibersDisadvantage: poor wet fastness and some dyes have poor light fastness. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce negative charges on the fibers2. Water - dyeing media3. Fixing Agent - enhance wet fastness but usually reduce light fastness Dyeing Conditions: (Exhaustion): dyeing lOOoC x 30-90 mm fixing 6OoC x 20 mm. (Continuous) pad --> dry --> steam --> wash --> soap --> dry Reactive Dyes (Anionic): They can be dyed on cellulosic fibers. The mechanism isnearly the same as described in direct dyes. Advantage: high wet fastness due to covalent bonding (Chemical Bonding) betweenfibers and dyes, easily dyed on fibers. Disadvantage: Expensive. Dyeing Conditions:1. Continuous Process:1.1 Pad-dry-bake This is very easy method for cotton or cotton blends fibers. 1.2

Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical)-Steam This will give brighter and more intense color than method 1.1. 1.3 Pad-batch This will put the goods into the dye solution and squeeze with 2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water and then batch at room temperature for 1-2 days. 2. Exhaustion Process: This method will be used in small factory. Dyeing conditionswill be 40-8OoC for 30-90 mm depending to the types and structures of the dyes. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce negative charges on the fibers2. Water - dyeing media.3. Soda Ash - excite the dye to link with the fibers with covalent bonding. Therefore,it enhances wet fastness4. Fixing Agent - enhances wet fastness for heavy shade but usually reduce lightfastness. Vat Dye (Anionic when soluble): The dye is named from the container (Vat) that used for rotting the dye with alkalisolution. This crucial process will reduce the dye fr om insoluble to soluble dye(suitable for exhaustion in the cellulosic fibers). Now the manufacturer can synthesizeman-made vat dye. Dyeing Process: 54

1. Dissolve dye into water (insoluble dye)2. Vatting process by reducing the insoluble dye in alkali condition. (Soluble dye)3. Absorb into fibers (soluble dye)4. After dyeing, oxidize the dye with oxidizing agent (insoluble dye)5. Wash and soap the goods Dyeing Conditions:1. Continuous Process : 1.1 Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical): The solution of the dye is prepared without addingreducing agent to ensure leveling dyeing. After that, the goods are passed to chemical bath to reduce the dye into soluble dye and fix within

the goods. Oxidizing agent isadded to the goods and converted to insoluble dyes. 1.2 Pad-oxidize-pad-oxidize (many times): This will put the goods into the dyesolution and squeeze with 2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water, oxidize with theair and then immerse into the dye solution again and again to allow the dye penetrateinto the goods. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Salt - reduce the negative charges on the fibers2 . S o d i u m h y d r o x i d e - a d j u s t s p H t o t h e d y e i n g b a t h a n d m a k e s t h e s u i t a b l e conditions for reducing agent.3. Sodium hydrosulfite - reducing agent for the vat dyes.4. Water dyeing media5. Oxidizing agents - (Hydrogen peroxide or Acetic acid or Air) oxidize the soluble toinsoluble dye (Sulfur Dye Anionic when soluble) : The dyeing process has the same process as described in the vat dye except that usingSodium sulfide instead of Sodium hydrosulfide. Dyes for Synthetic Fiber:Disperse Dye (polyester, nylon, and acetate) (non-ionic): The dye is named fromless water soluble and normally appeared in dispersion in water. The dye shows nocharge due to the groups presented in the dye molecules. Dyeing Conditions: 1. Insoluble dye in water 2. Less water soluble3. Water insoluble in polyester fibers 1. Exhaustion Process: 55 1.1 At boil with carrier, this process is suitable for acetate fiber and pale shade polyester fiber dyeing. Carrier is an auxiliary for swollen fiber in order to allow moredyes absorbing in. Now the use of carrier is reduced because it may be a carcinogen. 1.2 At l3OoC without carrier with the high temperature, the dyes will be dissolvedinto smaller molecules and the void in fiber structure will be opened. This will giveheavy shade. 2. Continuous Process

Pad --> Pre-dry (100oC Thermo fixation (18OoC reductionclearing (RC) Printing with Disperse Dyes: With the sublimation property, the dyes can be printed on paper, place the fabric witha printed paper and then using an iron with high temperature pressed on the paper.The dyes will transfer from paper to polyester fiber. This is called Transfer Printing. Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Dispersing Agent - makes the dye solution stable and disperses in the dye bath.2. Acid - adjust pH to the suitable condition for the dye bath.3. Carrier - swell the fiber and dissolve the dye to make the dye getting into fiber.4. Leveling agent - make more leveling dyeing (some will have adverse effect onslower dyeing)5. Water - dyeing media Acid Dye (Anionic): The dye is called acid because it needs acidic dyeing condition.It can be dyed on protein fibers (silk, wool, and other animal fibers) and on polyamidefibers. Acidic condition will give the fibers showing positive charge. As the negativecharge will attach directly to positive charge, and penetrate into the fibers. Dyeing conditions: l00oC x 30-60 mm Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Leveling agent - for levelness dyeing.2. Retarding agent - for inhibiting the dye not attach to fibers too fast.3. Acid - adjust the dyeing condition and make the fibers to show positive charges.4. Water - dyeing media. Basic Dye (Cationic) The dye shows positive charge. Normally, the dye can be applied on wool, silk and poly-acrylonitrile (acrylic).Dyeing Conditions:l00oC x 30-60 mm Dyes Dyeing Condition (pH)Acid (Wool) 2-4, 4-6, 6-8 (depends on types of dyes)Acid (Nylon) 4.5-5.5, on types of dyes)Basic 3.5-4Direct 7.0Disperse (Polyester) 56Disperse (Acetate) 6.5-7.0Disperse (Triacetate) 4.5-6.5Reactive 7.0 (Exhaustion)11.0 (Fixing)56 Textile Auxiliaries: 1. Leveling agent - for levelness dyeing.

2. Retarding agent - for inhibiting the dye not attach to fibers too fast. 3. Acid - adjust the dyeing condition and make the fibers to show negative charges.4. Water - dyeing media.