Chapter 4

Mechanical Translating & Rotational System

4.1 Differential Equation

A differential equation is any algebraic or transcendental equality that involves either differentials or derivatives. Most practical system can be described by using differential equations.

4.2 Electrical Analogs for Mechanical Systems

From a mathematical viewpoint, the descriptions of electrical and mechanical elements are analogous. The advantage of obtaining an electrical equivalent circuit analogous to a mechanical system that one can apply Kirchhoff's Law to write the circuit equation, and hence obtain the transfer function. The motion of mechanical elements can be described in various dimensions as transitional, rotational, or a combination of both.

Electrical network:(Circuit). Let consider the RLC network.

From Kirchhoff method, the classical way of writing equations of electrical network is based on the loop method and the node method.

64 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Fig 4.2-1: RLC electrical network. Let assign the current in the inductor L, i(t), and the voltage across the capacitor C, ec(t), as the state variables, which are directly related to the energy-storage elements of a system. In this case, the inductor is storage of electric potential energy. The state equations for the network: Current in C: C

dec( ) t = i(t) dt

(4-1)

Voltage across L:

dit) ( = -ec(t) - Ri(t) + e(t) (4-2) dt

The state equations in vector matrix form are then written as:

t dec( ) 0 dt dit) = 1 ( L dt

1 0 e () t C c + 1 e t) ( R ( it) L L

Example 4.2-1:
Consider the network shown below. Write the state equations of an electric network.

The state equations of the network are obtained by writing the voltages across the inductors and the currents in the capacitor in terms of the three state variables. The state equations are L1

di1(t) = -R1i1(t) - ec(t) + e(t) dt di2( ) t = -R2i2(t) + ec(t) dt

L2

65 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

dec( ) t = i1(t) - i2(t) dt

Rearranging the constant coefficients, the state equations are written:

R1 t di1( ) L dt 1 di2( ) t dt = 0 dec( ) t 1 dt C

0 R2 L2 1 C

1 L1 1 L1 0

1 i1( ) t 1 t i2( ) + L 0 e(t) 1 0 e ( ) ct

4.3 Mechanical Translational System

The motion of translation is defined as a motion that takes place along a straight line. The variables that are used to describe translation motion are acceleration, velocity, and displacement. Newton's law of motion states:

forces
where M a

= Ma ;

(4-3)

is the mass = w/g. is the acceleration.

1- Mass: A force is acting on a body with mass M.

Fig 4.3-1: A force acting on a mass.

The force equation is written: f(t) = M.a(t) = M

( dv t) d2y(t) = M dt dt
be an

(4-4) element

2- Linear spring:
that

A spring is considered to stores potential energy:

Fig 4.3-2: Linear spring.

F = kx ; where k is the spring constant, or simply stiffness. If the spring is reloaded with a preload tension of T, then:

66 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

F - T =

kx

(4-5)

3- Viscous friction represents a retarding force that is linear

relationship between the applied force and velocity.

Fig 4.3-3: Dashpot for viscous friction.

The mathematical expression of viscous friction is: f(t) = B

dy ( t ) dt

(4-6)

where B is the viscous frictional coefficient.

4- Static friction

represents a retarding force that tends to prevent motion from beginning. f(t) = (Fs) y = 0 . (4-7)

Fs is the static friction coefficient.

5- Coulomb friction

is a retarding force that has a constant amplitude with respect to the change in velocity. The mathematical relation for the Coulomb friction is given by:

dy dt f(t) = Fc dy dt

(4-8)

Fc Coulomb friction coefficient. 6- Gear: This very common element is often identified in terms of its gear ratio n.

Fig 4.3-4: Gears.

n =

d2 T2 2 1 speed of driving gear = = = = speed of driven gear d1 T1 1 2

(4-9)

67 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

The relation T2 = nT1 between the torques arises because the 2 gears have a common contact force, and the torque equals this force times the gear radius.

Spring-Mass-Damper system:

By Newtons law, mx equals the resultant of all external forces on m in the downward direction. To help in determining the signs of the terms in such problems, it is useful to make any assumption concerning the motion for example that the mass is moving downward from x = 0. In that case the spring is stretched, so spring force kx is upward, and hence opposes downward acceleration. It therefore receives a minus sign on the right side of the equation for mx. Since the mass moves down, the damping force cx is upward, and this term must also have a minus sign. The external force f(t) helps downward acceleration, and therefore has a plus minus. The resulting equation is: mx = -kx-cx+f(t)
mx+cx+kx = f(t)

(4-10)

It may have been observed that the effects of gravity do not appear, so that turning the system upside down will not affect the equation. This is done by choosing x = 0 at the position of static equilibrium. The transfer function is: (ms +cs+k)X(s) = F(s) ; with zero initial conditions.
2

X s) ( 1 = 2 F s) ( ms + cs + k

(4-11)

Example 4.3-1:
Given: A Spring-mass-Damper system as shown in fig (4.3-1a) Find: 12The differential equation. The plot diagram. (or block diagram)

68 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Fig. 4.3-1a: Spring-Mass-Damper system.

Solution: 1- write the differential equation.

The equivalent circuit is:

Newton's law: f = ma = m d x

dt 2

m : mass. x : distance. x : velocity. x : acceleration. Hooke's law: fk X ; fk = kX ( k : elastance). ; B is the damping coefficient.

Damping force: fB

dx = B dx dt dt
x1 > x2

At node a:

Consider

= fm1 + fk1 + fB + fk2 = 0

M1

d 2 x1 dt
2

+ k1x1 + B

dx1 + k 2(x1 x 2) = 0 dt

[1 ]

69 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

at node b:

Consider +

x2 > x1

fm2 + fk2 = fa [2]

M2

d 2 x2 dt 2

k2(x2 - x1) = fa(t)

Given

[1] [2]

M1x1 + Bx1 + k1x1 + k2(x1 - x2) = 0 M2x2 + k2(x2 - x1) = fa

Let assume

x1(0) = x2(0) = x1(0) = x2(0) = 0

2- Block diagram:
x1(t) & x2(t) are the output functions; single input function fa(t)

[1]

x1 = x2 = -

k2 B 1 x1 (k1+k2)x1 + x M1 M1 M1 2

[2]

fa( ) t k2 k2 x + M x1 + M2 2 M2 2

70 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Example 4.3-2:
The electrical analog of a carriage on wheels, coupled to the wall through a spring.

a) Mechanical system.

b) Electrical analog.

A mechanical system with movement in one coordinate. of the electrical network, the equation was obtained Kirchhoff's current law at the node v, and is seen to be the equation that would have been obtained by applying principle to the mechanical system. The differential equation for both system is: M

In the case by applying identical to D'Alembert's

d2x + D dx + kx = f(t) 2 dt dt

Taking Laplace transforms of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions, we get the transfer function:

Gs = ()

Xs () 1 = 2 Fs () Ms + Ds + K

Example 4.3-3:
A mechanical system with 2 coordinate movement and its equivalent electrical circuit, where k represents a spring and D1 and D2 represent dashpots.

Solution:

71 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

The equations are obtained by applying Kirchhoff's current law at each of the 2 ungrounded nodes. (sM2 + sD2 + sD1)X2(s) - sD1X(s) = F(s) - sD1X2(s) + (sM1 + sD1 + k)X1(s) =

X 2( ) s s2 M 1 + sD1 + K = 2 2 F s) ( s s ( M 1 + sD1 + K)( 2 M 2 + sD 2 + sD1) s2 D1

4.4 Mechanical Rotational Motion

The rotational motion of a body may be defined as motion about a fixed axis. J is considered as an indication of the property of an element which stores the kinetic energy of a rotational motion. The inertia of a circular disk or a circular shaft about its geometric axis is given by: J =

1- Inertia:

Mr

(4-12)

where M is the mass of the disk or shaft r is its radius.

Fig 4.4-1: Torque inertia system.

When a torque is applied equation is written: T(t) = J(t) = J

to

body

with

inertia

J,

the

torque

d t) ( dt

d 2 t) ( dt 2

(4-13)

As with linear spring for translational motion, a torsional spring constant k, in torque per unit angular displacement, can be devised to represent the compliance of a rad or a shaft when a subject to an applied torque.

2-

Torsional spring:

Fig 4.4-2: Torque-torisonal spring system.

72 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Simple torque-spring system that can be represented by: T(t) = k (t) (4-14)

4.5 Modeling an Armature - Controlled DC Servo Motor

Fig 4.5-1: Armature controlled DC servo motor.

Assumed that the field current is maintained constant and a voltage v(t) is applied to the armature, which has a resistance Ra and negligible inductance. The effect of the application of the input v(t) will be to cause the armature to rotate. ia(t) = ;where vb(t) = backemf = kb(t) and kb is the motor backemf constant. The torque produced by the motor is given by: Tm = kmia and the load torque: TL = J where:
km : motor torque constant. J

1
Ra

[v(t) - vb(t)]

(4-15)

(4-16)

(4-16)

d + D dt

(4-17)

: moment of inertia of the moving parts about the axis of the armature shaft.

D : Damping coefficient due to friction.

: d/dt : angular velocity.

If we neglect losses in the motor, then kb = km, since vbia = Tm.

73 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

The former is the electrical power developed and the latter is mechanical power; from eq.4-15 & eq.4-16

v K b = J d + D K m R dt a

(4-19)

this can be arranged to obtain:

K K Km d 1 D + m b = + Ra JR a v dt J
or

(4-20)

d + = Kv dt
1 = J D + K mK b Ra

(4-21)
Km

where

and

K = JR a

eq.4-21 may be written as:

d 2 d + = Kv 2 dt dt

(4-22)

Taking Laplace transforms:

s) ( K = V( ) s ss + ) (

(4-23)

If the armature inductance, La, is not negligible, it may be taken into account by simply replacing 1/Ra in the armature block by 1/(Ra+sLa).

Fig 4.5-2: Block diagram showing the various relationships in the armaturecontrolled dc motor.

We have neglected the armature reaction in the motor and the voltage drops in the brushes, we have assumed that the frictional torque is linear and directly proportional to the angular velocity.

74 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Example 4.5-1:
The system represented in Fig 4.5-2 shown below has two disks which have damping between them and also between each of them and the frame.

Fig 4.5-3

Find

T(s) ?

Solution:
The mechanical network is:

The torque at each node must add written directly in systematized form: Node1: k11 - k12 = T(t)

to

zero,

the

equations

are

2: -k11 +

[J1D+(B1+B3)D

+ k1]2 - (B3D)3 = 0 + k2]3 = 0

3: -(B3D)2 + 1 2 3

[J2D+(B2+B3)D

k11 - k12 = T(s) -k11 - (J1s+sB1+sB3+k1)2 - sB33 -sB32 + = 0

(J2s+sB2+sB3+k2)3
s B2 2 J 2s2 + sB 2 + sB 3 + k 2

= 0

3 =

[2]

( 1s2 + sB1 + sB 3 + k1)( 2s2 + sB 2 + sB 3 + k 2)+(sB3)2 J J J 2s2 + sB 2 + sB 3 + k 2

2 = k11

75 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

= T(s) ( 1s2 + sB1 + sB 3 + k1)( 2s2 + sB 2 + sB 3 + k 2)+(sB3)2 J J J 2s2 + sB 2 + sB 3 + k 2

2 [1] 1k1 + k1

In particular, if one uses the force current analogy (or forcetorque for a rational system). The topology of the electrical analog is very similar to that of the mechanical system.

TABLE A
Analogous quantities in electrical and mechanical systems.

Electrical.
Current, i Voltage, V Flux linkages

Mechanical Translation.
Force ,

Mechanical Rotational.
Torque, T
N-m, lb-ft

N, lb

Velocity, v Displacement

Angular velocity, Angular h or displacement,

rad

N
Capacitance. C Conductance,

x
Mass, M
kg, slug

Moment of inertia,

J
Damping coefficient (of dash pot) D or B
N/m/sec, lb/ft/sec

kg-m2, lb-ft/sec2.

G = 1/R
Inductance, L

Rotational damping coefficient friction D or B Torsional compliance = 1/k of spring k N.m/rad

Compliance = 1/k of spring

TABLE B
Relationships between system components. through and across variable for analog

i = C

dv dt

f = M dv dt
= D v = k x = k

T = J

d dt

= G v = 1 N = 1 vdt L L

= D

vdt

= k = k

dt

76 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

4.6 Mechanical Energy and Power

Energy and power play an important role in the design of electromechanical systems. The mass or inertia of a body indicates its ability to store kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a moving mass with a velocity v is:

Wk = Mv2

(joule or N-m ; ft-lb).

(4-24)

For a rotational system, the kinetic energy relation is written:

Wk = J2.

(4-25)

Potential energy stored in a mechanical element represent the amount of work required to change the configuration. The potential energy stored in the spring is:

Wp = ky2.

(4-26)

For a torsional spring, the potential energy stored is given by:

Wp = k2.

(4-27)

The power dissipated in a frictional element is the product of (4-28) force and velocity P = f.v (f = B.v) P = B.v2 Since power is the rate at which energy is being dissipated, the energy dissipated in a frictional element is:

Wd = B

v2 dt

(4-29)

4.7 Damping of a Gear Train

A gear train is a mechanical device that transmits energy from one part of a system to another. Two gears are shown coupled together. The inertia and friction of the gears are neglected in the ideal case considered. The relationships between the torque T1 and T2, angular displacements 1 and 2, and the teeth number N1 and N2. 123r1N2 = r2N1

1r1 = 2r2.
T11 = T23.

If the angular velocities of the two gears, 1 and 2, are brought into the picture lead to:

77 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

T N r 1 = 2 = N1 = 1 = r1 T2 2 2 2 1

(4-30)

When the load is coupled to a drive motor through a gear train, the inertia and damping relative to the motor are important. Since the shaft length between gears is very short, the stiffness may be considered infinite.

Example 4.7-1:
A gear train is represented by:

The following definitions are used: N : number of teeth on each gear. = D : velocity of each gear. na : ratio of

speed of driving shaft speed of driven shaft

: angular position.
The mechanical network for the gear train is:

At each gear pair two torques are produced. For example, a restraining torque T1 is produced on gear 1 by the rest of the gear train. There is also produced a driving torque T2 on gear 2. T1 is the load on gear 1 produced by the rest of the gear train. T2 is the torque transmitted to gear 2 to drive the rest of the gear train. These torques are inversely proportional to the speeds of the respective gears. The block labeled na between T1 & T2
T2 = naT1. The equations are:

78 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

J1D21 + B1D2 + T1 = T J2D22 + B2D2 + T3 = T2 J3D23 + B3D3 + TL = T4
N n a = 1 = 1 = N2 ; 2 2 1

; 2 = ; 3 =

1 na
2 = 1 n b na n b

N nb = 2 = 2 = N4 3 3 3

T2 = naT1 ; T4 = n b T3

The equations can be combined to produce: = J1D21 + B1D1 + (1/na)[J2D22+B2D2+(1/nb)(J3D23+B3D3+TL)] This equation can be expressed in terms of the input position 1 only:

T =( 1 + J

J2
2 na

D 2 2) nanb

J3

1 + (B1 +

B2
2 na

D 2 2 ) 1 nanb

B3

2 + nn a b

This equation represents the system performance as a function of a single dependent variable. An equivalent system is one having an equivalent inertia and damping equal to

Jeq = J1 +

J2
2 na

J3
2 2 nanb

&
Beq = B1 + B2
2 na

B3
2 2 nanb

should the solution for 3 be desired, the equation can be altered by the substitution of 1 = nanb3. Thus system can be generalized for any number of year stages. For the case, where the gear reduction ration is large, the load inertia may contribute a negligible value to the equivalent inertia.

4.8

Mathematical Modeling of DC Motors.

79 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Separately Excited DC Motor.

The circuit diagram of a separately excited dc motor as is shown.

Fig 4.8-A: Model of separately excited dc motor.

The armature is parameters is given: ea(t): ef(t): eb : Ra : Rf : La :

modeled

as

circuit

on

the

variables

and

armature voltage. field voltage. back-emf. armature resistance. field resistance. armature inductance.

ia(t): if(t): ki : kb : TL(t): Tm(t):

armature current. field current. torque constant. backemf constant. load torque. torque developed by motor.

Lf : field inductance.

Jm : rotor inertia of motor.

m(t):rotor angular velocity.

: magnetic flux.

m(t): rotor angular displacement.

Bm : viscous frictional coefficient. The air-gap flux is designated by . The control is applied at the armature terminals in the form of the applied voltage ea(t), and we assume that ef(t) is applied sufficiently long so that the field current if(t) is constant. For linear analysis we assume further that:
1- The air-gap flux is proportional to the field current; that is:

(t) = kf if(t) = kf if = constant.

(4-31)

2- The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the airgap flux and the armature current. Thus:

Tm(t) = km (t) ia(t) = km kf if ia(t) since kmkfif is constant

(4-32)

80 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Tm(t) = ki ia(t)
N-m/Amp , lb-ft/Amp.

(4-33)

where ki is the torque constant in

Starting with the control input voltage effect equations for the system are written:
Ra dia(t) 1 1 t dt = La ea( ) La ia(t) La eb(t)

ea(t),

the

cause-and-

(4-34) (4-35) (4-36)

Tm

ki ia(t)

eb(t) = kb

d m(t) = kbm(t) dt

d 2 m(t) dt 2

B m d m(t) 1 1 = J Tm(t) J TL(t) J dt m m m

(4-37)

Where TL(t) denotes the load torque. In general, TL(t) represents a torque than the motor has to overcome in order to have motion; TL(t) can be a constant frictional torque such as Coulomb friction. The state variables of the system can be defined as m , m and ia not necessarily in this order. By direct substitution and eliminating all the non-state variable from eq.(4-34) eq.(4-35), the state equations of the dc motor system are written in vectormatrix form.

Notice: that is this case TL(t) is treated as a second input in the state equations. The transfer function between the motor displacement and the input voltage is obtained from the state diagram as:

m(s) Ki Ea(s) = L J s3 +(R J + B L ) 2 +(K K + R B ) m as b i a m a m a ms

(4-38)

81 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Fig 4.8-2: Block diagram of a dc - motor system.

The advantage of using the block diagram is that is gives a clear picture of the transfer function relation between each block of the system. Since an s can be factored out from the denominator of eq.(438), the significance of the transfer function m(s)/Ea(s) is that the dc motor is essentially an integrating device between these two variables. This is expected, since if ea is a constant input, the output motor displacement will behave as the output of an integrator; that is, it will increase linearly with time. Although a dc motor by itself is basically an open-loop system., but the block diagram show that the motor has a "built-in" feedback loop caused by the back-emf. Physically, the back emf represents the feedback of a signal that is proportional to the negative of the speed of the motor. The back emf constant kb represents an added term to the resistance Ra and viscous-friction coefficient Bm. Therefore, the back-emf effect is equivalent to an "electrical friction" which tends to improve the stability of the motor and, in general, the stability of the system in which the motor is used as an actuator.

82 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

Exercises
4-1
Given the mechanical (Spring-Mass-Damper) system :

Determine the differential equation

Xs () Fs . ()

4-2

The system below can represent a dynamic absorber, where a relatively small mass m is attached to a main mass via spring k1 and damper c to reduce vibrations x due to force f.

Xs () Determine the transfer function F s ()

4-3

Xs () Find the transfer equation F s for the mechanical system: ()

83 Mechanical translating & Rotational system. 4-4

Determine the transfer function of the mechanical system given where: m: mass , B is the damping factor for linear friction and k is the stiffness factor for a linear spring.

4-6 Determine

the transfer function of the rotating drive system, where c representing a friction coupling, and the torsion spring k the twisting of a long shaft due to torque. Angle 1 is taken to be the input and 2 the output.

4-7

a) Draw the mechanical network. b) Write the differential equations of performance. c) Draw the analogous electric circuit.

d) the parameters have the following values: j1 = 74,150 oz-in2 j2 = 1.0 lb-ft-sec j3 = 1.0 slug-ft2
2

B1 = 8 oz-ft/(rad/sec) B2 =12.8 oz-ft/(rad/sec) B3 = 3.35 oz-in/(deg/sec)

k1 = 8 oz.ft/rad k2 = 8 oz.ft/rad k1 = 8 oz.ft/rad

Solve for 3(t) if T(t) = tu(t)

4.8

a) Derive the differential equation relating the position y(t) and the force f(t). b) Draw an analogous electric circuit.

84 Mechanical translating & Rotational system.

4.9

A d.c. motor is shown schematically in the diagram below. The torque T generated by the motor. J is the inertia of the motor and the load, and B is the total viscous friction acting on the output shaft. Determine the transfer function between the input voltage V and the angular position of the output.

Motor Armature Circuit

Inertia Load