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ANCIENT

HISTORY.

HISTORY

THE

PERSIANS.

ROLLIN,

AND

OTHER

AUTHENTIC

SOURCES,

BOTH

ANCIENT

AND

MODERN.

WITH

TWO

MAPS.

'*S"

OF

THE

UHIVERSIT

THE

RELIGIOUS

TRACT
Instituted 1799.

SOCIETY;

SOLD

AT

THE

DEPOSITORY,

56,

PATERNOSTER
BY

ROW,

AND

65,

ST.

PAUL'S

CHURCHYARD;

AND

THE

BOOKSELLERS.

v^v

Vs.

42*f"

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

CHAPTER

III.

THE

PHYSICAL

HISTORY

OF

PERSIA.
PAGE

HISTORY

OF

THE

POLITY

OF

PERSIA.

PAGE

i.

Western

Provinces
,

2 3
3
".

The The

Kingly Power
Seven State Counsellors

25 29 30 31
33

IX. Central Provinces

in.

Eastern Provinces

The Administrative
The
Government

Power

Gedrosia Carmania Drangiana

Arachosia

of the Provinces

4 5
5 5

Revenue

The The

of the Khalif al Mamoun Military Power

35 38 45 45

Priestly Power

Paropami8us

Artificers
Husbandmen

Hyrcania
Bactriana
Aria

7
7
8 8 8 8
..

Commerce

45

Parthia Persis
Susiana

Mountains
Rivers

CHAPTER

IV.

10
11

Lakes
Climate

11
12

THE

KINGDOM

OF

PERSIA.

Productions

PERSIAN

KINGS.

CHAPTER
TOPOGRAPHICAL
Persepolis
Pasagardae

II.
OF

Cyrus
Cambyses,
or

45

.(
Lohorasp
Magus
or

53 55

HISTORY

PERSIA. 14
21 21
23*

Smerdis

Darius Hystaspes,

Gushtasp

56

Xerxes
Artaxerxes

"3

Longimanu*

?4
77 "
"

Susa
Aria Zarang Maracanda Nisaea
Zadracarta

Xerxes

Soj;diau*|~~.
"anus

2'
24 24 24 24

n.....rJU".....

1 Mnemorftt
1L1SOUiUS, Ul Parab i
Arses

78
86 86

Hecatompylos

Darius Codomannus,

or

Darab

il

87

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Sapor

in.,

or

Schabour
or

Ben

Schabour

108
108 108

CHAPTER
THE
KINGDOM OF

V.
PERSIA.

Varanes

iv.,

Kerman

Schah

Isdegertes,
Varanes
Varanes
v.,

or or

Jezdegard al Athim Baharam Gour, or Jur Jezdegerd

Ben

108 109 no

vi., or or or or

or

Baharam

Peroses,
SASSANIAN

Firouz
Balasch Ben

KINGS. PAGE

Valens, Cavades,

Firouz
,

m
m
\\2

^
Artaxeres, tfr Ardshir Ben

Cobad
Nouschirvan

Babek.

or

Babegan

103
104 105

Chosroes, Hormisdas Chosroes Siroes,

or

Shabour, Hormouz,
Varanes

or or

Sapor

ex., or Hormouz
n., or

Ben

Nouschirvan

115 ne 119

Hormisdas
Baharam
i n in

Chosru

Parviz

I., or

106 106
106

Shironieh
or

Varanes Varanes

n.,
in., or

or
or

Baharam

Ardesir,

Ardeschir Ben
or

Schirouieh Scheheriah

119 119

Baharam

Hormisdas,

Jezdegerd Ben

Narses,

Narsi
or

106
106

Misdates, Sapor

Hormouz Schabour
or

ii., or

Doulaktaf
................

107

A brief sketch of the modern

history of Persia
w"
"....^....

122

Artaxerxes,

Ardschir..

108

Dynasties of the Persians

124

'TJHI

THE

HISTORY

THE

PERSIANS.

these accounts be reconciled? The invasion and conquest of Elam is noticed Jer. xxv. 25, PHYSICAL HISTORY OF PERSIA. THE 26 ; xlix. 34 39, the latter of which prophecies is very remarkable, and reads thus : Persia, called in the Old Testament Paras, " The word of the Lord that came to Jeremiah and by Arabic and Persian writers, Fars, or the prophet against Elam in the beginning it Farsistan, is used in two significations first, : is applied to the country originally inhabited of the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah, saying, Thus saith the Lord of hosts ; by the Persians; and, secondly, to the various " included in the Persian emAsiatic countries Behold, I will break the bow of Elam, pire The chief of their might. founded by Cyrus, which empire extended And upon Elam will I bring the four winds from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and from From the four quarters of heaven, the Black and Caspian Seas to the Persian Gulf And will scatter them toward all those winds ; And there shall be no nation and the Indian Ocean. Whither the outcasts of Elam shall not come. Herodotus says, that the Persians were once For I will cause Elam to be dismayed before their selves called Cephenes by the Greeks, but by themenemies; And before them that seek their life: and their neighbours Artsei, or heroes ; And I will bring evil upon them, which is a proof of that national vanity in which dulge. Even my fierce anger, saith the Lord ; people of different countries are prone to inAnd I will send the sword after them, The latter -word, probably, contains the Till I have consumed them : same Arii, the original name And I will set my throne in Elam, root as of the And will destroy from thence Medes, and Arya, by which the followers of the The king and the princes, saith the Lord. Brahminic religion are designated in Sanscrit. But it shall come to pass in the latter days, The same root occurs in Aria and Ariana, from That I will bring again the captivity of Elam, saith Persian name the Lord." the latter of which the modern Iran, seems to be derived. " Here," says a modern writer,* " the dispersion Commentators on the Sacred Scriptures are of the Elamites is foretold, and their eventual generally agreed that Elam is the Scripture outcasts, and restoration. But who are these, name of Persia till the days of the prophet Daniel. Modern historians also write to this when is their restoration to be dated ?" It is a for too difficult solution, but it is certain effect. Ancient historians and geographers, question that it does not refer to the Persians. This will however, Elymais from distinguish Elam or Persia, and Media, and even Susiana ; and it is be manifest upon a review of itsconfirmation by the prophet Ezekiel. That prophet, enumerating to difficult reconcile this with their opinion who nezzar, the various nations conquered by Nebuchadhold that Elam and Persia are the same, and as, the Egyptians with Pharaoh-Hophra, that wherever we meet, in Scripture, with the Tubal, and all her multior Apries, Meshech, tude, Elam, it signifies Persia. Besides, from name Edom with her kings and princes, the Xenophon's account, before the time of Cyrus, princes of the north and the Sidonians, says of Persia was and comparatively an insignificant Elam :" thinly populated region, containing only 120,000 fit for war, There is Elam, and all her multitude round about her men the which would not make grave, than half a million of persons. population more All of them slain,fallenby the sword, The Scripture account of Elam represents it as a in ages before the empires of " See the " Captivity Jkws," published by of the powerful monarchy the Religious Tract Society. Nineveh and Babylon had begun to rise. How
can
" "

CHAPTER

I.

"

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

Which

into the nether are uncircumcised gone down parts of the earth, Which caused their terror in the land of the living; Yet have they borne their shame with them that go down to the pit. They have set her a bed in the midst of the slain With all her multitude : her graves are round about him: All of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword : their terror was caused in the land of the living, Though that go Yet have they borne their shame with them down to the pit : be slain." He is put in the midst of them that Ezek. xxxii. 24, 25.

conquered the former of these nations was by the united forces of Nebuchadnezzar Elam, therefore, was either a and Cyaxares. province of the Assyrian empire, and, therefore, also became the prey of the conquerors, or it fell before an independent kingdom, which was a province of these conquerors, and became Media, in conformity to Jeremiah's prediction. But the passage in Ezekiel does not harmonize with Xenophon's account of the Persians before the days of Cyrus, nor with that of Herodotus,

Now,

who represents Cambyses, the father of Cyrus, descended from an though ancient Persian family, as inferiorto a Mede of the middle rank. Then again, by Daniel the prophet, Shushan the vince palace, and the river Ulai, are placed in the proof Elam ; or, in other words, in'Susiana. And in the Acts of the Apostles, the Elamites are mentioned along with the Parthians, Medes, ii. the dwellers in Mesopotamia, (chap. 9,) and in a sense which conveys the idea that they It would, perdwelt to the west of the Medes. haps, be safer,therefore,to understand by Elam, not Persia, but the province of Elymais, which extended to the south and south-east of Ecbatana, as far as Susiana,or the whole mountainous Media, of which Corregion of south -western bienno, or the Carbiana of Strabo, now called Khorremabad, was the capital. Strabo makes Massabatica, Gabiana, and Cyrbiana provinces Elymais with of the Elymeans, and conjoins Susiana on the north and north-west. He also to says that Elymais was joined Media, and was a very mountainous country, and that the ElyThis description means were great robbers. agrees with the mountaineers of the modern nizes Looristaun, in the south of Media, and harmorepresents with sacred history, which Chedorlaomer the Elamite, making a predaPROVINCES. L WESTERN tory inroad, with other rulers, as robbers, as S. Talents According to early as the patriarchal era. 1. The Ioniansand Magnesians of Asia, inhabited by the Uxii, Pliny, Elymais was the iEolians, Carians, Lycians, Melyeans,* Mizaei, Parthusi, Mardi, Saitae,Hyi, Cossaei, Pamphylians f400 The Cossaei and Messabatae. Paraetaceni, and These occupied an extent of 450 geographical here are represented as inhabiting part of Media, miles of sea coast in Asia Minor, from conbut by the ancients, generally,they were sidered the Gulf of Adramyttium, and the Troade, The Messabatae, as a people of Media. by Cnidus to Ciliciaon on the north, round also, inhabited the district Mesobatene, which of the east. is a Greek appellation,meaning the midland Mysians, Lydians, Alysonians, 2. The country, or tract between Media and Susiana, Cabalians, and Hygennians 500 and which is probably derived from the Chaldee The greatness of the tribute paid by this, Misa, or middle. was the the smallest of the twenty satrapies, The factsrespecting Elymais and the Elymeans result of the gold and silvermines of Lydia, appear to be these : that a number of tribeswere included together under that denomination, as * These people were probably the same with the Milybeing either the principal tribe that gave name Herodotus speaks. Sometimes they were ans, of whom Minyans, from Minos, king of Crete. to the tract so called, or that they were collec- called tively thus denominated, and that it (Elymais) t Reckoning each talent at 193 J. 15*. See p. 4.
.

included the whole south-west part of the modern Irac Ajemi, bounded by the alluvial district Susiana on the south, and comprehending all the mountain ranges, called the Looristan and Bactiari mountains, a tract almost unknown to Europeans, and terminated by Fars or Persia on the south-east. The terms Elymais and Elydo not occur means, in the writings of ancient historians till after the Macedonian conquest, when they are spoken of as an independent and ferocious nation, neither to subject the SyroMacedonians, nor the Parthians, and altogether from the Persians properly so termed. distinct Persia proper was bounded on the north and north-west by Media or Irak Ajemi; on the south by the Persian Gulf; on the east by Carmania or Kerman ; and on the west by Susiana The extent of this country, acor Khusistan. cording to Chardin's estimate, is as large as France : this,however, forms but a small portion denominated Persia. of what is now This extent of country contained the tribes of the Persae, Pasagardae, Arteatae, Maraphii, and Maspians. Of these the Pasagardae were the noblest, and to the chief clan of which, called the Achaemenidae, the royal family of Persia belonged. In addition to these tribes,Herodotus mentions three agricultural tribes, called the Panthialae, Derusiae, and Germanii; and four tribes, denominated the Dai, Mardi, nomadic Dropici, and Sangartii. The Persae and Pasagardae inhabited the middle part, or what Strabo has happily denominated Cava, or Hollow Persia, corresponding to the vale of Istaker,and the celebrated plain of Shiraz. It is not known what part the Arteatae inhabited,but the agricultural man tribes probably inhabited the quarter near KerCarmania; or the others were mountain tribes. Such was Persia proper : the empire of Persia, as before stated,was of far greater limits. How in the following masgreat it was will be seen terly geographical arrangement of the Western, Middle, and Eastern provinces of the empire, by Major Rennell, who compiled it from a curious In original document, furnished by Herodotus. it will be discerned, also, the annual revenue of this once potent empire, an empire that was master of almost allthe then known world.

HISTORY

OF

THK

PERSIANS.

S. Talents

S. Talents.

and the gold sands of the river Pactolus. The riches of Croesus were proverbial. 3. On the east side of the Hellespont, the Phrygians and the Thracians of Asia, the ans Paphlagonians, Maryandinians,* and Syri360 or Cappadocians 500 4. The Cilicians These four provinces composed the whole of Asia Minor. 5. Phenicia, the Syrian Palestine, and the isleof Cyprus ; from the city of Posidaeum, on the frontiers of Ciliciaand Syria, as far Casius and the Sirbonic Lake, Mount as
350 bordering on Egypt 6. Egypt, and the Africans, bordering on 700 Egypt, as far as Cyrene and Barcae This tribute was exclusive of the produce of the fishery of the lake Mceris, amounting to 240 talents per annum, quisite which was a perto the queen of Persia, says Diodorus, for dress and perfumes ; and also of 700 talents,for the value of Egyptian corn, to Persian and auxiliary supply 120,000 troops, in garrison at Memphis, etc. per, Babylon, including Assyria Pro7. [9.t] and Mesopotamia. .1000 This was one of the most extensive,as it
..... .
.

extended of Herodotus westward to the Euphrates, and southward Masius in Mesopotamia, including to Mount the sources of the Euphrates northwards, Ararat eastwards. This proand Mount vince, in though mountainous, abounded mines of gold and silver,copper and iron, at Argana and Kebban, which will account for itshigh tribute. The Moschi, Tibareni, Ma13. [19.] Mosynaeci, and Mardians 300 crones, This satrapy is a narrow strip of land, casus between the Armenian mountains of Cauand the Euxine Sea. It abounds in iron mines.

The

Armenia

III.

EASTERN

PROVINCES.

Sangartians, Sarangaeans, (of the Sigistan,) Thamanoeans, Utians, and Mencians, (ofCarmania,)ith the islands w of the Red Sea, or Persian Gulf, to which 600 the king banished state offenders The intermediate country of Persia proper, whose principaltribeswere the Arteatae, MasPersae, Pasagardae, Maraphii, and
. .

14. The

pians, were

the richestof the provinces of the empire. Before the time of Cyrus, it was equal to the reckoned, in point of revenue, third part of Asia. 300 8. Susa, and Susiana, or Chusistan Next to the Lydian satrapy, this was the smallest of the whole ; but it contained Susa, at that time the capitalof the empire, deposited. where the king's treasures were
was
.

not compelled to pay any specific taxes, but only presented a regular gratuity.

II. CENTRAL

PROVINCES.

Ecbatana, the rest of Media, the [10.] 450 Parycanii, and the Orthocorybantes Media Proper occupies the midland and elevated tract between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. It was then the central part of the great Persian empire, and from climate, verdure, and richness of soil,the most beautiful of its provinces. It is now sia, the most western province of modern PerMount Zagros forming the common pahan, Isboundary between Persia and Turkey. is the present capital, situate in the north-east corner of ancient Media. 10. [11.] The Caspians, Pausicae, Pan200 timithi, and Daritse, (including Hyrcania) 11. [18.] The Matieni, Saspirians, and 200 Alarodians The Saspiriansoccupied the eastern part of Armenia. Pactyica, the Armenians, etc. 400 12. [13.]
9.
.
.

15. [16.]The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Arians 300 These occupied the mountainous tract between Hyrcania, Margiana, Asia, and the desert of Chorasmia. The Sattagydians, the Gandarii, 16. [7.] Dadicae, and Assarytee of Margiana .170 The Bactrians, as far as Agios 360 17. [12.] Or from Balk to Khilan or Ghilan. The Sacae and Caspii, (or, 18. [15.] rather, 250 Casians of Kashgur) The Paricanii, 19. [17.] and long-haired 400 Ethiopians of Asia These were the Oritae of Alexander and Nearchus, and inhabited Haur, Makran, and other provinces in the south-east angle of Persia towards India.
. ....

7740 total Indians. These inhabited the extensive provinces of Kabul, Kandahar, and Scindia, west of the Indus, and the Panjab,hat rich stripeof coast t 360 talents east of the Indus. They paid (600) in gold ingots, differing,in this respect, from in the other satrapies,whose payments were

The

sum

20. The

silvertalents. Such was the extent of the empire of ancient It spread terror Persia,which is now no more. desolation in the nations around ; to, and worked but those who wielded itspower have long since mouldered in the grave. in the Concerning the financial statement rodotus foregoing extract, Dr. Hales remarks after He" If the standard of the Babylonian : talent,in which the tribute from the firstnineteen provinces was paid, be reduced to the standard of the Euboic talent, the amount will be 9880 silver talents. And if the tribute from the Indians, of 360 gold talents,be estimated at

These

was

people lived on the coast of Bithynia, where Hercules through which said to be the Achcrusian cave, dragged Cerberus up to the light, whose foam then

produced
"

aconite.

That sacred plain, where, as the fable tells, The growling dog of Pluto, strutrgling hard Against the grasp of mighty Hercules, With dropping foam impregnating the earth, Produced a poison to destroy mankind." Dionysius Periegetes.
"

included in the brackets t The numbers of Herodotus original numbers

were

the

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

thirteen times the value of the silver,it will So that to 4680 Euboic talents more. amount total of the tribute paid to Darius was the sum 14,560 Euboic talents." This number of talents, reckoning with Arbuthnot, the Euboic or Attic talent at 193/.15s., a very to 2,821,000/.,hich was w would amount for so extensive an empire. There moderate sum however, a few minor tributes,both from were, dotus these provinces and other nations, which Herodid not reckon : probably these might have total3,000 000/. sterling, hich is w made the sum
a still moderate sum compared with the revenues of modern states. This leads to a review of the several provinces into which the country of Persia was anciently divided, as mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, and other writers,and as marked on the best modern Geographers, indeed, at the present day, maps. from the frequent changes of the limits of the provinces of modern Persia, preserve the ancient division, though, in this respect, also, some changes have been introduced. In our notice of information concerning these provinces, much in, will be blended the condition they are now with that in which they once were.

CARMANIA.

Kerman, occupies the southnow eastern part of Persia, extending along the Persian Gulf, from Cape Iask to a place opposite the island of Kishm, and thence northward to the borders of the desert, of which the cluded adjacentsouthern part is considered as inin this province, and is denominated Kerman, or Carmania the Desert. This part of the province is sandy, and impregnated with salt, being occasionally intersected by short ridges. The remainder of this province, extending more than 200 miles from south to north, but less from east to west, is nearly unknown,
except the tract along the shores of the Gulf, and another tract in the interior, between 29" and 30 n. latitude. That part of the coast east of 57" e. longitude, which lies entrance of the Gulf, is extremely along the narrow mountainous, and the rocks approach The the sea, where they form a lofty coast. valleys among these mountains are well watered, and afford fine pasturage for the flocks. They contain also fine plantations of date and other fruit trees. This is more especially the case where the coast runs south and north, between towns the modern of Sereek and Mi nab, or Between these two places, the mounMinaw. tains recede from the shores, and thus a plain is is formed, which, for itsfertility, termed by the natives the Paradise of Persia. The mountains a large then run northward, and form as it were gulf, receding above fiftymiles from the sea, and then returning to it to the north of Bunder The plain thus formed Abassi, or Gombroon. resembles the sandy tracts called Gurmsir, being

Carmania,

GEDROSIA.

Gedrosia, or Mekran, including the district of the Oritse, extends from the eastern range of the Brahooick mountains that separate itfrom Sinde to Cape Iask on the frontiers of Laristaun, or, from the sixty-eighth degree east longitude, to a degree of the same, the fifty-eighth space containing 120,000 miles. In the eastern part this province does not exceed 100 miles,itbeing 3 separated between 62 and 66" e. longitude from and producing nothing except dates. sterile, desert of Beloochistaun by the northern That portion of the interior of Kerman the which from the Brahooick mounbranch that projects has been visited by modern travellerscompretains hends in 28 n. latitude,called Wushutee, and, the Nurmanshur, a district about ninety also, Much, or the Palm, as that tree grows in miles in length,and from twenty to thirty miles mity great abundance there. The northern extrewide, in which are extensive cultivatedgrounds of the Kohistaun may be called a northern and comparatively small sterile tracts. Two inland of projection this province, reaching to mountain ranges enclose this districton the | has the south and the north, the former of which is of 30" n. latitude. This northern district desert of Beloochistaun on the east, that of Kerconsiderable elevation, and covered with snow on the west, and the sandy waste uran during the greater part of the year. Between of Bunto be the is a the Nurmanshur poor on the south-west. This seems and the town of Kerman desert, with a few oases siderable only sandy waste in Gedrosia, but it is of conof moderate extent : It is of an oval form, and is about the town itself there is a large tract of extent 155 miles long by eighty in itsgreatestbreadth. fertile country. West of the town, reaching to The mountainous district there are numerous of Bushkurd, to the the boundary of Farsistan, east of Laristaun, is also of an oval form, being passes, but they are with difficult rocky ridges 110 miles long by eighty-five in its greatest surrounded with much cultivated ground. In to be any rivers the breadth. There does not appear country, between Kerman and the unknown harbour of Gombroon, and on the road connectof note in Gedrosia: there are some torrents, deep ing these two towns, there is said to be a large and rapid in the rainy season, but almost all dry in summer. cultivated place called Sultan-abad. In the more Gedrosia may be divided into the coast and. parts of Kerman there are several rivers, particularly tract, the interior;the former being a narrow the Andanis, mentioned by Pliny and According to the accounts Ptolemy. of the varying in breadth, and running the whole way but never to Cape Iask, in a wavering direction, its ancients, mountains have mines of copper and Mela said that the province iron. Pomponius receding further inland than 100 miles. This province is represented as very barren. Ptolemy of Carminia did not sustain any cattle; at the " for proplaces here a celebrated emporium, called, The ducing present day, however, it is remarkable Haven of Women," Arrian says was so wool which of the finest sheep which bear some firstgoverned by a woman. called because it was in the world. He also mentions two islands dependent Dependent on this province is the small, but on this province, Astea and Codane. famous island of Orniuz, which lies at the en-

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

dried up, and the whole of Drangiana be merged in the growing desert. very sand on the sea-shore is composed of the This province, which was finestparticlesof iron pulverized by the waves. denominated Drangiana The island contains no fresh water springs, to by Ptolemy, Pliny, and Strabo ; Drangini, Drangi, by Diodorus Siculus; lect remedy which, the inhabitants use tanks to col- and itsinhabitants, from the clouds. was the rain water as itdistils called Zarang, and its inhabitants SaranTavernier says that the air in summer sian was so gaens, by Herodotus, in his account of the PerSatrapies. Subsequently itwas called Nimforced to live in sultry that the inhabitants were rooze, Anciently, it seems a and itisnow called Sigistan, term derived only grots, and liein water. from to have served as a place of retreat to the inas habitants the Sacse, Sacastana signifieshe region of t vasion of the adjacent shores in times of in- the Sacse,who possessed it about the time when At the present day, the Scythians passed the Jaxares and the Oxus, or civil commotion. there is a fortressgarrisoned by 100 men, and overthrew the Greek empire of Bactria, about under 150 years B.C. the directionof the imam of Muskat, who farms nues the island from the king of Persia. His reveARACHOSIA. are derived from the salt, which he exports Respecting the position of this province, little in large quantities. The fortress is situated is known, except that it lay to the south of Canabout 300 yards from the shore, on a projecting dahan, and the valley of the Urghundaub, and land, separated from the island by point of the Turung, or Turnuk ; it is impossible,therefore,
a
or political of ancient writers on this subject, and the researches of modern This province, in the days of itsprosperity, geographers, are alike meagre, vain, and unsatisfactory. one was of the richest inland tracts in the Persian empire, being a vast hollow whole PAROPAMISUS. hills; by mountains space, surrounded and The Paropamisus, Parapamisus, Parapanisus, having on the east those of Arachosia ; on the north, the mountains and tracts of Sebzwar and Paropanisus of the ancients,is the Paropain the nis of the Sanscrit; signifying the mountain 8f probably the Mons Bagous of Ptolemy and of Pahar, a hill, compounded ancient Aria ; on the south, a district ancient springs,or rills, of The province took its Gedrosia, now Panir, or Pan, water. the eastern part of Kerman, from from these mountains, by which it was name which it is parted by a chain of lofty mountains, is debounded. nominated covered with perpetual snow, and which pamisus According to Ptolemy, the province of Paroby Ptolemy Montes Becii; on the In the east from Aria or Heraut, to west, ithas the great desert of Kerman. extended centre of this alluvial hollow is the celebrated the Indus, having Arachosia to the south. The Persia to the lake of Durrah, which in the Persian books is ancients, indeed, generally extended sometimes called the sea of Loukh, and by the Indus, and made the provinces of Paropamisus, inhabitants, Arachosia, and Gedrosia extend in a meridional cording the sea of Zoor, or Khanjek. Acropamisus Paline along the western bank of that stream. to Elphinstone, this lake is 150 miles in bounded north by Bactria, and on but Rennell and other geographers make was circuit, it 100 miles long, and twenty broad. In its the east by the dominions of the Mogul. Ancient centre stands an insulated hill, writers relate, that when Alexander passed this called the Cohee he found the Zoor, which tradition declares to have been country in his celebrated march, tute desticountry for the most part open and plain, anciently a fort,and which, as it is steep and from the trees, and covered with snow, lofty,and surrounded by a ditch of great depth, of Macedonians were exis still place of refuge for some ants posed a of the inhabit- reflectionof which the to great inconvenience, itgrievously affecting the opposite shores. of The edges of the lake of Durrah are for a their eyes; many of them, it is also said, from the excessive cold, which seized breadth choked with rushes and perished considerable those who walked slowly, or ventured to sitdown reeds. The shores, also, are overgrown with dation, vated this kind of vegetation ; and being liableto inun- to rest. This description accords with the elethey are full of miry places and pools of upland of Ghazna, to which Rennell in Elphinstone his map conducts the conqueror. standing water. Immediately beyond these woods

tude, 27" n. latiof the Persian Gulf, near and 56" 30 e. longitude. The form of this island is nearly circular, and its appearance from the sea is broken and rugged. The whole is a mere barren rock, without the slightest trace of vegetation. The surface exhibits the singular stratification the island ; and the conical shape of and isolatedposition of the various small hillsof which the island consistswould convey the idea The its origin to volcanic agency. that it owes hills along the eastern shores of the island are ation covered from their base upward with an incrustof salt,in some places transparent as ice. In other places,the surface is covered with a thin layer of dusky red-coloured earth, which owes its colour to the oxide of iron with which the entire surface of the islandis impregnated. The
trance

of reeds and rushes, the country produces grass, and grain, and tamarisks. The same may be said of the narrow valley through which the Helmund flows. The rest of the country is now almost a desert,affording only forage for camels, and here and there a well for the wandering Belochees, who tend these animals. For the most part, thiscountry issurrounded by wide and dismal deserts, whence every wind brings clouds of a light shifting sand, which destroys the fertility the fields, of and gradually overwhelms the villages. From this cause, the once rich and alluvialtract of Drangiana, which comprehended a surface double that of ancient Susiana, is reduced to a small compass ; and it may be asserted that in process of time the lake will be

moat.

to

say what

were

its physical

DRANGIANA.

limits.

The

accounts

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HISTORY

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" illustrious warriors, says of this climate, Ascending the valley of coronets ; and all the men from Candahar, the cold increases whose girdles are studded with gold ; and nothe Turnuk thing but a wilfulperversity of mind, or corporeal diminishes at every stage,and the heat of the summer infirmity, hinder a person from being cheercan in the same proportion. Even at Keful falls often and lies long, snow lauti Ghiljee and happy in Mazanderan." Such were the delightsthe orientalpoet held and the Turnuk is often frozen so as to hear Now a man. this place is in n. lat. 32" 30', out to his rulers in Mazanderan, in allthe force cania and Kelautee is in the lowest part of the valley of orientalexaggeration. The province of HyrMazanderan was or doubtless a delightful In the high tract south of of the Turnuk. province ; but there appear to have been some that valley, the cold appears to he as great as in any part of Afghanistaun. At Kelaue Abdorrupon itsloveliness.Strictly speaking, .drawbacks Hyrcania comprehended the small tract denomilies four months annually, and nated chem the snow Gurgan in ancient Persia,which signifies, allthat time the rivers are frozen, so as to hear higher, we at last reach Ascending still the land of wolves, from the superabundance of a man. these animals. From this word D'Anville supthe level of Ghuznee, or Ghazna, which is generally poses the Greeks to have formed the name as the coldest part of the plain of mentioned Hyrcania. Sir W. Ouseley states that on entering country in the Caubul dominions. The cold of Mazanderan, he was informed that he would Ghuznee is spoken of as excessive,even by the inhabitants of the cold countries in itsvicinity. find a babr, tiger; a guraz, boar ; rubah, foxes ; ly, For the greatest part of the winter, the people shegkal, ; and a gurg, or wolf. Accordingjackals in the city the very firstthing that he saw, on entering seldom quit their houses ; and even has been known to liedeep a villageof Hyrcania, was the carcase of a, large of Ghuznee the snow tions half an hour before for some wolf, which had been shofjust time after the vernal equinox. Tradihis arrival,and which looked terrible in stroyed prevail of the city having been twice de" by falls snow, in which allthe people death, grinning horribly a ghastly grin ;" thus of " buried." were proving the truth of the poet,that, every where if the pleasures of the chase may be enjoyed," HYRCANIA. such may be termed pleasures. In ancient times, Hyrcania was infestedwith panthers and tigers, Hyrcania, now hends called Mazanderan, compreso fierce and cruel, as to give rise to a proverb the largest and widest portion of the low fierce and unrelenting men, that they along the shores of the Caspian Sea. It is concerning plain fertileprovinces of the Persian had sucked Hyrcanian tigers. The poet Virgil one of the most to this in his iEneid. Representing Dido empire, whether the mountains or the plains refers Travellers passing through the chiding iEneas, he puts into her mouth these are

considered. forests of Mazanderan, pass through thickets words: False as thou art, and more than false,forsworn, rounded of sweetbriar and honeysuckle ; and are surNot sprung from noble blood, nor goddess born, oaks, lindens, and chestnut with acacias, But hewn from harden'd entrails of a rock ! The summits of the mountains are trees. And rough Hyrcanian tigers gave thee suck !" with cedars, cypresses, and various crowned Strabo,who extends Hyrcania as far north as that of species pines. So beautiful is this district, in the hyperbolical language of the orientalsit the river Ochus, says from Aristobulus that Hyrcania was a woody restrial or, the Land of the Terregion, producing oaks is styled, Belad-al-Irem, and pines,but not the pitch pine,which abounded Paradise. Sir W. Ouseley relates,that in India. It has been mentioned as a curious Kaikus, the Persian king, was fired with ambition circumstance, that in Mazanderan an axe used to conquer so fine a country, through the his for cutting is called tabr. Now the Tapyri, or influence of a minstrel, who exhausted all in Tabari, inhabited a district Hyrcania, and if powers of music and poetry in the praise of its be derived from tabr,an axe, itwill this name his strains read thus : beauties: " signify hatchet-men, or wood-cutters, a name Let the king consider the delights Mazanof deran, flourishduring all very appropriate to the inhabitantsof a country and may that country covered with forestslike Hyrcania, and, though eternity; for in itsgardens roses ever blow, and ants restrictedby the Greeks to the western inhabitits mountains are covered with hyacinths even of that province, is equally applicable to and tulips. Its land abounds in allthe beauties those of the eastern part. According to Sir W climate issalubrious and temperate, of nature ; its it is a region of Ouseley, the name of the part in which the Tabari. too cold ; nor neither too warm lived, namely, Tabristan, or Tabaristan, signifies there, in shady bowers, the perpetual spring: the country of wood. lope nightingale ever sings ; there the fawn and anteAccording to Morier, Mazanderan is a modern incessantlywander among the valleys; every ary Persian phrase, signifying," Within the boundis embellished spot,throughout the whole year, This is conlimit of the mountain." or firmed and perfumed with flowers; the very brooks of by Sir W. Ouseley, who says, from Hamto be rivuletsof rose water, that country seem zanderan dallah, an eminent Persian geographer, that Madoes thisexquisitefragrance delight the so much Mawz-anderan, was originallynamed soul. During the winter months, as at allother He says, " The or within the mountain Mawz. seasons, the ground is enamelled, and the banks to Coh-Alburz is an immense mountain streams smile with variegated adjacent of murmuring Bab-al-abwab, (Derbend,) flowers ; every where the pleasures of the chase and many mountains kestan are connected with Alburz ; so that from Tur; may be enjoyed all places abound with money, itforms a range extending in to Hejas, fine stuffsfor garments, and every other article or length 1000 farsangs, about 130 miles, more There all the necessary for comfort or luxury. less; and on this account some regard it as the attendants are lovely damsels, wearing golden
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HISTORY

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PERSIANS.

Its western The wide valleys side, and contain large towns. mountain of Kaf, (Caucasus.) the mountains of Gurjestan, which liebetween the desert and the declivities connected with is (Georgia,) called the Coh Lagzi, (Daghestan,)that form the descent between the table-land of Iran to the low sandy plains of Turan, possess and the Sur a lakaeim relates, that in the Coh Lagzi there are various races of people ; so that a considerable degree of fertility.This isproved by the existence of numerous about seventy differentlanguages or dialectsare and populous are them ; and in that mountain villages,which are frequently ravaged by the used among Turkomans it reaches The latterpeople are ; and when and Kurds. many wonderful objects it Shemshat and Malatiah, (Samosata Melitene,) settledin a very wide and fertile valley,extending in a north-western is called Kali Kala. At Antakia and Sakeliah, from the town of Mushed itis (Antioch and Seleucia,) called Lekam ; there directionfor more than 100 miles,for the purpose Room, from it divides Sham (Asia of protecting the country against the invasion of (Syria) Minor.)When itreaches between Hems (Emesa) the Turkomans ; but notwithstanding this,they frequently themselves lay waste the most fertile it and Demishk, (Damascus,) is called Lebnan, (Lebanon,)nd near Mecca and Medina it is portion of Khorassan. The vicinity of Herat a suppliesassafoetida, nuts, mastic, called Arish. Its eastern side, connected with saffron, pistachio a gum the mountains of Arran (Eastern Armenia)and manna, called birzund,a yellow dye called it Aderbijan,is called Keik, and when it reaches ispiruck, and carroway seeds. The wide and from Mushed Gelae and Cadusians,) Irak, fertile valley which runs to Ghilan, (the and wards, northi and which is in the possession of the (Media,)t takes the name of Terkel-diz-cuh ; it Kurds, is also well cultivated, it reaches Kurnish and is called Mauz when and contains some Westward Mazanderan ; and originally Mazanderan was places of note. of Mushed, near Nishapoor, is the celebrated fortress of Kelat named Mawz-enderan ; and when Alburz reaches From this it Nadiree, " the fortressof Nadir." This fortress Khorassan, it is called Lurry." issituated, appears that Mazanderan signifies the region all according to Frazer, in a valley from to within the mountain Mawz and the Caspian Sea, fifty sixty miles in length, by twelve or fifteen in breadth, surrounded by mountains so steep which lieseast of Ghilan and the Kizil Ozan. is that a little Unlike the rest of Persia, Mazanderan assistancefrom art has rendered them rents, impassable ; the rocks being scarped into the watered by numerous rivers,or mountain torform of a gigantic wall. A small river runs all running from the mountains to the sea. The German traveller Gmelin, who visited this through this valley, and the only pointsof access country a. d. 1771, says that in the space of eight occur and these are where the stream leaves it, and walls, which form no miles, on the road from Resht to Amot, 250 of fortifiedby towers mean barrier. such streams are to be seen, many of them being

exceedingly broad and deep, that the passage is sometimes impracticable for weeks Aria is the modern Heraut, sometimes protogether. In this respect Mazanderan furnishes nounced a strikingcontrast to the waste and barren shores without the aspirate. This province hundred lay to the east of Parthia and the desert of Kerof southern Persia, where for many man, to the north of Drangiana, to the south of miles there is not a stream to be met with deep the western enough to take a horse above the knee. Hence prolongation of the Paropamisan So mild and arisesthe fertility Mazanderan. iange, called the mountains of Saraphi by of humid, indeed, is the climate of Mazanderan, Ptolemy, and to the west of the province of Paropamisus. This province is sometimes called that it permits the growth of the sugar cane, and included the production of good sugar, and that in per- Axiana, but whether this latter name fection four months earlier than in the West more than the province of Aria is by no means Indies. From the lack of art and care, however, agreed among geographers. The situation of Aria corresponds to that of the modern Sejestan, by this giftof nature is not turned to account Strabo the inhabitantsof that province. and the southern part of Khorassan. calls this province and Margiana, the best in the BACTRIANA. whole country. They are, he says, watered by The province of Bactriana comprehended the riversArios and Margos ; the former of which rassan, is described by Arrian as a river not less than what is now called Eastern Persia, or Khoin addition to the country beyond i the Peneios of Thessalia,yet losing itself n the to the present HeriKhorassan, or "the rising ground, and which answers the Paropamisus. sun," Strabo alsoremarks that Aria isabout 160 large part of the great Rud. a extends over desert, and nearly the whole of the mountainous miles in length, and twenty-five in breadth ; but region north of it. According to the Persian this can only be understood as applying to the the whole of principal part of the province, or probably the geographers, it once comprehended tohave northern Persia, as far as the neighbourhood valley of the river Arios, which seems been early celebrated for its fertility.In this the Indus ; that is,nearly the whole of the of to and captain Grant, who plain Heraut is situated, country subject the King of Afghanistan. At the present time, itseastern boundary lies near spent a month there in 1810, describes it as 62" east longitude ; and even the town of Herat watered by an ample stream, as covered with " is to the Afghans, who, however, acknowThe rich and as teeming with corn. villages, ledge subject landscape," he says, " receives additionalbeauty that it belongs to Persia, and annually mosques, tombs, send a present to Teheran in token of this and variety from the numerous In that portion of the desert and other edifices which it is embellished, and by acknowledgment. the mountain slopes by which it is surrounded." which liesbetween Herat and Yezd, many oases The country of Aria is not mentioned by Hero^occur, some of which are of considerable extent,
so

across

HISTORY

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the northern districts. That portion of the tableland which lies southward is less mountainous, and contains several salt lakes. For the most part, thisprovince, though containing many wellPARTHIA. is cultivated districts, nearly a desert, especially It is difficultto define the boundaries of towards the north. Near the boundary line of Parthia proper, as they differedat various times. Khusistan is an extensive and highly-cultivated In the days of Strabo, however, it extended plain. Ainsworth says of the plain of Shiraz. formed of silt on the west as far as Rhagse and the Tapuri, that itis chiefly and mud, deposited to the Caspian passes, and included the districts by waters of inundation. (Kumis) and Choarene (Khuar.) of Komisene SUSIANA. According to Pliny, itwas bounded on the east by the Arii, on the south by the Carmanii This province was bounded on the north by Assyria, on the west by Chaldea, on the east by and Ariani, on the west by the Pratitae Medi, and on the north by the Hyrcanii. In this latter Persia, and on the south by the Persian Gulf. Ptolemy agrees. But the original Thus defined, Susiana nearly corresponds with statement Parthia, as described by Herodotus, was Khuzistan, which comprehends the much the modern less than that described by Pliny and Ptolemy. southern part of the mountains of Kurdistan, It contained, indeed, nothing more than the and that part of the plain of the Tigris belonging is, therefore, naturally to Persia, and which mountainous tract that lay south of Chorasmia and Margiana, east of Hyrcania, and north of divided into two portions. The plain,which is wards After- in the the districts Meschid and Naisabour. of tains possession of the wandering Arab, conit included the district of Comisene, good pasturage in the northern and western districts, which the Bedouin feeds his cattle. on mentioned by Ptolemy, in which districtHecabuilt, and which is The southern and eastern portion of the district tompylos, its capital,was NasrDamghan. is a sandy desert, occasionally intersected by supposed to be the modern oddin-al-Tossi, and other Persian writers as and only cultivatedin some extensive morasses, cited by Golius in his notes on Al-Fargan, state, places on the banks of the rivers,where rice, that this is a vast plain encompassed by mountains, wheat, and barley are raised. There are also and watered by a multitude of brooks of some plantationsof date trees. The mountainous clear salubrious water, which issue from these part of the country contains several plains and mountains. These streams were calledthe waters extensive valleys, among which the valley of Ram Hormuz, of Khosru, because that monarch caused them which is forty miles long, and to be conveyed by aqueducts into the city,and from six to eightmiles in breadth, isdistinguished All and picturesque beauty. would drink no other water in any part of his for its fertility ghan but they are these valleys and plains are fertile, empire. In the orchards and gardens of Damapples are produced, which, from their only partially cultivated. Between the higher beauty, size,fragrance, and taste, were placed on ranges of the mountains and the level plain there is a hillytract several miles wide, which contains the tables of the Parthian sovereigns. It is supposed by some writers that the ancient the most fertile soil in the province ; only the Parthia corresponds to the modern Irak Ajemi. borders of the river, however, are under vation. cultiIrak Ajemi corresponds But this is erroneous. The high mountain ranges in the eastern to the ancient Media Magna, and is at present the part of Khuzistan are in the possessionof Lurish most western sively, province of the Persian empire, tribes,which cultivatethe ground very exten-

the Arii with others,as dotus, but he enumerates into which constituting the sixteenth satrapy Darius divided the Persian empire. See page 3.

Aderbigan and Persian Armenia excepted. It is a larger province than the ancient Parthia, occupying the middle space between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Orosius says that the Media of Scripture was that country generally called Parthia.
PERSIS.

growing large quantitiesof tobacco.

two other provinces of ancient There were Persia, namely, Curdistan and Schirwan ; but as the former corresponds to the ancient Assyria, and the latterto Media, the reader is referred to for their geographical details. those histories
MOUNTAINS.

This province, which is the modern Fars or Farsistan, comprehends almost one half of the a Dushtistan, or " stony district," low, hot, sandy the shores of the Persian stripextending along Gulf, the northern portion of the mountain region of Faristan and Kerman, and the hilly plain which extends north-eastward to the lake of Bakhtegan and the great desert. According to Ptolemy, it was anciently bounded on the north by Media, on the west by Susiana, and on the called Phars. south by the Persian Gulf, now The mountain ranges, which separate the tableland of Iran from the Persian Gulf, are little more than thirty or forty miles wide, but they Between are exceedingly steep towards the sea. Kazerun and Shiraz, the Kotuls Dokhter and Pirazun are to be traversed ; for though Kazerun is situatedon this table-land,several ridges of considerable elevation intervene, especially in

There is no country more mountainous than that of Persia. From the one end of it to the of the omnipotence other, these stupendous monuments of Jehovah point their summits toward the skies. Some of these have passed under vinces notice in the description of the several prorefer the reader to ; for the rest we delineated. the map, whereon they are distinctly It will be sufficientto state here, that many and serve of them are situatedon the frontiers, as natural ramparts to this vast region, and that it is very probable they may contribute in the interior to make the country wholesome, by sive the valleys under them from excessheltering heat. At the same time, they are far from being advantageous ; for many of them yield but a neither springs of water nor metals, and

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are shaded with trees. Besides, they make idea of the great altitude of Persia. Pottinger travelling a most laborious and difficult task. says that itis here 8000 feet,but there are other This may be seen by the following passage from geographers who think his estimate too low, and Pottinger's Journal, which refers to a branch of add 2000 more, making it 10,000 feet above the " level of the sea. Nor does this appear to be Being unprovided the Brahooick mountains. " with a barometer," he says, or other instrument exaggeration, for 500 feet of descent, at least, calculated to mark the perpendicular height of should be allowed for each of the six passes, and Kelat, as the most elevated spot of the Brahooick that number is by far too low an estimate for the mountains, it is only by a comparison of facts level of the desert. Another passage from Pottinger's Journal that I am prepared to offer my sentiments on this head. Although the obliquity be not visiblein offers itself still illustrative the mounas more of tainous " features of Persia. After quitting the immediate vicinityof that capital, yet to the " southward we found a very marked one in places Gurruck," says he, seven miles north-west of amounting to steep denies and hills for a day's Kelat, our road lay through a mountainous and barren country, and we ascended two lukhs, or journeyt a time, (after a ascending the Kohunwat, defiles, or one southern pass from Luz to Kelat, passing by of them particularly hazardous, the Khosdar and Soheraub,) untilwe reached Rodinjo,rugged path not exceeding two feet wide, and, on an the left, twenty-five miles south of Kelat. Hence to abyss at least a quarter of a mile Gurruck, seven miles north of Kelat, the slope deep. Next day, we passed a miserable night from the cold, which was so intense,that, unprois undistinguishable. But in travelling from vided Gurruck to Nooshky north-west, we crossed six as we were clothing or beds, it with warm loftylukhs, or passes,whose descent to the northimpossible to sleep ; and we were was ward unable to make invariably double, and, on one or two was the least attempt to move, until nine began to operate, o'clock, when the sunbeams occasions, fourfold the ascent on the southern We then face. The differences of these and, literally accumulated speaking, renovated us. and by five o'clock had proceeded alone would be equal to a very great declension ; mounted, thirty-one miles, the intermediate country and yet after we had got to the bottom of them, bleak and barren than in sight of the great sandy desert,we being, if possible,more and came had passed yesterday, and the path found ourselves prodigiously elevated above its that we We had several lukhs, or equally winding. surface,and a seventh lukh, or pass, remained to be descended, the declivity of which was the last of which I conceive apparently passes,to surmount, double to that of all the others. Even worthy of a minute detail,as it would seem, on the edge of the desert, to then we were on an elevated plain,(whenarrived from its situation, able have been intended by nature as an insurmountthe at the foot of this last pass,) waters of which, barrier to these elevated regions, and is, when augmented by the rains or melted snows defileI wards beyond all comparison, the most difficult amongst the neighbouring mountains, escape toin any country. It is separated have ever seen the sea by various outlets in the province Kelat, or from the on the south-east side from (theancient Gedrosia) sive with excesof Mekran ravine, velocity. The temperature of Kelat, also, other mountains, by a deep and narrow to prove its amazing serves the sides of which are solid black rock, and elevation. That nearly perpendicular. Emerging from this part city, and the neighbouring district,though than five degrees and a half removed by a rugged path, we ascended the south-west scarcely more from the summer or the torrid face of the pass,from the top of which the desert solstice, to a most zone, are rigorous winter, burst upon our view, extending as far as the eye subjected in the vales, from the end of could reach, with the resemblance of a smooth lies, even and snow from the reflectionf the sun on the sand. November till he beginning of February. Snow ocean, t o has been known to fallfifteen days successively The emotions of my fellow-travellerand myself in the month of March at this place. Rice, and were, at this instant, the most enviable nature. of certain other vegetable productions that require On descending the north-western side of the lukh, which cost us nearly five hours, it being warmth of climate, will not thrive here; and tered wheat and barley do not ripen so soon as in the eleven miles long, and extremely steep, we enBritish isles. From a philosophical estimation the bed of a river between the mountains, itis inferible and on a level with their bases, which led us out of all these concurrent particulars, The last into the desert by innumerable mazes. that the extreme the Brahooick altitude of half mile of our route was through the bed of the ranges mountains is not inferiorto that of some Recent dis- river Kyser, which, though deep and rapid during, coveries esteemed the highest in Europe. teach us to look to Asia as the seat of the rains, is often quite dry in the hot months of the most sublime and stupendous pileson the face May, June, and July. At this time, when we feet deep, and of the globe. Judging from the eye of the lukh. crossed it,itwas from two to three The only shrubs we or pass, nearest the sandy desert, and comparing six or seven yards across. itsapparent altitude, length, and steepness, with saw to-day were some scraggy bushes of the Fartree, and some nesian mimosa, here called the babool of the ghauts, or passes of India, of whose height I am apprised, I should pro- in the river great quantitiesof tamarisk. One nounce ascertained literally itsheight to be 5000 feet above the sandy of the mountains which we crossed was desert If we add to this one half for the other studded with bulbous roots, similar to those of grance, beginning to bud, whose frathat were six passes between that spot and the city of tulips, I was as Kelat, and grant the desert, as the base of the assured, would, in another 500 feet above the month, be perceptibleto a great distance. The whole, to be elevated of itself level of the sea, it will produce an aggregate of grass called by the natives kusheput, or desert 8000 feet." From this the reader will gather an grass,also abounds here, and is collectedby the

few

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Brahooes, as winter food for their cattle. It grows in bunches, or tufts, with thick coarse stalks, leaves long and serrated, and is very sweet and sians nutritious. The camel-thorn, called by the Perkhare shootoor, is also to be seen here, but as not so plentifully in the lower tracts." Ainsworth, speaking of the general geological features of the rocks in Persia, says : " The most remarkable feature in the rocks of Kurdistan is, the invariable compactness and hard texture of the limestone rocks ; but this only obtains in the stone ; mountain districts for, as the indurated limeEuphrates, becomes a on of Rum-Kalah, so soft chalk, with many fossils, the limestone of the westerly ranges of the Persian Apennines becomes, on the plain of Musul, soft,pliable, and redolent with the shells of Trachelopodous Mollusca, and Menomyairous, and Dimyairus Conchifera."

purposes of irrigation. Besides this river, the Ajiand the Jaghatu demand a passing notice. These rivers,each running about one hundred Both of miles, fallinto the lake of Urumiyeh. them are extensively used in the irrigation the of valleys through which they flow, and also the There are many plain of Urumiyeh. rivers which drain the mountains of Kurdistan, and its numerous valleys. Three of these,the Diayalah, t which joinshe Tigris below Bagdad, the Kerkhah, which fallsinto the Shat-el-Arab, and the Karoon or Kuran, flowing into the same, run between two and four hundred miles. "The rivers," says Ainsworth, "which may be considered as forming the hydrographical basin of Khusistan are, the Kerah, the Ab-i-zal, the Kuran, the Jerahi, and the Indigan. These rivers,however, are, like most of the rivers of Persia, insignificantwhen compared with the Tigris, or Euphrates. They were but as pools of water, thinly scattered over the landscape." to To remedy Persia, it has been said, is subject two this defect, as necessity is the than counterbalance mother of invention, extraordinary efforts were great inconveniences, which more the excellence of itsclimate, and the made in ancient times to irrigatethe lands by Wheels were fertility its soil; means. so constructed as namely, the want of trees and of artificial There is not a navigable river in the to draw up the water from such streams as lay water. : nearest, and conveyed it over the fields and an wide range of country between the Tigris and ingenious contrivance was formed of connecting the Indus, and, in many parts, even a well is a rare and valuable possession. The table-land of successivewells by subterranean conduits, called khanats in Persia, and cauraizees in AffghanisIran, with the mountain ranges which surround it on the north and south, is very sparingly tan. Polybius says of such, as constructed in

Media : " There are rivulets and springs underground watered. The southern mountain ranges are too bare and low to attract sufficientoisture to form ; but no one except those that know the m But the frequent revolutions country can find them." perennial streams, except in a few places. The have to which Persia has been northern mountains give rise to a great number subjected, from time to time demolished these useful conas they enter the trivances of water courses ; but as soon courses, ; and these water of which which they plain, the small volume of water trict there were not less than 15,000 in the inner disand only a pour down is absorbed in irrigation, in a state of compaNishapoor, are now few streams reach the desert, where they are rative of neglect. Zoroaster's precepts to plant quickly lost in the dry and thirsty soil. It is " " in the table-land of Azerbigan, and in the convey water to the dry useful trees," and to only Kurdistan, that there is a good lands," have long been unheeded, though he annexed mountains of " He," says this The riversof Ghilan and Masalvationto the pursuit. supply of water. founder of the Magian faith, "who sows The the zanderan are very limited in their courses. most considerable river in Azerbigan is the Sefi ground with care and diligence acquires a greater Rud, or White River, which is also known by stock of religiousmerit than he could gain by the Turkish name of Kizil Ozien. This river repeating ten thousand prayers." This it was Kurdistan, south of that inspired the ancient Persians, under the riseswithin the mountains of Sassanian dynasty, to perform these great works, 36" n. lat, and traverses the most mountainous a flourishing state of districtof Azerbigan ; running a circuitous the result of which was for about one hundred first corded course, and great national prosperity,as reagriculture, east-north-east Marcellinus, and by Curtius, Ammianus distance northward. miles, and then about the same When near 37" 30' n. lat, itbreaks through other ancient writers. But the Mohammedan cates live,inculfaith, under which the Persians now the western chain of the mountains of Massula, far differentprinciplesto these. Under its and turns to the south-east for about eighty hammedans, withering influence,the Persians, like other Momiles,draining the valley between the two ranges are At the western exthings Massula mountains. satisfied ith what good w tremity of the labour for posterity. by of the Elburz range, it is joined the they find,and care not to it They look upon life, has been said,as a great Shahrud, which drains the valleys in the river road, wherein men ought to be contented with western portion of the Eiburz mountains, and Reposing in flows onward about one hundred miles. After such things as fall in their way, : its junction the Kizil Ozien flows carnal ease, they forget the duties of life and with thisriver, ture about thirtymiles in the narrow valley separating hence it is,that the flourishingstate of agriculthe Elburz mountains from the Massula ranges which once existed in Persia is nowhere to depends, on the east, and enters the plain of Ghilan, be traced at the present day ; so much in temporal matters, upon the principlesof On even through which it passes to the Caspian sea. the table-land of Azerbigan, the bed of the Kizil the religion a nation professes. Chardin thinks, Ozien is generally many hundred feet,and someto inhabit this country, it that if the Turks were times be more impoverished than it is ; a thousand feet below the country : would soon adjacent to or Parsees were hence itsstreams can whereas, if the Armenians nowhere be used for the

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its masters, it would be restored to its extreme breadth. The water, in the deepest ancient fertility. part, is four fathoms, but the average depth is The manner in which The these subterraneous only two fathoms. shores of this lake courses be dis- shelve so gradually, that this depth is rarely atwere cerned water constructed, may tained in the following account which Elphinwithin two miles of the land. The water is much are stone gives of those in Affghanistan, which salter than that of the ocean, and its " The next conas in Persia : preciselythe same specific trivance gravity is such, that a vessel of 100 tons for obtaining water," he says, " is the burden issaid not to draw more than from three to four feet. A gale of wind, moreover, sort of conduit which is called a cauraiz, or cahraises in Persia, the waves It is known by the same rees. name only a few feet, and they subside but is there most frequently called a kaunat, or into a calm as soon has passed. as the storm khanat. It is thus made : The spot where the This lake receives many streams, but it has no water is to issue must be always at the foot of a outlet. Besides the lake of Urumiyeh, there is another and the ground must be slope extending to a hill, By examined, to ascertainwhether there are springs, of great note, namely, that of Bakhtegan. some the spot and in what directionthey lie. When geographers, the lake of Bakhtegan is confounded is fixed,a very shallow well is sunk, and another with the salt lake of Shiraz, whereas the distance up the western of greater depth is made at some extremity of the Bakhtegan lake is full slope. A succession of wells is made in this thirty-sixmiles north-east of the south-east extremity gan manner, and connected by a subterraneous passage of that of Shiraz. The lake of Bakhtefrom well to well. The wells increase in is the reservoir of all the streams of Hollow Persia, or those that irrigatethe vales of Mordepth as the ground ascends, but are so managed, clivity them, has a de- gaub, Istaker, and Kurbal. At the present day, that the passage which connects it is generally called Deria Niriz, or Lake of towards the plain. Many springs are Niriz : by ancient geographers itwas discovered during this process, but the workman called the stops them up, that they may not interrupt his lake of Bakhtegan, from a ruined village east of " these operations,until he has finished the last well, Kheir. Ebn Haukel says of it: Among he opens the springs,and the water rushes is the lake of Bakhtegan. Into this flows the when through the channel, rises in the wells to the river Kur, which isnear Hhekan, or Khefan, and itreaches nearly to Zahek in Kirman (Carmaheight of its source, and is poured out from the lowest into a water course, which conducts it nia.) The extent of this lake is twenty farover the cauraiz, or conduit sangs, nearly eight miles, in length ; and the the fields. When is completed, the wells are of no further use exand on the borders are wild cept water of itis bitter, beasts of various kinds, such as lions, leopards., to allow a man to descend occasionally to The distance between or tigers, clear out the channel. and others ; and the region of this lake, the wells varies from ten yards to 100. It is which belongs to the kuveh (district)Istakr, of (Persepolis,) usually about fifty. The dimensions of the comprises several villages." Hamdallah Mastowfi says, that in its vicinity are than necessary to channel are generally no more are tracts of soil impregnated with salt; that its much allow the water to work, but some Subzewaur, larger. I have heard of one near length is twelve, its breadth seven, and its circumferenc in Persian Khorassan, through which a horseman acthirty-four farsangs. These counts were might ride with a lance over his shoulder. The written about a. d. 950. To the to have been unnumber of wells, and, consequently, the length of ancient writers the lake seems known, for itis neither mentioned by Strabo nor the cauraiz, depend on the number of springs Curtius, nor others who mention the expedition met with, as the chain is generally continued, either tillwater enough has been obtained, or of Cyrus ; nor is it spoken of by the Greek or convenient it is On this account till the wells become so deep as to render itin- Roman geographers. to proceed. I have heard of various marked on some of the maps of ancient countries " lengths, from two to the ancients." The same as unknown miles to thirty-six, but I length was be said of the lake of Shiraz, or, as it is should suppose the usual under the may It may be supposed This shortestof these measures. called by Hamdallah Cazvini, Mahluiah. latterlake, itmay be added, extends to within six that the expanse of so laborious a structure must be great; but the rich are fond of laying out miles south-east of Shiraz,being from twenty to on their money these means twenty-five miles long, and twelve parasangs, of bringing waste land into cultivation, uncommon or and it is by no means nearly forty-eightmiles in circumference. for the poor to associateto make a cauraiz, and to divide the land which it irrigates Cauraizees are common in all As might be expected, in so vast an extent of amongst them. the west of the country, and their numbers are country as Persia, the climate is very varied : but of one on the east on the increase. I know some parts, indeed, are wintry cold, while others time of the of the range of Solimaun, which is at Tuttore, in are parched with heat at the same They are in use over The plain of Ghilan and Mazanderan Damaun. all Persia, as year. This arises they have been in Toorkistaun ; but they are now possesses a climate peculiar to itself. from the circumstances that it is below the sea neglected in the latter country, even their name level ; that it has a vast expanse of water to the is not known in India." north ; and that itis enclosed on the south by a LAKES. high range of mountains. The plain has a rainy In the month of September, The most considerable of the lakes of Persia and dry season. heavy gales commence, is that of Urumiyeh, or Shahee, which is more which impel the clouds than eighty miles long, and about twenty-six in against the mountain wall of Elburz, and the rain become
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by appalling descends in torrents, accompanied The thunder-storms. rain continues in the plain to the middle of January, but on the slopes about of the mountains itis converted into snow the beginning of November, and the quantity It is said to rise in many that fallsis enormous. from one to two fathoms, and to carry places away houses and even villages. In summer, though rains are not so frequent, the air is very
moist, and the plain is generally enveloped in vapour and fogs,which engender fevers and other is oppressive. diseases. The heat at this season One very remarkable feature in the climate of this plain is, that sometimes in winter a hot

southerly wind springs up, which changes the temperature in an instant to such a degree, that wood and other inflammable substances are dried up, so as to render them liableto ignitefrom the smallest spark. Sometimes this wind lasts only a quarter of an hour, but, generally,twenty-four oppressive. hours. It is followed by a gale from the northThe great dryness of the air in this part of east, it from thunder and earthand rain ; by the natives Persia exempts which brings snow quakes. itis called the Bagdad wind. It is probably to In the spring, indeed, occasionally but they do not appear to this air that Tavernier alludes, when he asserts showers of hail fall, stantly The rainor that the Persians are sometimes destroyed in- be common, nature. of a severe bow, by a hot burning south wind. that grand ethereal object, that But notwithstanding this climate is so extraordinary, Shoots up immense, and every hue unfolds, it produces a luxuriance of vegetation, In fair proportion, running from the red between the tropics. The met with even rarely To where the violet fades into the sky," tracts along the shores of the Caspian swampy Thomson,
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greater, which is supposed to occasion the superior fertility those districts, of where especially be promoted the vegetation can by irrigation. The lack of this moisture renders the central part of the table-land of Persia a desert, and from this cause, the oases within the desert are fit for plantations of fruittrees, than for more the cultivationof grain.* The plain surrounding Teheran, which is near the northern edge of the table-land, and not far from the foot of the Elburz range, was, when Frazer visited it in November, covered with snow Mo; and when to rier was there in March, ice was still be seen. The mild weather does not commence before April, when the transitionfrom cold to heat is At sunrise the thermometer very sudden. it rises stands between 61" and 64", but at noon to 75", and in the afternoon a hot south-eastern wind generally blows, which renders the heat

abound with saline plants and canes, which employed in building and for domestic purposes. israrely seen in Persia, because there are not Not far from the shores begin the forests, ever, it. By night, howto form vapours sufficient the whole plain, and extend there are seen the phenomena which cover of rays of to a considerable elevation up the slopes of the lowed light shooting through the firmament, and folhills. These forestsare surrounded by orchards, The winds, by apparent trains of smoke. frequently brisk, seldom plantationsof mulberry trees, and fieldsof rice. though swell into The orchards produce figs, peaches, apricots, storms, but they are tious sometimes extremely infecpears, apples, plums, and cherries. The vine is on the shores of the Gulf. also cultivated hare, and the pomegranate tree grows wild. The principal occupations of the PRODUCTIONS. peasants of Ghilan are the raisingof silk, and the cultivationof rice. Much may be gathered from the foregoing The climate of the low sandy tract along the Persia : as, is distinguished for its great heat pages concerning the productions of Persian Gulf however, many have not yet been mentioned, it it abounds with and aridity. On this account is deemed desirable to enumerate the whole, as date trees, which only bear eatable fruitwhere ferent far as our information extends, under their difDuring the sumthese circumstances concur. mer kinds. heat, it is extremely unhealthy. So oppressive Trees. The fruittrees of Persia are managed is the heat, indeed, that the inhabitants generally in many places they to the leaving with considerable skill,and retire mountains, adjacent are distinguished for their excellent fruit, which only a few poor creatures to watch their effects, furnishes no mean article of internal trade. do so at the expense of their health. who These fruitsare apricots, peaches, apples, plums, In the interiorof the table-land of Persia, the figs,pomegranates, is hot in summer, in winter. pears, nectarines, quinces, climate and cold mulberries, currants, cherries, almonds, walnuts, In this part however, the air is dry, and the sky Vine plantations are extensive, and pistachionuts. cloudless. This produces great purity of element, by the Christian but wine is only made which is the chief blessing the Persians population. Dates ripen only in Gurmsir, and in enjoy this part of the country. They derive some of the lower valleys in the mountains of from thence a clear and florid complexion, and Forest trees do not occur, Kerman. except on an In the summer, it excellent habit of body. the northern declivityof the Elburz mountains. but the heat is mitigated by a seldom rains; large tracts of the mountains of The oak covers brisk wind, which blows during the night, so that the traveller may proceed on his journey by * Tavernier remarks, that the Persians are so sensible the light of the glittering nience. stars without inconvethe fertilizinginfluence of the snow, that they examine In the winter, the air is not so dry in of is done very curiously how high it rises every year. This four leagues these parts. A considerable quantity of snow by setting a stone on the top of a mountain between from Spauhawn, two and three feet high, over falls and yet not so much as to render the ; soil much joy. The peasant rises it causes which if the snow fit for maintaining constant vegetation. Near who first brings the news of such an event to court, is the mountain is much ranges the fall of snow rewarded for his pains by a considerable present.
are
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ia

in melody and softness with the unfolding of their favourite flowers; verifying the song of ' King of the forest ; their poet, who says : When the charms of the stern, sublimely great; Majestically bower are passed away, the fond tale of the Laughing to scorn the wind, the flood,the flame; " nightingale no longer animates the scene.' And e'en when withering, proudly desolate." The roses Persia are of various kinds. of There is the usual rose-coloured flower, white, It does not even grow to the size of a common trees of Persia red, or deeper red and yellow are mixed, that is, timber tree. The most common are the plantane, red on one side, and yellow or white on the and coruil, called by willow, fir, tree produces flowers the Arabs, seder, and by the Persians, couar. other. Sometimes one The tree which bears gall nuts, grows abundof three colours, red, red and yellow, red and antly in Kurdistan ; and those which produce white. Besides the rose, most of the varieties flowin most gums, mastich, and incense,are common of ers in Europe are also known in Persia. Many, parts of Persia; the latter more especially in Carmania Deserta. The tree bearing manna, to Europeans, are is also, unknown abundantly also frequent, and so is the tamarisk, a species of scattered abroad. From September to the end is covered of April, the province of Mazanderan which likewise produces manna. Grain. The most usual crops in Persia are with flowers as with a rich embroidered carpet. tiers rice,wheat, and barley; but there are also mil- Towards Media, also,and on the southern fronlet, are adorned with tulips, a (Holcus of Arabia, the fields m sorghum,)aize, tel,or sesamum, anemonies, ranunculuses, etc., all growing sponspeciesof vetch, and several kinds of pease and taneously. beans. Rice is the general aliment of the PerIn other places, as in the neighboursians, hood for which reason they are very careful in of Spauhawn, jonquils grow wild all the itscultivation. It is, indeed, in that country, winter. The province of Hyrcania, however, boiled, and more ers, sooner deliciousto the for the beauty, variety,and quantity of itsflowsofter, taste, than that grown in any other part of the excels the rest of Persia, in this respect, as much as Persia does the rest of the world ; an world. idea of which has been given in the notice of Cucumber Plants. Under this head only two plants occur, namely, the cucumber and the melon. that province. The melons of Persia are distinguishedfor Herbs and Drugs. As in flowers, so in its herbs, does Persia excel all other countries; their size and flavour. There appears to be especially about twenty kinds of them, and, like allother such as are aromatic. For drugs, also, to have a passion it is celebrated, producing as many as the Persians seem orientals, any for thisfruit. They take great senna, country in Asia. Besides manna, cassia, pains to preserve them in repositorieshen they are out of season ; the nux vomica, gum ammoniac, by the Persians w is in, they live almost enand when the season called ouscic,is found in abundance on the confines tirely upon them. of Parthia, towards the south. Rhubarb Vegetable Productions. The chief culinaryvegrows commonly in Khorassan, the ancient Soggetables of Persia are turnips,carrots, cabbages, diana ; and the poppy of Persia, which produces lettuces, cauliflowers, celery, radishes, garlic, opium, is esteemed the finestin the world, as parsley,and onions. well for itsbeauty, as the strength of itsproduction. Flowers. Conspicuous among In many places saffron is cultivated. One this class of The size of of the most remarkable vegetable productions of plants in Persia, stands the rose. is obthe Persian rose trees, and the number of flowers Persia,is the plant from which assafoetida tained. on each, far exceeds This plant is called by the Persians any thing we are accustomed to witness. Sir Robert Ker Porter, describing hiltet, and it is supposed to be the silphium of the rose of Persia,says : " On first this Dioscorides. There are two kinds of it, the entering bower of fairy-land,I was white and the black, which latter is the most struck with the appearance of two rose trees, full feet fourteen high, esteemed, as possessing greater strength than the laden with thousands of flowers,in every degree white. This drug has a stronger odour than It is said,that places where of expansion, and of a bloom and delicacy of any other known. it has been preserved, will retain this odour for scent that imbued the whole atmosphere with the most exquisite perfume: indeed, I believe, many years. There are two kinds of gum called in Persia, which is in great request. that in no country of the world does the rose mummy This article isfound in Carmania the Desert, and grow in such perfection as in Persia ; in no from the rocks. in Khorassan, where it distils country is it so cultivated and prized by the is It possesses great healing virtues. Its name natives. Their gardens and courts are crowded derived from the Persian word, mourn, with its plants; their rooms which ornamented with filledwith its gathered branches; is vases, Galbanum a unguent. and signifiesliterally,n in Persia, together with the every bath strewed with the full-blown flowers, likewise common Even plucked from the ever replenished stems. and many other drugs of minor vegetable alkali, the humblest individual who all over Persia, pays a piece of importance. Cotton is common feels and there is a tree resembling it,but which is copper money for a few whiffs of a kalioun, a double more rare, when he findsit stuck with producing a fine and soft substance enjoyment from his dear native tree. But in this like a bud silk, which many uses are made. of deliciousgarden of Negauvistan, the Metals and Minerals. In ancient times there eye and the not the only senses smell were regaled by the were silvermines in Persia, but at present there The expenses attending the presence of the rose ; the ear was are none enchanted by open. the wild and beautiful notes of the multitude of working of them seems to have equalled their nightingales, whose warblings seemed to increase produce, which is represented as the cause of i
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Into all lands. From every clime they come Iron is abundant in many their abandonment To see thy beauty, and to share thj joy, in Hyrcania, but itis not much places, especially Oh Sion ! An assembly such as earth Saw never, worked. Chardin representsitas not worth above such as heaven stoops down to see." COWPER. sixpence a hundred weight, and he says, that it is so full of sulphur, that if filings of it be cast into the fire, they make a report like powder. Too fiercea firewill also destroy the substance CHAPTER II. altogether. Copper has been discovered in Azerbut, like the iron,it is bigan, and other places ; TOPOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF PERSIA. of littleuse unless it is mingled with copper In the various provinces of the vast empire of from the mines of other countries,as Sweden Persia, there were Rock salt is very abundant in Persia, a great number and Japan. of important cities and towns ; but concerning many of them, and large tracts of the plain are covered with no detailed information has been handed down places it is said to salt incrustations. In some to us by ancient writers. All, therefore,that can be as firm and hard as firestone, and to be used Deserta, in the erection of be done in these pages, isto notice those of which as such in Carmania houses. In Hyrcania, and Mazanderan, naphtha any account, and any remains, have survived the wreck of ages, and which were of the greatest of two kinds is met with, black and white. The Among ward, these stands pre-eminently forrichestmine in Persia, however, is the torquoise. note. There are also two kinds of this precious stone ; the city of in Khorassan, the other between Hyrcania one PEBSEPOLIS, and Parthia in Mount Phirous, which mountain from an ancient king of Persia. which stood within the province of Persis. derived itsname Other mines of this precious stone have, at a The city of Persepolis is mentioned by Greek later date, been discovered, but they are by no writers, after the era of Alexander, as the capital being less beautiful of Persia. The name, however, does not occur means so valuable, the stone in colour, and waning by degrees, tillat length in the writings of Herodotus, Ctesias,Xenophon, it is colourless. Marble, free stone, and slate or Nehemiah, who were well acquainted with found in great quantities about Hamadan. are the other principal cities the Persian empire, of This marble is of four colours, white, or sta- and who make frequent mention of Susa, Babylon, tuary, black, red and black, and white and black. and Ecbatana. But this may be accounted The best is discovered about Taurus. This is for by the fact, that Persepolis never appears to almost as transparent as crystal; its colour is have been a place of residence for the Persian kings, though it was white, mingled with a pale green, but it is so regarded as the capital of have doubted whether it is a their empire in the remotest ages. soft that some There has been much dispute respecting the stone. In the neighbourhood of Hamadan, azure is found, but it is not equal to that of Tartary, Persian name ental of Persepolis. According to oriit Istakher, or Estekhar ; historians, was and therefore is not held in repute. Such was polis and is Persia. Anciently it pos- and many modern authors suppose that Persesessed in burial-places the blessingsof thislife rich abundance, and Pasagardse, the common its inhabitants can in and even now rejoice the of the kings of Persia, are only differentnames But Persia has ever lacked the for the same giftsof nature. place, and that the latter word is Their the Greek translation of the former. try, richestblessing that can be bestowed on a counto be correct: that of the Christian religion. For many there are views do not seem led astray by the Magian an indeed, for believing that they age they were strong reasons, faith,and now they bend under the yoke of the are different places. But The city of Persepolis was situated in an extensive arch impostor Mohammed. the union of the Araxes plain, near " The groans of nature in this nether world, (Bendemir) and Cyrus (Kur.) In the time of Which Heaven has heard for ages, have an end. Alexander, there was at Persepolis a magnificent Foretold by prophets, and by poets sung, Whose fire was kindled at the prophet's lamp, palace,fullof immense treasures, which had The time of rest, the promised sabbath comes." been accumulating from the time of Cyrus. Alexander, Littleis known of itshistory. When Then shall polis however, subverted the Persian empire, Persefell a prey to the maddened rage of the The dwellers in the vales and on the rocks conqueror. Instigatedby a courtezan, he issued Shout to each other, and the mountain tops from a banquet, and accompanied by a band of From distant mountains catch the flying joy, Till nation after nation, taught the strain, other bacchanals, as cruel and as mad as himself, Earth rolls the rapturous hosanna round. like so with flaming torches in their hands, See Salem built, the labour of a God ! furies, they firedthe palace of the Persian Bright as a sun, the sacred city shines. many All kingdoms, and all princes of the earth monarch, after which his army plundered and Flock to that light ; the glory of all lands devastated the city. Flows into her; unbounded is her joy, But it was not Alexander alone that reduced And endless her increase. Thy rams are there, Nebaioth, and the flocks of Kedar there. Persepolis to itspresent mournful state. It existed, The looms of Ormus, and the mines of Ind, but not in its pristineglory, in the days of And Saba's spicy groves pay tribute there. Marcellinus ; and in the Greek chroAmmianus nicle Praise is in all her gates ; upon her walls, tury, And in her streets, and in her spacious courts, of Tabri, who flourishedin the ninth cenIs heard salvation. Eastern Java, there, it is said,that Pars, or Persia, composed a Kneels with the native of the furthest west ; each governed by a petty number of districts, And ^Ethiopia spreads abroad the hand, king, one of whom And ruled in Istakher. The Her has travelled forth
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chronicle further states, that Artaxerxes Babehis ambitious career by putting gan commenced to death the king of Istakher, after which he rendered himself master not only of Pars, but of Kirman, and finally became ruler of all Iran, Persia, by the defeat and death of Adavan. or The same authority states, that Shapoor n., having recovered Nisibin,in Diyarbekr, he sent 12,000 families from Istakher to reinhabit the deserted city. About a.d. 639, the Arabs made an unsuccessful attempt on Istakher, and two was years after the decisive battleof Nehavend fought, the result of which was, the future capture of Persepolis,or Istakher. This battle,also, decided the fate of Persia, and the religion of Zoroaster. The blaze of the eternal fire was extinguished by the superior radiance of the crescent ; and the sceptre of empire, wielded by the successors than four of Artaxerxes for more centuries,dropped from the hands of the unfortunate Yasdijerd, while the sun of the house of Sassan went down to rise no more. Persepolis in underwent another vicissitude 644, when the Arabs, under the command of Abu Musa al Ashari, defeated Shahreg, who lost his life and the city of Istakher, which paid a contribution of 200,000 silver dirhems to obtain a respite. In 648, the inhabitants of Istakher revolted,and slew the Arabian governor, in consequence of sent Abdallah Ebm which the khalif Othman Amer with troops from Basrah to Istakher, where they encountered the Persians, commanded by Mahek, son of Shahreg, who had " been slain by Abu Musa al Ashari from the dawn of day till he time t of the meridian prayer." Mahek fled,and the,city of Istakher was taken by storm ; after which the city declined daily, so that in 950 itwas not above a mile in length, and was finallydestroyed in 982 by the Dilemite prince Samsa'm Ad'doulah. It exists only, says Hamdallah Oazvini, who wrote in 1339, under the reduced form of a village. It has been well said, in deprecation of the destructionof cities,hich history lauds as the w " rature work of heroes, How many monuments of 'liteand science,of taste and genius, of utility, splendour, and elegance, have been destroyed by the ruthless hands of sanguinary heroes, who have leftnothing but ruins as the monuments of their prowess." The ruins of Persepolis respond to these sentiments, time, in while at the same the ear of reason, they discourse of the mutability of allthings below the skies. The ruins of Persepolis, which are usually called by the inhabitants," Tchil-Minar," (the forty pillars,) sometimes "Hesa Suture," and thousand (the are columns,) very grand.
The piles of fallen Persepolis In deep arrangement hide the darksome plain. Unbounded waste ! the mouldering obelisk, Here, like a blasted oak, ascends the clouds. Here Parian domes their vaulted halls disclose, Horrid with thorn, where lurks the' unpitying thief, the twilight-loving bat at eve, "Whence flits And the deaf adder wreaths her spotted train, The dwellings once of elegance and art ! Here temples rise, amid whose hallowed bounds, Spires the black pine ; while through the naked street, Once haunt of tradeful merchants, springs the grass. Here columns, heap'd on prostrate columns, torn From their firm base, increase the mouldering mass. Far as the sight can pierce, appear the spoils

Of sunk magnificence ! A blended scene Of moles, fanes, arches, domes, and palaces, Where, with his brother Horror, Ruin sits." Warton.

Those who have visitedthe ruins of Persepolis in one unanimous verdict, that the city represented by them, must have been the most seen on magnificent ever earth; and that the Persian empire, in all its glory, could not boast of any thing more grand, nor have left to wondering posterityany thing more ing, astonishthan these venerable ruins. The present inhabitants of the vale of Merdasht, the plain of Persepolis,ignorant of the gloriesof their ancestors, deem them the work of demons, or of immured in the the Prseadamite sultans, now rocky caverns of the mighty Caucasus, or of the great Solomon, the son of David, who, in eastern is said to have had allthe demons and romance, genii under his control. Unconscious that he is treading on classicground, the wandering Ihat tends his flock amid the tenantless waste; and the music that once called up the spirit mirth of in the breast of monarchs, is exchanged for the howl of wild beasts. In the halls of a Xerxes, in the palace of Chosroes, the fox takes up his her web ; while abode, and the spider weaves from the towers of Istakher the screech owl Such is the nightly takes up its doleful note. end of human greatness ! The plain where these awful representatives of Persepolis stand, is one of the most extensive in Persia, and the finestin the east. According to Chardin, it extends eighteen leagues from east to west, by a diversifiedbreadth of from six,to twelve, and eighteen miles. It iswatered by the Araxes, and many minor streams. It is bounded on the north by the western branch of the Kur-aub ; on the south by the south branch of the Kur-aub ; and on the west by the Araxes, thus describing an oval figure. On the northwest is the junction the Parwaub of and the Araxes; and on the north-east isthe point where the Kur-aub diverges into the two branches which bound itstwo sides On every side itis
concur

surrounded with mountains, which give as much natural grandeur to the vale, as the city itcontained could receive from industry and art ; nay, for the works of the Creator far surpass more, those of the creature. The principalruins of Persepolis are those of the Takht-i-Jemschid, which is identifiedwith the palace set on fire by Alexander, and which stands at the base of the abruptly rising rock of Istakher. The first that object meets the eye of the travelleristhe platform, which isan artificial plain of a very irregularshape, but facing the four cardinal points, likethe bases of the Egyptian The dimensions of the three faces pyramids. of the platform are these ; to the south 802 feet ; to the north 926 ; and to the west 1425 feet. The level of the building at this date is very uneven, tion which is occasioned by the increasing accumulaof fallingruins, and the soil, which, from

successively collects over these various causes, heaps. On the north-west, large masses of the brance, native rock show themselves without incumstillretaining marks of the original hammers and other instruments by which the higher portions of the rock had been cut down to

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the required level. Beyond the face of the plat- half feet high : their heads are gone. Round form, the rock protrudes in vast abrupt cliffs their necks are beautifullycarved collarsof roses ; ; the chest, back, and ribs, extends a and in deeper cavitiesthe progress of a quarry is and over decoration resembling hair,short and curled, the part of the rock being half hewn through, visible, and in other places lying in completed slabs, execution of which is exquisite. Their proportions This would indicatethat the are admirable ; and there is a ready for removal. corresponding It was Structure was not considered complete. grandeur which is in perfect accordance to the the work of ages, and every succeeding monarch prodigious scale on which all around them is however, had added to its grandeur. What, executed. The broad ornamented chest and the been done could scarcely be exceeded. Its steep position of these animals are full of pondrous faces are formed of dark grey marble, cut into ; majesty and the whole is combined with such huge square blocks, and exquisitely polished. spirit the attitudeand action that the sculpture in These are fitted each other with such closeness seems to to which it ready to walk from the mass that when first and precision, completed, the plat- is attached. It is supposed that these figured form have appeared as part of the solid animals were must symbolical representations of the levelledto become the foundation mountain itself, attribute of power, and that as such they were for a palace. The height of the platform is evi- placed as symbols at the gate of the kings of dently Persia. This is very probable ; for throughout considerably lower than itonce was, owing to the masses of ruin and vegetative matter at all Pagan mythology the bull is designated the its base. These have raised hillocks against emblem of power, as the lion is the emblem of indeed, a favourite bull was, all the sides,making royalty. The rough slopes ; whereas divinityin Egypt, Syria, and India ; and the lion originallythey were perpendicular. Ker Porter forms, and bull, either singly or in compound says he measured them, and that he found, at a spot near the group of columns, the perpendicular are found connected with almost all the ancient Persian structures. depth to be thirty feet; but he adds, that were The body of the bull is allthe rubbish to be cleared away, an additional indicative power, and his horn of force exerted of depth of twenty feet would be discovered. The by that instrument. Every symbolical animal of south side does not exceed twenty feet,and to this kind which Sir Robert Ker Porter saw in Persian architecture had but one horn ; hence he the north it varies from sixteen to twenty-six feet. The platform embraces three terraces. that sented conjectures these animals were thus repreThe first and lowest embraces the southern face, originally. by 183 feetbroad; the second is more A littledistant from the portal to the east, elevated, d. and the third more elevated still. Along the when Sir John Chardin visitedPersepolis,(a. four columns; two of these there were edge of the lowest terrace there are masses of 1674,) stone which apparently are fragments of a parapet now only remain, and the base of these is nearly wall ; and on the edge of the third, or highest buried by an accumulation of ruins. These terrace, to the south, are decided remains of a columns are of white marble, fluted, and exceedingly beautifulas to theircapitalsand other ornaments. strong stone railing, or range of palisades. These cease at the top of the staircase Le Brun says they are fourteen feet connecting The shaft gradually narrows At the top of this round. thiswith the lower terrace. towards flight steps, are two large holes cut deeply into the top, and it is varied by thirty-nine flutings, of the stone, which received the pivots of the gates each four inches wide. Le Brun makes their height, exclusive of their bases, to be fifty that closedthis ingress. There is only one way -four by which this platform can be ascended, and feet,in which Ker Porter nearly agrees. The that isby a staircase situatedon itswestern side. surface of the top is smooth, without the slightest A double flightof stairs rises very gently north remains of any loose fragment ; hence the latter and south, the base of which is sixty-seven feet travellersupposes that when the four were united by twenty-two. On ascending these,there is an they sustained the plane or pedestal of some irregular landing-place of thirty-seven feet by sculptured symbolical image. forty-four, whence About twenty-four feet from these columns springs a second flight of steps covering fifty-nine feet by twenty-two. stands another gateway, in all respects similar to Two corresponding staircasesterminate on the the first proportion, except that it is eighteen in The inner grand level of the platform, by a landing-place feet in length,instead of twenty-one. feet. So easy of ascent is sides of this portal are also sculptured, but the occupying sixty-four ation. this staircase, that six animals represented are of extraordinary formand so grand is it likewise, horsemen may ride abreast to the summit of the They have the body and legs of a bull ; from the platform. On reaching the platform, the lofty but an enormous pair of wings project the back, and sides of a magnificent portal meet the eye of the shoulders, extending high over traveller. The interior faces of the walls of covering the breast, whence they appear to thisportal are sculptured out into the forms of two spring, as the entire chest is cased with their the The feathers which compose colossal bulls. These animals look westward; plumage. The heads of their heads, chests, and fore legs, occupying wings are exquisitely wrought. nearly the entire thickness of the wall in that the animals look east to the mountains, and direction; the rest of their bodies being left in in countenance. severe exhibit the faces of men, relief. They stand on a pedestal elevated five A long curled beard adds to the majesty their of feet above the level bull, ably of the platform. Considerappearance. The ears are like those of the rings above the backs of these animals are three and they are ornamented with large pendant earsmall compartments filledwith cunieform inscriptions. of an elegant form. On the head is a Each bull is twenty-two feet long diadem, on both sides of which horns cylindrical from its fore to itshind leg, fourteen and a are clearly represented, winding upwards from and

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and truth with which these quadrupeds are drawn, will hardly appear credible but to one who has appeared on the spot ; for no artist,hether in w Greece or Rome, could have been more faithful to the proportions of nature, or shown more knowledge of the anatomy of their forms. But it must be observed that animal forms are to the hoof, and three compartments the crown given more are cut in the wall over there with much of cuneiform inscriptions nicety in their limbs, his body. muscles, and actions, than when the sculptor form. This holds good in to exist in This is the only specimen known attempts the human Persia of the human and bestialform combined. the antiquities Egypt, Syria, and India." of On the inclined planes,corresponding to the Hence much learned speculation has been put It forth to the world upon this subject. is an t slope of the stairs,here is a lineof dwarf figures, answering in number to the steps, each of which enigma, however, which no one has yet solved ; appears to form a pedestalfor a figure. A similar satisfactorily and which, unless the cuneiform characters cut over the body could be deciphered, range appears on the opposite side. Both of these are thought to represent the Doryphores, or must ever remain unsolved. On the south of the portal,there is a capacious body guards of the great king. Having ascended the second flightof cistern, eighteen feet long, by sixteen feet broad. stairs, filled with water This was by subterraneous the traveller finds a triangular space formed by the slope of the steps, which is filled with the aqueducts, and it appears to have been hewn out up of the solidrock. To the south of this is the combat of the lion and the bull, occupying a magnificent terrace that supports the Hall of length of twenty-three feet. The space isdivided by a tablet, which are three rows of mutilated on Columns. This hall, peculiarly denominated figures, Chehilminar, Palace of forty Columns, is exor covering an expanse of sixty-eightfeet, ceedingly and ending at the top of the stairs the outward of magnificent. They are approached by The upper row a double staircase, considerably before approach. of figures begins projecting The ascent, by two bulls; then a the northern face of the terrace. with a chariot drawn like that of the great entrance from the plain,is second ; then a horse, with the feet of a man, on as very gradual ; each flightcontaining only thirty the opposite side, itsattendant ; then two other horses ; then five figures habited in short vests ; steps,each four inches high, fourteen broad, and The whole front of the and then with a succession of forty-four longsixteen feet long. The second row commences advanced range, as soon as the landing-place is robed spearmen. figures,clothed altergained, is replete with sculptures. The place with a range of thirty -two nately in long and short robes, the former of immediately under the landing-place is divided into three compartments, on which, except the which represents the Median, and the latterthe there middle one, are inscriptions. To the left of it genuine Persian habit. After these figures, fivefeetsix inches high, are twenty-eight robed Persians, armed are four standing figures, with habited in long robes, with brogues like buskins spears, each bearing the same attitude,and on theirfeet,and holding each a short spear in having a fillet round his head, on which are the Twelve sculptured cypress traces of leaves. an Their heads are covered upright position. flat-topped the caps, and a bow and quiver trees complete this bas-relief, and end near with flute hang from the left shoulder. On the right are stairs. The lowest row of figuresis a line of looking towards these four,in every three figures, robed and tiara-capped personages, to the number respect similar, the bow and quiver excepted. of thirty-two. These are alternately arranged Instead of these, they carry a large shield on the with their brethren in tunics,and followed by a leftarm, in the form of a Bcetian buckler. The train of twenty-one guards, in the same uniform dress of these corresponds to the description as those described. This lastrow ismore perfect than the upper ones, inasmuch as it has been which Herodotus gives of the Persians. He " stroyers, says : The Persians wore small helmets on their preserved from the hand of the Gothlike deheads, which they call teara; ; their bodies were by the heaps of ruin at itsbase. The wing on the opposite side of thismagnificovered with tunics of different colours, having cent in imitation sleeves, and adorned with plates of steel, approach is like the one described, divided into three linesof bas-relief, each subdivided into of the scales of fishes; their thighs were defended, and they carrieda kind of shield, called compartments by a large cypress tree. These are adorned with figures of men They had bas-reliefs a quiver. with gerra, beneath which was large bows, and arrows made short spears, of offerings, warriors, horses, chariots, colossal bulls,dromedaries, lions, the ibex, serpents, the reeds ; and on their rightside a dagger suspended from the belt." This dress is what they called gurkur, or wild ass, etc. ; on all which Ker " Here, when comparing the the Median, and it was introduced by Cyrus into Porter remarks, Persia. The angular space on each side of these colossal proportions of the structure, and its groups of spearmen are filled with representations gigantic sculptures, with the delicacy, beauty, and perfectionof the execution of the ornaments, of a combat between a lion and a bulL What for the Persians I might say with the poet, this represents is unknown; were not accustomed, like the Romans, to enjoy Here the loves play on the bosom of Hercules.'" if such be enjoymentsin an the combats Like the former bas-reliefs, arena fitted forthat purpose : these sculptured this latter is also up
" "

the whole the brows to the front of the crown, by a coronet of lotos leaves, being surmounted of and bound by a fillet exquisitelycarved roses. The hair is ranged over the forehead in the style of the ancient Persian kings, and the beard is also disposed after the fashion of royalty ; but the hair behind differsessentiallyfrom all the bas-reliefsin other parts of the ruins. The animal measures nineteen feet from the top of

combats are therefore allegorical representations, Of the sculpture, of which nothing is known. " Sir Robert Ker Porter says : The fire, beauty,

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these pillars is approached from the west by a double flight of stairsin ruins,which have been decorated with sculptured guards and other figures. This building is 170 feet by ninety -five. The eastern side is covered with fallen remains so that it is impossible to discover a and earth, their evilinfluences. This last bas-reliefis supposed to represent corresponding flight of stairs in that quarter. On the south, the entire face of the terrace supthe feast at the vernal equinox, or feast of Nauporting this building is occupied with another roose, the Persians presented their annual when whose landing-place is forty-eight feet gratuitiesto the monarch, and the governors of staircase, their provinces, with theirdelegates,brought in by ten wide. Itsfront is divided by a tabletwith inscription, a cuneiform on the annually collected tax from each, with a due each side of which of gigantic heights. North of proportion of other offerings. Such a practice is stand spearmen this is an open space of sixty-fivefeet,on which prevalent in Persia at the feast of Nauroose. still narrow The traveller now walls. gains the platform itself. appear the foundations of some On each side of this,forty feet to the south, are And here nothing can be more than the sublime view of itsruins ; so vast, magnificent,mutilated, two lofty entrances composed of four solidupright is tion and silent. Every object beautiful in desola- blocks of marble, nearly black. Within these ! This pile is in length, from east to west, portals are bas-reliefs two guards, each habited of about 308 feet,and from north to south 350 feet. in the Median robe, and armed with a long spear. On the verge of the landing-place from the The greater part of it is covered with broken ing. capitals, shafts of pillars,nd fragments of build- western staircase,there is a portal of these long a The distribution the pillars onwards there is stood in four shielded guards ; and a little of divisions, of forty-eight feet and consisted of a centre phalanx of another leading into a room doors had formerly seven six deep every way, with an advanced body of square. This room but of these fiveonly now twelve intwo ranks, and the same number flanking leading into it, remain. These have all on their several sides duplicate One only is now the centre. standing, and the of shattered bases of nine only now remain, but the bas-reliefs a royal personage, attended by two ments Compartmen, one of whom holds an umbrella. nade places of the others which completed the colonare over be traced. To the westward the heads of these of inscriptions may still of these appear another double range of columns, groups. To the south is another divisionof the forty-eight by thirty feet,and terfiveof which are still From hence to the same minating edifice, erect. ing-place, on eastern range of a similar number, is 268 feet. each side,southward, on the landby a couple of square pillars one enFour of these columns are still tire of standing, and the are piece of marble, twenty-two feet high, and pedestals of four more yet entire; but the covered in different ranges with inscriptionsin rest lie buried under masses of ruin. On the appearance of these three colonnades, Ker Porter different languages, Cufic, Arabic, and Persic. The traces of a double colonnade are visible writes: "I gazed at them with wonder and delight. Besides the admiration which the along the open space, between the western face of general elegance of theirform, and the exquisite the greater terrace and the western face of this edifice. Thus there are three terraces from the workmanship of their parts excited, I was never so made sensible of the impression of perfect level of the plain. A fourth liesninety-six feet south of the third,theirsummits being on a level symmetry, comprising that of perfect beauty with each other. Three of the sides of the fourth also. The columns are each sixty feet high, the circumference of their shaft sixteen feet,and in terrace are obscured by rubbish. Along the length from the capitalto the tor forty feet. northern verge, however, risesthe heads of a line -four The shaft is finely flutedin fifty-two divisions: of figures, of equal in size to those on the stairs They are the terrace of the double chamber. at its lower extremity begin a cincture and a torus, the firsttwo inches deep, the latter one armed with the bow and quiver. A flight of foot ; whence devolves the pedestal in the form ruined steps is found at the north-west angle, on decorawhich are the remains of fine bas-relieftion. of the cup, and leaves of a lotos,or lily. This The plane of this terrace is a square of rests on a plinth of eight inches, and in circumference twenty-four and a half feet ; the whole, ninety-six feet, thirty-eight of which on the from the cincture to the plinth,being fivefeet ten western side are occupied by the depth of the In thislatterspace there are the bases inches in height. The capitals,hich yet remain, approach. w to are though much injured, yet suificient show often columns, three feetthree inches in diameter, that they were by the demi-bull. and standing ten feet equi-distant from each surmounted The heads of the bulls forming the capitalslook other. Fifty-eight feet of this terrace, at its to the various fronts of the terrace." south-west angle, is surmounted by an additional About sixty feetfrom the eastern and western the whole depth of which, from square elevation, colonnades stood the central phalanx of pillars, summit to base, is sixty-two feet. Along its lower surface are the lower parts of twelve pillars in number thirty-six. Five of these now only diameter and distance from each remain. They are similar to those described, of the same five feet of the height. other as in the neighbouring colonnade. Beyond except that they want Their fluted shafts are thirty-five feet high ; but the terrace of the double pillarsrisesanother and theircapitals are the same extensive elevation, apparently a part of the with those of the great more bull royal residence itself. On the north of thisisan the crowned portal, where and winged appears so conspicuous. This phalanx of pillars immense heap of ruins,between which and the is supposed to have intervenes. Ker terrace a spacious open area supported a roof connected Porter imagines that this mound is the ruins of with the colonnades. The nearest building to destroyed by time, combined with the destructive destroy the works of his mallet : thus does man Revenge, envy, and the lust of brother man. power have no regard for art and industry ; and their mighty and beautiful works perish under

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with the regal tiara,carries a long thin staff in his right hand, and in his lefta lily. The broad belt and Median robe complete his attire. One of his attendants holds in both hands an umbrella his head, while the other waves over a fly-chaser in the same direction,grasping in his lefthand the royal handkerchief. what probably signifies These attendants are clad in the long robe. The group is sculptured on a marble stone sixteen feet high and nine wide, which is surmounted by a block of smaller dimensions, also adorned with outer ones of which communicate with several a sculptured figure resembling the personage pillared quadrangles. In the centre of these below. This figure issuesfrom a circle, whence diverge two strange floatingforms, resembling stands the plinth of four small quadrangles serpents, with their heads concealed behind the columns, each having a diameter of two feet and figure. A pair of large wings spread themselves a half, and sixteen feet from a door which leads on into a noble hall of ninety feet square. A door each side of the circle. On the portals are duplicates of the same on the opposite side corresponds with this,and royal personage. This both lead into quadrangles, similarlyopen, of four figure is seated on a chair of state, with his staff and lily. An attendant stands before him, waving pillars. Another portal leads to the south, and a fourth and fifth the north, into a large vestibule, the fly-chaser over to his head. The aerial form, before described,hovers over him. In thisquadthe whole width of the hall,which is supported rangle Two doors lead from four portals face each other. In the by eight similar columns. the plinthsof four columns this vestibule,south and west, into six smaller centre of these portals, are rooms, the windows of which are formed of four stillremaining, ten feet distant from each large slabs of marble, six feet thick, equivalent other, and four in diameter. This building is to the depth of the walls. On the inner faces of supposed to have been the private oratory of the king, where he offered up his daily adorationsto the windows that admit lightintothe rooms there Mezdan or Ormuzd. It is also duplicate bas-reliefs, are that occupying the whole conjectured between these four pillars stood an altar consurface, and consisting two figureseach. The of taining are the sacred fire, ornamented with windows of another room which was the symbol of following each other, divinity among three bas-reliefs figures, the ancient Persians. It is a of and each one facing inward, as if directing their singular fact,that in this building there are no the various steps to the same spot. On the remnants of representations of guards round Perhaps windows in another apartment are found similar effigies f the monarch to protect him. o bas-reliefs three figures, Ormuzd was considered a sufficientrotector. some of p with theirheads On the south-east of this edificeof the four All of these uncovered. covered, and some is pillars, another ruined pile. A quadrangular carry something in their hands, as dishes, or bowls, as though they represented servants : two edificeof forty-eight feet, and another of thirty of them are in the Median dress, with their faces feet,separated from itby a wall, constitutesthe The door-frames have all one de- chief glory of this pile. These two apartments, scription uncovered. indeed, apparently complete the whole edifice t ; of bas-relief,hat of a royal personage, followed by two attendants bearing an umbrella but there is a continuation of foundation walls, and a fly-chaser. Over these bas-reliefs are and with the fragments of columns, architraves, tions. three small compartments supporting a roof. of cuneiform inscrip- other architecturaladjuncts, At the sides of the open court are the At the extremities of the wall, southward, are two stones, each eighteen feet high, and from remains of itsonce magnificent approaches ; and ways near that, eastward, rise from a hollow beneath three and a half to five feet wide. Two doorto a level with the pavement, four enormous have bas-reliefs of the double guard on supports, resembling rough formed pedestals, their sides, and another portal opens from the intended to uphold some body of middle of the southern apartment into the enand which was closed immense weight. Opposite is a flightof steps, quadrangle. In the passage is the walking wardly. of a double ascent, beginning from beneath in- figure of a monarch, with his usual attendant; These steps are greatly decayed, and and the entrances which open into it from the bas-reliefs of guards, with duplicates of the east and west are ornamented with the combats combats between the bull and the lion,are simi- of a lion and a man, larly while those opening into it To the north of these from the north are decorated with representations circumstanced. are several colossal masses steps,about sixty feet, of spearmen. North of this edifice there is another, next in of stone, formerly the sides of gateways, leading into a square edifice of about ninety-six feet, extent to the Chehilminar, being a square of ^10 feet each face. Doors enter into this on every which is small in proportion to the number and Three of these doorways hand, but the grand portals are on the north. size of its entrances. are Nearly parallelwith its eastern and western angles yet entire. On the interiorface of the door toward the east, are three figurestwelve feet high. are two colossalbulls, standing on immense These are representations of the monarch and pedestals. These bulls face the north: two his attendants. The visage of the monarch is others, at some distance from them, look due mutilated, but the air of his person is very south. These latter appear to have formed the A majestic. venerable beard is nicely disposed sides of a magnificent gateway. The sides of the principaldoors of this quadrangle are richly upon his breast,and there is a mass of hair curled conspicuously covering his neck. He is covered adorned with sculpture. The most conspicuous

the banqueting house, from which Alexander issued forth with his drunken companions to fifth terrace is the desolate the palace. The most conspicuous on the whole platform, being at this date twenty feet above itslevel ; it is also the most ruinous of the whole building. The several faces of the building, indeed, are now by their foundations alone, one window marked These to the west and three to the east excepted. faces open from two corresponding wings, each subdivided into three spacious apartments, the

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his chair of wolf, the fore legs and body on of a lion,the hinder legs of an eagle, and the footstool. This neck scaled or feathered PerIt has long wings stretchin chair (or, other words, the state chair of sia) with a prickly mane. ing nearly to its tail,which are formed of a resembles the high backed and carved chairs chain of bones like the vertebrae of the back of our ancestors in form, only it was gorgeously inlaidwith gold, covered with a carpet, and so and cut with the most correct knowledge oi A crooked horn high that a stool was from always placed at its feet. animal anatomy. projects the head of this animal, which is grasped by the Over the monarch's head are bas-relief ornaments The profusely hero, who is represented stabbing him. of a canopy supported by pillars, decorated with fretwork fringes, and other opponents of the pontiff king are those of a horned lion,and a unicorn-bull : all of these borders of lions and bulls. On the legs of the are the sculptured feet of a lion,and those must be looked upon as in the highest degree chair of a bull are found in the feet of the footstool. emblematical. It is supposed that the monstrous Behind the monarch stands the fan-bearer, with legends of Persian romance his face muffled ; a second tunicked person bears originated in these strange the royal bow and battle axe ; and a third, combinations of human and bestial forms, and dressed in the Median habit, stands behind, especially the legends of their great poet, Ferindeed, to be a great anaholding a long wand in both hands. At the foot doosi. There seems, logy between these latter sculptures and his of the throne are two vessels, with connecting fictions for he leads his hero, Isfendeear, These probably were ; chains to their covers. filledwith perfumes. A muffled attendant apthrough seven enchanted gates, the first of proaches ing from without the pillared frame, bring- which was defended by two wolves ; the second a small as metal-likepail, though itcontained by two lions; the third by a dragon ; the fourth by a demon devourer of the dead ; the fifth by a aromatics for the supply of the vessels. Behind facing the monarch, there is a the censers, ; griffin the sixth by a cataract ; and the seventh and tunicked personage with a plainbonnet, having in by a lake and boundless mountains ; allof which To such strange purposes his lefthand a short rod, and holding his right his hero overcomes. can man hand to his mouth to prevent his breath exhalthat pervert his intellect, giftof Heaven, ing he bends as towards the monarch, to whom which is given to him to assisthim in his journey he addresses himself. Beyond the royal group, through life, and to glorify his Creator ! Besides these magnificent remains of this truly and divided from it by a horizontal border, decked with roses, there are five ranges of at- wonderful platform,Sir Robert Ker Porter found tendants, in several other splendid ruins at a place called the containing fifty sculptured figures, a Harem of Jemschid. These consisted chiefly of military dress. Beyond the northern front of the edifice prostrate grey marble columns, highly ornaabove mented described,there are two portalspointing east and and fluted, remains of massy walls, and south. These portals are decorated with sculp- the marble work of several door-frames. This tured harem stands about five miles north-east of Perdouble guards, about twelve feethigh. The faces of these figures are two feet seven inches sepolis,and no doubt it was once a portion of long, of a beautifulcolour, and exquisite workmanship. this far-famed city. Of tombs and sepulchral chambers hewn out Their spears are supposed to be feet in length. Around and be- of the perpendicular face of rocks, there are setween nearly eighteen veral ments fragnumerous these portals there are specimens at Nakshi Roostam, or portrait These excavations are very shalof columns, architraves,and other ruins, of Roostam. low, tispiece and consist chieflyof an architecturalfronwhich indicatethat formerly there was a covered or portico,richly adorned with sculpture colonnade in these parts. Sculptures are met and other decorations. Four of these tombs are with here similar to those found on the doors on the north. On the compartments isanother view evidently coeval with the building of the palace, of the monarch, attended only by his fly-chaser. and are those of the monarchs residing at PerseThe canopy over his head consists of fretted polis; the others, which are lower down, are These are rings, roses, etc., of the most exquisite sculpture. those of the Sassanian monarchs. Lions, the serpent-winged emblem, and the sculptured with equestrian figures of the Sassanian two rows, monarchs, with Pehlivi inscriptions. Sir unicorn-bull,fill while the ferwar, or William Ouseley supposes a small square edifice, the whole, exhibiting a aerialfigure,surmounts fac-simileof the symbol below. tam, opposite to the sculptured rock of Nakshi RoosThe four portals of the quadrangle are decoto have contained the body of Cyrus ; and rated itsappearance is conformable to the idea given with sculptured combats between a human " figure, usually denominated it was a tower the pontiff king, of itby Strabo, who says, that Arentrance." and an animal form. The firstbas-reliefis in not large, having a very narrow one face of the rian also says of it,that " it was situate in the of the doorways in the western building. The hero is clad in long robes, having royal garden, amid trees and running streams." This tomb, however, does not appear to be his arms bare. In his lefthand he grasps for there are no traces of a the strong single horn of the animal, which is clearly identified, on itsforehead, over, of Cyrus, morewhile he thrusts his poniard into garden near the spot ; the name its body with his right hand. The does not appear upon the inscription, and animal has St. Martin supposes that it rather refers to Arthe head and neck of an eagle, and is covered with immense plumage half way down itsback. taxerxes Ochus. Though wounded, it seems Such is the state of the once mighty city of to oppose its adversary Persepolis : such itsruins ! They add theirtestimony, with rampant violence. The corresponding now buried sculpture presents an animal with the head of a with the many ancient cities

is that of the monarch

seated

state, with both feet resting on

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In the summer, beneath their own the temperature was so hot that ruins, to the perishing nature the court then removed to Ecbatana, the elevated things. Though hewn out of the of all human " eternal rock," yet time and the destroyer man, position and northern situation of which rendered have laid the sublime palace of Istakher low. itssummers cool and agreeable, while the No human head can find a shelter there, where severity of the cold in winter compelled a return to Susa. The city was rius the mighty monarchs reposed. of Persia once greatly improved by DaYes, thisrock, though once cleftwith nicest art Hystaspes ; and itwould seem sian that the Perkings deposited their treasures and the reand industrious care, for the repose of poor mortality, cords now fuge mocks the traveller who seeks a reof theirkingdoms at Susa, conjointly with Ecbatana. Nothing is known descriptively there, like every earthly object, conreminding cerning itsancient condition,except that Strabo him that there is a Rock that never failsto shelter That Rock is relates,it was built of brick likeBabylon, was of those that seek a refuge. Christ, 1 Cor. x. 4. an oblong figure,and 120 stadia (about fourteen in ed miles) circumference. The palace was accountPASAGARD.E. one of the most magnificent royal residences in This ancient town of Persia is said to have the world. The wealth of Susa was immense. In an account been builtby Cyrus, after his victory over Astybefore Cleowhere Aristagoras comes to tempt him to foreign conquests, having ages the Mede, which he gained near this place. menes, Plutarch says that the kings of Persia were consecrated with him a brazen tablet,on which was engraved the circuitof the earth, with its seas and rivers, at Pasagardae by the magi ; and Strabo he points, among other places, to Susa, saying : and Arrian relate, that the tomb of Cyrus was " On the banks of the Choaspes stands Susa, at this place. Their description of its situation has been seen in the preceding article. The where the great king fixes his residence, and lower part of the tomb, they say, was of a quadrangularwhere are his treasures. Master of that city, you may boldly vie with Jupiter himself for riches." shape, and above it there was a chamber Susa has been called Memnonia, or the palace of built of stone, with an entrance so narrow, because that prince reigned there. The for to pass through it. Memnon, that it was difficult a man Aristobulus entered this chamber, and found in poet Milton makes allusion to this,in a passage it a golden couch, a golden coffin,a table with the wherein he finelyillustrates road which Death xes beautiful garments, and Satan made over chaos, by that which Xercups upon it, and many swords, and chains. This writer says that the made over the Hellespont. inscriptionon the tomb read thus : " O man, I So, if great things to small may be compared, Cyrus, who am acquired sovereignty for the Xerxes, the liberty of Greece to yoke, Persians, and was king of Asia. Do not, then, From Susa, his Memnon ium palace high, Came to the sea ; and, over Hellespont Magi guarded the grudge me this monument." Bridging his way, Europe with Asia join'd ; tomb, who received daily offerings of sheep, And a scourged with many stroke the' indignant wine, and wheat, which were given in honour of wave." Cyrus. The tomb was plundered in the days of There has been much dispute concerning the Alexander by robbers, who carried away every siteof Susa. That it stood upon the Eulaeus thing but the golden couch and coffin,which as (Ulai,) well as upon the Choaspes, is generally they were through probably not able to remove aspes, Herodotus calls it the river of Choallowed. the aperture of the chamber. but he makes no mention of Eulaeus, and The site of Pasagardae has been much disputed. so pure and wholesome Many imagine that itis to be identified he says that itswaters were that the Persian kings drank of no other. Persepolis; but there appears to be little with Milton has confined the use of the waters of the doubt that they are distinct places. As such Choaspes as a beverage to kings alone, instead of are by Strabo, Arrian, and they mentioned Pliny, the latterof whom confining the kings to the use of those waters : says that Pasagardae to the east of a town was Laodicea, of " called There Susa by Choaspes' amber stream, Lassen thinks, that The drink of none but kings."* which nothing is known. we ought to look for Pasagardae south-east of Usually, the city of Susa has been identified Persepolis,in the neighbourhood of Fasa. This is the most probable formed on with Shuster ; but MajorRennell, in which Kinyet conjecture the arguments on both the subject, after all,it is but but for conjecture, neir, after recapitulating find it at Shus, a city agrees, preferred to time has done its sides, work effectually with reference to the to Pasagardae, by having about thirty-sixmiles more commencing swept its every remains, This is the most to Babylon. great and noble as they may have been, west, or nearer from off the face of the earth. probable siteof the ancient Susa, for Shuster is a modern city compared with Sus, or Susa, being founded by Schabour i., in commemoration of his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian ; Susa, which was so called from the lily, with traditions state that Roman captives which flower the place abounded, was one of the and oriental In the prophecies of royal citiesof Persia. * Jortin remarks this passage : "I am upon Daniel, it is called Shushan, Dan. viii. It apafraid 2. pears That the kings of Persia drank Milton is here mistaken. to have existed as a city from the remotest is well known: no water but that of the river Choaspes ages, and is said to have been first ence made a resid- that none but kings drank of it,is what, I believe, cannot his criticism upon this pasHe concludes Persian court by Cyrus. be proved." The kings sage of the by saying, that Milton, by his calling it amber of Persia resided at Susa during the whole or to have had in view the golden water seems stream," of part of the winter, the climate and local position Agathocles. But this is not probable, for Milton rarely of history. rendering the temperature mild in that season. commits erroro in matters
" "

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employed in its erection. Besides, there authors of some oriental works, mostly geographical, Shuster corresponding to I have pursued the traditionto Hamdalla rivers near Cazvini, of the fourteenth century, and from the Choaspes and the Eulseus,while the Kerah him through Benjamin Tudela, to Ebu Hawand the Ab-i-zal,which flow, the former to the of kel, who travelled in the tenth century." The west, and the latter to the east of the ruins of Sus, may be fairlypresumed to be those ancient passage in Ebn Hawkel's work runs thus : " In Kinneir, speaking of the ruins of Sus, the city of Sus there is a river,and I have heard streams. " On its long mounded indeed Mousa al Ashari, a tract, we that in the time of Abou says : find the remains of the once favourite capital of coffinwas found there, and it is said the bones of Cyrus ; that we see the classicChoaspes of HeDaniel the prophet (to rodotus in be peace !) were whom in the Kerah, the waters of which were that coffin. These the people held in great veneration, sacred to the lip of majesty alone ; and in its and in time of distress of famine neighbouring river, the Ab-i-zal, we find the through drought, they brought them out and hallowed Eulseus, or Ulai, which the more still prayed for rain. Abou Mousa al Ashari ordered Scripturesdescribe as the scene of Daniel's pro- this coffin to be brought, and three coverings or phetic ' lids to be made for it; the firstor outside of to pass, I was at vision: And it came Shushan in the palace, which is in the province which was of boards, exceedingly strong, and of Elam ; and I saw in a vision, caused it to be buried, so that it could not be and I was by the Dan. viii. A bay or gulf of the river comes 2." over Strabo, it may be river of Ulai,' viewed. " this grave, which may be seen by any one who added, speaks of the rivers which pass by Susa," which Gosselin explains as having refer- dives to the bottom of the water." Sir William ence to the Choaspes and Eulseus,or Ulai, as dif- Ousely thus describes the tomb as itnow ferent exists : " I was finallydriven by the heat to the tomb of streams. The ruins of Shus are very extensive,stretch- Daniel, or, as he is called in the east, Danyall, ing beautiful spot, about twelve miles from one extremity to which is situated in a most the other. They extend as far as the eastern washed by a clear running stream, and shaded bank of the Kerah, occupy a large space between by planes and other trees, of ample foliage. The date, and inhabited that river and the Ab-i-zal, and, like the ruins of building is of Mohammedan Babylon, Ctesiphon, and Kufah, consist hillocks by a solitarydervise, who shows the spot where of of earth and rubbish, covered with broken pieces the prophet is buried, beneath a small and of brick and coloured tile thereby correspond; out simple square brick mausoleum, saidto be, withing 4;o the ancient Susa, probability,coeval with his death. It has, which was entirelybuilt of brick, an additionalproof that the ruins of however, neither date nor inscriptionto prove Shus represent the ancient Susa, for Shuster is the truth or falsehood of the dervise'sassertion. ing, celebrated for itsstone-erectedhouses, and forits The small river running at the foot of this buildquarries of stone. which is called the Bellaran, flows,ithas The largest and most remai'kable mounds in been said,immediately over the prophet's tomb, these ruins stand about two miles from Kerah. and by the transparency of the water, his coffin The first computed to be a mile in circumfer- was to be seen at the bottom. But the dervise is ence, I questioned remembered and nearly 100 feet in height; and the and the nativeswhom no tradition corroborating such a fact. It has other, although not quite so high, about double They are composed of at all times been customary with the people the circuit the former. of days of huge masses of sun-dried brick and courses of of the country to resort hither on certain burned brick and mortar. Large blocks of marthe month, when they offer up prayers at the ble, covered with hieroglyphics, are frequently tomb in supplication to the prophet's shade ! found here by the Arabs, who distinguishthese and by becoming his guests for the night, expect two great mounds by the name remission of all present grievances, and an of the Castle and insurance against those to come." the Palace ; and they may be supposed to represent This author has also given a translation a of the celebrated fortress which Molon, in which the following superstitio the city,was afterhaving won unable to take, Persian manuscript, legend occurs, relativeto the tomb of and the palace of Susa. At the foot of the most elevated of these Daniel : " Abou Mousa having pillaged the territory mounds stands the tomb of Daniel, a small and of Ahwaz, proceeded to Susa, where he apparently modern building, erected on the spot slew the governor, a Persian prince, named Then he enShapoor, the son of Azurmahan. tered where the relicsof that prophet are believed to rest. A dervise residesthere, who points to the the castle and palace of that prince, and ent grave of "the man seized all the treasure there, deposited in differgreatly beloved," with as to a certain chamber, homage if it belonged to the archas much places,until he came impostor Mohammed the door of which was himself, or to the Imaum strongly fastened, a Abou leaden seal being affixed to the lock. Hosein. Though the tomb is comparatively a Mousa inquired of the people of Sus what preman cious structure, the Jew, Arab, and Mussulmodern in believe,from tradition, guarded with such care that it does indeed articlewas They assured him that he would this chamber. contain the remains of the prophet. The earliest of not regard it as a desirable object plunder ; notice of the tomb of Daniel was given by Benjamin Tudela, who visited Asia but his curiositywas roused, and he caused the of towards the latterpart of the thirteenthcentury. lock to be broken, and the door to be opened. Latterly, Sir William Ouseley has written much In the chamber he beheld a stone of considerable dimensions hollowed out into the form of He says, " The local tradition upon the subject. a coffin,and in that the body of a dead man, which fixesDaniel's tomb at Susa, seems worthy of investigation. Through the more wrapped in a shroud or winding sheet of gold modern
were are no
.

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The head was Abou brocade. uncovered. prey. The dread of these furious animals compelled Mousa and his attendants were Mr. Monteith and myself to take shelter astonished ; for having measured the nose, they found that profor the night within the walls that encompass portionally Daniel's tomb." he must have exceeded the common To the same effect,Sir John Malcolm, in his History of Persia, writes : The people now informed Abou size of men. " Mousa that this was the body of an ancient sage Every species of wild beast roams at large over that spot on which some who formerly lived in Irak, and that whenever of the proudest the want of rain occasioned a famine or scarcity, palaces ever raised by human art once stood." Yes, reader, they rove over the inhabitants applied to this holy man, the ruins of Susa, and through the efficacy of his prayers, obtained without one human being to dispute their reign, pened save the poor dervise who holds watch over the It hapcopious showers of rain from heaven. tomb of the prophet. The chambers of royalty cessive afterwards that Sus also suffered from exAhasuerus exhibited the riches of his drought, and the people in distress rewhere quested that their neighbours would allow this kingdom, "and the honour of his excellent majesty," for " an hundred and fourscore days," venerable personage to reside a few days among dia them, expecting to derive the blessing of rain unto his princes and servants, the power of Mefrom his intercession with the Almighty; but and Persia, with the nobles and princes of hundred twenty-seven the Irakians would not grant this request. Fifty one and provinces, men then went, deputed by the people of Sus, stretching from India even to Ethiopia, are now who again petitioned the ruler of Irak, saying, the abodes of the beasts of the desert. The voice ' tain of festivemirth, once heard in the gorgeous halls Let this holy person visitour country, and defor the howlings of the These terms men the fifty of Susa, is exchanged untilhis return.' lion, the wolf, and the hyena, as they roam to Sus, were the holy person came accepted, and where, through the influence of his prayers, rain abroad in quest of prey ; while birds of evilnote, as fell in great abundance, and saved the land the ruins, give additional sothey fly over lemnity man to the desolation. Alas ! alas ! for hufrom famine ; but the people would not permit detained him to return, and the fifty men were grandeur ! When Such, said those who acas hostages in Irak. Major Monteith visitedSus, the dervise companied Abou Mousa, is the history of the who watches the tomb of Daniel showed him The Arabian general then asked dead man. several blocks of stone, curiously sculptured, and them by what name this extraordinary person- of great antiquity. The sides of one of these age a green granite,was had been known stones, which was covered plied, among them ? They re'The people of Irak called him Daniel occupying fiverows. with hieroglyphical figures, The first row Hakim, or Daniel the Sage.' After this, Abou present contained forms supposed to rethe sun, the moon, Mousa remained some spatched and one of the stars ; time in Sus, and dethe second, animals resembling a horse, a bird, to Omar a messenger the Commander figure with the head and conof the Faithful, with an account of all his quests and a dog ; the third,a lower extremities of a tiger,the arms of a man, in Khuzistan, and of the various treasures He related and the tailof a goat ; the fourth, an animal resembling that had fallen into his

possession.

When an antelope, a serpent, a scorpion,and also the discovery of Daniel's body. or Omar had received this account, he demanded the ornamented top of a staff sceptre ; and the fifth depicts a trident,two spears, a hawk, and information concernfrom his chief officers some ing Two sides some Daniel ; but all were other bird,with a Greek cross. silent,except Ali, on in He declared that of the stone are occupied by inscriptions the be the blessing of God. whom Daniel had been a prophet, though not of the character, which is scarcely legible. cuneiform This is one of the principalremains of Susa. highest order ; that in ages long since he had dwelt with Bakht al Nassar (Nebuchadnezzar) and the kings who had succeeded him ; and Ali This city, which is called by some ancient related the whole of Daniel's history from the beginning to the end. Omar then, by the advice writers, Aritoana, Artacanda, Artacoana, and to the of his counsellor Ali, caused lettersto be directed Bitaxa, and by Ptolemy, Aria, answers in an ample to Abou Mousa to remove, modern Heraut, which is situated with due respect and and surrounded by lofty veneration, the body of Daniel to some plain of great fertility, place The situation of Heraut is placed the people of Sus could no longer where enjoy mountains. differently on differentmaps, and by different the possession of it. Abou Mousa, immediately Kinneir's Memoir, in 34" 12' n. on the receipt of this order, obliged the people of writers: in Sus to turn the stream which supplied them with latitude; by Captain Grant, 63" 14' ; in Kinneir's in Elphinstone's map Then he brought water from itsnatural course. map, 60" 55' e. longitude ; forth the body of Daniel, and having wrapped it of Caubul, in 34" 47' n. latitude, and 61" 55' e. in another shroud of gold brocade, he comlongitude ; in Rennell's map of the twenty satrapies manded a grave to be made in the dry channel of Darius Hystaspes, 61" 5' e. longitude ; and in D'Anville's map, 59" 34' of the same. of the river,and therein deposited the venerable Concerning the ancient town, nothing is known ; the prophet. The grave was then remains of but firmly secured and covered with stones of siderable Captain Grant says of Heraut, that the plain con"is by an ample watered size; the river was restored to its on which it stands flow stream, crowded with villages teeming with population, wonted channel, and the waters of Sus now The over and covered with fieldsof corn. the body of Daniel." beauty and variety Sir John Kinneir, writing on this says, landscape receives additional subject, " from the numerous The city of Shus is now a gloomy mosques, tombs, and other wilderness, intermingled with trees and gardens, infested by lions,hyenas, and 'other beasts of edifices,

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According to Arrian, this was the largestcity " The term signifies, the yellow of Hyrcania. to itfrom the great num;" and itwas city ber given of orange, lemon, and other fruittrees which grew in the environs of that city. Hence it is by D'Anville,Rochette, and other geographers, identified with Saru, which Pietro Delia Valle Zarang, or Seistan,isidentified by some graphers geosays, in his Travels, signifies yellow. It is probable of high note, with the modern Doosthat Zadracarta and Saru are the same hauk, or Jellallabad, which is about 260 miles with the Syringis of Polybius, taken from Ardue south from Heraut. This city is situated Great, in his fruitless on the banks Ilmend, near its outlet into saces ii. by Antiochus the of the cania attempt to reunite the revolted provinces of Hyrthe lake of Durrah, and it is encompassed by Hanway, and Parthia to the Syrian crown. testifyingits ancient grandeur. Captain ruins, who visitedSaru a.d. 1734, mentions four ancient Christie saw those of a great bund, or dyke, Magian temples as still " standing, built in the cules. called the Bund of Rustum," the Persian Herform of rotundas, each thirty feet in diameter, Zarang was chieflydesolated by Timur 120 in height. But Sir W. Ouseley, Bek, who obtained for himself a Goth-like cele- and near brity who was there in 1811, has pronounced these to for the destruction of cities,nd the extera minationbe masses of brick masonry of the Mohammedan of his fellow-men. He razed this city One of them only is now standing, the to itsfoundations,destroyed the the age. called edifice " Mound of Rustum," and leftno traces of that others having been overturned by an earthquake. Sheriffedin, his Life of This and other remains of similar buildings, in ancient monument. bear the names of Firedoon, Salm, Toor, and this destroyer, in the spirit orientalromance, of other mystic personages, whose celebrity had says, that a voice was heard, which invoked the been established about 2000 years anterior to soul of Rustum to arise from his resting place, their erection. One of them was called the tomb behold the calamitieswhich had overtaken and his country, in these words : " Lift up thy head ; of Kaus, and was supposed to contain the ashes behold the condition of thy country, which is at of Cyrus. Sir William Ouseley thinks it was that of Kabus, or Kaus, the son of Washmakin, length reduced by the power of the Tartars." who governed Mazanderan in the fourth century It of the Hejira. was at Saru that the ashes of MARACANDA. deposited by the youthful hero, Sohraub, were This city is supposed, with great probability, his father, Roostum, after he had unwittingly to be the modern slain him in singlecombat. Saru is celebrated for its abundance of gardens, which emit a " Samarcand, by Oxus, Teraar's throne," (Milton,) pleasing fragrance in the vernal and summer Oriental hyperbole declares, that the in Elphinstone's map is placed 230 Bri- months. tish which gates of paradise derive sweetness from the air tude, miles n. n.w. of Bactria, in 39" 37' n. latiSaru, and the flowers of Eden theirfragrance and nearly 65" e. longitude. It is situated of from itssoil. on the southern side of the Sogd, which has its in the ridge of Pamer, and which running HECATOMPYLOS. source south-west from the Beloot-Taugh, divides the Hecatompylos, which was so calledbecause of waters south to the Oxus from those that run itshundred gates,or because all the roads in the north to the Jaxartes. According to Curtius, Parthian dominions entered here, is the modern Damgan. when the city was besieged by Alexander, itwas Itsdistance from the Caspian Straits, in three leagues (or nine miles) circumference. in Kinneir's map, is 125 miles north-east; RenAfterwards itwas much enlarged, and surrounded graphical nell,however, makes it only seventy-eight geoby a wall. It was taken by Jenghis Khan, a. d. ander by Alexmiles. This city was visited 1220, after an obstinate resistance. Samarcand in his pursuitof Darius. By some writers, was the favouriteresidence of Timur Bek, and it Hecatompylos is identifiedwith Ispahan, now is still he seat of an Usbeck-Khan, but itsglory one t of the most populous towns of Persia ; but it is departed. does not appear to be authenticated.
"

with which it is embellished, and the mountain slopes, by which it is surrounded. Heraut is situated in the modern province of Khorassan, and contains a population of 45,000. The city occupies an area of four square miles.

zadracarta.

The above are allthe towns of ancient Persia, Strabo mentions thiscity among those of Hyrconcerning which any descriptive account can Renbe offered to the reader. The names cania,and Ptolemy places itin Margiana. of many i in the pages of this history, nell identifies t with the modern Naisabour, but others will occur itis more beyond the fact of their having once probably the modern Nesa, This has but little tween There are, it is true, the always been a city of note. It is situated be- existed, is known. the mountains that bound the district of mouldering remnants of many cities scattered Toos, or Mesched, and the desert of Khowarabout the vast tracts of Persia ; but they are not asm are in the ; and fifty geographical miles south-east of identified with any city whose names Bawerd and twenty east of Kelat. It was taken or pages of ancient historians, if they be, little by the Tartars under Jenghis Khan, a.d. 1220, is known of their histories.Thus, at Mourghab, when 70,000 of its inhabitants perished. It is forty-nine miles n.n.e. of Istakher, are extensive Nisaean horses and supposed that the famed and in ruins,resembling those of Persepolis, Nisaean plains derived their name from this the neighbourhood of Firoze-abad, there are city. others seventeen miles in length, and half that

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" The great king," and been exadistance in width, which have never mined and culpable honours. king of kings," were titles "the the common by European travellers. Ruins of considerable nours to the Persian monarchs, and divine hoin the neighbourhood occur, given extent also, All were paid to them by all ranks of Persia. of Darabgerd, and various other places. in the single province of None dared approach them without that humble occur these, and more, Farsistan,or the ancient Persis. of prostration due to the Majesty heaven alone. Reader, what shall we say to these things? Who bows the knee to man Knowing all this, shallwe look upon earth as our As a divinity, deprives the God and on the mighty cities that Who made him and preserves him, of his rights : place of abode, kind as enduring in their For to that end was he created man. teem with human now lon, Rather let us point to Thebes, Babynatures ? Reverence to Nineveh, Persepolis,and the many mighty majestyshould proceed from obligationsalone, not from adoration of their civil embrace the earth, and citiesof old that now " of idolatry. Nay, persons. Beyond this,it savours say, They shall one day be as these are." It was not only of their own that sun subjects the let us look upon our fair earth, and the kings of Persia exacted this homage, but of us by day, and the moon and which shines upon cumstance strangers likewise. Herodotus, relating the cirthe stars that give us lightby night, and exclaim " tiful of two Spartans being sent to Xerxes, These, also, mighty and beauholy awe, with for the destruction of his amas an atonement bassadors, as they are, and stable as they appear, are who had been sent to demand of them doomed to perish !" One great question arises " sion earth and water," as a token of their submisout of this, which the poet has well supplied : " When to this haughty monarch, says : introduced, on their arrival at Susa, to the royal "That day of wrath, that dreadful day, heaven and earth shall pass away, When first ordered by the guards presence, they were "What power shall be the sinner's stay? to fallprostrate, and adore the king, and some dreadful day 1 How shall he meet that But this they force was used to compel them. if they should dash their "When, shivering like a parched scroll, refused to do, even The flaming heavens together roll: heads against the ground. They were not, they dread, louder yet, and yet more When itfor nor was said,accustomed to adore a man, Swells the high trump that wakes the dead : After persevering this purpose that they came. " Oh ! on that day, that wrathful day, in such conduct, they addressed Xerxes himself from clay, to judgment wakes When man in these words : ' King of the Medes, (orPersians,*) Be Thou the trembling sinner's stay, are sent by our we countrymen to make Though heaven and earth shall pass away!" Scott. Sir Walter for those ambassadors who perished atonement was the haughty monarch at Sparta.'" And obliged to yield to their inflexibility. This conduct was uniformly the disposition of the Greeks, with the exception of Themistocles, III. CHAPTER says, and one or two others. Valerius Maximus that one Timagoras, an Athenian, having complied HISTORY OF PERSIA. OF THE POLITY with the demands of the Persian court, was to die, thinking by his countrymen condemned The government of the ancient Persians was the dignity of their city injured degraded by and hereditary. this act of meanness. And iElian reports, that monarchical, or regal,and the crown At what date thisform was adopted is unknown. Ismenias, the Theban, declined it,by letting his Certain it is,however, that this form of government ring drop from his finger, and then throwing is the most ancient and prevalent, and, it. himself on the ground to recover Prideaux remarks, that this compliment of could the origin of that of Persia be traced, it would, doubtless, reach a remote period of time. prostration before him, must have been paid the But a veil is thrown over it by the romantic account king of Persia by the prophets Ezra and Neheto him. of Persia given by the early Persian miah, or they could not have had access From a comparison writers, Mirkhond and Ferdusi, a veil which with the above remarks, historians would in vain attempt to ; for if the modern this will appear to be erroneous throw aside. That which is known, is handed Greeks could gain access without, why should down to our age by the Greek historians,who It is probable, that not Ezra and Nehemiah? knew little Persia before the era of Cyrus. of the kings of Persia, with whom these holy men From these writers, therefore, is chieflyderived had to do, knowing the peculiarityof their manners the following information concerning the polity and their religion,would have ceded much i of Persia, which, for the sake of distinctness,s to them which the haughty Xerxes would have At all events, ifthey did denied to the Greeks. classed under several heads. act thus, it was from civilobligations alone, not know that the kingly power. from a feeling of idolatry; for we inflexible, not to as Mordecai was sufficiently Eastern monarchs have ever been despots, honours to Haman. pay undue regarding their subjects generally as slaves. to It is certainly right for subjects pay due Such were the kings of Persia. They lorded it is Respect, nay, reverence to respect majesty. over their subjects with so high a hand, that due to the supreme power, because it cometh looked upon as more they were than mortal: from God, and is ordained for the welfare of the they were regarded, in fact, as the image and Deity on earth. Hence itwas * by ancient vicegerents of the The Persians were usually comprehended that their subjects them such extraordinary writers, under the name of Medes. paid
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Render therefore," says the great I the care of his health and person, and with, the community. " bute the Gentiles, to all their dues : tri- duty of forming his manners and behaviour. apostle of is due ; custom When to whom seven to whom tribute taken from years of age, he was fear ; honour to whom these officers, and put into the hands of other ; fear to whom custom Where to continue the care no honour," Rom. respect is masters, who were xiii. 7. of his " higher powers," there anarchy preto the vails, education, to teach him horsemanship, and to paid At fourteen years of exercise him in hunting. with all itsconcomitant evils. In the time and honour age, when the mind approaches maturity, four of of paganism, however, this homage It is the the wisest and most virtuous men were of the state carried beyond due bounds. Christian religion alone that has taught manwere kind appointed to be his preceptors. The first how to act worthily before God and man taught him magic, that is,the worship of their tians on this point. It is true, not all that are Chris- gods, according to their ancient maxims, and the laws of Zoroaster, the son of Oromasdes; he in name, act towards their rulers as the doctrines of Christianity inculcate. Far, very also instructed him in the principlesof government. far from this is the actual fact. And whence The second taught him to speak truth, The duty of the does this arise? Is itnot from a laxity of moral and the principlesof justice. to teach him not to suffer himself to third was training ? by pleasures, that he might be a be overcome king in truth, always free,and master of himself " The discipline of slavery is unknown to fortifythe do we require Among us : hence and his desires. The fourth was the more The discipline of virtue ; order else courage of the young prince against fear,which Cannot subsist, nor confidence, nor peace. him a slave, and to inspire would have made Thus duties rising out of good possessed, him with a noble and prudent assurance, so necessary And prudent caution needful to avert for those born to command. Each of Impending evil, equally require That the whole people should be taught and partment, these governors excelled in his particular detrained : examples to their adding their own So shall licentiousness and black resolve Be rooted out, and virtuous habits take precepts, thereby acting upon that self-evident Their place ; and genuine piety descend, instruct,but examples pertruth, that, "words suade Like an inheritance, from age to age." effectually." Wordsworth. But " evil communications corrupt good manners." Plato remarks, that all this care was The crown descendof Persia was hereditary, ing frustrated by the luxury, pomp, and magnificence from father to son, and generally to the surrounded with which the young prince was heir to the crown born, an was eldest. When that train of officers ; by the numerous the whole empire testifiedheir joyby sacrifices, t waited upon him with servilesubmission ; by all feasts, thenceforward etc. ; and his birthday was the appurtenances, and equipage of a voluptuous an annual festival out and day of solemnity throughin which pleasure and the and effeminate life, the whole empire. invention of new diversions engrossed all attention. When long the reigning monarch undertook These are dangers which the most excellent or dangerous expeditions, in order to avoid all disposition, least under the pagan sysat tem disputes, it was the customary for him to name surmount. of moral training, could never heir apparent before he commenced his march. The corrupt manners, therefore, of the nation, The new king was by the priests at crowned quickly depraved the mind of the prince, and Pasagardae. The ceremony was performed in drew him into a vortex of pleasures, against the temple of the goddess of war, where the barking used first all to clothe himself with the which no education can form an effectual of before he was garment which Cyrus had worn " is man; exalted to the throne. Xenophon thus describes Religion! the sole voucher man Supporter sole of man this garment: "Cyrus himself then appeared, above himself: Even in this night of frailty,change, and death, wearing a turban, which was raised high above a She gives a soul, (and she alone,) soul that acts a his head, with a vest of purple colour, half mixed god." Young. none with white, and this mixture of white else is allowed to wear. On his legs he had yellow But the religion that performs so stupendous Bible, which buskins, his outer robe was wholly of purple, a work as this,is the religionof the aster, a diadem or teaches us the gospel of Christ. That of Zoroand about his turban was wreath." Being thus attired, ate some its rites, he figs, a small and fancied ceremonies, with with all votees not one of its myriads of dequantity of turpentine,and drank a full cup of perfections,lifted The crown sour was the things of time and sense, the then placed upon milk. above his head by one of the grandees, in whose family low and grovelling pleasures in which human debased, It found man hereditary. Round the crown that right was nature is prone to indulge. it drew him far lower down into the a purple and dem, the king wore white band or diadepths of human degradation. the only and diadem were which crown The palace of the kings of Persia had many signs of royalty used by the earlier Persian monarchs. gates, and each gate a body of guards, whose king, and The manner of educating the heir apparent of duty itwas to defend the person of the heard or the empire of Persia is extolled by Plato, who to inform him of whatever they saw proposed it to the Greeks as a perfect model for done in any part of the kingdom ; whence they " the education of a prince. Their routine of eduthe king's ears," and expressively termed cation were To these messengers, all as follows :" Shortly after his birth, " the king's eyes." was he was sent from the committed to the care of eunuchs, chief intelligenceworthy of note was officers the household, who were of remotest provinces of the empire, and they also charged with
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were received immediate intelligence sudden commotions, of sometimes read to the Persian |journals by means monarchs. of beacon-fires,which were There are many allusions the above custom to always ready at certain distances,and lighted as in the works of ancient writers. Herodotus, in occasion required. The guards which attended describing the review made by Xerxes of his men. the king's person consisted of 15,000 These were army, states that he was attended by secretaries, called the king's relations. There he received was, also, a body of 10,000 chosen horsemen, who wrote down the various answers to the questions which he put as he rode along who accompanied him in his expeditions, and " were called immortal," that number being constantlythe ranks in his chariot. He further states that kept up. These guards received no pay, this monarch, when seated on Mount iEgaleos but were amply provided with the necessaries of to view the battle of Salamis, caused his secretaries life. to note down the names guished of such as distinThe Persian monarchs drank no other water themselves in the strife, with the city but that of the river Choaspes, which was carried wherein they lived. A similar custom prevails in oriental countries to this day. Travellers about with them in silvervessels. According to Xenophon, in the early of the middle ages, in their descriptionsof the the Persians were, Mougol emperors, tellus that when they dined, period of their history, a temperate and sober four secretarieswere seated under their table people. In the time of Herodotus, however, they drank profusely ; and it is certain,that in to write down their words, which they never later ages, the wines of Shiraz have triumphed might revoke. over Anciently, their Another officerof importance in the king's the law of Mohammed. kings drank only a peculiar wine made at Damascus. household was his cup-bearer. This is shown The magnificence of the public feasts by several passages in the book of Nehemiah, phon. of the kings of Persia exceeded, as may be seen and in the works both of Herodotus and Xenofrom Esther i., The prophet Nehemiah was, indeed, cupbearer any thing that we read of in the he makes histories other nations. Their table was daily to Artaxerxes, and the allusions of b is served with something from each nation subjectto his office well illustrated y profane authors. interestto them. During their repast,they were ing entertained Xenophon, in particular, affords some strumental a with the harmony of both vocal and inexplanations concerning this office,nd the in which itsfunctions were discharged. manner music. The king of Persia seldom admitted to his Speaking of the cup-bearer of Astyages, the besides his wife and mother. table any one grandfather of Cyrus, he describes him as the When he did, the guests were so placed, as not most favoured of the king's household officers ; to see, but only to be seen by the king ; for they and he adds that he was a very handsome man, and imagined itwas to a degradation of majesty let that it was part of his duty to introduce to the to their people see that they were subject the king those who came upon business,and to send This desire of apcommon appetites of nature. away those who applied for an interview whom pearing the ruling he, the cup-bearer, did not deem it seasonable to superior to mankind, was in public. It introduce. This alone must have made the cupmotive of their non-appearance bearer was a rarely that they left the precincts of the person of high consideration at the palace. Their manner of the office of living may be seen in court of Persia. The emoluments the interestingbook of Esther. Tully says, that appear to have been very great ; for they enabled Nehemiah to sustainfor many years the state and the revenues of whole provinces were employed on the attire of their favourite concubines ; hospitalityof the government of the Jews from his own and Socrates relates, that one admires the country was private purse. Xenophon " " in which these cup-bearers discharged manner the called the queen's girdle,"and another, that queen's head-dress." their office. From his description, it seems In the three books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and the cup was held in the presence of the monarch, Esther, there are many passages was presented to him on three which intimate and, being filled, the care taken by the Persian government fingers. This account is explained by the existto ing All that the king in the east, and by the sculptures of register every occurrence. customs deemed worthy of registration. Persepolis. These sculptures comprehend a great said,indeed, was He was usually surrounded by of who took number scribes, of figures, bearing cups and vases note of his words and actions. They were of which are rarely different forms and uses, none absent from him, and always attended him when grasped, as in European countries. If the bearer he appeared in public. They were at his has but one present article,he carries it between both festivals,his reviews of the it army, and in the hands, (resting upon his lefthand, and placing to tumult of battle,at which times they registered his right hand lightlyupon it, prevent it from whatever words fellfrom him on those occasions. falling,) a peculiar grace of action ; if he with They were charged, also,with the registrations has two, he bears one upon the palm of each of edicts and ordinances, which were written in hand. It was the duty of the cup-bearer to take the king's presence, sealed with his signet ring, some of the wine from the cup presented to the to king into his lefthand, and di-inkit, assure the and then despatched by couriers. These royal or journals chronicles of Persia were deposited monarchs against poison. at Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, and they formed It appears from the book of Esther that the have all Persian kings had but one queen, properly so the archives of this people. They book, however, and from perished except the few extracts preserved in called. From the same the books of Scripture pointed out, and in the history, it may be gathered that there common a. considerable number were older Greek historians. From a transaction recorded of secondary wives Esther vi. 1, itwould appear that these I and other females, who had not attained to this
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distinction. With some slightdifferences, similar distinctions continue to prevail in the harem, or family of the rulers of Persia. The principal differenceis, that the king has several legalwives, besides those of a secondary class,and that they now appear to have daily access to his presence, which the history of Esther shows was not the case ance anciently. The accommodation and attendof the women varies according to their " ness busirank. Sir J. Malcolm says,that the first of the king of Persia in the morning, after he is risen,is to sitfrom one or two hours in the hall of the harem, where his levees are conducted with the same ceremony as in his outer apartment. Female officersarrange the crowd of his wives and slaves with the strictestttentionto the order a After hearing the reports of of precedency. those entrusted with the internal government of the harem, and consulting with his principal wives, who are generally seated, the monarch leaves the interiorapartments." According to the Greek historians, were none admitted to the king without being called ; but they do not appear to have known that queens included in the application and princesseswere of this rule. From Esther ir,11, we find that they were so ; and the rule seems to have been that even when the king was in his outer apartments,
none might enter uncalled or unannounced; and that when in his interiorresidence,not even the queen might appear unbidden ; none except saw the seven the king's face," princes "who might appear before him without ceremony. And even these were not admitted when any of the king's wives were with him, which restriction enabled the king to see them when and as little as he thought proper. Herodotus relates, that one of the privilegednobles who disbelievedthis excuse of two door-keepers for not admitting him into the presence of the monarch, cut off for which act he and his their ears and noses, family, except his wife and eldest son, were punished with death. On some to have been thislaw seems occasions, infringed. Thus Esther, urgently requested by Mordecai, to save her nation from the destruction meditated by the wicked Haman, and decreed by Ahasuerus when inflamed with wine, stood " in the inner court of the king's house." But then, though death was the law for such an offence, the king might set this aside by holding out the golden sceptre, that the offender might live. Such favour was shown to Esther; otherwise, according to the law of the Medes and Persians, her life must have been the forfeit of her temerity. After having thus shown her favour, the king promised Esther that whatever might be her request it should be granted her, even to the half of his kingdom ; a form of speech which has reference to the custom among the ancient kings of Persia in bestowing grants and pensions to theirfavourites. These grants were not by payment of money from the treasury, but by charges upon the revenues of particular provinces or Xerxes wished to make a cities. Thus when provision for Themistocles, he gave him the city of Magnesia for his bread, Myonta for his meat for his wine. and other victuals,and Lampsacus This may explain the observations before made

with reference to the queens of Persia possessing particular provinces, and the phrase of giving " the half of the kingdom." It may also unto idea of the cost and splendour of suggest some the dresses of the queens of Persia. Concerning the king's own apparel, there are interesting allusions made some in Esther vi. From thence we learn that the privilegeof wearing such a dress formed a permanent distinction a distinctionthat of a very high order. It was even the great counsellor Haman aspired unto. When the monarch interrogatedhim thus, "What the king shall be done unto the man whom delightethto honour ?" supposing that the honour intended for himself, the ambitious courtier was " For rejoined, the man whom the king delighteth to honour, letthe royal apparel be brought which the king useth to wear, and the horse that the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which is set upon his head : and letthisapparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the king's most that they may array the man noble princes, withal the king delighteth to honour, and bring whom him on horseback through the street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour," Esther vi. 7"9. Haman knew that itwas death for any one to wear the king's own robe, and that calculated to express the such an honour was most pre-eminent favour and distinction,and to render it visible allthe people, and therefore it he made the proposal. As much was may be " the horse that the king rideth upon," said of and "the crown royal which is set upon his head." It was to ride unlawful for any one horse, and a capital crime to on the king's own wear turban or crown the same which the king Arrian relates, wore, or even such as he wore. on that when Alexander was sailing the Euphrates, his turban fell off among some reeds. One of the rowers jumped out, and swam to recover it: but finding that he could not carry itback in his hand without wetting it, he put it upon his head, and brought it safely to the boat. The monarch gave him a talent of silverfor his zeal, and then for setting the ordered his head to be struck off, diadem thereon. This story emphatically illustrates the foregoing observations. The distinctions Persian royalty are thus of enumerated by Statius:
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When some youth of royal blood succeeds To his paternal crown, and rules the Medes, His slender grasp, he fears, will illcontain The weighty sceptre, and the bow sustain ; And trembling takes the courser's reins in hand, And huge tiara, badge of high command." Lewis.
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Concerning the sceptre, it is evident from Scriptureand the writings of profane historians, on that the kings of Persia used one great makes Cyrus say among occasions. Xenophon other things to Cambyses, his son and appointed " Know Cambyses, that it is not the successor, golden sceptre which can preserve your kingdom ; but faithful friends are a prince's truest and securest sceptre." In the Persepolitansculptures, however, the figures of the king are invariably represented as bearing a long staff in his hand. trated The crown of the kings of Persia may be illusby the description which Morier gives of the magnificent tiaraof Futteh Ali Shah, king of

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king," says he, " was one blaze Babylon, with the freewill offeringof the people, and of the priests,offering willingly for the of jewels, which literallydazzled the sight on A lofty tiara of three house of their God which is in Jerusalem : that first looking at him. on his head, which shape appears was thou mayest buy speedily with this money bullocks, elevations lambs, with their meat rams, to have been long peculiar to the crown of the offeringsand great king. It was entirelycomposed of thickly their drink offerings,and offer them upon the salem," set diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds, so altarof the house of your God which is in Jeru26. etc. Ezra vii.12 exquisitely disposed as to form a mixture of the light rebeautiful colours, in the brilliant most flected These counsellorswere well versed in the laws, from its surface. Several black feathers, ancient customs, and manners of the state. They like the heron-plume, were intermixed with the always attended the king, who never transacted anything, or determined any affair importance, splendid aigrettes of this truly imperial diadem, of furnished with pearwithout their advice. This may be gathered from whose bending points were dress a transaction recorded in the first formed pearls of immense size." The usual headchapter of the Persian monarchs is a plain book of Esther. The writer of that book, after of modern black cap, which probably bears a similarrelation having stated the refractory conduct of queen Vashti, represents Ahasuerus as seeking the adas the plain cap on the Persepolitan to thiscrown, vice " Then the king bore to the ancient state crowns of these seven of counsellors. sculptures said to the wise men, which knew the times, (for their mighty predecessors. it so was In concluding thisarticle, maybe mentioned, the king's manner toward all that knew law and judgment and the next unto him was : that the birthdays of the kings of Persia were kept sacred, and celebrated with public sports, Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena, and Memucan, in the utmost the seven pomp and magnificence. Their princes of1 deaths were bewailed by the closing of the tri- Persia and Media, which saw the king'sface,and bunals forfive days, and by extinguish- which sat the firstin the kingdom ing of justice ;)What shall do unto the queen Vashti according to law, we the firewhich was worshipped in familiesas because she hath not performed the commanda household god ; on ment which occasion alone they deposited of the king Ahasuerus by the chamberlains submitted to such a calamity. They were ? And Memucan in rocky vaults,as in the tombs at Nakshanswered before the king a i-Rustam, and Naksh-i-Rejeb,privilege, as and the princes,Vashti the queen hath not done be seen in a future page, peculiarly their wrong to the king only, but also to allthe princes, will own.* and to allthe people that are in all the provinces For this de""d of the of the king Ahasuerus. COUNSELLORS. STATE SEVEN THE so that queen shallcome abroad unto all women, they shall despise their husbands in their eyes, Absolute as was the regal authority among to a certain degree, when it shall be reported, The king Ahasuerus the Persians, yet it was, Vashti the queen to be brought in kept within due bounds by the establishment of commanded Likewise shall seven the chief before him, but she came not. a council,which of consisted of ladiesof Persia and Media say this day unto men of the nation,distinguishedno less by their the than by their illustrious all the king's princes, which have heard of the wisdom and abilities, birth. This establishment had its origin in the deed of the queen. Thus shall there arise too Persian noblemen, who much contempt and wrath. If itplease the king, conspiracy of the seven let there go a royal commandment from him, and entered into an associationagainst Smerdis, the Magian, and slew him. These noblemen stipu- let itbe written among the laws of the Persians lated Medes, that it be not altered,That Vashti with Darius Hystaspes, whom they placed and the come before king Ahasuerus ; and let no more honours on the throne, for the most distinguished the king give her royal estate unto another that and extraordinary privileges. is better than she. And when the king's decree These counsellors possessed great power. This be seen by the letterwritten by Artaxerxes out which he shall make shallbe published throughmay it self to Ezra, wherein he constantly associateshimall his empire, (for is great,) the wives all " Artaxerxes, shallgive to their husbands honour, both to great with these seven counsellors : a king of kings, unto Ezra the priest, scribe of and small." Ahasuerus was pleased with this counsel, and adopted it. See Esther i.9 22. the law of the God of heaven, perfect peace, and Among the sculptures at Naksh-i-Rustam, there at such a time. I make a decree, that allthey of is one which exhibits a king in apparent conferthe people of Israel, ence and of his priests and Leone men, with seven queenly looking lady vites,in my realm, which are minded of their freewillto go up to Jerusalem, go with thee. also being present, which aptly 'illustrates the own It belongs, however, to a Forasmuch as thou art sent of the king, and of foregoing extract. later period than the era of Ahasuerus. to his seven counsellors, enquire concerning Judah This council did not interferewith the king's and Jerusalem, according to the law of thy God is in thine hand ; and to carry the silver prerogative of ruling and commanding : it was which confined entirely to that of reason, which consisted and gold,which the king and his counsellors have in communicating and imparting their freely offered unto the God of Israel, whose knowledge and experience to the king. To them habitationis in Jerusalem, and allthe silver and that thou canst find in all the province of the king transferred several weighty cases, which gold otherwise might have been a burden to him, and by them he executed whatever measures * the kingiy power of Persia, on had For further remarks the reader is referred to the corresponding section in the been adopted in the council. It was, in fact, by for the Persian monarchs Assyrians; History of the means of thisstanding council, that the maxims ; so were the prototypes of ihe Assyrian monarchs were of the state were preserved, the knowledge of the Parthians those of the Persians.

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its interests perpetuated, affairs harmoniously justicet stated times, in different proa vinces. Some of these judges conducted, and innovations, errors, and oversights attended the king This leads us to notice he prevented. The king often adwherever vised sojourned. with them ; and in matters concerning ADMINISTRATIVE THE POWER. himself, referred the whole to their i judgment, They were The terms king and judge are synonymous. nominated by the king, and, as the ' for life, was The throne isa tribunal, employment great care was taken to and the sovereign power the highest authority for the administration of prefer only such as were famed for theirintegrity. The was justice. duties of a king are well defined in Delinquency on the part of judges punished the queen of Sheba's address to king Solomon. with extreme severity. Herodotus says, that " " one having suffered himself Blessed," said she, be the Lord thy God, which of the royal judges delighted in thee, to set thee on the throne of to be corrupted by a bribe, was by condemned Cambyses to be put to death without mercy, and Israel: because the Lord loved Israel for ever, to have his skin placed therefore made he thee king, to do judgment upon the seat of justice. and 1 that the son sucjustice" Kings x. 9. The Almighty hath He adds, what is most revolting, ceeded his father in this seat. to made every thing subject princes,to put them " According to Xenophon, the ordinary judges into a condition of fearing none but him. For of Persia were taken out of the class of old men, not a terror to rulers," saith the apostle, "are intowhich none were admitted tillhe age of fifty t good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power ? do that which is good, therefore, could not exercise the years. A man, before that age ; the Persians being of and thou shalt have praiseof the same : for he is office judge rethe minister of God to thee for good. But ifthou of opinion that a fully matured mind was quired in an employment, which decided upon the do that which is evil, be afraid; for he beareth fortunes,reputations, and livesof the community. not the sword in vain : for he is the minister of Amongst the Persians,it was not lawful either God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that for a private person to put his slave to death, or doeth evil,"Rom. xiii. 4. 3,
for the prince to inflict capitalpunishment upon for any of his subjects the first offence; the crime being considered rather the effect of human he made them his delegates? than of a confirmed maweakness and frailty, lignity " Order is Heaven's first law, and this confessed, of mind. They thought itreasonable to put Some are, and must be greater than the rest; the good as well as the evil into the scales of More rich, more wise." that ; and justice they deemed it unjust the good To this end kings reign,that order may be pre- actionsof a man should be obliteratedby a single served in a state. And this order consistsin ob- crime. It was upon this principle that Darius serving a general equity, and taking care that revoked the sentence he had passed upon one brute force does not usurp the place of law : that f of his judgesor some prevarication in his office, the property of one man itwas going to be executed ; at the very moment should not be exposed to the violence of another, that the union of society acknowledging that he had pronounced it with be not broken, that artifice than wisdom. and fraud do not prevail more precipitation innocence and simplicity, over One essential that society rule which the Persians observed in the firstplace, never was, should rest in peace under the protectionof the in theirjudgments, laws, and that the weakest and poorest should to condemn any person without confronting him find a sanctuary in the public authority. and without giving him time with his accuser, Josephus says that the kings of Persia used to and the means necessary for his defence ; and, in in administer justice theirown persons. For this the second place, ifthe person accused was found reason, innocent, to inflict they never they the same ascended the throne till punishment upon had been instructed by the magi, in the princi- the accuser, have suffered, as the accused would ples and of justice equity. These are the great had he been found guilty. Diodorus relates an vourites incident that will illustrate this. One of the faand essential duties of the regal dignity, and though the kings of Persia were transcendently of Artaxerxes, ambitious of possessing a they very vicious in other respects, yet were endeavoured place possessed by a superiorofficer, scrupulous, and very tender in the discharge of to make the king suspect the fidelity that offiof cer. these duties. After hearing the merits of the To this end, he sent informations to court cause, they took several days to consider and advise full of calumnies againsthim, persuading himself that the king would believe and act upon the rewith the magi, before they gave sentence. port When The they sat on lifeand death, they not only without examination of the matter. imprisoned, but he desired of the considered the crime of which the delinquent was officerwas impeached, but all the actions, king before he was condemned, that his cause whether good or bad, of his whole life and they condemned or ; ordered to produce might be heard, and his accusers acquitted him, according as his crimes or deserts their evidence against him. The king complied no eviprevailed. dence with the request, and as there was Though the kings of Persia may in stances inbut the letterswhich his enemy had written many have administered justice their own in acquitted. The king's against him, he was indignation then fell upon the accuser, persons, it cannot be supposed that in so mighty and the an innocent thereby was empire they could sitin judgmenton every shielded from the artifice case. Besides the king, there were, indeed, seveand cruelty of calumny and violence. ral judges, men of unblemished characters, Another memorable all example of firmness and in in and skilful the laws of the kingdom. These the love of justice the monarchs of Persia, is " were the eyes called royal judges," and they adminis- recorded in the book of Esther. When tered What is that justice which God
to the hands of monarchs ? and

hath entrusted wherefore hath The poet says,

HISTORY

OF

THK

PERSIANS.

81

opened to the dark designs of of Ahasuerus were the wicked Hainan, who had ohtained from him an edict for the destruction of the Jews, he made hy publishing another haste to atone for his fault, edict, permitting the Jews to stand up in their own defence, by punishing Haman, and by a of his error. public acknowledgment The Persians, says Herodotus, hold falsehood

proportioned to their station and high He did not allow them, however, employment. to exceed the bounds of prudence and moderation. And lest precept should be of no avail, he set them an example in this respect. He so regulated his court, that the same order
revenues

in the greatest abhorrence : next to which they it disgraceful to be in debt, as well for esteem

which reigned there might likewise proportionably be observed in the courts of the satraps,and in every noble family in his empire. To prevent, as far as

as for the temptations to falsehood, other reasons which they think it necessarily introduces. But itwould not appear that the Persians were at all times so scrupulous about falsehood. Deceit and falsehood are charges which to this day they do " PerBelieve me; for though I am a sian, not deny. I am speaking truth," is an exclamation

possible,all abuses of their extensive authority, the king reserved to himself the right of nominating the satraps, and ordained that all governors of places, commanders of armies, etc., should depend upon himself alone. From him they received their instructions, and if they abused their power, from him also they received punishment. In order to maintain a close communication commonly used to those who doubt theirveracity, with the satraps of these provinces, and to keep do not bear a strict watch over their conduct, Cyrus devised and there are few travellers who a the intercourse between plan for facilitating testimony to their proneness to falsehood and After having ascertainedhow himself and them. venality. Herodotus himself makes Darius utter " far a good horse might go in a day, with ease thissentiment, If a falsehood must be spoken, let itbe so ;" on which Larcher observes, " This and expedition, he caused stables to be erected at determined distances, each with a suitable morality is not very rigid; but it ought to be to take care of that Herodotus is here speaking of establishment of horses, and men remembered, Postmasters were falsehood, which operates to no one's injury." them. also stationed at these But when itis remembered that one of the first stages, whose duty it was to receive the packets rudiments of Persian education was to speak the as they arrived, and immediately forward them truth, this departure from iton the part of Darius with fresh horses and couriers. This custom is His delinquency must appear very remarkable. referred to, Esth. viii.10. After having related to have been founded upon that principle, that Ahasuerus granted the Jews to defend themseems selves have some of our gravest moralists against the wicked machinations of Haman, which even " taught, namely, that there may be occasions in the sacred writer says, that Mordecai "sent letters which a deviation from stricttruth is venial." by posts on horseback, and riders on mules, But this is not true. In Scripture, the liar is camels, and young dromedaries." These posts of enumerated with those whose portion isthe bitter the ancient Persians travelled night and day cup of everlasting torments ; and no extenuating without intermission, and so quickly did they that it was circumstances are taken intothe account. Besides, perform their journey, said,proverbially, This that they flew swifter than cranes. should this be allowed, irreparable mischief " on A liar," would be inflicted society. proverb may, however, refer more especiallyto says an " " " sert," the ship of the deold writer, is a public nuisance : he disheartens the swift dromedary," or belief,makes reality suspected, and one honest for it is said of the former the camel; man a stranger to the other." To sanction this especially,that itwill in one night, and through a level country, traverse as much ground as any therefore, by the weight of a man's evil, reputation " for gravity and wisdom, is to commit a crime A dromedary," says ordinary horse can in ten. Jackson, in his work on Morocco, "has been no The psalmist well of ordinary magnitude. knew known to travel two hundred miles in less than the enormity of this vice : hence it was Hence we that he exclaimed, see the wisdom twenty hours." of Esther's messengers in choosing it to carry their He that telleth lies shall not tarry in my sight." despatches to the distant provinces of the Persian Psa. ci.7. empire, for the existence of her nation was at
"

THE

GOVERNMENT

OF

THE

PROVINCES.

stake. The provinces of Persia have been described These posting establishments of ancient Persia in a previous portion of this history. (See from those of the Mougol page may receive illustration 2.) In this sectionwill be described the government empire. According to Marco Polo, there were of those provinces. roads extending to every part of this empire The sacred writer in the book of Daniel says, from the capital,Cambalu, having post houses, " It pleased Darius to set over the kingdom an with suitable furniture, at every twenty -fiveor hundred and twenty princes, which should be thirty miles. Altogether, there were ten thousand over the whole kingdom ; and over these three of these stations, with two hundred thousand Dan. vi.1, 2. The presidents," times princes here mentioned horses. The post ran two hundred, and somewere the governors of the provinces. They two hundred and fifty cially miles in a day, espewere or called satraps ; and they were in cases of rebellion, other urgent occathe most consions. siderable There were persons in the kingdom ; being second other stations,consisting of to none but the monarch, and the three cupied principal a few dwellings, three or four miles asunder, ocfoot-posts,who, being or by runners, ministers, who inspected their conduct, and to they gave an account of the affairs their girded, and well trained to their employment, ran whom of respective provinces. That they might be able as fast as horses. In dark nights, these foot-posts to maintain a proper dignity, without which respect ran before the horsemen with links to light them languishes,Cyrus assigned to these satraps along. Sometimes they carried letters, mandates,

32

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

caused an exact account to be given them, how i ceived parcels to or from the khan, who thus rein two days from places ten stages every province and district news was that cultivated, distant,as from Kambalu to Shangtu. they might know whether each country produced The fact of the ancient Persians sending letters as much fruits as it was capable of producing. by posts,it may be remarked, is one well calcu- Xenophon lated remarks of Cyrus the younger, that he feel informed himself whether the private gardens of to engage the attention of those who interested in studying the progress of society in his were subjects well kept, and yielded plenty the arts of convenience and civilization.And and that he rewarded the superintendents of fruit, in were and overseers, whose provinces,or districts, who isthere that does not feelan interest these to the comforts the best cultivated, arts arts which are so essential and punished those who suffered cannot theirgrounds to liebarren. of life, and without which a community How much the Persian princes were nourish ? attached to the arts of agriculture,may be seen from a '"Tis genial,intercourse, and mutual aid, demonian, conversation held between Lysander, the LaceCheers what were else an universal shade, and Cyrus the younger, as related by Calls Nature from her ivy-mantled den, Xenophon, and beautifully applied by Cicero. Cowper. And softens human rockwork into men."" Cyrus conducted his illustrious guest through his The care of the provinces of Persia was not gardens, and pointed out the various beauties left entirely to the satraps. The king himself they presented. Lysander was charmed with the prospect,and was obliged personally, by ancient custom, to visit the provinces at stated periods,being persuaded, admired the taste displayed in the arrangement Pliny says of Trajan, as that the most ness solid of the gardens, the height of the trees, the neatof the walks, the abundance of the fruit glory, and the most exquisite pleasure a prince is can them see their trees, planted chequer-wise, and the innumerable enjoy, from time to time to let common and diversified flowers every where exhaling parent, to reconcilethe dissensionsand to "Every their odours. thing," he exclaimed, animositiesof rival cities, calm commotions " to terests transports me in this place ; but what most inand amongst his subjects, prevent injustice is the exquisitejudgment verse me and elegant oppression in magistrates, and cancel and rewho planned these garperception of the artist dens, whatever has been decreed against law and and gave them the fine order, the wonderful equity. When the monarch of Persia was not able to disposition, and happiness of symmetry, which cannot be too much admired." visit the provinces himself, he commissioned " Pleased with the eulogy, Cyrus replied, " It some eminent for wisdom and of his nobles,men I who planned the gardens, and with my to act as his representatives. These were was virtue, " " " " hand planted many the ears of the trees around of the prince, own called the eyes and because through them he saw and was informed you." " What !" exclaimed Lysander, surveying Cyrus of every thing. These denominations, also,served deliberately from head to foot, " is it posas an sible admonition to the king, as well as to his that with these purple robes and splendid representatives. It admonished the one that he had his ministers as we have the organs of our these stringsof jewels, vestments, and bracelets senses, not that he should be idle,but act by of gold, and those buskins so richlyembroidered, is it possiblethat you could play the gardener, theirmeans ; itadmonished the others, that they ought not to act for themselves, but for the and employ your royal hands in planting trees ?" " " Does that surprise you?" Cyrus rejoined I ; monarch, and for the advantage of the community. by the god Mithras, that when my health swear The detailof affairs which the king or his representatives never sitdown to table without having admits, I fatigue or other ; he or they entered into, when made myself sweat with some visited the provinces, is worthy of admiration, either in military exercises, rural labour, or and shows that they understood wherein the other toilsome employments, to which I apply of wisdom and ability governors consist. Their with pleasure, and without sparing myself." Lysander pressed the hand of the prince, and attentionwas not directed to great matters alone, " piness Thou art worthy, Cyrus, of that hapbut as war, the revenue, justice, commerce: and replied: to minor matters, as the security and beauty of thou art possessed of; because, with allthy towns ; the convenient habitations his ; of subjects happiness and prosperity,thou art also virtuous." venues Mention has been made, (page the repairsof roads, bridges,and causeways ; the 3,)of the re; preserving of woods and forests and, above all, which the provinces of Persia produced. the improvement of agriculture. This latter In addition to the remarks there made, itmay of the Persian kings science engaged the Persian monarch's peculiar be added, that the revenues Those satraps,whose provinces were best consisted partly in the levying of taxes imposed care. nished furhis cultivated, enjoyed peculiarfavour. And as upon the people, and partly in their being there were offices rected for the regulationof the e with the products of the earth in kind, as forage,horses,camels, military department, so there were offices rected corn and other provisions, e for the regulation of rural labours and economy. or whatever raritieseach particular province menia Both were protected,because both concurred for afforded. Strabo relatesthat the satrap of Arthe public good : the one for itssafety, the other sent annually to the king 20,000 young for itssustenance. For if the earth cannot be colts; by which a judgmentmay be formed of the other leviesin the several provinces. These cultivated without the protection of armies, so neither can armies be fed and maintained, without tributes were only exacted from the conquered the labour of the husbandman. It was with good nations ; the Persians, properly so called, were reason, therefore, that the Persian monarchs exempt from all imposts. and
"
"

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

33
Dirhems.

The different species of tribute which the Persian monarchs received, may be illustrated from a curious document taken verbatim from a Ebn Ebn Mohammed, registermade by Ahmed Abdul Hamed, employed in the finances during Abou Abdallah al the khalifateof the renowned Mamoun.
REVENUE
OF

AUezeera Alkerah Ghilan Armenia Barca Africa Proper

4,000,000 300,000 5,000,000 13,000,000 1,000,000

....

15,000,000

THE

KHALIF

AL
and

MAMOUN.

Total of dirhems 276,503,000

Dinars.

In natural

productions

effects.

From From
terra

Bahrein, 200 rich habits. the district of Thenetan, 240 rotoliof Sigillala, each rotolus at 130 drachms,

pound weight.) Ahwaz, sugar, 30,000 rotoli. Kerman, 500 rich habits ; dates, 20,000 rotoli ; 1000 rotoli Indian aloes, ; sind,(probably senna,) 150 rotoli. Fars, 5000 bottlesof rose-water ; 10,000 rotoli of oliveoil.

half a (about

Kinnisrin Districtof the Jordan Palestine Egypt Yemen Damascus

400,000
. . .

96,000 320,000

1,920,000

370,000
420,000 300,000

Hedjaz

Total of dinars 3,826,000

The entire revenue therefore, of the khalifate, 276,503,000 dirhems, and 3,826,000 dinars ; which if we reckon the dirhem equal to fourtenths of a dinar, or the dinar equal to threesevenths of a dirhem, will give about the sum of 280,000,000 dirhems. It is impossible to estimate cause in English money correctly,bethis sum the true value of the dirhem is unknown ; but estimating it at its most probable value, four it of 56,000,000/. shillings, will give the sum or of sterling, 2,000,000/.less than the revenue Alexander from his Persian conquests. Taking the above document as indicativeof the revenues of Persia, it would appear that the venues statement of Herodotus, namely, that the reof that empire fellshort of three millions incorrect. It might be, that no sterling,was more was of paid in money ; but in the fruits the accrued to the earth, etc., a very large revenue kings of Persia. This would solve a difficulty at which so many stumble, rightly deeming it a ducted wonder, how so vast an empire could be conAnd this wonder with so small a revenue. how immensely is increased when we reflect Each province, rich the monarchs of Persia were. it would appear, had itspeculiar treasure Both sacred and profane history and treasurer. bear testimony to this fact, and from the large sums which Alexander found in several provinces Persia,when he overthrew that mighty empire, of deed init is evident that their treasures were Curtius, Diodorus Siculus, Arrian, vast. in saying that in Arbela, and Plutarch, concur Susa, Persepolis, Pasagardae, and Ecbatana, he found 312,600 talents,(about seventy millionsof besides a quantity of uncoined silour ver money,) were lected coland other coins. If these sums from the tribute,then it is evident that greater the revenues of the kings of Persia were ing than those represented by Herodotus. Accordto Rennell, the revenue of India, under Aurengzebe, amounted to 32,000,000/.sterling, so vast an empire as and this was by no means that of Persia. SirJohn Malcolm, in his history at 3,000,000/. of Persia,rates the present revenue
was

Sigistan,5000

pieces of brocade ; 20,000

rotoli

of sugar. Khorassan, 2000 plates of silver; 4000 horses ; 1000 slaves; 27,000 pieces of silk stuffs;3000

of rotoli myrobolans. 1000 bundles of silk. Djordjan, Khoremis, 1000 plates of silver. Tabristan, Rouyan, Nehavend, 600 carpets; 200 robes ; 500 habits ; 300 handkerchiefs ; and 300 napkins for the bath. Rei, 20,000 rotoliof honey. Hamadan, 1000 rotoliof preserves, called roboss pomegranates ; 120,000 rotoliof the purest
honey. Moussoul, 1000 rotoli white honey. of Kilan, 1000 slaves ; 200 borachios of honey ; 10 pieces; 20 robes. Armenia, 20 carpets ; 10,000 rotoli oranges ; of 200 mules. Kinnisrin, 1000 loads of dried raisins. Palestine,500,000 rotoliof dried raisins. Africa, 120 carpets.
Dirhems*

essouad of the districtsof Basra gave in grain, the value of 27,780,000 14,800,000 In money 11,600,000 Kosker
.

The

Kordidjle
Holwan Ahwaz Fars Kerman Mekran Sind Sigistan Khorassan
.
. .
.

20,800,000 4,800,000 23,000

27,000,000
4,200,000
.

400,000

11,500,000 4,000,000
.

28,000,000 12,000,000 1,500,000

.

Jorjan
Kumis
.

Tabristan,Rouvan, and Nehavend Rei Hamadan Districtbetween Basra and Cufar Sheheressoul Masanderan Moussoul
.... ....

6,300,000 12,000,000

Aderbijan
*

....

11,800,000 1,700,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 24,000,000 4,000,000

in value four

The

dirhem

is supposed

to have

been

shillings.

under sterling,and observes that the revenue Darius was similar. At the same time he blames Dr. Robertson for not crediting Herodotus, concerning forgettingthat the the Persian revenue, revenue state, not the fifth part of a modern
D

84

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

of that which constituted the empire of Darius, pulated and perhaps in its present desolated and depostate, not the tenth of the population, is no rule for fixing that of Darius Hystaspes. But Herodotus himself hears testimony to the heing paid in kind. There were fact of revenues contributions,he says, made for the furnishing victualsand provision for the king's table and household : grain, forage, and other necessaries, for the subsistence of his armies ; and horses for the remounting of his cavalry. Of the province of Babylon, he observes, that it furnished the This, whole contributions for four months. therefore,would account for the apparently small sum paid to the kings of Persia. They were furnished with the necessaries of life for themselves,

"

You give as if you Your land does not

were so

the Persian large revenues

king ; bring."

their household, and their armies ; and hence, the gold of their was subjects not required And this may be adduced as a at their hands. above two millions of our money, which silver, proof of the wisdom, moderation, and humanity 9 11. this monarch likewise refused. Esth. iii. of the Persian government. Without doubt they i had observed how difficultt is for the people, These instances, says Dr. Hales, of the prodigious wealth of provincial subjects, even situated in countries not benefitedby commerce, and to convert their goods into money without suf- of captives,(for fering such were the Amalekites originally, losses ; whereas nothing can tend to render the origin of Haman,) are and such was highly creditable to the liberality the Persian the taxes more easy, and to shelter the people of from vexation, trouble, and expense, as the government, which appears, upon the whole, taking in payment from each country such fruits to have been the least oppressive of the great The Jews, especially,were and commodities as it produces. By this means ancient empires. the contribution becomes treated with much greater lenity and indulgence easy, natural, and under the Persian sway, than they had been equitable. History, says Heeren, has afforded a remarkbefore under the Babylonian, and were able wards afterin which the imposts instance of the manner man. under the Macedo-Grecian and the Roor were collected by their officers satraps. When It must be recollected, however, that the the Persians had subdued Ionia the second time, from his personal conarose the whole territory was out by parameasured wealth of Haman nexion sangs, and the tributepaid accordingly. In this with the Persian court, as did that of ever, it was case Haman Nehemiah. was evidently a land-tax, which, howchief minister of the was king, and that functionary paid, for the most part, in produce. portuniti peculiar openjoys The satrap received these imposts, whether in Such is the of acquiring wealth. kind or in money, and, after providing for his case at the present day. Morier says, that on own expenditure, the support of the king's New year's-day, the king receives the offerings troops, and the maintenance of the civil magistrates, of his princes and nobles, and that on one occasion, handed to the over the remainder was present, the offeringof the when he was king. The personal interestof the satrap,if he person holding this officesurpassed every other in value, amounting to about 30,000/. in gold wished to retain the king's favour, prompted him
"

testifies once to the largeness of their at and their liberality. But under whatever system of taxation ancient Persia might have been, it would appear were This that its subjects very prosperous. may be collected from the prodigious wealth of individuals. In the reign of Xerxes, a noble Lydian entertained the whole Persian army, the largestever assembled, on itsmarch towards Greece, and then freely offered to contribute all his property in gold and silverto the support of the war : this amounted to about four millions of our money, which the monarch refused. In the next reign, that of Ahasuerus, Haman offered to pay into the treasury, to indemnify the king for the loss of revenue which he would sustain by the destruction of the Jews, 10,000 talents of
revenues

Which

to make
even

this return as considerable as possible, fixed. if no precise amount was From all this itmay be seen, that the revenues not so triflingas of the Persian empire were would appear, at first sight, from the statement of Herodotus. And when it is considered that there were certain districtsset apart for the and wardrobe, maintenance of the queen's toilet and another for her girdle, veil,etc., and that were these districts of great extent, they will Sometimes, indeed, more appear still weighty. have seen, (page27,) as we the kings of Persia made theirespecial favouritesbecome chargeablcto certain districts and cities. All these charges
would
amount

coin. The

therefore, a very considerable make, if added together. And it would matter shawls, stuffs ail sorts, pearls,etc. ; then many of but little, tricts, ; after who received the fruitsof these dis- trays filledwith sugar and sweetmeats vourites whether the king, the queen, or his fa- that, many mules laden with fruits,etc. The Ali Khan, from Mohammed ; they might all be said to be collected next present' was for the support of the state. That the revenues Hamadan, the eldest born of the king's prince of His present accorded with the character of Persia were considered very ample in ancient sons. It consisted of pistols times, may be gathered from the fact that they which is assigned him. are noticed as such by and spears, a string of one hundred camels, and ancient poets. Thus PerAfter this,came to as many the present of sius,in his epistle Caesius Bassus, says : mules.
"

manner of delivering these presents, which the pride of orientaldespotism determines to be tribute, is thus described by the same " The firstceremony was tion the introducwriter : of the presents from different provinces. That from prince Hossein Ali Mirza, governor first. The master of the ceremonies of Shiraz, came ductor walked up, having with him the conof the present, and an attendant, who, and titles of the donor had been when the name of proclaimed, read aloud from a paper a list the articles. The present from prince Hossein Ali Mirza consisted of a very long train of large heads, on which were trays placed on men's

HISTORY

OF

THE

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by Herodotus. One of these incidents will sufthe prince of Yezd, and other of the king's sons, fice for illustration. The same Pythius who had which consisted of shawls and silken stuffs,the Then followed entertained Xerxes with so much magnificence, town. manufacture of his own that of the prince of Mesched ; and last of all, and who had offered all his wealth in support of the war that from Hajee Mowhich that monarch was going to wage and most valuable, was ham ed Hossein Khan, Ameen against Greece, being intimidated by the proed Doulah, prime digy and deriving confidence from of an eclipse, minister. It consisted of fifty mules, each he had shown to Xerxes, thus adthe liberality dressed covered with a fine cashmere shawl, and each him : " Sir,"said he, " I entreat a favour carrying a load of 1,000 tomauns."* to in which the presents of no lesstrifling you, than important to myself." Such is the manner Xerxes promised to grant it; and Pythius, thus are offered to the Persian monarchs governors " Sir, I have five sons, encouraged, continued : of the present day ; and as oriental habits are, for the most part, of an unchanging nature, the who are all with you in this Grecian expedition ; I would entreat you to pity my age, and dispense be offered as an illustration the of extract may in which presents were manner offered at the with the presence of the eldest. Take with you deed, This, in- the four others, but leave this to manage my period to which this history refers. is confirmed by the Persepolitan sculp- affairs, and may you return in safety after the tures. accomplishment of your wishes." Pythius had no sooner uttered this request, than the haughty POWER. THE MILITARY monarch, transported with rage, and forgetful both of his own Pypromise, and the merits of thius, his eldest son to be slain. All Asiatic nations were commanded great warriors. Such was the nature of orientaldespotism. Among not the these nations,the Persians were Herodotus speaks of a body of troops appointed least remarkable for their military genius. This " the called might arise in part from the situation of their to be the king's guard, who were immortals." They derived thisname is rugged and mountainous. from the country, which From this circumstance, they were accustomed circumstance of their body always consistingof 10,000 ; for as soon to hard and frugal living, which imparts that the same as one number, to h so essential died, another was selectedto fill is place. The to the nature of man ruggedness form the warrior. And there being no soften- establishment of this body very probably had its ing Cyrus sent for out influences in the general manners, and in origin with the 10,000 whom guished distinthe religionof the Persians, their minds became of Persia to be his guard. They were by the richness of their armour, a accustomed to the deadly strife,nd their hands and by Curtius mentions another body, that their valour. skilfulin the terrible art. Hence it was the Persians,in due time, became masters of so consistingof 15,000 men, designed in like manner of nature, the to guard the monarch : these were called Dorymany nations ; for,in the course Their brute pkori, or spearmen. strong must prey upon the weak. The ordinary arms force exceeded that of other nations, and they a of the Persians were were enabled thereby to render them tributary. sabre, or scimitar, acinaces, as the Latins call by nature in all them ; a kind of dagger, which hung in their belt This is the awful picture of man on the right side ; and a javelin, pike, having or ages of the world. They also made a sharp pointed iron at the end. " As rolls the river into ocean, great use of the bow, and the sling was not unknown In sable torrent, widely streaming; The Persians, when amongst them. As the sea-tide's opposing motion, on the head a tiara,or engaged in war, wore In azure column proudly gleaming, head-piece, so thick that it was proof against all Beats back the current many a rood, The foot soldiers,for the most In curling foam and mingling flood ; offensivearms. While eddying whirl and breaking wave, part, wore cuirasses made of brass, which were Roused by the blast of winter, rave ; to fitted their bodies, that they did so artificially Through sparkling spray, in thundering clash, The lightnings of the waters flash not impede the motion and agility of the different In awful whiteness on the shore, The horsemen wore members. vambraces, or

greaves, which covered their arms, thighs, and legs. Their horses had their faces, chests, and flanks covered with brass. Concerning the shieldsof the Persians, there is difference of opinion. It would appear, much made use of very small According to Strabo,the Persians were trained however, that they at first made only of twigs of osier. and light ones, up to the service from their tender years, by Afterwards, they had shieldsof brass, which were passing through different exercises, as riding, of great length. handling the bow. As soon as they hunting, and Before the age of Cyrus, the Persian and Median were they were able to bear arms, obliged to armies consisted chiefly of archers, and those but they in the list soldiers, enter themselves of These he reduced twenty years of who used missile weapons. received no pay tillthey were few, arming the rest at all points,that In war times, they were all bound, on pain to a very age. To they might be able to meet in close combat. disabled by age or of death, except such as were is ascribed also the introductionof chariots to infirmity, appear under their respective stand- Cyrus ards, the Persians. These had been among of war and attend the king in his expeditions. This may be gathered from two incidents related long time in use, as appears both from sacred and profane writers. Homer, describing an ancient * A war-chariot, says : about twelve shillingseach. gold coin, worth

That shines and shakes beneath the roar Thus as the streams greet and ocean With waves as they meet, that madden Thus jointhe bands whom mutual wrong And reckless fury drive along."

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The brazen wheels, and joinedthem

to the chariot rolled to the smooth four spokes divided each, Steel axle : twice The verge Shot from the centre to the verge. Was gold, by felliesof eternal brass Guarded, a dazzling show ! The shining naves Were silver; silver cords, and cords of gold, The seat upbore ; two crescents blazed in front. The pole was argent all,to which she bound The golden yoke with its appendant charge, Inserted braces, straps, and bands of gold."

Hebe

to exhibits the great perfection the art of chariot-buildinghad attained which These chariots had before the days of Cyrus. two wheels, and were generally drawn by onlv in each ; one four horses abreast, with two men distinguishedvalour, who engaged the enemy, of Cyrus altered and another to guide the chariot. the form of the chariot, and thereby enabled both the driver of the chariot and the warrior to He also caused the engage in the combat. to be made stronger, and the axle-trees chariots in order to prevent of greater length than usual, History records, moreover, their overturning. the firstwho affixed that deadly that he was the scythe,to the chariot,of which such weapon, At a later made in after ages. cruel use was date, the Persians added iron spikes at the end that of the pole, in order to pierce every thing in the way, and sharp knives at the hinder came from one part of the chariot, to prevent any taking possession,or meeting their warriors on used their own ground. These chariots were were many ages by the eastern nations,and they looked upon as the principalstrength of armies, ensurance as an of victory,and as an apparatus best calculated to inspireterror into the hearts of In proportion, however, as the the enemy.

there are several interesting allusions in Holy Writ, to which the reader is referred. See Psa. 8 civ.3 ; Isa.lxvi. 15 ; Sol. Song vi.12 ; Hab. iii.. The method used by Cyrus, in order to obtain perfect disciplineamong his soldiers in times of ing peace, was by inuring them to fatigue, and keepin laborious works. To them employed prepare them for battle, he accustomed them to mock engagements, in which he inspired them with resolutionand courage by exhortation,commendation, When and reward. the Persians went

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on an expedition, their wives, mothers, and children followed the observed among camp ; a custom which was all oriental nations. The motive for this custom to inspire them with courage, lestthey should was lose every thing that was dear to them in life. Their provisions and baggage were carried on camels, the soldiers simply bearing their arms. The manner in which the Persians marched be gathered from the description which may Herodotus gives of the march of the army of Xerxes from Sardis. " First of all went those who had the care of the baggage ; these were followed by a promiscuous body of strangers of all nations, without any regularity,but to the amount than half the army. After these of more for these did not join a considerable interval, was Next came 1000 the troops where the king was. horse, the flower of the Persian army, who were succeeded by the same number of spearmen, in like manner selected, trailingtheir pikes upon Behind these were ten sacred the ground. horses, called Nisaean,* with very superb trappings. The sacred car of Jupiter was next in the procession. It was drawn by eight white horses, foot,was the charioteer,with behind which, .on covered dis- the military art improved, inconveniences were reins in his hands, for no mortal was permitted finally laid to in them, and they were Xerxes himself in Then came sitin this car. from by Nisaean horses ; by his side a chariot drawn aside. For in order to reap any advantage Patiramphes, was them, it was necessary that vast and extensive sate his charioteer, whose name woods, or vineyards, son of Otanes the Persian. plains, devoid of rivulets, " And even in Such was the order in which Xerxes departed should be the scene of the strife. became useless. from Sardis ; but as such places, they eventually often as occasion required he in One thouMan, ever fruitful invention for the ation left hischariotfor a common preservsand carriage.t lifeand the destruction of his of his own of the first and noblest Persians attended his the evils attendant foes,in order to counteract tom person, bearing their spears according to the cuscovered disupon these terrible machines of mischief, of theircountry ; and 1000 horse,selected like A body of that the cutting of trenches rendered the former, immediately succeeded. cuted, 10,000 chosen infantry came next ; 1000 of these accordingly exethem of no avail. This was had at the extremity of their spears a pomegranate and the war-chariot was stopped mid-way Sometimes, also, the opposing in its course. the of gold ; the remaining 9000, whom force would attack the chariots with slingers, former enclosed, had in the same manner pomegranates selves archers, and spearmen, who, spreading themof silver. They who preceded Xerxes, decorated on every hand, would pour such a storm and trailed their spears,had theirarms panying with gold ; they who followed him had granates and lances upon them, accomstones, arrows, pomeof the attack with fearful war-cries, that of gold ; these 10,000 foot were followed the horses, and often made them by an equal number of Persian cavalry. At an they terrified forces. At other times, interval of about a quarter of a mile, followed a turn upon their own pable irregular, they would render the chariots useless and inca- numerous, and promiscuous multitude." by simply marching over the of operation * Suidas says that these horses were armies with separated the two also remarkable space which for swiftness. See page 24, which speaks of the Nisaean alacrity,and advancing upon the extraordinary before they had time to put them in horses. enemy a carriage was + Larcher remarks that the Harmamaxe Lucretius says that the first motion ; for the strength and execution of the appropriated to females. a more horses, for chariots were on heroes were war- chariots proceeded from the length of their mounted This itwas which gave that impetuosity modern invention. His words are, course. harm to their motion, without which they were on well rein'd steeds in ancient time, Mounted less. To the impetuosity with which the warBefore the use of chariots was brought in, in war The firstbrave heroes fought." to be urged onwards chariot was wont
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When the Persians made -war upon any nation, towers, ramparts, and platforms ; in allwhich it f they preceded itby sending heralds,or ambassawould be difficultor moderns to outrivalthem, dors, if at least the testimony of ancient historiansis to demand earth and water ; that is, to them to submit, and acknowledge the correct. command king of Persia as their lord. Xerxes made this But the Persians were not always so celebrated in this fearful art. demand Bossuet, speaking of the those who of the Greeks, and among his decline of their power, says : " After the death of complied with his demand, or acknowledged the Thessalians,Dolopians, Enians, Cyrus, the Persians, generally speaking, were sway, were ignorant of the advantages that result from disthe Persebi,Locri, Magnetes, Melians, Achaeans cipline, of Pthiotis,Thebans, and the rest of the people skillin drawing up an army, order in of Bcetia, except the Thespians and Platseans. marching and encamping, and, in short, that happiness of conduct which puts great bodies in This manner of declaring war was borrowed from the Medes, and the Medes seem to have imitated motion without disorder or confusion. Full of a the Assyrians in thisrespect,as appears from the vain ostentation of their power and greatness, book of Judith, chap. ii. and relying more upon strength than prudence, In the time of action, the kings of Persia were upon the number, rather than the choice of their always in the centre ; and according to Stobseus, troops, they thought they had done allthat was mense they used to encourage their soldiers with a they had drawn together imnecessary when speech. The signal was given by the sound of armies,who fought,indeed,with resolution, followed by a shout of but without order ; and who found themselves the trumpet, which was The watch-word the whole army. in use was encumbered with the vast multitudes of useless among the Persians ; for Xenophon, speaking of persons who formed the retinueof the king and Cyrus, tells that his was, " Jupiter,our leader his chief officers. For to such a height was their us luxury grown, that they would needs have the and protector." The royal banner was a spread the same eagle of gold,carried on the point of a long spear. same pleasure magnificence, and enjoy They appear to have reckoned those happy and delights in the army as in the king's court ; who died in the field and they inflicted so that in their wars the kings marched accom; panied exemplary punishments on such as abandoned their posts, with their wives, their concubines, and or deserted their colours. Their silverand gold plate,and Justin says that they their eunuchs. used no stratagems, and despised advantages that their gorgeous furniturewere carried afterthem did not result from valour ; that is, Ammianus in prodigious quantities and, in short, all the as ; Marcellinus well expresses it, they thought it equipage and utensilsa voluptuous liferequires. An army composed in this manner, to and already unjust steal a victory. The celebrated battle of Thymbra conveys a clogged with the excessive number of troops, was idea of the tacticsof the ancients in the days just overburdened with the multitude of attendants. of Cyrus, and shows how far their ability extendedIn this confusion, the troops could not act in in the use of arms and the disposition of concert; their orders failed to reach them in armies. The reader will find this described in time, and in action every thing went on at random, the lifeof Cyrus. o without the possibilityf remedy from the skill The manner Add to this, the necessity of mustering among the Persians of the commander. was Before they took the they were very remarkable. under expedition of finishing an field, hey passed before the king, or his t general, quickly, and of passing into an enemy's country into a basket. with great rapidity; because such a vast body of each man throwing an arrow These baskets were sealed up with the regal people, greedy not only of the necessariesof life, but of such things, also, as were signet tillthey returned from the campaign, requisite for luxury and pleasure, consumed every thing that in the same manner, when they passed muster every one taking an arrow out of the same could be met with in the country they occupied basket. When in a short time ; nor, indeed, is iteasy to comprethey were hend all passed, the remaining arrows from whence they could procure subsistence. were counted, and from theirnumber " they knew how many had fallen. This ancient however, the Persians With allthisvast train, custom to the days of Procopius, who not better continued astonished those nations that were than themselves ; relates it in his account of the acquainted with militaryaffairs of the wars Persians. more expert were and many of those that were Such was the mode by them, being either weakened yet overcome of ancient Persian warfare in the open field. Their by internal dissensions,or overpowered by the conducted sieges were it was, with great skill. In them we trace the same numbers of their foes. By this means fundamental rules of fortification are as of her antiquity, exhibited that Egypt, proud as she was in modern her wise institutions, warfare. It is true, that since the and the conquests of Sesosinvention of that fearful to became tris, combustible, gunpowder, subject the Persians. Nor was it a.d. 1320,) f cannons have been substituted difficult or them to conquer Lesser Asia, and (about for the battering ram, such Greek colonies as the luxury of Asia and musket shot for even balistae, to engage had corrupted. But when they came catapultse, scorpions, slings, javelins, ; but with this exception, the ancients they found, what they had and arrows with Greece itself, for never made as much use of their inventive faculties met plined with before, regular and well-disciAt all troops, skilful and experienced commanders, ensuring victory as do the moderns. to temperance, events, they made as much soldiers accustomed of the solidity of bodies, and the mechanical powers of motion, as inured to toiland labour, and whose bodies were art and ingenuity would admit. They rendered robust and activeby wrestling and other stood, underalso, the art of entrenchment, of scaling exercisespractised in that country. The Grecian but small ; but they were the walls, and of fortifying those walls with armies, indeed, were

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by the poet in his description of a hymn like strong active bodies, that appear to be all in every which the magi are supposed to have sung before and sinews, and full of spirits so well comtime they were manded, Xerxes. part : at the same and so prompt in obeying the orders of Robed in purest white, their leaders, that the whole body seemed to The magi ranged before the' unfolded tent. have been actuated by one soul." Fire blazed beside them. Towards the sacred flame They turned, and sent their tuneful praise to heaven. had the effect enervating Luxury, therefore, of From Zoroaster was the song derived, the soldierof Persia. Once rugged in nature, Who on the hills of Persia, from his cave in and invincible courage, he became shorn of his By flowers environed, and melodious founts, Which sooth'd the solemn mansion, had revealed glory by an excess of indulgence. And is it not How Horomazes, radiant source of good, so among the ranks of the soldiersof the cross ? Original, immortal, framed the globe Where is now the mighty strivingsfor the faith In fruitfulness and beauty : how with stars that By him the heavens were of the gospel, as in days of old ? Where spangled : how the sun Refulgent Mithra, purest spring of light holy boldness in the confessionof Christcrucified? And genial warmth, teeming nature smiles, whence One goes to the feast of the merry-hearted, and Burst from the east at his creating voice ; to the scene thus and another When of amusement, straight beyond the golden verge of day, Christian watchfulness and Christian duties are Night showed the horrors of her distant reign, Where black and hateful Arimanius frowned, forgotten. Soldiers of the cross, who strive to The author foul of evil : how with shades cleave unto his banners, the exhortation which From his dire mansion he deformed the works the apostle addresses to you is fraught with Of Horomazes; turn'd to noxious heat " The solar beam, that foodful earth might parch ; be strong in Finally, my brethren, meaning : That streams, exhaling, might forsake their beds, the Lord, and in the power of his might. Put Whence pestilence and famine : how the power God, that ye may be on the whole armour Of Horomazes of in the human breast Benevolence able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For and equity infused, Truth, temperance, and wisdom, sprang from heaven : we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but When Arimanius blacken'd all the soul againstprincipalities, against powers, against the With falsehood and injustice, with desires Insatiable, with violence and rage, rulers of the darkness of this world, against Malignity and folly. If the hand spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore Of Horomazes on precarious life take unto you the whole armour of God, that ye Sheds wealth and pleasure, swift the' infernal god. in the evil day, and may be able to withstand With wild excess or avarice, blasts the joy. Stand therefore, having done all, to stand. Thou, Horomazes, victory dost give. By thee with fame the regal head is crown'd. having your loins girt about with truth, and Great Xerxes owns When in storms thy succour. having on the breast-plate righteousness ; and of The hate of direful Arimanius swell'd feet shod with the preparation of the gospel The Hellespont, thou o'er its chafing breast your The destined master of the world didst lead, of peace ; above all,taking the shield of faith, This day his promised glories to : enjoy wherewith ye shallbe able to quench allthe fiery When Greece affrightedto his arm shall bend ; helmet of darts of the wicked. And take the E'en as at last shall Arimanius fall Before thy might, and evil be no more." Glover. salvation,and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God : praying always with allprayer The following extract from the pen of Sir John and supplication in the Spirit,and watching thereunto with all perseverance and supplication Malcolm exhibits the principles of Zoroaster's " for all saints," Eph. vi. 10 18. Being thus God, he also,in a very lucid manner. religion, let taught, existed from all eternity,and was invincible, like armed at all points,and rendered he There were, infinity of time and space. adopted by your watchword be that which was " Christ, none but good old Polycarp of old, averred, two principlesin the universe, good and Christ !" evil: the one was named Hormuzd, which denoted the presiding agent of all that was good ; and the POWER. THE PRIESTLY other Ahriman, the lord of evil. Each of these It has been seen in the corresponding sections had the power of creation, but that power was of the histories the Assyrians and Medes, that exercised with opposite designs ; and itwas from of their co-action that an admixture of good and called, a under the magi, as their priests were The found in every created thing. species of the Sabian superstition prevailed. evil was The sun, moon, ship, angels of Hormuzd, or the good principle,sought and planetsreceived divine worto preserve the elements, the seasons, and the ancient belief in the one while the more human race, which the infernalagents of Ahriman not wholly effaced from the supreme God was desired to destroy ; but the source of good alone, the Persians minds of their votaries. When fore triumphed, this priestly caste lost much of its the great Hormuzd, was eternal, and must thereinfluence,and seems to have been regarded as the type of ultimately prevail. Light was hostile to the new dynasty. Hence, wherever the good, darkness of the evil spirit;and God had said unto Zoroaster, ' My light is concealed the Persian monarchs established theirsway, they became bitterpersecutors of the priests. They the disciple of under all that shines.' Hence laid a heavy hand upon the sacerdotal caste in that prophet, when he performs his devotions in Egypt, and the Chaldeans in Babylon. Cyrus a temple, turns towards the sacred fire that burns adopted this policy,and effected great religious upon itsaltar ; and when in the open air towards To what the sun, as the noblest of all lights, and that by changes in the systems of the magi. in which God sheds his divine influence over the extent, however, these changes were carried his day is unknown ; but it is certain that the whole earth, and perpetuates the work of his revolution was creation." completed by Zoroaster, whose The precise era of Zoroaster is unknown, in system is the most perfect devised by unassisted human reason. His system has been well de- which respect he resembles Bouddha, the author scribed
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the Persian commonalty were in a state of servile of the system of Lamaism, concerning whose to as time of appearance much learned just the existence and subjectiontheir magian instructors, modern Hindoos are, under the bramins, or the controversy has taken place to no purpose. The Greeks have made no less than six Zoroasters, papists in Spain and Portugal, under the rule of the teachers of Rome. The consequence was, that and placed them in different ages of the world. The Sadder, which is a compend of the sacred flourished under science and literature never hooks of the Persian priests,contains the genemagian domination as they did in Greece and alogy Rome. And why was it? Because the noble of Zoroaster. It states that Zeratush, or faculties the mind were enslaved. Zoroaster, was the son of Purthasp, who was the of son of Piterasp,the son of Hitcherasp, the son "'Tis liberty alone that gives the flower the son of Espintaman. of Thechshunesch, Of fleeting lifeits lustre and perfume, Hence the Parsees in Surat and Bombay, from And we are weeds without it. All constraint, his being called the son of Espintaman, mistook Except what wisdom lays on evil men, him for his immediate ancestor, whereas he was Is evil ; hurts the faculties, impedes Their progress in the road of science; blinds his remote In the chronicle of the parent. The eyesight of discovery ; and begets Persian kings, which professes to be an abridgment In those that suffer it a sordid mind, Ferdusi's work, denominated the Shah of Bestial, a meagre intellect,unfit Nameh, Zoroaster isrepresented as livingin the To be the tenant of man's Cowper, noble form." reign of Gushtasp, or Darius Hystaspes. Dr. Hyde fixes his existence at the time of Ezra the It isremarkable, that the ancient Persians,like torian, poraneous the Hindoos, never produced a single native hisscribe; and Prideaux considers him as contemwith, and a disciple of Daniel the philosopher,or poet. The knowledge and skillof the Persian magi prophet. Both these authoritiesare agreed that he must have borrowed several of his doctrines in religious matters, (which made Plato define from one or other of these eminent Jews. That magic, or the learning of the magi, the art of some of his doctrines resemble those inculcated worshipping the gods in a becoming manner,) among the Jews none can deny. So striking are gave them great authority,both with the prince they, indeed, that the resemblance sufficiently and people. They could not offer sacrifices refutes his claims to a Divine commission, and without their presence and ministration. It was even to the that the king, before he came prove him to have been an impostor. It is true requisite crown, that many learned men adduce this circumstance should be instructedby them ; nor could in his favour, and borrow their argument for the he determine any important affairof the state, conwhen he was upon the throne, without first sincerity of his pretensions from it,as well as sulting from his acquaintance with Daniel and Ezra. Hence it was, that Pliny asserts, them. But this would make the matter worse. in his time they were looked upon as If he that even instructedby them in the true faith, which was the masters of princes, and of those who arroof gated " to themselves the title they were teachers,he ought the acknowledged of king of kings." indeed, the sages, philosophers,and dence, They were, to have been grateful for being thus, in Provimen brought out of darkness into marvellous of learning in Persia, as the druids were in light, and to the knowledge of the method of Gaul, and the bramins amongst the Indians. Their reputation for learning attracted many recovery to fallen man, graciously, though not But instead of from the most distant countries to be instructed fully revealed to mankind. yet this,he set himself to form a new ; code of faith, by them, in philosophy and religion and we are rowed or to mend told that it was from them, that Pythagoras borthe old one, without any reference to his Jewish instructors,or recommending the principles that doctrine by which he their of faith to his countrymen. He even went farther acquired so much veneration among the Greeks, than the Hebrew lawgiver. Moses professed to excepting the tenet of transmigration,which he teach the Jews divine knowledge only ; Zoroaster learned of the Egyptians, and by which he corrupted the ancient doctrineof the magi, concerning pretended that his book contained every thing the immortality of the soul. necessary for the Persians to know, whether in According to Herodotus, the Persians adored literature science,morality or religionor politics, or physics. That the work was appeared in not of God is the sun, and particularly when itfirst the morning, with the profoundest veneration. proved by itsbeing brought to nought ; nothing " To that bright orb, they dedicated a magnificent is now preserved of that prophet's" works but has been merely remembered, and handed chariot, with white horses of great beauty and what down by oral tradition. value, their swiftness being thought to render With the speculative tenets of Zoroaster, there them an appropriate offering to that luminary. was combined a system of castes, the introduction They are supposed to have worshipped the sun of Mithra, the primitive cave under the name of which is attributed by Ferdusi to Jemshid. rice These castes were the Amuzban, or magi; the worship of which god is thus described by Maumen : Nisari, or militai'y the Nesoodee, or husband; ; and the Ahmenshuhi, or artists. Where the dark cliffs rugged Taurus rise, of According to the usual accounts From age to age by blasting lightnings torn, given of In glory bursting from the illumined skies, the Persian magi, they resembled the Hindoo Fair Science poured her first auspicious morn. bramins, being a separate caste from the multitude. This is the very essence priestcraft, of all The hoary Parthian seers, who watched by night ledge for by such exclusivenessthey keep all the knowThe eternal fire in Mithra's mystic cave, light (Emblem sublime of that primeval and learningof which they are possessed in Which to yon stariy orbs their lustre gave,) theirown hands, and communicate only what they pleaseto their votaries. Under such a system,
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Exulting saw its gradual splendours break, And swept symphonious all their warbling lyres ; muses Mid Scythia's frozen glooms the wake, While happier India glows with all their fires."

that the ancient reformer of the Persian religion borrowed his idea of sacred firefrom that which burned on the altarof Jehovah. Nothing ismore

likely, and hence we trace many similar usages Both Herodotus and Strabo say that the Per- practised by the Hebrew sians priests and the magi, horses to the sun, a circumstance sacrificed with reference to the sacred fire. The altar to which Ovid alludes thus : to be covered of Jehovah, in its removals, was with a purple cloth, and the ashes taken out. It " horse, renowned The for speed, the Persians slay, was supplied with fireagain from another altar A welcome victim to the god of day. kept constantly burning for that purpose. "When itwas rekindled,the rabbins inform us that It has been supposed, that in a more remote great eminent hero, or public benefactor, care was taken that no wood but that which was period,some Mithras,had, afterhisdeath,been was reputed clean should be employed for fuel; and whose name it was deified because in certainancient Persian monu; beall carefully barked and examined fore ments itwas used. The fire, Mithras is represented as a mighty hunter, to be also,was never armed with a sword, having a tiaraon hishead, blown upon, either with bellows, or the breath The regulations of Zoroaster were and riding a bull. It ispossiblethat the Persians of man. that the conceived the soul of this hero to be resident in similarto these. He strictlyenjoined the sun, and that they afterwards transferred fire which he pretended to have brought from heaven should be carefullykept up, that barked their worship to the sun itself, under his name. The worship of fire was wood only should be used for fuel,and that it the natural consequence of the adoration which the Persians paid should be revived only by the blasts of the open to the sun. Herodotus says, that they paid par- air,or by oilbeing poured upon it.It was death, ticular in Persia,to cast upon itany unclean thing, or to veneration to that element, and Xenophon asserts that they always invoked it first at their blow itwith the bellows or the breath, by which ; sacrifices that they carried it with great respect itwould be polluted. For thisreason, the priests before the king in his expeditions; and that themselves, although they watched the fireday they entrusted the preservation of their sacred and night, never approached itbut with a cloth fire, over down from their mouths, that their breath might not which, as they pretended, came heaven, to none but the magi. The ancient mingle with the fire. This they did, not only Persians,indeed, dared not by their religionexwhen they approached itto replenish itwith fuel, tinguish fire with water; but also when but endeavoured to or to do any other service about it, smother itwith earth, stones, or anything similar; they pronounced their forms of prayer before it, a superstition they mumbled which stillinfluences the parsees and which, therefore, rather than spoke. The same forms are observed among the of Guzerat. The loss of their sacred firewould have been deemed a national calamity. Hence modern parsees of India,who believe that it was informed that the emperor we are Heraclius, ultimately conveyed to that country, and, consequently aster that they stillossess the firewhich Zorowhen he was at war p with the Persians, having demolished several of their temples, and particubrought from heaven. Among the Persians, larly to be rekindled only from the was the chapel in which the sacred firehad been this sacred fire o preserved until that time, it occasioned great sun, or with a flint,r from some other sacred fire, mourning and lamentation throughout the whole which is further analogous to the usages of the Hebrews. country. In more modern days, a sacred fire It has been alleged that the Persians did not was adopted by many other nations. The Greeks had a perbut only worworship the sun or fireabsolutely, petual 1 fire at Delphos and other places. The shipped God, as far -as they knew him, before one these, the most glorious visiblesymbols of his Romans also in the temple of the goddess | Vesta, whose worship amongst them consisted energies and perfections. This may have been the original doctrine of Zoroaster. He might chieflyin the preservationof the firewhich was have considered them merely as representatives consecrated to her. The ancient Gauls, also,in the deep recesses of Omnipotence, and the Fountain of light. But of their forests and groves, to have been too refined for the the idea seems which were their temples, had a sacred firecontinually burning on their altars,and which they gross capacitiesof the vulgar, who, without regard to the great invisiblePrototype, turned all regarded with great veneration. At the present their thoughts to the adoration of these ostensible day, the Hindoos, although they are not worshippers deities. This cannot be denied. Misled by the are of fire, careful about the origin of that symbols, the mass of the people forgot altogether which they use for sacred purposes. " One fearful the God that is above," or remembered him but consequence arisingfrom the worship faintly, his place of firewas, the cruel ceremony of making while the sun and fireUsurped in their affections. children pass through it,amid the sounding of Sacred fire was drums and tabrets. not peculiar to the Persian kept perpetually burning on the magi. It was " Moloch, horrid king, besmeared with blood altar before the tabernacle in the wilderness,and Of human sacrifice and parent's tears ; the temple at Jerusalem ; and -was never Though, from the noise of drums and timbrels loud, to go The children's cries unheard that passed through tire out, Lev. vi. 13. It was kindled from heaven in To his grim idol." Milton. the times of Aaron, Lev. ix. 24 ; of David, 1 Chron. xxi. 26 ; Solomon, 2 Chron. vii.1 ; and There is an allusionto this fearful practice, 2 of was not to be rekindled with strange fire, nor any Kings xvii. 31, where the sacred historian, other to be used in sacrifices under penalty of enumerating the different gods of the people of death, Lev. x. 1, 2. It appears evident, indeed, Mesopotamia, who were sent as a colony intothe |
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altar,were about five-and-twenty men, with their country of the Samaritans, says of the Sepharbacks toward the temple of the Lord, and their that they hurned their children in fireto vites,* Addrammelech and Anammelech,f the gods of faces toward the east ; and they worshipped the or sun toward the east. Then he said unto me, Hast to Moloch Sepharvaim, and which answers O ? Is ita lightthing to thou seen this, son of man Molech, "the king." See also Lev. xviii. 21; the house of Judah that they commit the abomina2 ; 1 Kings xi. 7 : Amos v. 26 ; Acts vii.43. xx. tions came beIt is well known that this barbarous custom which they commit here ? for they have filled cording the land with violence,and have returned to proprevalent in many provinces of Asia. Acvoke to anger : and, lo, they put the branch me to Herodotus, the Persians erected neither to their nose. Therefore will I also deal in fury : statues, nor temples, nor altars to their gods, but in genetheir sacrifices the open air,and rally mine eye shall not spare, neitherwill I have pity : offered high places. It and though they cry in mine ears with a loud on or on the tops of hills, is from this circumstance that many argue they voice, yet will I not hear them," Ezek. viii. 16 18. This, therefore, is declared to be the were not idolaters. But this is vague reasoning. It is no matter whether man makes an image of greatest of all abominations. And what is the hands, and calls reason ? The apostle Paul replies: " For the inhis own visible something visiblewith God, and worships itaccordthings of him from the creation of the it a resemblance of ingly world are clearly seen, being understood by the ; or supposing something visible in the material universe to be a similitudeof God, as the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead ; so that they are without excuse cause : befire, water, he adores that symbol, though or sun, he does not make a visiblerepresentation of it. that,when they knew God, they glorified came It is no matter whether it be fabricated by his him not as God, neither were thankful ; but beself, hands, or whether, being made by God himown vain in theirimaginations,and their foolish darkened," Rom. i.20, 21. he adopts it for his god. It is still supa posed heart was Among the magi, water, as well as fire,as also a w the Almighty, still material, similitude of looked upon as a sacred element, and as a symbol t not a spiritual worship, still he thing made, not the Maker, stillthe creature of the Creator's of the Divine purity ; and, consequently, not to be defiled. For this reason, wherever they were, skill and power, not the Creator himself. And in the second commandthey caused the waters to be watched, that no this is comprehended ment, unclean thing might be thrown into them. They wherein any image, or any likenessof any held, indeed, that whoever wilfullypolluted fire thing, whether in the visible heavens, or in the ishment earth, or in the waters under the earth,is strictly or water, deserved death in this world, and punThe worshipping of such in that which is to come. forbidden to be made. That the monarchs of Persia claimed divine was sanctions. prohibited under the most terrible scription The Hebrew lawgiver gives the honours is abundantly testifiedby various inAnd why? " One at Naksh-i-Rustam reads thus : For ye saw no manner on reason : of similitude " This is the face, or resemblance, of the worthe day that the Lord spake unto you in Horeb shipper Deut. iv.15. "Ye out of the midst of the fire," of Ormuzd, the god Schapoor, king of the heard the voice of the words, but saw no simili- kings of Airan and Anairan, (Persiand Tara tude See also tary,) the race of the gods, son of the servant ; only ye heard a voice," ver. 12. of Isa. xl. 18. The worship of the sun is declared of Ormuzd, the divine Artaxeres, king of the by the prophet Ezekiel to be a greater abominakings of Airan, of the race of the gods, grandson tion than even that of the worship of fire.In that of the divine Papek, the king." Another at Tackt-i-Bostan is thus transcribed : " This isthe prophet's vision of the chambers of imagery, he first was the symbols of Egyptian idolatry, image of the adorer of Ormuzd, the most excellent shown airan, Schapoor, king of kings of Airan and Andeclared to be a great abomination. which was Next he beheld the Phenician idolatry, women descended from the divine race, and grandin son weeping for Tammuz, of the excellent Narschi, king of kings." The fact isproved also by the legends on the Sassame " Whose in Lebanon annual wound allured sanian coins, as explained by Du Sacy. The Syrian damsels to lament his fate On one of these coins, the head and shoulders In amorous ditties all a summer's day; While smooth Adonis, from his native rock, are seen risingfrom the midst of a flame of a man Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood on the altar. This is supposed to express and Of Thammuz, Milton. yearly wounded."" is exemplify that fire is the light,and that light tenets of the God. Such was one of the religious This is declared to be a stillgreater abomination After this,says the magi. Besides this, they held the doctrine of than the preceding one. " God unfolded his by intelligences, whom He brought me into the inner court of seven prophet, The first these intelligences of the Lord's house, and, behold, at the door of the willto mankind. the second over animals, the temple of the Lord, between the porch and the presided over man, third over the earth, the fourth over water, the * fire, fifthover Calmet thinks that these are the Saspires mentioned the sixth over tables, plants and vegeby Herodotus, as dwelling between Armenia and Colchis, and the seventh preserved nature from all and who, according to Major Rennell, would have occupied minor pollution. Subordinate to these were in modern Eastern Armenia The is name geography. it was given angels, or tutelarydemons, to whom probably to be sought in that of Siphara, a city on the days. Euphrates, above Babylon, at that part where the river to preside over particularmonths, and even makes the nearest approach to Assyria Proper. These also were worshipped. trine to denote the same idol ; the seem It appears that the magi maintained the doct These two names
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tinction. prefixed words being merely epithets of honour and disof a resurrection, which was most probably Cudworth and others think that the two names Concerning the place borrowed from the Jews. idol, and the original Hebrew denotes to the same refer bat one god. under of punishment, they reckoned seven hells,

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the charge of an angel called Vunnund Izid, whose struggle must constantly exist in the Divine duty itwas to decide upon the punishment due to mind between light and darkness, good and evil! the transgressor, and also to restrainthe cruelty And yet some pious writers assert that this tenet As firewas regarded by them as is derived from Scripture! Alas! they have of Ahriman. it was forgotten that the sacred page describes him as not emblematical of the Divine essence, ment. the Holy One of Israel ; as a Being in admitted into theirrepresentations future torof whom Hell,they said,was a subterraneous prison, is light, and no darkness at all,1 John i.5 ; as a filled the iniquities the fathers upon with smoke and darkness, where angels in God, who visits of human and inhuman forms tormented the lost the children,Exod. xx. 5 ; as the Lord who " will by their per- not at all acquit the wicked," Nah. i.3 ; as a Being souls. Serpents, frogs, and crows, petual hissing, before whom the seraphim veiltheirfaceswith croaking, and crowing, were said to heighten the punishment. their wings, and continually proclaim, " Holy, Another feature in the magian religionwas, holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts,"Isa. vi.2, 3 ; as a God in whose judicial astrology. This was evidently borrowed presence the prophet, self-condemned, " from the Chaldeans, among whom itisusuallysaid Woe is me ! for I am unexclaimed, done that this delusive art originated. Cicero says, a man ; because I am and I of unclean lips, dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips: for that the Chaldeans, inhabiting vast plains, where they had a fullview of the heavens on every side, mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts," Isa. were the firstwho observed the course Jas. of the vi. 5 ; as the Father of lights and spirits, 9 stars, and the first who taught mankind the effects i. 17 ; Heb. xii. ; as One from whom proceedeth " Of as thought to be owing to them. every good and perfect gift; the Lord which were glorious in holiness," Exod. xv. 1 1 ; as a Being that no mortheir observations they made a science,whereby tal to look upon and live,Exod. xxxiii.20 ; as can they pretended to be able to foretell every one " God who is rich in mercy," Eph. ii. ; as a him, and what fate was ordained a 4 what was to befall him from his birth. From Chaldea this vain Being in whose presence none shall stand if he P 3 ; as an holy science spread into various countriesin the east, should mark iniquities,sa. cxxx. do not yield and a jealous God, Josh. xxiv. the existingorientals and even now ; as a God who .19 " Be to their ancestors in this respect, there being has said to the children of men, ye holy ; for I am holy," 1 Pet. i.16 ; etc. Alas for human scarcely any circumstance in life concerning intellect which, having such sublime notions of ! which astrologersor astrologicaltables are not the Almighty as these represented in the Bible, consulted. In some countries, it forms a very can prominent feature in the education of theiryouth. yet so far err as to recognize him with the Allusion has been already made to Ormuzd aster supreme being thus erringly described by Zoro! What a blessingisthe Bible to mankind ! and Ahriman, the good and evil god. These formed a principal part of the worship of the Take this away, and but a few years would pass before our knowledge of the Almighty would be magi. The tenets of Zoroaster concerning them were, pendent that there was one Supreme Being, inde- obscured ; before mankind universally would fall from alleternity ; that down at the shrine of some and self-existing created being in two angels, Ormuzd under him there were worship ; before a mental darkness would usurp and Ahriman, one of whom was the angel of light the place of the glorious gospel, which " hath and the author of good, and the other the angel shined in our hearts, to give the light of the of darkness and the author of all evil; that these knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ," 2 Cor. iv. 6. in a perpetual struggle with each angels were In the prophecies of Isaiah there is this other ; and that where the angel of light prevails, there good reigns ; and that where the angel of remarkable verse, which Lowth and others consider has reference to the great principleof the darkness prevails, there eviltakes place ; that this struggle shallcontinue to the end of the world ; magian religion,which prevailed in Persia in that then there shall be a general resurrection the time of Cyrus. and a day of judgment, wherein all shall receive
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justetribution r according

to their works ; after

I the Lord do ail these things."" Isa. xlv. 7. which the angel of darkness and his disciples shall go into a world of their own, where they This remarkable declarationisequally opposed shall suffer in eternal darkness the punishment or to the doctrine of two co-eternal principles, of their evil deeds ; and the angel of light and his disciplesshall also go into a world of their two created principles of all good and evil. own, light Jehovah here declares that he is the Almighty where they shall receivein everlasting the reward due unto their good deeds ; that after Ruler, and that nothing can act in opposition to thisthey shall remain separate for ever, and light his will,and that there is no power independent In other words, he and darkness remain unmixed to all eternity. of the one supreme God. The reader will perceive how unworthy and declares that he is the Author of all that is true, holy, good, and happy ; while, permitted evil, unscriptural these notions are concerning God. In them he is said to be the author of both error, good and misery, brought into the world by and evil. The apostle Paul, oppressed by the man's apostasy, are restrainedand overruled by struggle of the two opposite principles,grace and him to his righteous purposes. In opposition to man, corruption,the old man the the unworthy and unphilosophical notions held and the new law of his by the magi, he challenges it as his prerogative members and the law of his mind, " " exclaimed, "O wretched man that I am! who alone to make peace, and create evil;"to form from the body of this death?" shall deliver me darkness ;" to " do all these the light, and create Rom. vii. 24. If,therefore, analogicalreasoning things ;" that is,to create or control all power in may be here admitted, what an infinitely painful Iheaven or on earth.

I form the light, and create darkness I make peace, and create evil :

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eyes from coveting that which belongs to another. have a care always to speak the truth. 4. To attend closely to his sacerdotal functions, and 5. To con not meddle with worldly matters. be the book of the law by heart, that he may As might be expected, the magi in Persia always able to instructthe multitude therein. 6. To keep himself pure and undefiled. 7. To be were the guardians of all ceremonies relating to himself a divine worship. It was to them that the people ready to forgive injuries, showing 8. To teach the common in order to be instructed therein, pattern of meekness. had recourse and to know on what day, to what gods, and after people to pray according to the law, and to pray 9. To give licenses for marriage, to offer their sacrifices. with them. they were what manner, As the magi were and to take care that parents do not marry children all of one tribe,and as none but the son of a priest could pretend to the without his approbation. 10. To spend the honour of the priesthood, they monopolized all greatest part of his time in the temple, that he to him. 11. knowledge and all learning, whether in religious may be ready to assist who come all roaster; to themselves and families. To believe no other law than that given by Zoor political concerns, to add nothing thereto, nor to take It was unlawful for them to instruct any stranger in these matters, without the king's permission. aught therefrom. Many of these precepts are evidently derived Hence, when the favour was granted to Themisfrom the Hebrew Scriptures. Plutarch, the effect of the tocles, it was, says It would appear that the ancient Persians kept monarch's peculiar favour. The divided into three classes. six festivalsannually, in memory were of the six magi seasons, The firstclass consisted of inferiorpriests, who wherein they believed all things were conducted the ordinary ceremonies of religion; created. After each of these feasts,they kept a fast of five days, in memory of God's restingfive the sacred fire; the the second presided over days, as they believed, at each of those seasons. the archimagus, or high priest,who third was When fowl, or fish, they ate flesh, they carried a possessed authority over the whole order. They had three kinds of temples. First, common small portion of it to the temple as an offeringto oratories,in which the people performed their God, beseeching him that he would pardon them devotions, and where the sacred fire was pre- for taking away the livesof his creatures, in order served in lamps ; second, public temples, with to their own subsistence. kept constantly Concerning the dignity and sanctity of the altars, on which the fire was burning, where the higher order of the magi the Persians entertained matrimonial institution, directed the public devotions, and the people similar degrading notions with the Babylonians. Polygamy hear assembled to perform magical incantations, carried to a fearful and incest were interpretations of dreams, and practise various extent among them ; such having the sanction ; superstitions and thirdly, the grand seat of the of the religionof Zoroaster. These facts teach archimagus, which was visited by the people at us from what an abyss of iniquitythe gospel has delivered us, and how weak a barrier human certain seasons with peculiar solemnity, and to it was deemed an indispensable duty that wisdom isof itself which against the most extravagant every one should repair at least once during his and abominable crimes. The ceremony of marriage life. This leads to a notice of the religiousrites stitution in unison with their notions of its inwas and ceremonies practised and sanctioned by the Equally abominable and revolting was the magi. Religious rites and ceremonies. The ancient disposal of the dead by the Persians. The ancients, bound to discharge their sacerdotal magi were generally, had great horror at the idea of offices with exactness and devotion. Their public not receiving the ritesof burial. Hence, when Ulysses visited the infernal regions, he is made worship was thus performed : In every pyreum, or fire temple, there was to say : an altar,on which the When the people sacred fire was preserved. "There, wandering through the gloom, 1 first survey'd. assembled to worship, the priestput on a white New to the realms of death, Elpenor's shade; habit and a mitre, with a gauze, or cloth,passing His cold remains, all naked to the sky, On distant shores unwept, unburied, lie." before his mouth, that he might not breathe on He then read certain prayers the holy element. The ghost is represented as imploring of in a mumbling tone, holding in his lefthand some Ulysses the ritesof sepulture in these strains: small twigs of a sacred tree, probably the rose But lend me tzeh, which, when the service was aid, I now conjurethee, lend, ended, he By the soft tie, and sacred name of friend, threw into the fire. When prayers were finished, By thy fond consort, by thy father's cares, the priestand people withdrew silently, blooming years. and with By loved Telemachus's ***** These rites are still other tokens of solemnity. The tribute of a tear is all I crave, the parsees; but according to observed among And the possession of a peaceful gr.ive." Hyde, the priestsnow inform the people on their itis they worship before the departure, whence In Holy Writ, also, we meet with many affecting fire,and why they are called upon to regard it instances of the care with which the This, he says, is to preserve with reverence. ancient orientals buried their dead. But it was them from idolatry. not so with the Persians. Their kings, indeed, According to Lord, the duty of the priesthood had the privilege of having their bodies deposited in rocky vaults, as in the tombs at Nakshof Persia is comprised in the eleven following But thiswas not, rules : 1. The observance of the ritesprescribed i-Rustam and Naksh-i-Rejob. in the liturgy of Zoroaster. 2. To keep his properly speaking, inhumation, or putting them
3. To
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Drop down, ye heavens, from above, And let the skies pour down righteousness: Let the earth open, and let them bring forth salvation, And let righteousness spring up together; I the Lord have created it." Isa. xlv. 8.

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state of the deceased's future felicity and if he simply a ; within the surface of the earth ; it was be allured to take a bit out of the dead can deposition of them in a rocky excavation. The manner common mouth, it is an infallible of disposing of their dead was far man's sign of his going to heaven ; but in case the four differentfrom this. As, in their religion, the dog be not hungry, loathes the or or earth, air,and water, symbolized, elements, fire, object, refuses the morsel, the case though not in equal degrees, the Divine Being, of the deceased is then considered past all hope." He adds, that the dog, in the instance taken to preserve them from great care was before us, could not be induced to come near the coming into contact with each other. Hence, as they held also that all bodies were composed corpse. The place of sepulture at Surat may probably of these elements, they would not sufferthem to be buried, for fear of contaminating the earth. illustrate some of the ancient raised places On the contrary, they exposed the body on a It is described exposed. whereon the dead were high tower, that each of the four elements, by as enclosed with a wall twelve feet high, and 100 Some its gradual decay, might obtain its own. in circumference. In the middle, was a stone door, six feet from the ground, which was opened erected for the affirm that separate towers were to receive the corpse. The ground within the good and the evil; others say, that men, women, different towers. wards placed on and children were walls is raised four feet,and made shelving toThis was the centre, where there is a sink for readopted to preserve the purity of the ceiving the- moisture which continually falls elements; but wild beasts, dogs, and birds of from the carcases. Here the body is leftto be sidered suffered to devour them, as they conprey, were that, the bodies being thus entombed in devoured by vultures. After it has been there for a day or two, some not the bowels of those animals, the earth was of the nearest relations defilednor the air polluted. come to see the state of the body, and if the vouredvultures have first This custom of exposing their dead to be deplucked out the right eye, it by beasts or birds,was a great barrier in is taken as an indication of the felicity of the departed; if the left, they are assured he is the way of people's becoming proselytes to the had magian miserable. The scene within is described as rereligion. After the Armenians volting and offensive to the last degree : mangled received the Christian faith, it rendered the feeding on bodies, and religion odious to them, and magian name and gorged vultures, still it was a frequent cause of revolt in that country their fetidprey, compose the horrid picture. To has the false religion of such revolting customs against the authority of the Persians. This barous Zoroaster given birth. indeed, anciently esteemed so barwas, custom Truly there isno religionto be compared with by other nations,that Theodoret, speaking that of the Bible ; for itnot only teaches man the of the good effectChristianity had on men's true way minds, in reforming them from brutal and wicked of salvation, but his duties toward habits, mentions expressly that the Persians, both the dead and the living. Carry your thoughts back, reader, to the patriarchal age, since they had received its doctrines, no more Abraham, exposed the bodies of their dead, but gave them and witness the conduct of the faithful a decent burial. when his beloved Sarah was torn by death from Similar practices, ith reference to the dead, his arms. Did he barbarously expose her rew mains to the wild beasts of the field, are common the modern parsees or and to the among He earnestly Ghabrs to this day. When a person is dead, cruel birds of prey ? Oh no ! the priest does not approach the body, but the sought a burying place of Ephron, the son of Zohar, that he might, to use his own beautiful corpse is put on an iron bier,and carried to the The body is placed on the place of exposure. and tender expression, "bury the dead out of tower ; the prieststanding at a distance, his sight." His desire was performs and he gratified, the funeral service, which concludes in these acted accordingly. Carry your thoughts further " This, our brother, while he lived,consisted down into time, and see with what tenderness words : he is dead, let that faithful friend of the Saviour, Joseph of the four elements ; now of : earth to earth, air to air, Arimathea, assistedby others,buried him in his each take his own " own new water to water, fireto fire." They suppose that sepulchre." To use the idea supplied parture the poet days after itsdeby the spiritwanders about three from the body, and that itis during that There buried they The heavenly earth ; there let it softly sleep, time pursued and tormented by Ahriman, tillit The fairest Shepherd of the fairest sheep : is able to reach their sacred fire, near which he And all the body kiss'd,then homeward went to weep." Accordingly, they pray morncannot ing, Giles Fletcher. approach. days, noon, and night, during these three burying places, and see Look into our own for the soul of theirdeceased brother, beseeching God to blot out his sins and cancel his offences. there what Christian affection does for those On the fourth day, supposing his fatedetermined, once tenderly loved on earth. There they rest they make a great feast,which closes the ceremonies in peace, tillthe last trumpet shall sound, and call them back to life again. As we wept over used on that occasion. dies A late writer, who witnessed a parsee funeral our Christian friends, and committed their bo" to the earth, we felt that we could lie down as soon as the corpse was at Surat, says, that laid down in the open fieldnear the burial place, with them in their graves, and be at peace. And or rather friend of the dead per- yet, not sorrowing as those without hope, we exclaimed, son cemetery, some as we hunted about in the neighbouring villages turned from the mournful scene, " Jesus died tillhe found a dog, whom ticed with the apostle, If we believe that with a cake he ento come near the the corpse ; for the nearer and rose again, even so them also which sleep in Jesus will God bring with him," 1 Thess. iv. 14. dog approaches, the better hope they have of the
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Forbear, then, ye learned, to compare the reli- which he endeavoured to dissuade Croesus from gion invading Persia : " If you conquer them," he of Zoroaster with that of the Bible. " asks pertinently, What can you take from such ARTIFICERS. After the Lydian conquest, as have nothing ?" Concerning this caste of Persia,very littles b. c. 548, the Persians, becoming masters of so i known. It would appear, however, that they many rich provinces, itis probable that they applied their minds to trade and navigation, to worked by rule, and that the rule was fixed by the monarch himself ; at least the poet says that supply themselves with commodities which their it was fixed by Jemshid. They were unso sucountry wanted, and to dispose of their own perabunda doubtedly On this however, no an oppressed class of people, as may subject, be seen from the annexed quotation from Ferauthentic information has been handed down to dusi. us by ancient historians yet it is probable that ; " from their commerce The Ahmenshuhi obtained increased attention, class combined Men of ingenious hand, and active mind ; luxurious mode of livingin laterages,which will Laborious, staid, who crafts of skillespouse, be seen in the succeeding section of the kingdom While care and want deep grave their wrinkled brows. of Persia ; and which was one of the chief causes In fiftyyears the monarch (Jemshid) fixed the place Of this, the artist and mechanic race ; of the declension of their empire.
Selecting one from each, the task to guide By rules of art" himself the rules applied"

penetrabl early history of Persia is involved in imobscurity. The Persian writers have HUSBANDMEN. so surrounded it with romance, with tales of By Ferdusi this class of people among the griffins, t monsters, ber giants,and fairies,hat no soPersians is called, " The full of wisdom," and account can be collectedfrom their writings. According to them, some it would appear from him, that they were of the kings of the superior first Persian dynasty, called the Pischdadian, to the order of artificers. Dr. reigned from 500 to 1000 years each. Remote from haughtier sway, and lust of fame, Hales has, indeed, corrected these extravagant Tillage and harvest-toils their simple aim ; No cries of hunger rise, nor famines come reigns,by the soberer accounts of other oriental To stint their meals, or scare their humble home; writers,so as to reduce the length of the dynasty From cold, from want secure, their peaceful ear to a moderate compass ; that is, from B.C. 2190 Rings not of doom, nor sounds of death and fear. But still, to B.C. 1661. Yes ! these are blest; but mark this maxim no grave, authentic accounts 1 Sloth turns the happy freeman to a slave.'" have reached us of the actionsof these monarchs ; Agriculture was and the reader can only be referred to the table one on of the objects which of dynasties at the close of this history,for their the Persians principallybestowed their care and probable names. One of the chief cares of their moattention. At the close of this dynasty, it would appear to make husbandry flourish; and narchs was than 1,000 those satraps whose provinces were the best cul- that a long period succeeded, of more tivated, years, during which Iran, or Persia, was subject his enjoyed highest favour. Agriculture to the ria, was, empire of Turan, and afterwards of Assyaster. also,encouraged by the precepts of Zoronasty By that sagacious but interestedteacher, until the revival of the second Persian dyof the Kaianites, B.C. 641, when Cyaxares they were recommended to plant useful trees, to began to reign over Media, under the ancient convey water to the dry lands, and to work out to kai, or king, and Persia became their salvation by pursuing all the labours of title subject the Median power. By thus connecting the temporal agriculture. During the Assyrian and Median dominations, and future interests of his followers, agriculture Persians, according to the Greek writers, flourished exceedingly. Hence itwas that the the Persians, under the Sassanian dynasty, rose to were stillgoverned by their native princes, as was the usage throughout the east. Thus Xeas great a pitch of prosperity as could be expected nophon traces the pedigree of Cyrus up to Perunder a despotic government, and the to the country ; and Herodotus ses, who gave name physical disadvantages of a dry and parched soil, the notices his ancestors, Achemenes, the want of navigable rivers, and commercial ath er of Teipses, the father of Cambyses, the ports. father of Cyrus. Concerning the sovereigns of COMMERCE. dian Persia, however, before the downfal of the MeFrom the lastclause in the foregoing sentence, empire, nothing can be recorded ; and the itwill be seen that the Persians laboured under proper history of the empire of the Persians a great disadvantage with reference to commerce. commences with From this cause, indeed, the Persians
extent.
"

To what perfection architecture was brought tion among the Persians, may be seen in the descripof the ruins of Persepolis. It is not so certain, however, that the vast structures in Asia as were remarkable for their beauty and symmetry, for their magnitude and as they were The

CHAPTER
THE
KINGDOM
PERSIAN

IV.
OF
KINGS.

PERSIA.

never

were

commercial people. Anciently, they were utter Clad in the strangers to gainful commerce. untanned skins of beasts, they drank the water of the brook, and ate whatever their barren This country produced, and were contented. appears from the speech of the wise Sardanis, in

CYRUS.

According to Xenophon, this prince, whose is equally celebrated both in sacred and name profane history,was the son of Cambyses, king of Persia,and of Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of the Medes. He was born about b.c 599.

40

HISTORY

OF

THK

PERSIANS.

for In early life,Cyrus appears to have given of Media and Persia. His reasons it more vellous this were, that he deemed of future greatness, whence the marprudent his promise tales recorded of him by both Persian army should eat up the enemy's country than ror their own ; that so bold a step would strike terspent and Greek writers. His childhood was in the forces of the enemy, and inspire his with his parents in Persia, where he was trained own in the Persian simplicityof manners, and inured with confidence ; and that it was a maxim he was twelve years to fatigue and hardship till with him, as it had been with Cambyses, his father,that victory did not so much depend upon on a visit with his old. At this date, he went as the valour of troops. to his grandfather, Astyages, to whom As soon, the number mother he much endeared himself. He also gained the were therefore,as the customary sacrifices offered of affections the grandees, and of the Medes in to the tutelary gods of the Medes and Persians, Cyrus marched forward with his hosts, in search behaviour. Nature, general, by his courteous who usually makes a very pleasing discovery of of the confederates. He found them encamped rus in the open country of Assyria, where he atherself in children, exhibited her charms in Cytacked in an extraordinary degree. stormed their and routed them, and When about fifteenor sixteen years of age, camp. Evil Merodach, the king of Babylon, was The rest of the conB.C. 584, Cyrus attended his grandfather in an slainin the engagement. federates, Croesus, king of Evil Merodach, the son of was among whom expedition against Lydia, being greatly dispirited, wards, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who made a retreated homepursued by Cyrus. predatory excursion into the Median territories. lonians The next notable act of Cyrus was, his invasion Chiefly by the valour of young Cyrus, the Babyhe received were of Assyria. In this enterprise, repulsed, which raised his fame still The next year Cyrus more great assistancefrom Gobryas and Gadatas, two among the Medes. the b noblemen, who had been grievously injuredy returned to Persia, where he continued till Belshazzar, the son and successor dach. death of his grandfather, Astyages, and the accession of Evil MeroActing upon the principle of revenge, of his uncle, Cyaxares, B.C. 566. In the year B.C. 559, Cyrus succeeded to the which is ever sweet to an unregenerate heart, they surrendered to Cyrus the provinces and sion throne of Persia. His firstact after his accesBelshazzar took the to wage war with Evil Merodach, who, was, castles intrusted to them. buchadnezzar, order to punish Gadatas for his rebelfield in two lion. years before,had succeeded his father,NeHe was encountered and defeated by Cyrus, at Babylon. Evil Merodach, ambitious of adding Media to who forced him to return with great loss to syria,Babylon. This defeat is dated by Dr. Hales, his empire, which comprehended Syria, and Asb.c. 554. The next year he was Hyrcania, Bactria, and Arabia, formed a slain by conspirators, and Cyaxares, or Darius the Mede, powerful confederacy of the neighbouring states, bonadius Cappadocians, Phrygians, Carians, took possession of his kingdom, appointing Nathe Lycfians, king, or viceroy, as before recorded. Paphlagonians, and Cilicians,westwards ; and the History of the Assyrians and Chaldeans, the Indians,or Turanians, eastwards, against the (See Medes and Persians; alleging, that by their page 46.) After the death of Cyaxares, b.c. 551, Cyrus junction intermarriages,they were grown so and posed op- succeeded to the inheritance of the empire of great and powerful, that unless they were Media and Babylonia by right,according to sacred with their united forces, the confederates history, and confirmed by the poet jEschylus, would be reduced by them separately. The Medes and Persians combined their forces, and who fought at Marathon against the Persians, Cyrus was appointed general. and was acquainted with Persian affairs.* The accession of Cyrus was followed by the a vassal of The king of Armenia, who was veral the Medes, looking upon them as destroyed by capture of many cities,nd the reduction of sea the confederacy, deemed thisa favourable opportunity provinces, which so alarmed Croesus, king menced of Lydia, that he assembled his forces, and comof shaking off their yoke. Accordingly, : hostilities the particularsmay be seen he refused to pay Cyaxares the usual tribute, See page 70, etc. and to provide him with the number of troops in the History of the Lydians. in time of The next These events occurred b.c. 548. which, as a vassal, he should furnish dia, This greatly embarrassed the Median war. revolted cities of Meyear Cyrus reduced some menia, king ; but Cyrus, by a rapid expedition into Arnamely, Larissa and Mespila ; while Harpaengaged in subduing Asia surprised the king and his family, obliged gus, his general, was him to pay the usual tribute, and to send his Minor, Ionia,and Halicarnassus, the native city stored Herodotus. of quota of auxiliary troops, after which he reAfter this,Cyrus prosecuted the war against to him his kingdom. Before Cyrus quitted Armenia, he rendered the eastern confederates, and reduced all Syria the king some and Arabia ; and Nabonadius having rebelled essentialservice. At this time, he was at war with the Chaldeans, who dwelt in against him, he at length invested Babylon, held out the north of Armenia, and who being a warlike the only city that now which was Nabonadius, or, as Herodotus people, continually harassed his country by against him. their inroads, thereby hindering a great part of terms him, Labynetus, marched out to fighthim, his lands from being cultivated. Cyrus marched " Dr. Hales comthe actual mencement that states, however, b. c. 536, when was against,and defeated them, and after making a of his full sovereignty" he captured Babylon, and defeated Nabonadius, who had treaty with them to the effectthat they should been appointed king, or viceroy, by his uncle Cyaxares. invade Armenia, he returned to Media. no more 46 the History of the Assyrians, etc., page ;)and who The next year, b.c 558, due preparations being (See had rebelled against him, as described in a succeeding Cyrus anticipated the threatened in- paragraph. vasion made,
"

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

47

people that dwell in the desert, and all the kings of Zimri, and all the kings of Elam, and all the kings of the Medes, and all the kings of the north, far and near, one with another, and all the kingdoms of the world, which are upon the face of the earth : and the ' king of Sheshach [' to was the drunkard stored with provisions sufficient support lon] city of BabyBut these difficulties shalldrink after them," Jer. xxv. 11 the inhabitantsfor some 26. years. The retaliationof Divine vengeance in the did not discourage Cyrus from pursuing his design. Despairing, however, of taking the invasion of Babylon by the Medes and Persians, ants the slaughter place by storm or assault, he made the inhabit- the surpriseof the city unawares, believe he would try to reduce itby famine. of its inhabitants, and its final destruction, He caused a line of circumvallation to be drawn are thus described by the same prophet, in the fourth year of Zedekiah, B.C. 593 : round the city,with a large and deep ditch ; and that his troops might not be worn out by labour, " Declare ye among the nations, he divided his army into twelve bodies, and assigned And publish, and set up a standard; them itsmonth for guarding the each of Publish, and conceal not : The besieged saw his mighty labour, Say, Babylon is taken, trenches. Bel is confounded, deeming themselves and laughed him to scorn, Merodach is broken in pieces ; out of danger by reason of their ramparts and

but was defeated and driven into Borsippa, the citadel of Babylon, where Cyus besieged him and the town for two years, b.c. 538. The siege of Babylon was no easy enterprise. The walls of itwere of a prodigious height ; a numerous army defended it from within, and it

mingled

"

magazines. But Babylon

was

founded

in impious pride

and rebellionagainst God ; and many a woe was denounced against her in Scripture for her crying sins and abominations, by the Hebrew prophets.
"

Her idols are confounded, Her images are broken in pieces. tor out of the north there cometh up her, Which shall make her land desolate, And none shall dwell therein : They shall remove, they shall depart, Both man and beast." Jer. L.2, 3.
"

nation against

The duration of her empire for seventy years, Remove out of the midst of Babylon, destined to scourge the corrupt And go forth out of the land of the Chaldeans, while she was lation, And be as the he goats before the flocks.* nations of the earth, and her own ensuing desoFor, lo, I will raise are thus described by Jeremiah, in the And cause to come up against Babylon first An assembly of great nations from the north country : year of Nebuchadnezzar, b.c. 604 : " And they shall set themselves in array against her ; And this whole land [Palestine] shall be From thence she shall be taken : a desolation,and an astonishment; and these Their arrows ; shall be as of a mighty expert man serve the king of Babylon seventy nations shall None shall return in vain." Jer. L.8, 9. to pass, when seventy years. And it shall come Behold, I will punish the king of Babylon and his land, years are accomplished, that I will punish the Jer. 1. 18. As I have punished the king of Assyria." king of Babylon, and that nation, saith the " Go up against the land of Merathaim, Lord, for their iniquity,and the land of the Even against it,and against the inhabitants of Pekod: Chaldeans, and will make it perpetual desolations. Waste and utterly destroy after them, saith the Lord, And I will bring upon that land all my And do according to all that I have commanded thee. A sound of battle is in the land, even words which I have pronounced against it, And of great destruction. allthat is written in this book, which Jeremiah How is the hammer of the whole earth cut asunder and hath prophesied against all the nations. For broken ! a desolation among the naHow is Babylon become tions selves many nations and great kings shall serve them! of them also : and I will recompense them I have laid a snare for thee, and thou art also taken, according to their deeds, and according to the : O Babylon, and thou wast not aware hands. Thou art found, and also caught, For thus saith the works of their own Because thou hast striven against the Lord. Lord God of Israel unto me; Take the wine The Lord hath opened his armoury, cup of this fury at my hand, and cause all the And hath brought forth the weapons of his indignation : I send thee, to drink it. And For this is the work of the Lord God of hosts nations,to whom they shall drink, and be moved, and be mad, because In the land of the Chaldeans."" Jer. L.2 1"25. of the sword that I will send among them. A sword is upon the Chaldeans, saith the Lord, Then took I the cup at the Lord's hand, and And upon the inhabitants of Babylon, And upon her princes, and upon her wise men. made all the nations to drink, unto whom the A sword is upon the liars and they shall dote : Lord had sent me j to Jerusalem, and the wit, A sword is upon her mighty men" and they shall be Judah, and the kings thereof, and the dismayed. citiesof A sword is upon their horses, and upon their chariots, an princes thereof, to make them a desolation, And upon all the mingled people that are in the midst hissing, and a curse ; as it is an astonishment, of her ; this day ; Pharaoh king of Egypt, and his serv: ants, And they shall become as women her treasures" and they shall be A sword is upon and his princes, and all his people ; and robbed. all the mingled people, and allthe kings of the A drought is upon her waters and they shall be dried land of Uz, and all the kings of the.land the of up: Philistines,and Ashkelon, and Azzah, and images, For it is the land of graven 38. And they are mad upon their idols." Jer. L.35 Ekron, and the remnant of Ashdod, Edom, Moab, and the children of Ammon, and and all The prophet describes circumstantially, in the kings of Tyrus, and all the kings of Zi* In the don, and the kings of the isles east, sheep and goats frequently mingle in the which are same pasture, and on these occasions the he goats always beyond the sea, Dedan, and Tema, and Buz, take the lead. It is to this habit that the prophet alludes corners, and all that are in the utmost and all in this verse, which is an exhortation to Israel to remove the kings of Arabia, and all the kings of the out of the land of the Chaldeans.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

48

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

continuation, the particulars of the siege, and surprise of the idolatrouscity:

"

the
"

ducing the world with her cup of idolatry, under same allegory :
"

Babylon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, : That made all the earth drunken The nations have drunken of her wine ; Therefore the nations are mad. Babylon is suddenly fallen and destroyed." Jer. li.7, 8. Make bright the arrows ; gather the shields : The Lord hath raised up the spirit of the kings of the Medes : For his device is against Babylon, to destroy it; Because it is the vengeance of the Lord, The vengeance of his temple. Set up the standard upon the walls of Babylon, Make the watch strong, set up the watchmen, : Prepare the ambushes For the Lord hath both devised and done he spake That against the inhabitants of which Babylon. in O thou that dwellest upon many waters,* abundant
treasures,

"

Woe unto him that giveth his neighbour drink, That puttest thy bottle to him, and makest him drunken also, That thou mayest look on their nakedness ! Thou art filledwith shame lor glory : Drink thou also, and let thy foreskin be uncovered : The cup of the Lord's right hand shall be turned unto thee, And shameful spewing shall be on thy glory." Hob. ii.15, 16.

At
more

an earlier period, the prophet Isaiah still tions awfully and sublimely predicts the desolaof Babylon.

"

Thine end is come, and the Jer. li.11"13. ness.""

"

measur*

of thy covetous-

Set ye up a standard in the land, Blow the trumpet the nations, among Prepare the nations against her, Call together against her the kingdoms Of Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz ; Appoint a captain [Cyrus] against her; Cause the horses to come up as the rough caterpillars." Jer. li.27.
The mighty men of Babylon have forborn to fight, They have remained in their holds : Their might hath failed ; : They became as women They have burned her dwelling places ; Her bars are broken.
to meet One post shall run another, And one messenger to meet another, To show the king of Babylon [Nabonadius] That his city is taken at one end.t And that the passages [from the river] are stopped, And the reeds [or,thatch of th" houses]they have burned with fire. And the men of war are affrighted. For thus saith the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel ; The daughter of Babylon is like a threshing floor, It is time to thresh her : Yet a littlewhile, and the time of her harvest shall Jer. li.30"33. come.""

Behold, I will stir up the Medes against them, Which shall not regard silver;! And as for gold, they shall not delight in it. Their bows" also shall dash the young men to pieces ; And they shall have no pity on the fruit of the womb ; Their eye shall not spare children. And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, The beauty of the Chaldees' excellency, Shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, Neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation
:

"

Neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there ; Neither shall the shepherds make their fold there. But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; And their houses shall be full of doleful creatures ; And owls shall dwell there, And satyrs shall dance there. And the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses, And dragons in their pleasant palaces : And her time is near to come, Isa. xiii. And her days shall not be prolonged." 17" 22.
"

The prophet Isaiah describes the destroyer of Babylon by name, and that two hundred years before he was born.
"

Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, || To Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden, To subdue nations before him ; And I will loose the loins of kings, To open before him the two-leaved gates ; And the gates shall not be shut ; I will go before thee, And make the crooked places straight : " And I will dry up her sea, and make her springs dry. I will break in pieces the gates of brass, heaps, And Babylon shall become And cut in sunder the bars of iron : A dwelling place for dragons, And I will give thee the treasures of darkness, An astonishment, and an hissing, And hidden riches of secret places, Without an inhabitant."" Jer. li.36, 37. That thou mayest know that I, the Lord, Which call thee by thy name, " In their heat I will make their feasts, Am the God of Israel. And I will make them drunken, that they may rejoice, For Jacob my servant's sake, And sleep a perpetual sleep, and not wake, And Israel mine elect, Saith the Lord."" Jer. li.39. : I have even called thee by thy name thee, though thou hast not known me." 1 have surnamed " How is Sheshach [thedrunkard city] taken ! Isa. xlv. 1 4. And how is the praise of the whole earth surprised ! "All ye, assemble yourselves, and hear ; is Babylon become How an the astonishment among Which among them hath declared these things ? nations !" Jer. li.41. The Lord hath loved him : he will do his pleasure on " Thus saith the Lord of hosts ; Babylon, And his arm The broad walls of Babylon shall be utterly broken, shall be on the Chaldeans. I, have spoken; yea, I have called him: I, even And her high gates shall be burned with fire; And the people shall labour in vain, I have brought him, and he shall make his way prosperous." Isa. xlviii. 14, 15. And the folk in the fire, and they shall be weary." Jer. li.58. represents Cyrus as praising the Medes J Xenophon The prophet Habakkuk represents the retalia- and his army for their disregard of riches. Addressing tion before their departure for Babylon, he says: "Ye them of Divine vengeance on Babylon, for seMedes, and all here present, I well know that ye accompany me on this expedition, not coveting wealth." " The river Euphrates, and the neighbouring lakes and " The bows of the Persians were three cubits long, and marshes, with the numerous canals, both of communication were used as clubs in warfare. and irrigation, give a striking propriety to the " phrase, "many waters." anointed i|Cyrus, says Dr. Henderson, is called the + The prediction means from that couriers should run of the Lord," because he had, in his providence, appointed differentparts, and so fall in with one another, allof them to be restored. him to the rule under which the Jews were bringing intelligence to the ruler that the The allusion is to the ancient rite of anointing with oil city was taken invested with regal dignity. at the point from whence were they started. those who
"
" "

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

A")

By the
march
"

signal to the commanders

prophet, the Almighty gives the and to the troops to against Babylon.
same

Lift ye up a banner upon the hijih mountain, Exalt the voice unto them, shake the hand, That they may go into the gates of the nobles. I have commanded my sanctified ones, I have also called my mighty ones for mine anger, in Even them that rejoice my highness. like The noise of a multitude in the mountains,*
a

as

of

great people ; A tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered together : The Lord of hosts mustereth the host of the battle. from a far country, They come From the end of heaven, Even the Lord, and the weapons of his indignation, To destroy the whole land."" Isa. xiii.2"5.

: The loss of children, and widowhood They shall come upon thee in their perfection For the multitude of thy sorceries, And for the great abundance of thine enchantments. For thou hast trusted in thy wickedness: Thou hast said, None seeth me. Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath perverted thee ; And thou hast said in thine heart, I am, and none else beside me.* Therefore shall evil come upon thee ; Thou shalt not know from whence it riseth : And mischief shall fall upon thee ; Thou shalt not be able to put it off": And desolation shall come upon thee suddenly, which Isa. xlvii. 6 11. thou shalt not know."
" "

Having thus pointed out the principal predictions of Holy Writ relativeto the destruction of Babylon by Cyrus, we proceed to narrate their accomplishment from information derived from

In the same chapter, a descriptionof the dismay, consternation,and perplexity into which the inhabitantsof Babylon should be thrown on is the capture of the city, given under a metaphor taken from the physical effectsproduced upon the human system by fear,alarm, or pain.
"

the citizens of Babylon were when thus employed, Cyrus posted a part of his troops on that side where the river entered the city, and manding another part on that side where itwent out, comthem to enter the cityby marching along In a succeeding verse, the prophet describes the channel of the river,as soon as they found it the panic with which the troops should be seized, fordable. Having given his orders,and exhorted his officers follow him, by representing to them to comparing them to a chased roe, or sheep. that he marched under the guidance of the gods, " And it shall be as the chased roe.t in the evening he caused receptacles he had prepared 14. And as a sheep that no man taketh up."" Isa. xiii. both sides of the cityto be opened, that on in the latterclause,exhibits the water of the river might flow into them. The same verse, became fordable, The Euphrates, by this means, were these troops, the greatest part of whom as returning into the provinces from and the troops advanced up the channel, and took mercenaries, lonians the Babywhence they came, without being pursued by the the city. In the midst of their rioting, " were conqueror. surprised, and caused to sleep a theircity from that moment perpetual sleep ;" and " turn to his own They shall every man people, career began its downward land." of desolation. See And flee every one into his own " syrians, the article Babylon," in the History of the Aslon The grand causes of the destructionof Babyetc. This event occurred, b. c. 536. her pride and cruelty. These are aptly were By a remarkable providence, and contrary to described by the prophet. what might have been expected on the part of the besieged, the gates leading to the river had I was wroth with my people, [theJews,] I have polluted mine inheritance, been left open on the night of the attack by And given them into thine hand : Cyrus, in consequence of which his troops found Thou didst show them no mercy ; in no difficulty entering the city. Even the gates Upon the ancient hast thou very heavily laid thy yoke. incautiously opened during And thou saidst, I shall be a lady for ever: of the palace were So that thou didst not lay these things to thy heart, the tumult occasioned by the invasion. If such Neither didst remember the latter end of it. sians, had not been the case, says Herodotus, the PerTherefore hear now this,thou that art given to pleasures, by night through the channel, That dwellest carelessly, who entered in a net, That sayest in thine heart, would have been enclosed,and caught as I am, and none beside me ; else and destroyed. I shall not sit as a widow, Xenophon says, that Cyrus having entered the Neither shall I know the loss of children : found in the in to thee in a moment But these two things shall come city,put all to the sword that were to one day, the citizens bring streets. He then commanded selves him all their arms, and afterwards to shut them" in theirhouses. The next morning, by less The mountains to which the prophet refers are doubtup the elevated regions from which the warriors came break of day, the garrison which kept the citadel, who served in the Persian army ; such as those of Media taken, surrenbeing apprised that the city was dered Armenia, Koordistan, as well as the mountains of San jar, themselves to Cyrus. Thus did thisprince, in the immediate vicinity of Babylon.
:
"

Howl ye ; for the day of the Lord is at hand ; as a destruction from the Almighty. It shall come Therefore shall all hands be faint, heart shall melt : And every man's And they shall be afraid : Pangs and sorrows shall take hold of them ; that travaileth They shall be in pain as a woman They shall be amazed one at another ; flames."" Isa. xiii.6"8. Their faces shall be as

the pages of ancient authors. When Cyrus saw that the circumvallation, pleted, which his army had long worked upon, Was comhe began to reflectupon the execution of his vast design, which as yet was known only to directed him in his himself. Providence soon He was informed, that in the citya great course. was festivalf to be celebrated; and that the to pass the night Babylonians were accustomed Accordingly in of this festival dancing and merriment.

" " roe," or, as Dr. Henderson t The renders it, gazelle," is selected on account of its timidity, and the lightness across the plains, to express the with which it bounds haste with which the alarmed foreigners would attempt their escape from the conqueror.

* Babylon was wisdom, proud not only of her political but also of her astrologicaland mythological science. t This was the drunken festival of the Satea.mentioned Jer. li.41.

50

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

made an illuse of his authority, there might be almost without strikinga blow, and without any find himself in the peaceable possession found witnesses and censors resistance, of his maladministration Thus were He carefully within his own government. of the strongest city in the world. the various prophecies concerning the capture of avoided the trustingof any one man with absolute Babylon fulfilled. power, knowing that a prince would have reason After his victory, the firstthing Cyrus did, to repent of having exalted one man, if by him are oppressed. says Xenophon, was to thank the gods for the the community Then, having Thus Cyrus established a wonderful success they had given him. order with he his treasury, and respect to his military affairs, plauded assembled his principalofficers, publicly apIn all the provinces he had their courage and prudence, and their civil government.

zeal and attachment to his person, and distributed he sented After this, reprerewards to his whole army. to them that the only means of preserving theirconquests was to persevere in their ancient virtue ; that the proper end of victory was not to give themselves up to idlenessand pleasure ; that, after having conquered their enemies by force of itwould be shameful to suffer themselves arms, to be overcome by the allurements of pleasure ; that in order to maintain their ancient glory, it behoved them to keep up amongst the Persians at Babylon the same discipline they had observed in their own country. Cyrus, finding himself master of all the east by the capture of Babylon, did not imitate the

persons of approved integrity, who gave him an of every thing that passed. He made it his principalcare to honour and reward all those that distinguishedthemselves by their merit. It was this wise concentration of his resources that enabled him to carry on his conquests. It is not with reference to the destruction of Babylon alone that Cyrus is celebrated in the pages of Holy Writ. Therein he is pointedly referred to as the instrument of restoring the
account

Jewish polity.
"

other conquerors, of whom example of most history records that their victories were sullied Accordingly, in the year of the capture by a voluptuous and effeminate conduct: he of thought it incumbent upon him to maintain his Babylon, and firstof his sole sovereignty,Cyrus had acquired issuedhis famous decree for putting an end to the reputation by the same methods he it; namely, by a laborious and active life, captivity of the Jews, and for rebuilding the and a constant application to the duties of his high temple of Jerusalem. The decree reads thus : " Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, station. How skilful Cyrus was in the art of govern- that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah ment, is recorded in the pages of ancient authors. the might be fulfilled, Lord stirredup the Xenophon says, that he committed the various spiritof Cyrus king of Persia,that he made a parts and officesof his government to different proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing,saying, Thus saithCyrus king persons, according to their various talents and ; pointing qualificationsbut the care of forming and ap- of Persia, The Lord God of heaven hath given governors of provinces, me all the kingdoms of the earth ; and he hath general officers, self, charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, ministers,and ambassadors, he reserved to himlooking upon that as the proper duty and which is in Judah. Who is there among you of pended his people ? his God be with him, and let him all employment of a king ; and upon which dehis glory, the success of his affairs,nd a go up to Jerusalem, which isin Judah, and build the happiness and tranquillityf his empire. His the house of the Lord God of Israel,(heis the o great talentwas, to study the particularcharacter God,)which is in Jerusalem. And whosoever let in order to give them authority in proremaineth in any place where he sojourneth, of men, portion to their merit, to make their private the men of his place help him with silver, and concur advancement with the public good ; that with gold,and with goods, and with beasts,beside the freewillofferingfor the house of God that is every part should have a dependance upon, and in Jerusalem," Ezra i. 1 4. mutually contribute to support each other ; and The response to this celebrated decree by the that the strength of one should not exert itself but for the benefit and advantages of the rest. Hebrews was immediate by the chief portion of " Each person had his district, and his particular the exiles. Then rose up the chief of the fathers and the priests, and the sphere of action,of which he gave an account to of Judah and Benjamin, another above him, and he again to a third,till, Levites, with all them whose spirit God had by these different degrees and regular subordina- raised,to go up to build the house of the Lord tion, to the king came the cognizance of affairs which is in Jerusalem. And all they that were himself,who was, as itwere, the soul to the body about them strengthened their hands with vessels he governed of the state, which by this means of silver, with gold, with goods, and with beasts, hold. and with precious things, beside all that was with as much ease as a parent governs his housewillinglyoffered. Also Cyrus the king brought When Cyrus afterwards sent governors, called forth the vessels of the house of the Lord, which had brought forth out of JeruNebuchadnezzar salem, into the provinces under his subjection, satrapae, he would not suffer the particulargovernors of and had put them in the house of his gods ; those did Cyrus king of Persia bring forth places,nor the commanding of officers the troops even by the hand of Mithredath the treasurer, and maintained for the securityof the country, to be dependent upon those provincialgovernors, or to them unto Sheshbazzar, the prince of numbered be subject any one but himself; in order that Judah. And this is the number of them : thirty to if any of these satrapai,elate with his station, chargers of gold, a thousand chargers of silver,
"

I have raised him up in righteousness, And I will direct all his ways : He shall build my city, and he shall let go my Not for price nor reward, Saith the Lord of hosts." Isa. xlv. 13.

captives,

"

"

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

51

nine and twenty knives, thirty basins of gold, silverbasins of a second sort four hundred and All the vesten, and other vessels a thousand. sels
five thousand and of gold and of silverwere four hundred. All these did Sheshbazzar bring brought up with them of the captivitythat were 11 up from Babylon unto Jerusalem," Ezra i.5 Thus were the Jews " redeemed without money," according to Isaiah's prophecy, Isa. Hi. 3. In the book of Daniel it is recorded that this " holy man prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian," chap. vi. 28. His lastvision is dated in the third year of Cyrus, probably not long before his death, chap. x. 1 ; and the author of the apocryphal history of Bel and the Dragon says, that Cyrus conversed much him, and honoured him above all his friends. with We may conclude that it was by the wise counsel " stirred of of Daniel that the spirit Cyrus was to fulfil the prophecy of Jeremiah, Jer. xxv. up 1 1, this being the year of the expiration of the captivitywhich Daniel had computed, Dan. ix. 2 ; t and to fulfil he prophecy respecting the rebuilding of the temple, Jer. xxix. 10, to which Cyrus alludes in his decree. See also Isa, xliv.28. The holy work, however, did not proceed without opposition. After the death of their rus, patron Daniel, probably in the third year of Cythose adversaries of the Jews, the Samaritan who had been planted in the room colonists, of the ten tribes by Esarhaddon, and had offered to joinin the erection of the temple, but were refused by the Jewish government, obstructed the building. By their interest at the Persian
"

spot which he had selected for retirement, where he suddenly disappeared, and his train, among whom were some reof the most nowned warriors of Persia, perished in a dreadful This would seem tempest. to confirm the account
some use

to

"

of Herodotus ; for oriental writersfrequently to typify any great or wide-spreading calamity, such as an invasion of barbarians, or the destruction of an army ; but the end rus, of Cyas related by Xenophon, is more consistent with his character in his latterdays. Cyrus was buried at Pasagardae, in Persia, Pliny notices his tomb, and Arrian and Strabo describe it. Curtius represents Alexander the Great as offering funeral honours to his shade ; and he states that he opened the tomb in hopes of finding treasures there, in which he was appointed disa rotten shield, two Scythian bows, and a Persian scymitar, being all that it contained. In his Life of Alexander, Plutarch records that the following inscription was found thereon :
storms
"

"

man,

whoever comest, am

thou

art,

and

ever whenthou
of the the

thou

(for come
the me

i
founder
not, my

know

wilt,)i
Persian
little

cyrus,
Envy
which

empire.
earth

then,

covers

remains."

Curtius states, that Alexander was much affected at this inscription, which set before him, in so striking a light,the uncertainty and vicissitude of worldly things ; and that he placed the crown of gold which he wore, upon the tomb in which the body lay, wondering that a prince so

court, they obtained an

treasures, renowned, and possessed of so much order to stop the work, had not been buried more discontinued during the ensuing sumptuously than if which was he had been a private person. reigns of Cambyses, Smerdis Magus, Xerxes, Cyrus, however, seems to have formed a more tillthe second year of the reign of Darius and Hystaspes, Ezra iv. 1 5. 24. correct notion of worldly honour and riches than rus Xenophon Xenophon closes the military exploits of Cythe ambitious Alexander. says, that with the conquest of Egypt, and says, that in his last instructionsto his children,he desired he died, might not be dethat his body, when posited the last seven years of his full sovereignty he in gold or silver, in any other sumpnor at spent in peace and tranquillity home, revered tuous but committed, as soon as monument, and beloved by his subjects all classes. This of testimony is confirmed by the Persian historians. possible,to the ground. He probably had learned from the prophet Daniel, that out of the dust These relate, that after a long and bloody war, he was Khosru subdued the empire of Turan, now Turtaken, and that unto dust he must return. kistan,and made the city of Balk, in Chorassan, in which Cyrus is a royal residence, to keep in order his new subjects From the peculiar manner ; that he repaid every family in Persia the mentioned in Scripture, named and addressed his taxes, out of the spoils ages before his birth ; called by Jehovah amount of their war " " shepherd," and his anointed," and promised gained by his conquests ; that he endeavoured his high protectionand assistance, ranians to promote peace and harmony between the Tuthere has been racter much learned investigationconcerning the chaand Iranians ; that he regulated the pay of this great king. Some think that these of his soldiery; reformed civil and religious abuses throughout the provinces ; and, at length, terms apply to his character as an appointed agent in fulfillinghe will of the Almighty, altogether t after a long and glorious reign, resigned the to his son, Loharasp, and retired to soli- distinctfrom any considerations connected with crown tude, " ever, character. Others, howsaying, that he had lived long enough for his personal or religious a religiouscharacter, his own time for him to suppose that he was glory, and it was now devote the remainder of his days to God." which, in connexion with his appointment to There is some doubt about the manner perform the Divine willamong the nations,gives of the a peculiar force and declares that he died death of Cyrus. Xenophon propriety to the terms applied Dr. Hales, after to him by the prophet. in his bed. Herodotus, on the other hand, asserts, that he perished, with a great part of his reviewing his character and history, concludes and died the death of the against the Scythians ; that, that he lived the life, army, in a war a having invaded their country, he incautiously righteous. Xenophon, who was polytheist, surinto the deserts, where he was represents Cyrus praying to the gods, in the rounded, advanced attacked at a disadvantage, and slain. plural number ; but that he prayed to one only, Ferdusi and Mirkhoud the patriarchalgod, worshipped by his ancestors, say, that he proceeded
"

52

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

theirown, and went over to Cyrus's opinion,and chose rather to rule, though inhabiting a rough country, than cultivating a champaign, to serve was, "Jove, our Saviour, and our watchword others. Leader." A late writer seems The sage inscription to set the religious which, according to Saadi, character of Cyrus in its true light. He says : Cyrus caused to be engraved on his tiara,deserves " It is repeatedly recorded (Isa. to be inscribed upon the crowns of xlv.) Cyrus, of mo1 Thou hast not known me ;' and then coupled narchs in all ages, and in all countries of the It read thus : " What avails a long life with that convincing evidence which the precise world. we predictionsoffer, see the unity of God strongly spent in the enjoymentf worldly grandeur, since o tinct together with some dis- others, mortal like ourselves, will one day tramand impressively asserted, ple allusionto those very errors which were enhanded tertainedunder foot our pride ! This crown, by the people to whom Cyrus belonged. down to me from my predecessors, must soon Now, in that remarkable passage, Ezra i. 1, 2, pass in succession upon the heads of manv Cyrus says, 'Jehovah, the Lord God of heaven, others!" hath given me allthe kingdoms of the earth ; and The disregard for riches which Cyrus showed he hath charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem.'all occasions,is a noble feature in his chaon racter. Here he intimates his acquaintance Brerewood estimates the value of the with this very prophecy, for where else is he gold and silver which he received in Asia at charged to build the Lord a house at Jerusalem ? 126,224,000/. all sterling, of which he distributed " I have prodigious riches," and he distinctly acknowledges that the God who among his friends. so charged him was the God of heaven ; and that said he to his courtiers, " I own, and I am glad he it was, who, as he also had promised, had the world knows it; but you may assure selves your' they are as much For to given him all the kingdoms of the earth.' It yours as mine. that in arriving at the what end should I heap up wealth? For my would, therefore, seem, own itmyself? That would use ? and to consume conviction,that in his great and successful undertakings, he had been but performing the duty be impossible, even if I desired it. No ; the to which he was by name ed, appointed and ordain- chief end I aim at is,to have it in my power to he was enabled also to perceive and acknowthe public faithfully, reward those who serve ledge the truth of that sublime declarationwhich and to succour and relieve those that will acquaint is addressed to himself: me with their wants and necessities." Croesus represented to him, that by continual ' I am the Lord, and there is none else, largesses,he would at length make himself poor, There is no God beside me ; infinitetreasures, I girded thee, though thou hast not known !' whereas he might have amassed me Isa. xlv. 5. and have been the richest prince in the" " " " And to what sum," In estimating the effect world. replied Cyrus, do which this prophecy, you think those treasures might have amounted ?" regarded as a whole, was calculated to produce
_
"

the Pischdadians, may appear from the watchword which he gave to his soldiers hefore the battle in which Evil Merodach was slain. This

Croesus named a sum ; upon which Cyrus caused mind which appears to have been eminently it to be signified the lords of his court that he to candid and open to conviction,we must in want of money, and a larger sum was recollect that Daniel, who probably directed his was " Look," said attentionto this grand prediction, would not fail brought than Croesus mentioned. Cyrus, " here are my to enforce and explain those declarations contreasures ; the chests I cerning keep my riches in are the hearts and affections God which it contains."
upon
a

Cyrus may justly considered as the wisest of my be subjects." The care of Cyrus over his people was very conqueror, and the most accomplished prince " A prince," said he to his courtiers, remarkable. mentioned in profane history. Of his wisdom " there are many examples given ; none ought to consider himself as a shepherd, and of which, lowing. perhaps, shine more conspicuously than the fol- to have the same vigilance,care, and goodness. It is his duty to watch, that his people may live Herodotus says, that when he succeeded in safety and quiet; to burden himself with to the Median crown, he was thus addressed by a deputation of the Persians : anxieties and cares, that they may be exempt " Since God has given dominion to the Persians, from them ; to choose whatever is salutary for them, and remove to you, and the sovereignty of brave men what is hurtful and prejudicial crease from our scanty and rugged ; to place his delight in seeing them inpermit us to remove country of Persia,and to occupy a better. There and multiply; and valiantly expose his are many person in their defence and protection. such in our vicinity, and many further own This," he adds, "is the natural idea, and the off. If we occupy one of these,we shall be more highly respected by the world; and it is but just image of a good king. It is reasonable, at the same time, that his subjects reasonable that rulers should act in this manner. should render And when, indeed, will a faireropportunity offer him all the service he stands in need of; but it than now, more that we rule many reasonable, that he should labour to nations, and all is still Asia?" them happy ; because it is for that very make Cyrus, having heard their speech, though he it is as end that he is their king, as much to the end and officeof a shepherd to take care approved not of it,desired them to do so : but he warned them, at the same time, to prepare of his flock." themselves no longer to rule,but to be ruled ; for It may be observed, that it is somewhat remarkable, that fertile that Xenophon represents Cyrus as countries naturally produced effeminate men to ; that it was not usual for the same soil comparing kings, and himself in particular, to bear both admirable fruitand warlike men. shepherds, seeing that it is the very character The Persians, therefore, acquiescing, quitted which Scripture gives to this prince.

HISTORY

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PERSIANS.

53

That saith of Cyrus, He is my shepherd, And shall perform all my pleasure." Isa. xliv. 28.
"

"

The comparison of a king to a shepherd was, in oriental writings, very common. The figure is, indeed, frequently met with in Scripture to denote the good king. According to Cicero, and other ancient writers, the temperance of Cyrus was very remarkable. From this cause, they record that he a enjoyed vigorous state of health to the close of a long life.* By temperance, indeed, he was enabled
however,
to

The succeeding victories of Cyrus had the same on principleof justice their side. Both the king of Lydia and the king of Babylon were the aggressors. The truth is, Cyrus was a conqueror the immediate under guidance of God, who made use of him as an unembarrassed, and makes them seize the object instrument in effecting his merciful purposes. they desire with greater satisfaction. It appears The results of his conquests have been seen in in the face, and decorum in the person with life all ages of the world, from the period at which ; gives you the command of your senses ; they occurred. And very glorious are the results health; and preserves you in a secures your which have been witnessed. Through him both as regards proper condition for your affairs the Jews were released from their captivity in time and eternity. Babylon, and through them the Gentile world has been offered deliverance from the captivity Fly drunkenness, whose vile incontinence Takes both away thy reason and thy sense, of sin, and death, and hell. This fact is one of Till withCircaean cups thy mind possess'd, those links in the chain of Divine love which Leaves to be man, turns to beast. and wholly In the language cannot be sufficiently Think, while thou swallowest the capacious bowl, admired. Thou lett'st in seas to wreck and drown thy soul; of the apostle Paul alone, can we give due utterance That hell is open, to remembrance call, to our feelings: " O the depth of the riches And think how drunkards are to fall." subject both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! Randolph. how unsearchable are his judgments,nd his a Another favourable traitin the character of ways past finding out !" Rom. xi. 33. Cyrus was, his clemency Herodotus, itis true, OR CAMBYSES, LOHORASP. represents him as the reverse of a merciful conqueror. On the death of Cyrus the Great, B.C. 529, his By his strong against Cyrus, prejudices his dying bed, he on that historian has depreciated the fair fame of son, Cambyses, to whom, one of the wisest,best, and greatest princes that bequeathed the bulk of his dominions, ascended ever the throne of Persia. beloved was swayed a sceptre ; one who Cambyses appears to have been the reverse by his honoured of with the friendship subjects, the character of Cyrus. The actionsof his reign of the prophet Daniel, blessed with the favour nor prove that he was neither actuated by reason and protection Heaven, and pre-ordained to of in justice his enterprizes. In the fourth year of perform all God's pleasure. No one, says Xebetter qualified to conciliateuni- his reign, he invaded Egypt, and with what wild nophon, was versal love than Cyrus, who spent most of his fury he ravaged that country, the reader may time in procuring some pleasure and good to all, gather from the History of the Egyptians. See His merciful disposition was and illto none. page 58. Various and improbable accounts are given of exhibited in beautiful colours in his conduct The true one aptowards Croesus, as related in the life of that this invasion by Herodotus. pears to be, that Amasis, who had submitted to prince. Cyrus, refused, upon the death of that conqueror, Ancient conquerors generally acknowledged homage and trito pay his successor no the same bute. right but that of force; looked upon the This account is,indeed, confirmed by the common as rules of justice laws which only Persian historians,who state, that Lohorasp, private persons were rogatory obliged to observe, and deto the regulating the eastern provinces while he was of kings ; set no other majesty bounds to their designs of Iran, sent his general, Gudarz, or Raham, and pretensions, than incapacity of carrying them to an the western their provinces with an army, to recover equal extent with their wishes ; sacrificed the livesof of Syria, etc. Gudarz conquered Syria as far as Damascus and Palestine, including the famous millions to their ambition; made their glory " consist in spreading desolation and destruction; city of Jerusalem, called by the Persians, the Holy City." to borrow an idea from Seneca, and, reigned as To secure bears and lions would have done, had they been a safe passage through the desert, between Palestine and Egypt, Cambyses, by the masters. The character of Cyrus seems to have been advice of Phanes, a Greek refugee from Amasis, the reverse this. He might have been actuated made a treaty with the king of Arabia, to furnish of his army with water, which he did by means by ambition, but he reverenced the laws, of and knew that there are the skins of camels. On arriving at the Pelusiac, wars, in which whounjust found or eastern branch of the Nile, Cambyses * Psammenitus, the son and successor Lucan says he lived upwards of one hundred of Amasis, years.
oppressed. unjustly
"

seize the opportunities of conquest, and to perfect his character. It has been well observed bears the greatest by Socrates, that that man resemblance to the Deity who contents himself with the fewest and most simple necessariesof keeps the senses life. Temperance clear and

unseasonably engages, renders himself accountable for all the blood that is shed, all the In the beginning of his misery that ensues. Cyrus founded all his hopes of success wars, on the justice his cause, of and represented to his in soldiers, order to inspire them with courage and confidence, that they were not the aggressors the enemy that attacked them ; ; that it was and that they were entitledto the protection of the gods, who seemed themselves to have put into their hands, that they might fight in arms defence of their friends and allies, who were
ever

54

HISTORY

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PERSIANS.

enbuilt on an oasis, in dead before the Persians arrived,) campedtemple of Jupiter Ammon, A battle ensued, and his army. the midst of the desert. with In the mean time, Cambyses the Egyptians were routed. The Persians pursued pushed madly forwards against the Ethiopians. Before, however, them to Memphis, which was soon reduced, he had performed a fifth:}: of his extaken, after a reign of six part and Psammenitus pedition, He was soon the provisions he had with him were after put to death, for months. The army by Cambyses, B.C. 525. then proceeded to eat fomenting rebellion, consumed. After the conquest of Egypt, Cambyses rethe beasts which carried the baggage, which solved Still in three differentquarters : also were soon consumed. to make war byses the rage of Camwas creased. and unabated, and his infatuation stillinagainst the Carthaginians, Ammonians, He proceeded on his march, and his Macrobian, or long-lived Ethiopians. The first he army, as long as the earth afforded them any of these projects was compelled to abandon, were content to feed on vegetables ; the Phenicians in his service refusing to fight sustenance, against the Carthaginians, their descendants ; but as soon as they arrived among the sands and but being resolved to invade the other two nathe deserts, some of them, prompted by famine, tions, he sent ambassadors into Ethiopia,* who, proceeded to the most fearfulextremities. They drew lots,and every tenth man to act as spies for destined to was under that character, were him, and to learn the state and strength of the the hunger of the rest. satisfy This appalling action seemed to alarm even the country. The ambassadors of Cambyses dotus, sents carried pre- mad Cambyses himself. Alarmed, says Heroat the idea of his troops devouring one along with them, which they delivered to " byses, another, he abandoned his design upon the EthiCamopians, the king of Ethiopia with this address : From Thebes sire and returned to Thebes. sovereign of Persia, from his anxious dehe proceeded to Memphis, from whence he perof becoming your friend and ally,has sent mitted the Greeks to embark. us to communicate with you, and to desire your The fate of the expedition of the Ammonians acceptance of these presents, from the use of disastrous. There was more no still road which he himself derives the greatest pleasure." was nor tract through the sandy waste that the invaders Their designs were suspected, and the Ethiopian " had to traverse ; no hill nor The tree which prince dismissed them with this reply : to guide them in their king of Persia has not sent you with these presents might serve onward The army, moreover, from any desire of obtaining my alliance; course. was placed at the neither do you speak the truth, who, to facilitate mercy of Egyptian guides, whose minds were to designs of your master, are come the unjust galled by their country's wrongs, and who felt a fraternal affection for the Ammonians. The examine the state of my dominions. If he were he would deserted by influenced by principles of integrity, that the Persians were result was, scribable be satisfied ith his own, these guides," and they wandered about in indesessions and not covet the posw confusion. The greater part of them of another; nor would he attempt to finallyoverwere, according to the Ammonians, whelmed ceived reduce those to servitude from whom he has reby the moving sands that winds someGive him, therefore, this bow, no injury. times raise in the desert. This fearful catasspeak to him thus : The king of trophe and in my name has been thus described by the poet : Ethiopia sends thiscounsel to the king of Persia, When his shall subjects be able to bend this bow " Now o'er their heads the whizzing whirlwinds breathe, ease that I do, then, with a supethe same riority And the lone desert with pants and heaves beneath ; he may venture to attack the of numbers, Tinged by the crimson sun, vast columns rise Macrobian Ethiopians. In the mean time, let Of eddying sand, and war amid the skies, In red arcades the billowy plain surround, him be thankful to the gods that the Ethiopians And whirling turrets stalk along the ground. have not been inspired with the same ambitious views of extending their possessions." desert on the south. When on the north, and the great Libyan Cambyses received this message, he It included, consequently, the desert that contains the his army to begin was enraged, and commanded on Egypt. The term means Wahs or Oasis, dependent theirmarch immediately, without providing, says an insulated fertilespot, like an island in the midst of an Herodotus, for their necessary sustenance, or redesert, surrounded or by flecting commonly expanse of sand in one of these, (theLibyan Oasis,) higher lands. It was the extremities that he was about to visit lived, and the temple and oracle of that the Ammonians of the earth. He left the Grecians behind him was Jupiter Ammon placed. This Oasis was visited by a it in traveller in 1798, who has described both it in his newly conquered country, to keep the

(who

was

"

and

ruins

It is now his absence. called the Oasis of of the ancient temple. On his arrival at Thebes, Cambyses selected Serwah. he orfrom his army about 50,000 men, dered t From this it appears that Cambyses never penetrated whom beyond the desert of Selima, that is, says Rennell, on the to make an incursion against the Ammosupposition that he set out from Thebes, and that Senaar or great to plunder the Ammonium, nians,tand into the country of the Macrobian Ethiopians. was the entrance

during subjection

The
* It is impossible to determine what particular nation is meant under this appellation. Rennell thinks they were the Abyssinians ; and Bruce imagines that they were the Guabas and Gangas, who inhabit two small provinces they must Whoever or districts of Abyssinia. they were, have been a considerable nation, since their monarch sent a message of defiance to Cambyses.

suffered such Syene.

desert alluded to was dreadful hardships,

namely,

that in which Bruce that above

in the days of Herodotus, occupied t The Ammonians, Egypt on Upper considerable space in Libya, between desert of Barca on the west, and between the east, and the the Nomadic tribes, along the coast of the Mediterranean,
a

that the route of the army makes it plain detested the Persians, led them guides, who astray amidst the deserts ; for they should have departed or from lake Mareotis to the temple of Ammon, from the The Egyptians, intending the the enviruns of Memphis. led them from Thebes to the destruction of their enemies, great Oasis, three days' journeyfrom Abydos, and having livered brought them into the vast solitudes of Libya, they deto death. them over

" Savary says,

the

that

It 1 STORY

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PERSIANS.

55

Long ranks in vain their shining blades extend ; To demon gods their knees unhallow'd bend; Wheel in wide circles, form in hollow square; And now they fly, and now they front the air; Pierce the deaf tempest with lamenting cries From their parched lips, and close their bloodshot eyes. ! o'er the waste Gnomes you led your myriad powers, Climb'd on the whirls, and arm'd the flinty showers ! Onward resistlessrolls the infuriate surge; Clouds follow clouds, and mountains urge; mountains Wave over wave the driving desert swims, Bursts o'er their head, inhumes their struggling limbs; Man mounts on man ; on camels camels rush : Hosts march o'er hosts; and nations nations crush; in air, the winged islands fall, Wheeling And one great earthy 01 ean covers all. Night bow'd her Ethiop brow Then ceased the storm. To earth, and listened to the graves below ; Grim Horror shook : awhile the living hill

Heaved

with convulsive

throes, and all was

still." Darwin.

as Smerdis the Magian ascended the himself of Persia, in order to secure thereon, he sought to gain the affectionsof his His subjects. first act was to grant them an from taxes and from all military exemption service for three years. But his reign was brief. His gross imposture was discovered, and he was slainwith his brother in a conspiracy formed by Persian nobles of the first seven rank and consequence in the state, at the end of seven months. It is probable that Smerdis was raised to the throne by a conspiracy of the priestlycaste, who desirous of restoring their own were supremacy, The result the Medes. and that of their allies, of the attempt was very calamitous to them. When the head of the false Smerdis was shown to the people, and the imposture explained, they the magi, so enraged, that they fell upon were and put to death as many as could be discovered. The day on which this transaction occurred thenceforward became an annual festivalamong it was the Persians, by whom celebrated with " It called The slaughter great rejoicings. was of that sect would of the magi ;" and none venture to appear in public upon that festival. Herodotus of the of orders. gives a romantic account It was by the conspirators after about this time, b. c. 523, that Orastes, adoption of a monarch one of the satrapae of Cambyses, who had the the tumult had subsided. He says that he gained from his competitors by the stratagem the crown of Sardis, brought about the death government neighing of his ence of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, to which refer- of his groom procuring the first has been made in the history of the horse, as recorded by a public monument: " Egyptians, page 57. Darius, son of Hystaspes, gained the kingdom In the beginning of the eighth year of the of the Persians by the merit of his horse and of reign of Cambyses, he left Egypt in order to his groom CEbares." The account which iEsinto Persia. On his way thither,he dis- chylus gives of the transaction is more covered return probable, that Smerdis Magus, who personated his and more consistentwith the after character of he had slain,had been proclaimed According to this ancient brother whom Darius Hystaspes. This aroused him from his writer,the seven conspirators agreed to reign in king at Susa. lethargy. He instantly prepared to lead his rotation. The first that governed was Maraphis, army thither, in order to crush the rebellion. who is not found in the list of Herodotus ; the Herodotus calls Artaphrenes, whom But his days were As he hastily next was numbered. his horse to set out, his sword fellfrom Intaphernes ; and the next Darius. This last mounted him mortally in the nobleman was possessed of superior abilitiesnd the scabbard, and wounded a a spirit thigh. of enterprize ; he was also of the AchaeHerodotus says, that when the accident occurred, menian or royal line,and his father, Hystaspes, he anxiously inquired the name was province of the of the place, and governor of Persia, the first

The remainder of the reign of Cambyses was tissue of the most extravagant crueltiesand excesses against the of every kind, committed family. Egyptians, the Persians, and his own According to Herodotus, he slew the magistrates for suffering public at his return of Memphis on the occasion of finding their new rejoicing divinity Apis, wounded their calf god in the the priests to be scourged. thigh, and commanded He grew jealous his brother Smerdis, because of pian he was the only Persian able to bend the Ethiobow, sent him home to Persia, and soon portending that of a dream after, on account Smerdis would be advanced to the throne, had him put to death. He married two of his own a sisters,nd killed the younger for lamenting the death of her brother Smerdis. He shot the son t of Prexaspes, one of his principalofficers,hrough by way of proving that the heart with an arrow, He violatedthe he was neither drunk nor mad. tombs of the Egyptians, to examine the mummies. He insulted the pigmy statue of their chief god Vulcan, and burned those of the Cabiri. Finally, to when Croesus ventured, as his father's friend, on the enormities he was remonstrate committing, and to set before him the probable consequences, he snatched his bow to shoot him with an arrow. Croesus escaped by a precipitateflight,and he instantly ordered to be put to death. His was officersdelayed the execution tillthe next day, which gave him apparent satisfaction,but he ordered them to be put to death for disobedience
a

Ecbatana, an obscure town in Syria, where the Egyptian oracle of Butos warned him he should die ; but which he mistook for Ecbatana the capital of Media, and the depot of his Upon treasures. this it is recorded, that he bitterly lamented his error in destroying his brother Smerdis ; "for," he said,"it was Smerdis Magus the deity foretold in vision whom That Cambyses felt should rise up against me." compunction for his guiltwhen death stared him in the face can be readily believed ; for guilt sooner or later brings misery, and his was guilt Reader, the lifeof Cambyses of no ordinary nature. man may become if shows what a monster leftto himself; ifhis actions have not a restraint by power from on high. It put upon them should teach us to pray with the psalmist,
"

found itwas

Keep back thy servant also from presumptuous sins; Let them not have dominion over me : Then shall I be upright, And I shall be innocent from the great [or gression." much] transPsa. xix. 13.
"

SMERDIS

MAGUS.

As

soon

throne

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monument wishing to leave behind him some empire. Upon these accounts, therefore,when to his turn, he contrived to the government came which should exceed the effortsof his predecessors, struck off a coin of the purest gold, the retain the possession of it for himself, and to Daric, which retained its name down to the transmit it to his family. That he was the most Macedonian dynasty. The impression on this formidable competitor for the crown, appears from the pages of Herodotus ; for he relates, famous coin, was Darius the king, crowned, in even self, the attitude of an archer, with a bent bow, that his merit excited the jealousy Cyrus himof and kneeling on the right side, to take aim at who expressed his suspicions to Hystaspes, enthe father, that Darius, then a youth, was gaged the enemy. After the death of Smerdis Magus, and the in some treasonable designs. Herodotus also represents him as possessing greater enterestablishment of Darius on the throne, it was pelling agreed that the Persian noblemen who had conprize than the rest of the conspirators,by comspired them to a prompt execution of their plan, against him should, besides several marks have the liberty of free access to of distinction, under a threat of informing against them if they delayed. the king's presence at alltimes, except when the Intaphernes, one of these queen was with him. GUSHTASP. DARIUS OR HYSTASPES, noblemen, being refused admittance under these his reign b.c. Darius Hystaspes commenced of circumstances, attacked the officers the palace, inflicting on 521. He appears to have been the first them severe wounds with his scywho used the old title royalty, Darawesh, or Darius, as mitar. Darius, enraged at this insult, caused of him, with his children and kindred, to be apprea proper name. hended, Before Darius obtained the kingdom, he had them to death, conand condemned founding thereby the innocent with the guilty. married the daughter of Gobryas, whose name When is unknown. seated on the throne, in Through the importunities of his wife, however, her brother was first himself thereon, he married two to secure saved from destruction, and order her children : the rest of the daughters of Cyrus, Atossa, formerly the eventually the eldest of wife of Cambyses, and Artistona. He likewise perished. It has been seen, in the lifeof Cambyses, that married Parmys, daughter of the true Smerdis, ors thereby freeing himself from all fear of a competitor the perfidiousOrastes, one of the king's governin Asia Minor, brought about the death of for the crown. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, by treachery. His to regulate One of the first acts of Darius was Darius, ing discoverthe provinces, and the finances of the crime did not go unpunished. the state of that Orastes abused his power, by sporting empire. Before his era, Cyrus and Cambyses had contented themselves with receiving from with the lives of those persons who displeased him, sent an order to his troops at Sardis to put the conquered nations such free gifts only as him to death, which order was executed without they offered,and with requiring a certain number delay. All his effectswere confiscated to the needed. Darius of troops when they were that it was impossible for him to pre- king, and allthe persons belonging to his family serve perceived to and household were removed to Susa. allthe nations subject him in peace and In the second year of the reign of Darius, the without an establishment of regular security, rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem was forces ; and that itwas sumed, also impossible to maintain In order, phets these forces without a revenue. chieflyby the exhortations of the proHaggai and Zechariah. Zerubbabel, the he therefore,to effectthese objects, divided the or plication governor, and Joshua, the high priest,made apments, governwhole empire into twenty districts to the Persian court, and obtained a tain each of which was to pay annually a certo the satrap appointed for that purpose, sum ing renewal of the originaldecree of Cyrus concernitserection. With so much alacritydid they The natural that as before recorded. subjects, from all imposts.now is, the Persians, were carry on their work, that the top-stone was exempt raised in joy within four years and a quarter from its recommencement, that is,in the sixth Plutarch observes, that Darius, in imposing these tributes, ration. year of the reign of Darius. See Ezra v. and vi. showed great wisdom and modeHe sent for the principal inhabitantsof 1"15 ; Hag. ii.1"18. byses, When Darius served in Egypt, under Cambest acquainted every province, such as were he had received favours at the hands of their country, with the condition and abilityof Syloson, brother to Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. interested in giving him a true and and were About this time, b.c. 516, Syloson repaired to impartial account. When they arrived,he asked his aid in ceededthe Persian court at Susa to solicit them if such sums which he proposed to each exto pay ; his intention the regaining of Samos from the person who had they were able what but being, as he said,not to oppress his subjects, since the death of his usurped the government nefactor, him as his bebrother. Darius acknowledged to require of them such aid as was proportioned him the aid he sought. to their incomes, and required by the exigencies and granted of of the state. They replied,that the propositions He sent an expedition, under the command Otanes, one of the principal lords of his court, densome were reasonable, and such as would not be burto the people ; but Darius reduced the who performed it with success. nians, During this Samian expedition, the Babyloto one-half, choosing rather to sums proposed keep within bounds, than to risk a possibility of who had taken advantage of the confusion of the times during the magian usurpation, to exceeding them. Concerning these imposts,itmay be here mentioned,provide against a siege, revolted. In order to however, that the coinage of money was natural prevent famine, they took the strange and unin Persia till not known resolutionof strangling all their women about this time. Darius,

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great preparations for the invasion of Scythia,* for under the pretence of retaliation theirinvasion | of the Medes, nearly one hundred and twenty years before. His real motive was, the extension Therefore hear now this, thou that art given to pleasures, of his conquests and empire. Darius crossed the Ister,or Lower Danube, That dwellest carelessly, over a bridge of boats, at the That sayest in thine heart, place where itfirst I am, and none begins to branch off to form the differentchanelse beside me ; nels I shall not sit as a widow, by which it enters the Euxine, a little above Neither shall I know the loss of children : the fortress Ismail,in Bessarabia. The Persian of to thee in a moment But these two things shall come in one day, army issaidby Herodotus and Justin to have consisted The loss of children, and widowhood: hundred thousand men ; it is proof seven bable They shall come in their perfection upon thee that the real number was seventy thousand. For the multitude of thy sorceries, When Darius had passed the Danube, he resolved And for the great abundance of thine enchantments." Isa. xlvii. 8, 9. upon having the bridge broken down, that his by leaving the army might not be weakened detachment necessary for itsprotection. In this, Darius besieged Babylon, and was derided by the insolence,and baffledby the vigilance of the however, he was overruled by one of his officers, At the end who represented to him, that, should the war months. enemy for a year and seven of that time, as he was beginning to despair of prove unfortunate, they would not be able to it was success, put into his hands by a refined escape from the enemy. After crossing the Danube, it would appear This stratagem of Zopyrus, son of Megabyzus. nobleman, who was one of the seven counsellors, that Darius marched eastward to the Tanais, or After crossing the Tanais, he entered the voluntarily mutilated himself, and then deserted Don. territoriesof the Sauromatse, extending northto the Babylonians, gained their confidence by a east to the main branch of the Don itself, which piteous tale of the cruelty of Darius, and after a he may be supposed to have crossed below the few preconcerted successes devoted over some detachments of the Persian army, he was mouth of the Medweditza, or Lycusof Herodotus. appointed From thence Darius entered the country of the in chief of the Babylonian commander troops, and intrusted with the care of the city, Budians, which having also traversed, he finally entered a great desert that separated them from which, on the first favourable opportunity, he the Thyssagetae, where he halted, and erected delivered to Darius. No sooner was Darius in possessionof Babylon, eight fortresses on the banks of the Oarus, probably the Wolga. than he ordered itsone hundred brazen gates to In the mean be pulled down, and the walls of that proud city time, the Scythians hovered round his army, laying waste the country, stopping up to be demolished, that its inhabitantsmight never have another opportunity of rebelling against the wells, interceptingconvoys, cuttingoffstragglers, cessant him. Besides this, impaled about three thouhe sand and keeping the army on the alert by inits inhabitants; after which, he obliged the hazard skirmishes, without running of sian The whole of the Perthe neighbouring provinces to furnish fifty thouof a general engagement. sand to supply wives for the remaining women, army was eventually, indeed, reduced to so deplorable a condition,that they had nothing before the race citizens,from whom of Babylonians living in the time of Herodotus were descended. their eyes but inevitable ruin. Darius saw Achis danger, and began to think of a retreat. cordingly, This siege had been predicted by the prophet in the dead of the night, the Persians, Zechariah two years before, who warned the leaving the sick behind them in the camp, reJews to fleefrom thence. traced thians their steps toward the Danube. The Scy" did not discover that they had retreated Ho! ho! come forth, And flee from the land of the north, saith the Lord : before the next morning, when they sent a considerable For I have spread you abroad detachment to the Danube, in order to As the four winds of the heaven, saith the Lord. Deliver thyself, O Zion, persuade the Ionians, who had the charge of the That dwellest with the daughter of Babylon. bridge, to break itdown and return home. For thus saith the Lord of hosts ; The Ionians consulted among themselves whether After the {dory hath he sent me they should comply with the request of the Unto the nations which spoiled you : Scythians. Miltiades,prince of the Chersonesus For he that toucheth you Toucheth the apple of his eye."" Zech. ii.6"8. of Thrace, having the public interest at heart, for embracing this opportunity of shaking was
and children, except their mothers, and one female to bake their bread : thus fulfilling the predictionof the prophet :
"

Dr. Hales remarks : It is truly remarkable, nians, that the Persian kings who punished the BabyloThe first patronized the Jews. capture of Babylon was followed by the decree of Cyrus for liberating the Jews from captivity; when ' the ' it, Lord stirredup the spirit to make of Cyrus Ezra i. 1. And the second capture by Darius was followed by the finishingof the second temple, in the seventh year of his reign ; when the Lord ' to turned the heart of Darius unto them, strengthen their hands in the work of the house " of God, the God of Israel,' Ezra vi. 1"22. After the reduction of Babvlon, Darius made
"
"

manders off the Persian yoke, and all the other comagreed with him, except Hystiseus, prince of Miletus, who represented to the Ionian linked to that of chiefs that their power was
* The ancients divided Scythia into two large portions. European and Asiatic; the former extending along the yond north of the Danube and the Euxine, and the other beSihon. The the Caspian and the Jaxartes, now latter was again subdivided into two parts by the chain of Imaus, or the Beloor Tagh, a branch projecting north from the Indian Caucasus, now the Hindoo Kho, or western nominated dewere the Himalaya ; which part of subdivisions Scythia infra and extra Imaum, or Scythia on this side and beyond Imaus. It was the European Scythia which the monarch of Persia invaded.

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Darius, since it was under his protection, that I come acquainted with ourselves ; to know what lord in his own but them was city,and that we really are, not only in the sight of men, each of the cities Ionia would not failto depose them, also in the sight of God. of Megabyzus their liberty, upon the downfal of the and recover continued some time in Thrace, This was Persian power. ; whose inhabitants,according to Herodotus, would sufficient their own have been invincible,had they dearer to them than the cretion private interestswere possessed the disand they determined to wait for of uniting their forces, and of choosing public good, thians, one Darius. In order, however, to deceive the ScyBeing however divided, they commander. by one, and brought under and prevent them from using any vio- were subdued one lence, they declared that they would retire pursuant the yoke of Persia. Some of the tribes, the as Pseonians, the Syropseonians, the Paeoplae, to their request, and the better to impose etc., upon them, they began to break down the bridge, were removed from their habitations, the comat mand time, to of Darius, and transported to Asia. encouraging the Scythians, at the same Darius, on his return to Sardis,having learned return back, meet Darius, and engage his army. The Scythians complied with the request, but that he owed his safety to Hystiseus, who had missed Darius, who arrived safe at the bridge, persuaded the Ionians not to destroy the bridge on the Danube, sent for him, and desired him to repassed the Danube, and returned into Thrace. On his way towards Scythia,Darius had sought name what reward he wished for his services. Hystiseus,who was tyrant of Miletus, left Megathe subjugation Thrace : he now of requested byzus, one of his chief generals, with part of his Mircina of Edonia, a territory upon the river army, to complete the conquest of that country. Strymon in Thrace, with the libertyof building a city there. With the rest of his troops, Darius passed the His request was granted, and he Bosphorus, and took up his quarters at Sardis, was proceeding with his designs, when, upon the he was recalled, where he spent the winter and the greatest part representationsof Megabyzus, of the year following, to retrieve his losses. under the plea of seeking his counsel in some This disastrous expedition may be dated b.c. great matter, and with a promise of ample possessions in Persia, in lieu of those in Thrace. 513. Herodotus relatesan instanceof wanton cruelty Hystiseus, pleased with this distinction, accompanied Darius to Susa, leaving Aristagoras, his thia, committed by Darius, on his departure for Scywhich well deserved such a disastrousissue. son, to govern in Miletus. Having Oebazus, a Persian, who had three sons serving Thrace, Megabyzus sent subjected in the army, petitioned the monarch that one of seven Persian noblemen king of to Amyntas, The king replied, Macedon, to require earth and water in the name them might be leftat home. a friend,and had made a mothat since he was dest of Darius, as a token of his submission to that Amyntas complied with their request, monarch. request, he would leave him all his sons. Oebazus was and entertained them hospitably ; but the conand duct rejoiced, hoped that they would be discharged from the service; but Darius orters dered of the Persians towards his wife and daughso them to be slain, and delivered to the enraged his son Alexander, that, by a parent. And yet this same prince soon after set stratagem, he caused them to be slain. Search " Darius, son of was made by Megabyzus for these ambassadors, up an inscriptionto this effect: Hystaspes, the best, and fairest all men, but Alexander having bribed Bubares, who was king of of the Persians,and of all the continent, in his sent to inquire after them, with large presents, hither to their death was concealed, and the matter glossed expedition against the Scythians, came the springs of the river Tearus, which afford the over. About the same best and fairest time, B.C. 508, the Scythians, water of all rivers." to be revenged on Darius for invading their Plutarch pertinently remarks, " What made Nero erect his tragic theatre, and wear the mask country, passed the Danube, and laid waste the the government and buskins as an actor, but the plaudits of country of Thrace, under of Were not kings in general styled, Persia, as far as the Hellespont. They returned adulators? home laden with booty, without meeting any while they sang, Apollos? while drunk, Bacchuses ? while wrestling at the games, Hercules ? opposition either from the Persians or the l and, delighting in these titles,ed on by flattery Thracians. During this period, Darius appears to have to the lowest depravity." Thus it was with the kings of Persia. Their courtiers spoiled them paid considerable attention to maritime affairs. He finished a canal of communication between by their base and gross adulation,and by itthey led to commit the most fearful crimes with- the Nile and the head of the Red Sea, which had were out by Pharaoh-Necho, but failed, ; compunction, and without fear of restraint been commenced so true it is, that flatteryand indulgence make after a great loss of life among the workmen. Flattery According to Rennell, this canal, with others the passions eager and ungovernable. trays is,indeed, a most base disposition. It often be- made by Ptolemy Philadelphus, Adrian, and the for ostentato his ruin, and it declares the man more a man caliph Omar afterwards, were tion They soon, at least,became unit totally unconcerned the than use. covets who about The cynic navigable,either from the failureof the Pelusiac, misery or welfare of his brother. or Diogenes, being asked what beasts were eastern branch of the Nile, which supplied apt to bite the worst, answered, " Of allwild beasts, the them with water, or from the stoppage of their detractor ; and. of all tame beasts, the flatterer." outlet at the head, of the Red Sea, and by the In a word, flattery an ensnaring quality, and is operation of the tides. leaves a dangerous About the same impression on the mind, time, Darius, ambitious of One against which -we should carefully guard. extending his conquests eastwards, resolved to For of the chief objects our lives should be, to be- obtain a proper knowledge of the country. of
,

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This having thus miscarried, Megabates this purpose, he employed Syclax, and other ahle project on a voyage threw all the blame upon Aristagoras,and of discovery down the navigators, From this point they ruined his credit with Artaphernes. Aristagoras river Indus to its mouth. foresaw the loss of his government, and his own coasted westwards, along the Persian Gulf, and ruin, and he resolved upon a revolt, as the only after a voyage of two years and a half, they expedient whereby he could save himself. His reached the port on the Red Sea from which in the circumnavigadesign was the Phenicians, employed tion seconded by the secret counsel of Hystiaeus, who, imagining that if any troubles of Africa, had set out about a hundred years before. From thence Syclax returned to Susa, should arise in Ionia, he should be sent to quell coveries. of his dis- them, took this step in order to be restored to where he gave Darius an account his native country. Arist igoras,therefore, after After this, says Herodotus, Darius subdued having communicated his designs to the principal the Indians, and became master of the ocean, persons of Ionia, began to prepare for the revolt more no than that he with great activity. which probably means to At this date, b.c. 502, the people of Tyre, possessed himself of the tract adjacent the who had been reduced to slavery, History does not record Indus and itsbranches. when their city was by Nebuchadnezzar, having groaned the particulars this expedition. taken of under According to the Greek historians,the latter that oppression for seventy years, were restored, turbulent, and part of the reign of Darius was according to Isaiah'sprophecy, to the possession of their ancient privileges,with the liberty of embarrassed both abroad and at home. having a king of their own, In the seventeenth year of his reign, b.c. 504, which libertythey from a small spark, kindled by a seditionat Naxos, tillthe time of Alexander the Great. enjoyed The prophecy reads thus : (which, according to Hawkins, is the largest and most circular of all the Cyclades in the iEgean " And it shall come to pass after the end of seventy a years, Sea,) flame arose, which occasioned a considerable That the Lord will visit Tyre, ants, inhabitIn this sedition, war. the principal And she shall turn to her hire, by the populace, were being overpowered And shall commit fornication with all the kingdoms of the world banished the island. They fled to Miletus, and Upon the face of the earth. implored the assistance of Aristagoras,who was And her merchandize and her hire shall be holiness to at that time governor of that city, as lieutenant the Lord: he was both nephew and It shall not be treasured nor laid up ; to Hystiaeus,to whom For her merchandize shall be for them that dwell before son-in-law. the Lord, Aristagoras promised to restore the exiles to To eat sufficiently, and for durable clothing." their native country ; but not being powerful Isa. xxiii. 17, 18. enough to accomplish his design alone, he went It seems to Sardis,and communicated the matter to Artaprobable, that this favour was granted phernes, the king's brother, who governed in them by Darius, in considerationof the services he expected to receive from the Tyrians, who that city,in order to obtain his assistance. He were represented to Artaphernes, that if he were powerful at sea, in reducing the lonians to once master of that island, all the rest of the their ancient subjection. Cyclades might be brought under ; stated subjection The next year, b.c. 501, Aristagoras reinNegropont, which that the isle of Euboea, now the lonians in their liberty, and in alltheir former privileges. He as large as Cyprus, and lay very near was began with Miletus, them, where he divested himself of his power, and rewould be easilyconquered ; and that from thence signed Darius would have a free passage into Greece. it into the hands of the people. He then He concluded by saying that 100 ships would be travelled through Ionia,where, by his example for the enterprize. and influence, he prevailed upon all the other sufficient Artaphernes was pleased with the petty princes, or, as the Greeks then calledthem, and project, " Having thus united tyrants," to do the same. promised 200 ships,if the king's consent could be gained. In this matter there was no difficulty. them all into one common league, of which he Charmed himself was the acknowledged leader, he openly with the mighty hopes held out, and To strengthen himself regardless of the injusticethe enterprize, as revolted from Darius. of phernes, the more well as of the perfidy of Aristagoras and Artaagainst the Persians, in the beginning the king approved of the project, of the following year, he went to Lacedaemon to and ing cution. engage that city in his interest.He made temptpreparations were made for putting it into exeoffersto Cleomenes, who was at that time During the next spring, b.c. 503, Artaphernes king of Lacedaemon ; but Cleomenes was proof cours. sent the number against them, and declined sending him any sucof ships he had promised to Miletus, under the command Aristagoras then proceeded to Athens, of Megabates, a and the Athenians being at thistime at variance noble Persian, of the Achaemenian family. The goras. order Megabates received was, to obey Arista- with the Persians, for having shown favour to Hippias, the son of Pisistratus,yrant of Athens, This gave him great offence, and led to t bates, whom a breach between the two generals ; and Megathey had exiled ten years before, availed to be revenged of Aristagoras, gave the themselves of this opportunity of revenge, and Naxians secret intelligence the design formed ordered a fleetof twenty ships to be sent to the of They prepared for their defence, assistanceof the lonians. against them. In the year b.c. 500, the lonians, having coland the Persians, after having spent four months lected in besieging the capital of the island, and contheir forces, and being reinforced with sumed from Eretria, these twenty vessels,and five more compelled to all their provisions, were in the island of Eubcea, set sailfor Ephesus, and retire.
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to the Panionium* The resultof their delibeleaving their ships there, they marched by land rations was, soon that the people of Miletus should taken, and an Sardis. The city was Ionian soldier having set fireto one house, the vigorously defend theircity ; that the allies should to the rest : flames spread and communicated provide and equip every vessel in their power ; and that as soon as their fleetshould be in readimost of them being builtwith reeds, the whole ness, they should meet at Lada,t and risk a battle city was reduced to ashes. The citadelonly, into escaped the general in favour of Miletus. which Artaphernes had fled, The Ionians assembled at Lada, as had been conflagration. After this accident,the Persians and Lydians appointed, and so vigorous had they been in their assembling theirforces together for their defence, preparations,that they bad collected a fleet of 353 sail. At the sight of this fleet, the Ionians retreated, in order to re-embark at the Persians, Ephesus ; but before they had reached that city, though double their number, were afraid to join issue,tillby their emissaries they had they were overtaken by the enemy, and defeated secretly The Athenians, who escorrupted the greatest part of the confederates, caped, with great slaughter. immediately set sail, cause. and returned home ; and engaged them to desert the common the urgent solicitations of The defection took place at the commencement and notwithstanding Aristagoras,they would not return to the combat. of the engagement ; the Samians and Lesbians, Darius being informed of these proceedings, with others, hoisting sail, returned to their respective countries. The remaining fleetof the enraged with the Athenians for the part they had taken, resolved from that time to make war confederates did not consist of above 100 ships, into the air, and these were quickly overpowered by the Persians, upon Greece. Shooting an arrow O Jove, to be rehe exclaimed, " Suffer me, and almost entirelydestroyed. After this, venged besieged, and became a And on that his the city of Miletus was these Athenians." one prey to the conquerors, who levelledit with the revenge might not slumber, he commanded ground. of his attendants to repeat to him three times " This event occurred six years after the revolt ber every day, when he sat down to table, Rememof Aristagoras. All the other cities that had the Athenians." A wiser admonition, and revolted returned to their allegiance soon more after, conducive to the happiness of the monarch, Those have been the following sentiment, so well either voluntarily, or by compulsion. would rous that opposed the victors were treated in a barbapoets : expressed by one of our own The handsomest of their youths manner. were were made eunuchs ; the young women Bid o'er revenge the charities prevail."" Cawthorn. sent into Persia ; and the cities and temples were In the burning of Sardis,the temple of Cybele, reduced to ashes. Such were the effectsof the totally revolt of the Ionians, a revolt into which the the tutelar goddess of that country, was destroyed, which was tence people had been drawn by the ambition of two afterwards used as a preAristagoras and Hystiseus. by the Persians for burning the temples of designing men, Hystiseus was soon after taken by the Persians, Their true motive will fall under the Greeks. and carried to Sardis,where he was crucified by observation in a future page. The Ionians,though deserted by the Athenians, order of Artaphernes, who hastened his end less without consulting Darius, lest his affectionfor and weakened by their late overthrow, nevertheThe pursued their point with great resolution. him should inclinehim to mercy. ture conjecWhen Their fleet sailed towards the Hellespont and cf Artaphernes was well grounded. Byzantium, head of Hystiseus was brought to Darius, he the the Propontis, where they reduced those expressed his displeasure at the act, and caused of the other Greek citieson and most As they returned, they obliged the it to be honourably interred,as the remains of coasts. he owed great obligations. Hysto whom one tiseus Carians to join with them in thiswar ; the people was the most bold, restless, and enterprising of Cyprus likewise entered into the confederacy, were genius of his age. With him all means and openly revolted from the Persians. The Persian generals,however, having divided their good and lawful that served to promote the end he had in view, acknowledging no other rule of forces, marched three different ways against the interestand ambition, to his actions than his own rebels, and defeated them in several encounters, in one of which Aristagoraswas slain: the island which he was ever ready to sacrifice the good of his country, and even his own kindred. to In the of Cyprus was again subjected the Persians. his name According to the expectations of Hystiseus,he stands forth as a witness page of history, was sent back to Ionia,in order to restore the * ever, It is supposed in king's affairs that province. No sooner, howthat the Panionium here mentioned : suggested to Milton the idea of his Pandemonium had he arrived at Sardis, than he formed into which he a plot against the government, Meanwhile the winged heralds by command drew a great number of Persians. For fear of Of sovereign power, with awful ceremony detection, he retired to the isle of Chios, where And trumpet's sound, throughout the host proclaim himself to the Ionians, A solemn council forthwith to be held he justified by artifice
to
.
"

"

"

and

engaged

them

to

prosecute the

war

with

vigour.

At Pandemonium, the high capital Of Satan and his peers."

The generals of the Persian forces, finding t According to Pausanias, this island was divided into that Miletus was the centre of the Ionian contwo, federacy, one of which parts was called Asterius, from Asteresolved to march thither with all their rius, the son of Anactes. At the present period, by the of the Meanrier, it is joinedto the main land, forces. When the Ionians received intelligence alluvions full mile within the margin of the sea; so that and is a not of this armament, only menaced Latinicns Sirnis is become an inland lake, seven or which the Miletus, but the rest of Ionia,they sent delegates eight miles distant from the sea.

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

(51

acts in thy passion. The hair of Samson grew nature, uncontrolled hy drank in the blessed Divine power, is capable of committing the again, but his eyes no more losses, Time may restore some light of heaven. is very far departed most fearfuldeeds ; that man to be repaired. Do not, but others are never from originalrighteousness. The flame of revenge, which had been long therefore, in an instant what an age cannot An old divine has said," As a good smouldering in the breast of Darius, at length recompense. burst forth. In the twenty-eighth year of his man would not wish to be taken out of the world in a fit of anger, into that place which is all reign, b. c. 494, having recalled all his other indulge he appointed Mardonius, the son of peace and quietness,so he should never generals, Gobryas, a young Persian nobleman passion, lesthe should die in that state." who had latelymarried one of his daughters, to the command "Be all mad rage, all anger then resigned, in chief throughout all the maritime parts A cruel heart illsuits a human mind." Greece, of Asia,with a particularorder to invade and to revenge the burning of Sardis upon the Bent upon the reduction of Greece, Darius Athenians and Eretrians. Mardonius, pursuant hastened the departure of his generals,Datis and cedonia, to his orders, marched through Thrace into MaTheir instructionswere, to plunArtaphernes. der to ordering his fleetfirst reduce Thasus, the citiesof Eretria and Athens, to burn then to coast along the shore, that they and down to the ground all their houses and temples, On his might act in concert with each other. all the inhabitants slaves,and to and to make arrival in Macedonia, all the country took the send them to Darius ; for which purpose they alarm at such a mighty army, and submitted ; were of chains provided with a great number in doubling the cape at Mount but the fleet, generals having appointed and fetters. The Cape Santo, was dispersed by Athos, now called to their fleet meet at Samos, set sailfrom thence a storm ; 300 ships,and 20,000 men perished in with 600 ships, and an army of 500,000 men. His land army met at the the mighty waters. After having made themselves masters of the same time with a misfortune no lessfatal. Being islands in the iEgean Sea, which they did without secured, the encamped in a place not sufficiently difficulty, towards they turned their course him under Bryges,* a people of Thrace, attacked Eretria, a city of Eubeea, which they took, after cover of the night, broke into his camp, and days, by the treachery of some a siege of seven wounded Mardonius himself. These misfortunes of the principal inhabitants. They reduced the he obliged him to return into Asia, from whence city to ashes, put all the inhabitants in chains, was soon after recalled by Darius. and. sent them to Persia, and then sailed for Darius, perceiving too latethat the inexperience Attica. of Mardonius had occasioned the defeat of his When the Persians had arrived at Attica, troops, put two other generals in his place, Hippias, of whom mention has before been made, namely, Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, son of conducted them to Marathon. In order to strike his brother Artaphernes, who had been governor terror into the citizens of Athens, they sent of Sardis. Before, however, he made any farther heralds from thence to acquaint them with the attempts upon Greece, he deemed it politicfirst fate of Eretria,hoping thereby to induce them to sound the Greeks, to discover how these It had the contrary to surrender immediately averse different states stood affected to, or were .f effect. Despair inspired them with courage, and With this view, from the Persian government. from theirallies, not being able to gain assistance he sent heralds to alltheircities, demand earth to from Plataea, they armed their except 1000 men in token of submission. On the and water, slaves,which was contrary to theirusual practice. arrival these heralds,many of the Greek cities, of by Datis conThe Persian army commanded sisted dreading the power of the Persians, complied of 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horse ; that of demands, as did all the inhabitants of with their the Athenians amounted in the whole but to iEgina, a small island near Athens. At Athens by ten generals, It was commanded 10,000 men. and Sparta, the heralds met with a different of whom Miltiades was chief,and these ten were reception. One of them was thrown into a well, to have the command of the whole army, each bid to and the other into a deep ditch, and were for a day, in rotation. There was a division This they did take thence earth and water. among the generals whether they should hazard that was under the influence of anger. When a battle,or simply fortifyand defend the city. passed, they were ashamed of the transaction, Miltiades argued that the only way to raise the looking upon it as a violation of the law of troops, and strike terror courage of their own nations ; and they accordingly sent ambassadors into the enemy, was to advance fearlessly, and to the king of Persia at Susa, to offer him what vinced attack them with intrepidity. Aristides,conhe satisfaction pleased for the affront they had by this argument, embraced the opinion, put upon his heralds. But Darius, declaring and brought over to it some manders of the other comhimself satisfiedith the embassy, sent the ambassadors w ; and eventually it was agreed upon by back to their respective countries, in all that itwould be wise to engage the enemy though those of Sparta voluntarilyoffered themselves the the conduct ; open field and under thisfeeling, as victims, to expiate the crime of which of the battle was yielded to Miltiades. Thus all their countrymen had been guilty. gave way to the love of sentiments of jealousy This incident affords an excellent lesson on the public good : this was noble, and it resulted that sinfulpassion, anger, which has been justly in the redemption of their country from Persian characterized by an ancient sage as a "short domination. Reader, beware of doing irrevocable madness."

to the truths that human

These

Bryges

were

probably the Phrygians.

+ The distance of twenty-four miles.

Marathon

from

Athens

is about

69

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

Although honoured with the general command, his own Miltiades would not engage in battle till 'day for that day governing arrived. When by the advantage of the he endeavoured came, ground to make up for his deficiency in strength He drew up his army at the foot and number. of a mountain, that the enemy should neither be able to surround him, nor charge him in the rear. On the two sides of his army he caused large his flanks, trees to be thrown, in order to cover the Persian cavalry useless. and render Datis, the commander of the Persians, was sensiblethat the place was not advantageous for him ; but relying upon the number of his troops, he determined to sustain a battle. All things being disposed, and the sacrifice, according to the custom of the Greeks, performed, Miltiades commanded the signal to be given for an battle. Betwixt the two armies there was intervalof about eight furlongs ; and the Persians pared seeing the Athenians approach by running, predevoted to destruction. to receive them as men As soon, however, as the Greeks mingled with the enemy, they discovered that they were foes.* After a long and obstinateconno mean test, the barbarians in the centre, composed of the Persians and the Sacse,obliged the Greeks to give way, and pursued the flying foe into the ever, time, howmiddle of the country. At the same in the Athenians and Plataeans, who were the two wings, having defeated the wings of the enemy, came up to the reliefof the centre, and obtained a complete victory,killinga prodigious number, and pursuing the rest to the sea, where they set fireto the vessels. brother Itwas on thisoccasion that Cynsegirus, of the celebrated tragic poet, iEschylus, who had laidhold of one of the ships in order to get into had his right hand cut off, itwith those that fled, drowned ; of which we find a similar and was example in Lucan :
"

escape, and those that were consumed in their burning ships.f The Greeks, moreover, obtained possession of seven of the enemy's vessels. killed in the battle. That perHippias was fidious the unjust citizen,in order to recover dominion usurped by his father, Pisistratus, over the Athenians, had put himself at the head of come those who were with a design to reduce to ashes that city to which he owed his birth. An ignominious death, with lasting infamy entailed was the result of his treachery. upon his name, The Persians had considered victory so sure, that they had brought marble to Marathon, in order to erect a trophy. The Grecians took this marble, and caused a statue to be made of it by Phidias,in honour of the goddess Nemesis, whose business, it was supposed, was to punish injustice had a temple near and oppression, and who Marathon. Plutarch relates,that immediately after the battle, an Athenian soldier, stained with blood, hastened to Athens, to acquaint his fellow-citizens with the success of their army at Marathon. When he arrived at the public palace, where the magistrates were assembled, he was so spent that, having uttered these words, "Rejoice, victory the is ours !" he felldown, and expired. The news of thisvictory spread a general joy

to attempts

throughout the nations around, to which the poet Wordsworth has a fine allusion :
"

He, the bold youth, as board and board they stand, Fix'd on a Roman ship his daring hand ; blow descends, Full on his arm a mighty And the torn limb from off his shoulder rends: are cramp'd The rigid nerves with stifFning cold, Convulsive grasp, and still retain their hold : Nor sunk his valour, by the pain deprest, breast: But nobler rage inflam'd his mangled His left remaining hand the combat tries, And fiercelyforth to catch the right he flies ; hard destiny the leftdemands, The same And now a naked, helpless trunk he stands."

When far and wide, swift as the beams of morn, The tidings passed of servitude repealed, And of that joywhich shook the Isthmian field, The rough ^Etolians smiled with bitter scorn. ' Tis known,' cried they, ' that he who would adorn His envied temples with the Isthmian crown, Must either win through effortof his own, The prize, or be content to see it won Yet so ye prop, By more deserving brows. Sons of the brave who fought at Marathon, Your feeble spirits! Greece her head hath bowed, As if the wreath of liberty thereon Would fix itself as smoothly as a cloud, Which, at Jove's will, descends on Pelion's top.'"

Amongst those that were slainon the side of t Callimachus and Stasileus.wo the Greeks were They had not above of their chief commanders. killedon their side in this engagement ; 200 men whereas on the side of the Persians about 6000 fell,besides those who were drowned in their
* Xenophon to relates, that the Athenians made a vow mies goats as they should kill enesacrifice to Diana as many to procure a sufficient number, ; and being unable they determined every year to sacrifice500. iElian relates fact with some the same slight variation ; and we read in the Scholiast on Aristophanes, that Callimachus, one of the Athenian oxen as generals, vowed to sacrifice as many

the Persian Instead of sailing by the islands, i fleet, n order to return to Asia, doubled the cape Athens of Sunium, with the design of surprising before the Athenian forces should arrive to its however, had the precaution defence. The latter, to their to march thitherwith nine tribes, secure so country, and these performed the march with that they arrived there the expedition, much day, and the designs of the Persians were same frustrated. This battle occurred b. c. 490. The Lacedaemonians had promised assistance hindered by a to the Athenians, but they were from taking a part in the ridiculoussuperstition in all ages of the world, from action. Mankind, the visible operations of the moon observing have supposed its influence to upon the ocean,
the foot of the Agherlichi and the t It was between that Miltiades ranged his troops. Charadrus mountains by the the Charadrus The Persians being driven across where the only Greeks, the whole body made for the defile, to admit of two passage afforded was hardly broad enough Every attempt to escape persons abreast of each other. impossible, as the sea or the swamp in this direction was of such an interposed to prevent it. The consequence hence it follows, that the vast loss attempt is obvious ; and ignorance of as much owing to their of the Persians was it,as to and defileleading to the existence of this swamp, the valour of the Greeks.

they should slay enemies ; and unable to obtain a sufficient Herodotus number, he substituted goats in their room. is silent on by for which he is blamed this matter, Plutarch. ever, Xenophon The account gives is,howwhich the most probable ; for Callimachus being killed in the battle, could not have performed a vow.

HISTORY

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68

kings ; to revive the supremacy of the God of heaven over Ahriman, the evil principle; and to teach a future judgment,n which the apparent i designed in mixture of good and evil in this life, the state of probation to promote God's glory, should be redressed in the next, by the reward of the good in heaven, and the punishment of the wicked in hell ; allwhich articles appear to is not at home, have been derived from some "The goodman superior teacher to He is gone a long journey: the magi, to have been, in fact,collected from, He hath taken a bag of money with him, the sacred writings,or the oral instructionsof home And will come at the dav appointed." Daniel himself. Prov. vii. 19, 20. Instead of the former mode of keeping the ence Refer- sacred fire in caves, Or, in other words, at "the new moon." and on mountains in the is also made to this observance, 1 Sam. xx. open air,where it was liableto be extinguished, down to Darius built firetemples throughout his domin24, where Saul is represented as sitting ions, His principalfiretemple, was come. as at Jerusalem. meat, or to a feast, when the new moon It was under the influence of this superstition called Azur Gushtasp, was erected at Balch, the that the Lacedaemonians deferred sending their capital of the province of Bactria.* After the death of Zerdusht, in the fifth year of his reformpromised aid to the Athenians. After the moon, ation, Darius assumed the officeof archimagus however, had passed the full, they sent a body of 2000 men, which arrived only to offerthem their himself,but died the following year. Hence the congratulations on the victory. Happily, this succeeding kings of Persia were always initiated exploded by the more factory satis- into the sacerdotal order of the magi before their superstition is now inauguration, as related in the section on the deductions of a sound philosophy. It has been reasonably urged, that as the most accurate polityof Persia. Next to Cyrus, says Dr. Hales, Darius was and subtile barometers are not affected by the it isvery unlikely the greatest prince of this dynasty. If Cyrus various positionsof the moon, founded, Darius Hystaspes unquestionably estathat the human body should be within the sphere blished the empire. His political of itsinfluence. wisdom and The lesson conveyed in these disasters was moderation, his system of laws and finance,and lost upon Darius. His revenge was, indeed, still his reform of the national religion,were all veries more admirable ; and his attentionto maritime discoexcited against the Athenians, and he in person, distinguishedhim from all resolved to head another armament and commerce ever, which put all Asia in a ferment for three years. the other kings of Persia. His greatness,howBut his designs were frustrated. In the year was sulliedby the indulgence of those evil B.C. 487, the Egyptians revolted, which caused principles, ambition and revenge, which brought him to delay his expedition,that he might in- ruin not only on his enemies, but on his own crease his preparations against both nations ; and Notwithstanding, he was endowed subjects. two ; years after, as he was upon the point' of with many excellent qualities and his wisdom, instances, clemency, are and carrying his plans into execution, he died, after justice, in many having reigned thirty-sixyears. by the ancients. His greatest much commended mighty During the last six years of his reign, Darius, honour is, that he was appointed by the Alto complete the work begun by Cyrus, according to oriental writers,was engaged also in reforming the corruptions that had crept into namely, the restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land. the national religion, by the progress of the Sabian superstition Before his death, Darius appointed Xerxes, his and adoration of fire, and of the other elements of nature ; and by the preeldest son by Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, to valence the of the notion of the two principles, succeed him, in preference to Artobazanes, his by his first are referred to in Isaiah's eldest son and evil, good which wife, the daughter of Goborn when his bryas ; because the former was prophecies respecting Cyrus, who acknowledged Jehovah as " the God," Ezra i. 1 3. Accordfather was king, but the latterwhen he was only ing to Mohammed Mustapha, Darius was assisted in a private station. It is probable that the in his salutary work by Hystaspes, then master influence Atossa had over the mind of Darius of the magi in succession to the prophet Daniel, decided the choice. who held that high officefrom B.C. 569 to b.c. 534 ; and who, from his rank and residence at Susa, the capital, from the time of Belshazzar, (Dan. viii.2,)must have been well known to Xerxes having ascended the throne, employed Hystaspes, and probably to Darius himself. the firstyear of his reign in carrying on the The chief associateof Hystaspes and Darius, preparations begun by Darius for the reduction the younger Zerdusht, or says Dr. Hales, was of Egypt. is represented by the In the same second Zoroaster, who year, the Samaritans wrote to Arabian and Persian historiansas a native of the and province of Aderbijan, a discipleof one of * Balch is situated on the river Dehash, the Bactrius of the Jewish prophets, either Elijah, Jeremiah, or Curtius, Pliny, and Strabo, and the Zariaspis of Ptolemy. Ozeir, Ezra. The real prophet was Daniel. By different writers it is called Zariaspa, Balk, Balakh, The design of the reform was to bring back and Bilahj. It is considered to be the oldest city in the Omool is hence denominated Belad, "The the religionof Persia to itsprimitive purity, in world, and reduced to mother of cities." Elphinstone says it is now the days of Abraham and of the Pischdadian comparative insignificance.
"

but to the state extend not only to human affairs, of the human body. Travellers have observed, that in the countries of the east it is customary moon to begin a to prefer the time of the new journey.And to this there appears to be reference made in Scripture. Thus Solomon puts into the mouth of the adulterous wife these words :

04

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

habitants in- wiser nor less ambitious by his ill success, and of Judah and Jerusalem, Ezra iv. 6 ; anxious to obtain the command of the army, not he but notwithstanding this opposition, confirmed only approved of the determination of Xerxes, but extolled him above all his predecessors, and to that people all the privilegesgranted them by his father, especiallythe grant of the Samaritan endeavoured to show the necessityof avenging for carrying on the building of the temThe ple, the dishonour done to the Persian name. tribute, rest of the council,perceiving that this flattering the support of the temple worship and and speech was well received by Xerxes, remained sacrifices. for some fearfulof opposing the will In the second year of his reign, b. c. 484, time silent, At length Artabanus, the Xerxes marched of the monarch. against the Egyptians, and having defeated and subdued them, he made the king's uncle, who was venerable both for his age more and prudence, deriving confidence from his relagrievous : then tionship, yoke of their subjection vours addressing Xerxes, used all his endeagiving the government of that province to his to divert him from his present resolution, brother Achaemenes, he returned to Susa. The poet iEschylus, in his tragedy of the and at the same time reproached Mardonius with Persians,represents Xerxes as following his pre- want of sincerity, decessor's and showed how much he was sians to blame for desiring rashly to engage the Perplan of conquest. Atossa, the mother in a war which nothing but his own ambition of Xerxes, is introduced as addressing the ghost and self-interest could tempt him to advise. of her husband Darius thus : b The ear of Xerxes was open to flattery, ut " This from too frequent converse deaf to wholesome advice. Although Artabanus with bad men, The impetuous Xerxes learned : these caught his ear delivered his sentiments in a respectful manner, With thy great deeds, as winning for thy sons indignant Xerxes was : whilst he, and with great sincerity, Vast riches with thy conquering spear in sport, save Timorous and slothful, never, at the liberty, and assured him that if he were Lifted his lance, nor added to the wealth not his uncle, he should have sufferedfor his presumption. Won by his noble fathers. This reproach, Tacitus has well observed, that it is Oft by bad men repeated, urged his soul the misfortune of princes spoiled by flatteryto To attempt this war, and lead his troops to Greece." look upon every thing as austere that is sincere Accordingly, the reduction of Egypt was only livered and ingenuous, and to disregard all counsel defreedom. preparatory to his grand expedition against with a generous and disinterested Greece. Plutarch represents him as boasting They do not honest man an consider that even that itwas not his intention to have the figs of durst not tell them allhe thinks,nor discover the Attica, which were excellent, bought for him whole truth ; and that what they stand most in till need of is a friend. A prince any longer, and that he would eat no more sincere and faithful he was master of the country. Before, however, ought to think himself happy if in his whole he Xerxes engaged in this important enterprise, reign he findsone who ventures to speak honestly, assembled his council, in order to obtain the for he is the most necessary and rare instrument Cicero justly persons of his court. advice of the most illustrious remarks, that of government. He laid before them the design he had in view, there is so so agreeable to nature, or nothing and acquainted them with his motives, which w convenient to our affairs,hether in prosperity were, is so the desire of imitating his predecessors ; or adversity,as true friendship ; and who burnthe obligationhe was under to revenge the ing sincere a friend as he who imparts good advice ? of Sardis ; the necessity of recovering their in an hour of difficulty lost honours ; and the prospect of the advantages " Take sound advice proceeding from a heart that might be reaped from this war, which would Sincerely yours, and free from fraudful art."" Dryden. be attended with the conquest of all Europe. He added further, that thiswar had been resolved But, alas ! advice is seldom welcome, and those by his father Darius, and consequently that on like itthe least,as in the most who want it the' he was cluded case only completing his designs; he conmay be, that the of Xerxes. The reason by promising large rewards to those who our weakness and another's of acknowledgment should distinguishthemselves in the expedition. implied in the act of taking are better sense It is probable that the poet had the speech of nature the pride of human advice. Whence Xerxes in his mind when he wrote the following us turn the stifles voice of conviction,and makes lines, so ing which he makes Mardonius utter on entera deaf ear to the charmer, charm he never

him,

in (Ahasuerus,*)accusation against the

Athens

"

wisely. According to Herodotus, when the ebullitions Xerxes repented of his over, of his rage were for him to conduct towards Artabanus, and sent his fault, and express his intention acknowledge upon Greece, which gave of foregoing the war the same author oy. After this, the nobles great j of a vision, which relates a romantic account Artabanus even changed their opinion,and made himself become a sanguine and zealous promoter Mardonius, the same cessful who had been so unsucin the reign of Darius, grown neither of the war. in proportion The greatness of the preparationswas Nothing * to the grandeur of the scheme. The reader must that this is a title,and remember to the success Dr. Hales says that this titleis apnot a proper name. plied was omitted which could contribute Longimanus, to Xerxes, Ezra iv. 6 ; to Artaxerxes into a confederacy of the undertaking. Xerxes entered Esther i. 1 ; and to Astyages, the father of Cyaxares, or of were at Darius the Mede, Dan. ix. 1. with the Carthaginians, who
Is this the city whose presumption dar'd Invade the lord of Asia? sternly said Mardonius entering. Whither now are fled The audacious train, whose firebrands Sardis felti Where'er you lurk, Athenians, if in sight, Soon shall you view your citadel in flames ; Or if retreated to a distant land, No distant land of refuge shall you find Against avenging Xerxes." Glover.
"

HISTORY

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65

a noble Lydian, who was that time the most potent people of the west, and considered the richest of mankind after Xerxes, entertained the Persian made an agreement with them that,while the Persians invaded Greece, they should fall upon army with great magnificence, for which he was tory. the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, that ill rewarded, as related on page 35 of this histherehy they might be diverted from rendering each other assistance. The Carthaginians appointed As soon as the spring of the year arrived, b.c. Hamilcar general, who not only raised 480, Xerxes left Sardis,and directed his march towards the Hellespont. Being arrived at Abywhat forces he could in Africa, but with the A money sent him by Xerxes hired mercenaries in dos, he wished to witness a naval combat. Spain, Gaul, and Italy ; so that itis said his army throne was erected for him upon an eminence, and in that situation, seeing all the sea crowded and a proportionate consisted of 300,000 men, with his vessels,and the land covered with his number of ships,in order to execute the projects troops, he felta secret joydiffuse itself through and stipulations the league. See the History of his soul,considering that he was the most powerthe Carthaginians. of ful In the beginning of the fifth year, afterwar and the most happy of mortals. Reflecting, however, soon had been determined on, Xerxes began his march afterwards, that out of so many from Susa, the metropolis, with his mighty army. thousands, in a hundred years' time there would, The time of his departure, says Dr. Hales, is not be one living on the earth, his joywas turned into grief,and he could not forbear weeping determined by an eclipseof the sun, critically of visibleat Susa about eight in the morning, April at the uncertainty and instability human things. Herodotus represents this eclipse 19, b. c. 481. As down " for the sun disappeared in a cloudless as total; The' immeasurable ranks his sight was lost, day became his mind ; ;" but it A momentary and clear sky, and night gloom o'ercast his eye with tears : While this reflection fill'd appears from Dr. Brinkley's computation that it That, soon as time a hundred years had told, lessthan a half eclipse. This was was somewhat

to sufiicient excite observation,and create alarm Whence, to obscure thy pride, arose that cloud ? parture, Was it,that once humanity could touch at Susa, especiallyat the moment of their deOr, rather, did thy soul A tyrant's breast? and might easilyhave been magnified Repine, O Xerxes, at the bitter thought, into total,by tradition, a time when eclipses at That all thy power was mortal?"" Glover. were considered portentous,and the cause known but to few of the learned. Xerxes was alarmed Xerxes might have found another subject of at the incident, and consulted the magi upon justly ed meritreflection, which would have more had he turned his his tears and affliction, what it might portend. The magi affirmed that God prognosticated to the Greeks the failureof thoughts sidered upon himself. He might have contheir states, saying that the sun was the progthe reproaches he deserved for being the instrument of shortening that fatal term to milof the nosticator of the Greeks, but the moon lions Persians. With this futile he was and lying exposition going to sacrifice of people, whom Xerxes was satisfied, proceeded on his march. as victims to his cruel ambition. and From Susa Xerxes marched to Sardis,which Artabanus, who neglected no opportunity of was the place appointed for the general rendezvous making himself useful to the young prince, and into him sentiments of goodness, of all his land forces, while his navy advanced of instilling along the coasts of Asia Minor towards the took advantage of this moment of the workings Hellespont. of nature, and led him into farther reflections Itwas on his way thither, Celsenae,* thius, upon the miseries with which the livesof most Py at men are attended, and which render them so * This city was situated in Phrygia Major,on the road and unhappy ; endeavouring, at the same painful from Susa to Sardis. It was in the a city of great note gation time, to make him sensible of the duty and oblidays of the Lydian and Phrygian kings, and during the the sorrows of mankind. of princes to alleviate time of the Persian empire. in ruins, and moIt is now dern
divided in opinion respecting geographers are much its ancient site. It is noted in the march of the younger Cyrus, and a description of its site has been given in the Anabasis of Xenophon. It was the usual residence of the Persian satrap, and was adorned with a palace, probably erected by Xerxes, as well as with other establishments, for and a park of such extent, as not only to afford room great hunts of wild animals, but to permit an army of to encamp Through 12,000 men the within its precincts. Maethis park, says Xenophon, the river runs middle of ander, but the head ot it rises in the palace : it runs also through the city of Celaenae. A similar description is given of this river, also, by Quintius Curtius, in his lifeof Alexander The the Great. confluence of these two streams would naturally be below the city. In after ages, Celaenae was abandoned for a new city built by Antiochus by the Soter, son of Seleucus, which was surrounded streams of the Marsyas, Obrima, and Orga, which empty into the Maeander. This city was themselves called Kibotis. Apamea According to Rennel, the modern Sandukiy occupies the site of the ancient Celaenae. This place is actually Meon one the Maeander, now of the sources situated of inder, which was generally allowed to have its principal fine by some source at Celaenae, and the branch is formed hills, springs which flow from the foot of a ridge of lofty as is reported of that city. Pliny calls the hillSigria, and it lies sixty English miles direct north-east of Colosse,

Not

one

among

those millions should survive !

tabanus ArIn the same conversation, Xerxes asked him not to make if he would still advise he himself war upon Greece ; and, for the moment, to have been staggered at his mighty
appears

replied,that the land and the sea still great uneasiness : the land, gave because there is no country, said he, that can an feed and maintain so numerous army; and the sea, because there are no ports capable of

Artabanus project. him

distance south of Cotyaeum, and 116 east about the same German a geographer, supposed of Sardis. Marmert, Kara Hissar, which is twenty-two Ophium geographical the site of the Sandukiy, to answer miles north-east of Celaenae ; and Dr. Pococke regarded Askkly as its ancient erroneous. site; but both these opinions are evidently Neither the Marsius nor the Maeander exist at Ophium Kara Hissar, and Askkly is too far down the latter river laenae Kinneir thinks that Ceto the description. to answer miles, south of Kara Hissar, where stood seven in wood, said to be erected there is a village embosomed not far from one of the on the site of an ancient town, is difficult it to identify this so sources of the Maeander;

ancient city of renown.

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These a multitude of vessels. however, were overruled by Xerxes, objections, and ambition again prevailing, the momentary irresolution was determinasucceeded by a fixed tion to go forward. Xerxes commanded a bridge of boats to be laid over the Hellespont, for the transmission of his forces from Asia into Europe ; which was a

receiving such

ander, of more ostentation than use, since Alexand afterwards the Ottomans, passed the in same straits, after ages, with less parade, and vastly greater effect. The space that separates pont, the two continents, formerly called the Hellesnow the Dardanelles, is seven stadia in breadth, or nearly one English mile. A violent on a sudden, and broke down storm arose the bridge first erected ; and Xerxes appointed more experienced architects to build two others in its for the army, and the other for the room, one beasts of burden and the baggage. Major Rennel has ingeniously explained the construction of these two bridges, and shown the angle which they formed with each other, the one to resist the strong current from the Propontis, the other to withstand the strong winds in the JEgean Sea, each protecting the other. Herodotus relates a story concerning the conduct of Xerxes on the occasion of the failure of bridge, the import of which is,that he the first threw two pair of chains into the sea, as if he to shackle and confine it, and that he meant by way of ordered 300 strokes to be given it,
work

he marched southwards with his army in three divisions, attended by his fleet, through Thrace and Macedonia, several cities of which entertained him hospitably. Herodotus says, that the Thracians expended 400 talents of silver on a single banquet ; and that a witty citizen told the Abderites, " they should bless Heaven that Xerxes did not require two repasts in the day, or they would be ruined." Herodotus gives a minute account of the different amount of the various nations that constituted this army. Besides the generals of every the troops of their renation, who commanded spective country, the land army was under the command of six Persian generals, namely, Mardonius, Trintsehmes, Masistes, Smerdones, GerMegabyzus. The 10,000 Persians, gis, and by called the Immortal Band, were commanded Hydarnes. The cavalry had, also, itsparticular Rennel observes, that the Persians commanders. may be compared, in respect to the rest of the army of Xerxes, with the Europeans in a British army in India, composed chieflyof seapoys and native troops. Xerxes having ranged and numbered his armament, desirous of reviewing the whole. was Mounted in his car, he examined each nation in turn, to all of whom he proposed questions, by his the replies to which were noted down secretaries. The procession of Xerxes in his is well decar through the ranks of his army, scribed by Glover, in his " Leonidas :"
"

chastisement. Now, water among the Persians held to be one was of the symbols of Divine be and thisstory may, therefore, accounted nature)1 fabulous ; for Xerxes would not have acted so directly opposite to the tenets of his religion. The perforationof Mount Athos, and the circumstance of sending a letter to it, threatening to throw itinto the sea, may also justly doubted. be Xerxes was not one of the wisest of princes,but he certainlywas no idiot; and these actionscould They only have been committed by a madman. do not accord, moreover, with the anecdote that Xerxes, after having reviewed his army at Abydos, burst into tears upon reflecting on their short term of life. When the second bridge was completed, a day was appointed for the commencement of their Accordingly, as soon as the first passage over. rays of the sun appeared, sweet odours of various kinds were spread over the bridges, and the way was strewed with myrtle. At the same time, Xerxes poured out libationsinto the sea,and turning his face towards the sun, the principal o objectf the Persian worship, he implored the assistance of that god in his enterprize : this done, he threw the vessel he had used in making his libations, together with a golden cup and a Persian scimitar, into the sea. His army was seven days and seven nights in passing these straits. It was an immense host,but there were few real soldiersamong them. Xerxes spent a month at Doriscus, in Thrace, near the mouth of the Hebrus, in reviewing and numbering his army and fleet.* From thence
* Herodotus states, that the rmmher of the followers of Xerxes was 5,283,220. Isocrates estimates the land army, m round numbers, Plutarch agrees with at 5,000,000. these statements ; but Diodorus, Pliny, jElian, and other

The monarch will'd,and suddenly he heard His trampling horses. High on silver wheels The ivory car, with azure sapphires shone, Cerulean beryls, and the jasper green, The emerald, the ruby's glowing blush, The flaming topaz, with its golden beam, The pearl, the' empurpled amethyst, and all The various gems which India's mines afford In burnish'd gold To deck the pomp of kings. A sculptured eagle from behind display'd His stately neck, and o'er the royal head Outstretch'd his dazzling wings. Eight generous steeds, Which on the famed Nisaen plain were nursed, In wintry Media, drew the radiant car. * * * At the signal, bound The attentive steeds : the chariot flies;behind Ten thousand horse in thunder sweep the field; to the sea-beat margin, on a plain Down Of vast expansion, in battalia wait To these the' imperial wheels, The eastern bands. By princes followed in a hundred cars, The queen of Caria,t and her son, Proceed. With Hyperanthes rode. The king's approach is proclaim'd. Swift through the wide arrangement host The' innumerable He now draws nigh. Roll back by nations, and admit their lord As from crystal domes, With all his satraps. seas, Built underneath an arch of pendent When that stern power whose trident rules the floods, With each cerulean deity ascends, Throned in his pearly chariot, all the deep Divides its bosom to the' emerging god, So Xerxes rode between the Asian world On either side receding."

After viewing the land forces, Xerxes, exchanging his chariot for a Sidonian vessel,reare writers of a later date, conceive that such statements to beyond the bounds of belief, and reduce the numbers would still leave a mighty army, about one-fifth, which pose with the handful of soldiers Greece could opcompared conis more to such a force. The latter statement sistent the narrative of the with probability, and with

results of the invasion, which the attentive reader will observe. "Artemisia, queen t Justin observes of this woman: of Kalicarnassus, who joined her forces with those of

HISTORY

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67

passing viewed his fleet in a similar manner, betwixt the prows of the ships and the shore. Elated at the prospect before him, when he had reviewed his forces, Xerxes asked Demaratus, had taken refuge an exiled king of Sparta, who at the Persian court,* whether he thought the Grecians would venture to oppose his progress After being assured bythrough their country. Xerxes that he wished him to speak b.isthoughts freely and sincerely, Demaratus replied to the that, bound by their laws to defend their effect, country, they would conquer or die.
Spread on Eurota's banks, Amid a circling of soft rising hills The patient Sparta stood; the sober, hard, And man-subduing city, which no shape Of pain could conquer, nor of pleasure charm. built, on the solid base Lycurgus there Of equal life,so well a tempered state, in each just Where mix'd each government poise, Each power so checking, and supporting each, it stood, That firm for ages and unmoved The fort of Greece, without one giddy hour, One shock of faction, or of party rage : For, drained the springs of wealth, Corruption there Lay withered at the root. Thrice happy land,

destroyed and sunk 400 ships of war, besides an immense number of transports and provision vessels,at the promontory of Sepias. From this to Apheta, further station they therefore removed The Grecian fleet, 300 ships, southward. of assembled in theirneighbourhood, at Artemisium, the northern promontory of the island of Eubcea, to oppose their passage southward. The Greeks were not inactivewhilst the enemy was approaching. They sent to Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, and to the islesof Corey ra from them, and to and Crete, to desire succour form a league against the common enemy. Gelon was prevented from joining them through his ambitious views ; the inhabitants of Corcyra deceived them ; and the people of Crete, having consulted the Delphic oracle, refused to enter into the league.

to these disappointments, was dethe fection of many other citiesof Greece, of whom Xerxes had demanded by his heralds earth and Fear so wrought upon them generally, water. but the Lacedaemonians and Athenithat none ans, reand the people of Thespia, and Plataea, mained Had not neglected art with weedy vice to combat the enemy. These were reConfounded sunk : but if Athenian arts solved Loved not the soil,yet then the calm abode to conquer or die; and the firstthing Of wisdom, virtue, philosophic ease, they did in this emergency was to put an end Of manly sense, and wit, in frugal phrase, to all discords and intestinedivisions. Accordingly, Confined and press'd into laconic force ; There, too, by rooting thence still treacherous self, ans peace was concluded between the AtheniThe public and the private grew the same: and the people of iEgina, who at this period The children of the nursling, public all, This was a great point gained ; were at war. And at its table fed. For that they toil'd, for their attention thereby was left undiverted For that they lived entire, and ev'n for that The tender mother urged her son to die."" Thomson. from the coming danger, and they were enabled to direct the whole force of their genius This is a just description of the people against to prevent its realization. This was the one Xerxes was leading his hosts ; and though whom ; of object their deliberations and the result he laughed at the reply of Demaratus, he soon shows how wisely they acted. found that the battle is not always accorded to The principal points of their deliberations the strong, and that were the choice of commanders, and at what " Thrice is he arm'd that hath his quarrel just." place they should meet the Persians, in order to nians sion The firstinformation of this formidable inva- dispute their entrance into Greece. The Athechose Themistocles, and the Spartans Greece was given to the Lacedaemonians of the supreme command of their forces by Demaratus himself, whose vailed patriotism pre- conferred By an ingenious upon Leonidas, one of their kings. The situation over his privatewrongs. was they adopted for the conflict the straits stratagem, he carved an account of the king's of Thermopylae. determination on two tablets of wood, and then " The appellation, Thermopylae, means The so that they apcovered the writing with wax, peared Pass of the Hot Springs." On the north is an to be blank tablets. When these were extensive bog, or fen, through which a narrow delivered at Sparta, they puzzled the people ceedingly, expaved causeway offers the only approach to tillGorgo, the wife of Leonidas, sagaciously Greece. It is bordered on either side by a deep the wax, removed when the alarming impracticable morass, and it is further truth was culated revealed. The Lacedaemonians cir- and bounded by the sea towards the east, and the the intelligence throughout the country. Here is precipicesof Mount G5ta to the west Xerxes proceeded through Achaia and Thessituatedthe Turkish dervene, or barrier,upon a the most stone bridge, marking small narrow saly,and without meeting any opposers, reached important point of the whole passage. It is still the famous and important straits Thermopylae, of as pic occupied by sentinels, in ancient times, and is, the key of Greece, while the Carnian and Olymtherefore, even at the present time, considered as games were celebrating. mae, At this time, a furious Hellespontine wind, the pylae of the southern provinces. The Theror hot springs,are at a short distance from blowing from e.n.e., raised such a hurricane as the bridge, a little further on to the north. Their principal issue isfrom two mouths at the in Xerxes, appeared amongst the forwardest commanders And as on the man's the hottest engagements. side there foot of the limestone precipicesof (Eta, on the was an effeminate cowardice, on the woman's was observed left of the causeway which here passes close Herodotus speaks to the same a masculine courage." fect, efunder the mountain, and at this part of it and adds, that there was not one who gave such.good not prudent advice and counsel to Xerxes; but he was scarcely admits two horsemen abreast of each enough to profit by it. The most criticalpart is at the hot other. * Demaratus was a favourite of Xerxes, because he vene springs, or at the bridge where the Turkish derin preference to his elder suggested his plea to the crown is placed. At the former, the traveller has brother, on the grounds before recorded.

Added

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the mountain close to him on the one side,and the hog on the other ; and a few hrave troops of the might, therefore, intercept the march mightiest army ever mustered. It was at this situation that Xerxes found Leonidas waiting for him, with a hand of only The haughty monarch was surprised 6200 men. determined to dispute his to find that they were passage. He had flatteredhimself that, on his approach, the Grecians would betake themselves to flight. Perceiving that this was not their he disposition, sent out a spy to view the enemy. This spy brought him word that he found the Lacedaemonians out of their entrenchments, and diverting themselves with milithat they were tary exercises, and combing their hair. Such was the Spartan manner of preparing themselves for battle,and it indicated that they were fully determined to conquer or die. To such effect Demaratus informed Xerxes; but the monarch was still incredulous,and maintained his positionfor four days, in expectation

little band ; but at length, oppressed by numbers, they all fell,except one man, who escaped to Sparta, where he was treated as a coward and traitorto his country. The brave Leonidas was one that fell on this memorable of the first occasion. On the barrow, or tomb of this devoted band, an appropriate epitaph was inscribed, which reads thus :
"

The Lacedaemonians, O stranger, tell, That here, obeying their sacred laws, we

fell."

of seeing them retreat. " Xerxes used his utmost During this interval, War is a game, which, were their w subjectsise, Kings would not play at. Nations endeavours to corrupt Leonidas, promising to would do well To' extort their truncheons from the puny hands make him master of all Greece if he would join Of heroes, whose infirm and baby minds his party. Leonidas his Are gratified with mischief; and who rejected proposals with spoil Xerxes Because men contempt; afterwards summoned and when suffer it their toy the world." COWPER. him to surrender up his arms, he returned " Come this laconic reply : and take The same day on which the action at Thermopylae them." occurred, the two fleets engaged at ArteOn the fifthday, Xerxes, enraged at the pertinacity misium, a promontory of Euboea. The fleetof of the Greeks in retaining the pass, the Grecians consistedof 271 vessels, exclusive to sent a detachment of Medes, with a command of galleys and small boats : that of the enemy bring them alive to his presence. These were was more numerous, much notwithstanding its defeated with great slaughter ; and the Immortal The Persians sent recent losses by the storm. Band, which were next sent against them, shared 200 ships with orders to sail round the island of fate. After successive efforts, indeed, Euboea, the same the Grecian fleet, and encompass that made with large bodies of their troops, to gain none of their ships might escape. The Greeks the pass, the Persians were obliged to desistfrom had intelligenceof this design, and set sail in the attempt. the night, in order to attack them by day-break. Xerxes was perplexed ; but in the midst of his They missed this squadron, and advanced to Aphetae, where the bulk of the Persian fleetlay, perplexity, treachery pointed out his path to Greece. One Epialtes,a Melian, in the hope of to and after several brief encounters, they came a great reward, discovered a secret passage to a considerable engagement, long and which was the top of the hill, and which led to the rear of obstinately maintained, and resulted in nearly This point is beyond the the Grecian camp. equal success. hot springs, in the north, and it is still sed by u Though the Persians suffered very severely, the inhabitants of the country in their journeys yet the Grecians suffered also,and half of their Xerxes deto Salona, the ancient Amphissa. spatched disabled. Such being the case, they ships were a detachment thither, which, marching deemed it expedient to retireto some safer place all night, possessed themselves of that advantageous to refit and, accordingly,they sailedto Salamis, ; day-break. post at island in the Saronic Bay, nearly midway an Leonidas saw his danger, and convinced that between Athens and Corinth. Herodotus justly itwas impossible to oppose successfullyso overwhelming observes, that though the engagement at Artea force, with so small a number of misium did not bring matters to an absolute decision, troops, he obliged his alliesto retire; but he yet it contributed greatly to encourage himself with his 300 Lacedaemonians, remained now the Greeks, who were convinced that the resolving to die in their country's cause ; in obedience enemy, notwithstanding their great number, was to an oracle, which foretold that " either not invincible. The struggle for libertyis Sparta or her king must fall." Glover makes A cause Leonidas exclaim, on hearing that the enemy had Not often unsuccessful : power usurp'd circumvented him : Is :
"

records that Xerxes lost on this occasion above 20,000 men, which probably is an exaggeration. It appears, however, that he dismayed at the valour of the Lacedaemoniwas ans ; for he interrogated Demaratus, if they had ; yet many such soldiers to which he replied, that they numbered about 8000 equal in valour to those who had fallen. Herodotus also says, that he caused great numbers to be buried secretly, lest the remainder of his troops mayed. should be disThus lightlycould he sport with human life. Surely, in allages of the world,

Herodotus

"

I now behold the oracle fulfill'd. Then art thou near, thou glorious sacred hour Which shall my country's liberty secure ! Thrice hail, thou solemn period! thee the tongues Of virtue fame, and freedom shall proclaim, Shall celebrate in ages yet unborn."
were

conscious of wrong, weakness when opposed 'Tis pusillanimous and prone to flight. But slaves, that once conceive the glowing thought Of freedom, in that hope itselfpossess All that the contest calls for" spirit,strength, The scorn of danger, and united hearts, The surest presage of the good they seek." Cowper.
"

Prodigies of valour

performed

by

this

After his inglorious victory

over

the brave

HISTORY

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69

Leonidas and his devoted companions, Xerxes whose hands he had leftthe government during his absence. passed through the country of Phocis, by the Demosthenes has preserved a curious traitof upper part of Doris, burning and plundering the ponnesus, citiesof the Phocians. The inhabitantsof Pelo- the Athenian spiriton this occasion. One Cyrintent only upon saving their own silus,a citizen, advised the people to remain in The citizensinthe city,and receive Xerxes. dignantly country, resolved to abandon the rest, and to bring all the Grecian forces together within the stoned him to death, and the women isthmus, the entrance his wife, as traitors their country. to of which they purposed The affairs Xerxes had hitherto been prossecuring by a strong wall, from one sea to the of perous, losses : they other, a space of nearly fiveEnglish miles. The notwithstanding his severe Athenians were were now While he about to suffer a reverse. provoked at this desertion, and seeing themselves ready to fall into the hands of was triumphing over Athens, the Grecian fleet, the enraged Xerxes, consulted upon the best being reinforced by a great many ships from several means in of escape. Some time before, they had parts of Greece, Eurybiades, commander a council. consulted the oracle of Delphi, the replies of chief of all the naval forces, summoned Many truly remarkEurybiades, able. contended, and among them was which, Dr. Hales observes, were The burden of them was, that their city that it would be better to retireto the should be destroyed, and that they should escape isthmus of Corinth, that they might be nearer only by taking refuge within wooden walls. the army which guarded that passage, under Themistocles interpreted this to denote their the command Leoof Cleombrotus, brother of nidas. fleet,and, accordingly, the Athenian squadron Others, at the head of whom was Themistocles, serted took on board their familiesand effects, the Athenian fleet, and dewho commanded their city. Plutarch suspects (and this contended, that Salamis, where they were, was the most advantageous place they could choose may form the key to these otherwise mysterious doctrinated in- to engage the numerous fleet of the enemies. that the oracle was replies of the Pythian) by Themistocles, on this occasion, Eurybiades came and the other commanders wishing to revive the drooping spiritsof his over to his opinion, and it was unanimously resolved His sagacity, also, would foresee to wait for the Persian fleet in the straits countrymen. by which his counthat this was the only means trymen of Salamis. Xerxes, on his part, also held a council of his could escape destruction. Xerxes, arriving in the neighbourhood of principal naval commanders, placing them according Athens, wasted the whole country, putting allto to their rank ; the king of Sidon first,* fireand sword. A detachment was sent to plunthe king of Tyre next, and the rest in order. der The general opinion was in favour of the enthe temple of Apollo, at Delphi, in which gagement immense treasures. there were ; but queen Artemisia advised, either Herodotus relates a romantic tale concerning to remain in their present station,which would the escape of this temple from the violence of force the Grecian fleet,confined at Salamis, to Xerxes. Thunder-bolts from heaven, he says, separate soon for want of provisions, and retire fellupon them ; and two huge fragments from to their respectivehomes, or else to sailtowards the tops of Parnassus rolled down with a great Peloponnesus, in which case it was not to be them, and destroyed multitudes, imagined that the confederates would remain behind, crash among nians, or while a shouting and clamour issued from the risk a battle for the sake of the Athetemple of the god. Depriving this tale of the country was threatened : when their own be, that the preternatural machinery, it may of the whereas, from the superior seamanship priestsplanned a bold and uncommon stratagem, Grecians, the Persian fleet would be in great danger of a defeat. This wise counsel was unwhich they executed with equal prudence and heeded. courage, thereby delivering their temple from The same the spoiler. This will obtain more ample notice night on which the resolution for in the History of the Grecians. his an was taken, Xerxes made engagement The following lines, descriptive of the advance army proceed towards the Isthmus of Corinth. Alarmed at this movement, the Peloponnesians of Xerxes to Athens, are very appropriate : at Salamis held a second council, in which they overruled the Athenians, iEginetes,and Megare" Her olive groves now Attica displayed; ans, of the and resolved to sailto the succour The fieldswhere Ceres firsther gifts bestowed ; Peninsula. But it was too late. The
rocks, whose marble crevices the bees With sweetness stored : unparallel'd in art, Rose structures growing on the stranger's eye Where'er it roam'd delighted. On like Death From his pale courser, scattering waste around, The regal homicide of nations pass'd, Unchaining all the furies of revenge On this devoted country." Athenaid. Glover's
"

"

Dissensions past, as puerile and vain, Now to forget, and nobly strive who best Shall serve his ancient country, Aristides warns I hear His ancient foe, Themistocles. Thou giv'st the best of counsels, which the Greeks t solicitude to fly. Reject,hrough mean ! throughout these narrow the foe seas Weak men Gloybr. Is stationed now, preventing allescape."
"

Arriving at Athens, Xerxes found it deserted by all its inhabitants,except a small number of there citizens, who had retired into the citadel, That death was too soon found. to await death. They fell, ightingfor theirliberties, f and Xerxes the reduced the city to ashes. Exulting over he despatched a messenger to Susa with the city, tidings of his success to his uncle Artabanus, in

This was the effectof artifice. Themistocles, foreseeing the,result of a division of the Greek forces,sent a trusty friend by night to Xerxes,
* Dr. Hales says this precedence was due to the king " Sidon was the eldest son of Ham," of Sidon, because Gen. x. 15 ; profane history thereby according with sacred in this place, in a remarkable manner.

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men." To a reflective and the women mind, the sight would have been a pitifulone. To woman divided belongs only the officesof love and attacking the Grecians when they were incapable of resistance. tender affection. These are her prerogatives ; among themselves, and sian and when they are laid aside for the savage din Xerxes credited the report, and ordered the Perthe corruption of the human heart is fleetto range themselves in three divisions, of war, the bay, so as to cut off the across exhibited in itsmost fearful forms. Many such, and stretch however, are instanced in the annals in that array to retreat of the Greeks, and of profane history ; and it may be safely asserted, that this towards Salamis. advance was one In the Imputing the illsuccess ments of the bitter fruitsof paganism. of his former engageis taught to walk woman school of Christianity, absence, Xerxes resolved at sea to his own the earth as an angel of mercy, to soothe the to witness this from the top of an eminence, be erected. Around life. rugged path of human where he caused a throne to Such was the battle of Salamis, one of the him were of the after the manner several scribes, to write down the most Persian monarchs, who were memorable actions recorded in ancient history. According to Plutarch, it was fought as should signalizethemselves in names of such on Boedromion, the 20th of the Attic month ment, the conflict. This was, no doubt, a wise arrangeinasmuch as ittended to animate his hosts ; corresponding to the 15th of September, b. c. 480, which was the sixth day of the Eleusinian rewards and honours being the only motives they had to incitethem to deeds of arms. rites,* on which the procession of the mystic Iacchus was held by the Greeks.

not

to apprise him of their design, and advise him to let slip this favourable opportunity of

women,

" Xerxes, who enthroned High on JEgaleos anxious state to view A scene which nature never yet display'd, Nor fancy feigned. The theatre was Greece, to that stage, Mankind spectators, equal Themistocles, great actor."" Glover.

"

When the Peloponnesians found themselves they by the Persian armament, encompassed dangers with their to share the same prepared for battle. The allies. Both sides prepared Grecian fleet consisted of 380 sail; that of the Persians,upwards of 2000. Themistocles avoided a the engagement till certainwind began to blow, time, as was the case each day about the same knowing that it would be unfavourable to the As soon as he found himself favoured enemy. by this wind, he gave the signal for battle, which is thus finelydescribed by iEschylus, who fought in this battle himself:
"

A king sate on a rocky brow, Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, in nations ; all were And men his ! He counted them at break of day, But when the sun set, where were they ?"
"

"

Themistocles, taking advantage of the alarm of Xerxes caused by his defeat, contrived, in order to hasten his departure from Greece, to inform him that itwas the intentionof the Greeks to break down the bridge over the Hellespont. Xerxes immediately sent the remainder of his fleet thither to protect it, and to secure his This he commenced retreat. under cover of the night, leaving Mardonius, with an army of 300,000 men, to subdue Greece. Grecians, who The expected that Xerxes would have renewed the combat the next day, having learned that the fleethad departed, pursued Advance, ye sons of Greece, from thraldom save it as fast as they could. But it was to no Your country, save your wives, your children save, The temples of your gods, the sacred tombs purpose. They had destroyed 200 of the enemy's : this day Where rest your honoured ancestors ships, besides those which they had captured : demands The common cause your valour." of all the rest, having suffered by the winds in their sians, passage, retired towards the coast of Asia, and The engagement desperate. The Perwas finally entered into the port of Cumae, a city of knowing that they fought under the monarch's JEtolia, where they passed the winter. They but eye, advanced with great resolution; into Greece. returned no more the wind blowing directlyin their faces,and the Xerxes marched with a portion of his army of their ships embarrassing size and number towards the Hellespont. As no victuals had their courage soon them in a place so narrow, great The Greeks noted this circumstance, been provided for them, they underwent abated. hardships during their whole march, which lasted and rushed onwards days. After having consumed all the forty-five Amidst the ruins of the fleet, fruits they could find,the soldierswere obliged As through a shoal of fish caught in the net, to live upon herbs, and even upon the bark and Spreading destruction." JSschylus. leaves of trees. This occasioned a great sickness in the army, and great numbers died, so The Ionians were that betook themselves the first " that he arrived at the Hellespont with scarcely to flight. Queen Artemisia had a narrow a pittance of his army." escape. Her galley was pursued by an Athenian When Xerxes reached the Hellespont, he by the brother of the poet vessel, commanded stroyed found the bridge already broken down and devEschylus, and would have been captured had His fleet, owever, conveyed h by storms. her own she not turned suddenly upon one of him and the shattered remains of his host from side,a Calyndian vessel,with the commander of the Chersonese to Abydos, on the coast of Asia, illterms, attacked, and sunk on was which she it, Deceived by thisstratagem, with allthe crew. serted * So called, it is said, from Eleusis, son cf Mercury. dethe Grecian, conceiving that she had now The Eleusinians submitted to the dominion of Athens, on the barbarians, quitted the pursuit. In condition of having the exclusive privilege of celebrating the battle, had behaved with such intrepidity, these a source she of great mysteries, which proved to them that Xerxes exclaimed, "My become men are wealth.
"

HISTORY

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PERSIANS.

71

" Not all the gold in the world, nor the greatest, whence he returned to Sardis,where he remained during the continuance of the war.* richest,and most beautiful country, shall ever The earliest care of the Grecians after the tempt us to enslave Greece. Many and cogent forbid us to do this,even if we were to send the first-fruits battle of Salamis was so of reasons disposed : the firstand greatest is,the temples their victory to Delphi, where they enriched the fore and statues of the gods, burned and reduced to temple with the spo Is of those who not long bebound to avenge to the are ashes, which we sought to pillage it. Their next thought was had signalized themselves to reward those who uttermost, rather than compromise with the perpetrator this ; in the next place the Grecian comabove the rest, and by universal consent monwealth, blood and same honour was bestowed upon Themistocles. all of the same language, having common But the liberty of the Greeks was not yet altars and sacrifices f o war the gods, and similar customs, which it would Xerxes had commenced secure. this unjust by the advice of Mardonius ; hence it was that not well become Athenians to betray. Know, if ye knew it not before, that defeated at Salamis, therefore, now, was the monarch when Mardonius, for fear he should feel the royal whilst one of the Athenians shall survive, we Xerxes. We admire vengeance, deemed itbetter to propose the subju- never willcompromise with gation or in some Greece by his means, that your forethought with respect to us, now great of houses and harvests are destroyed, in offering our effort to meet death. His counsel to Xerxes, to entertain our families, and we thank you as narrated by Herodotus, is graphically given by Glover in his Athenaid : abundantly ; but we shall seek to procure subsistence without burdening you. In the present 11 be Be not discourag'd, sovereign of the world ! posture of affairs, it your care to bring your Not oars, not sails and timber can decide forces into the fieldwith as much expedition as In shifting strife, Thy enterprise sublime. to possible; for the barbarian* will not fail invade By winds and billows governed, may contend he shall hear the our so soon as territories, The sons traffic. On the solid plain of The genernus steed and soldier; they alone account of our utter refusal to comply with his Thy glory must establish, where no swell Before he shallbe able to penetrate proposals. Of fickle floods, nor breath of casual gales into Attica, it becomes us to march into Bceotia, Assist the skilful coward, and control By nature's but resistless might, and divert his attentionto that quarter." wanton, The brave man's arm." As the Greeks foresaw, so it happened. As Mardonius heard from Alexander the as soon Mardonius concluded with offering himself for fixed resolutions of the Athenians, he led his the enterprise, which was accepted. The haughty troops from Thessaly into Attica, wasting and destroying the whole country over monarch had not yet been taught wisdom by the which he lesson of adversity, had not yet learned the passed,and collectingtroops from every quarter. lesson of mercy from a sight of suffering humanity. his On way through Boeotia,the Thebans advised him to halt and encamp in their country, as the On the approach of spring, b. c. 479, Mardonius most convenient ; and by so doing, he might ians, in made an attempt to gain over the Athenreduce all Greece, by bribing the leading men and draw them off from the confederacy. the several states. With this view, he sent Alexander, the son of Had Mardonius listened to this treacherous Amyntas, king of Macedon, with very advantageous counsel, it is possible Greece would have been to rebuild, at It was offers. These offerswere, overruled, however, by his conquered. the king's charge, their city, and every other desire to take Athens a second time, and his edificedemolished the year before in Attica ; to vanity ; for he wished to show the king at Sardis, laws ; by fire sufferthem to live according to their own signals,stationed throughout the islands, to reinstatethem in all their former possessions ; nius in possession of that city. Mardothat he was and to bestow on them what other dominions entered Athens, which he found deserted, they might desire. in the tenth month after it had been taken by Steady to the common cause, the Athenians Xerxes, and he demolished whatever had escaped " ians, replied, Tell Mardonius, Thus say the Athenthe monarch's fury. Whilst the sun holds its course, we Not being able to withstand such a torrent will never compromise with Xerxes ; but relying on alone, the Athenians again retired to Salamis. the aid of the gods and heroes, whose temples Mardonius stillentertained hopes of bringing terms and statues he has contemptuously burned, we them to some of accommodation, and sent him to the last extremity. And resolve to resist the former proposals another deputy to renew for you, Alexander, appear no more as dred, Lycidas, a member among of the council of five hunthe Athenians with such messages ; nor, under the proposals, or bribed either approving that they should by Mardonius, recommended colour of rendering us good offices,xhort us to e do what is abominable. For we wish not that be referred to the people. Fired with indignation, you should suffer any unpleasant treatment on the Athenians gathered round him, and the part of the Athenians, as being a guest as following stoned him to death ; and the women, well as a friend." Then turning to the Spartan their example, rushed to his house, and stoned fearful lest they should come deputies, who were his wife and children. By this second tragedy, to an termined accommodation with Xerxes, they said, Mardonius perceived they were obstinatelydeto carry on the war till either he should
"
"

* By some historians Xerxes is said to have passed over the Hellespont in a fishing boat. Herodotus this rejects does story; and the whole of the narration of this event it appear to be introduced to calumniate Xerxes, whence is in rejected these pages.

* The term "barbarians" was used by the ancients in a it: generally it imports use than we much milder sense in which it is ranse strangers, occasionally an enemy, here used.

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iEschylus, with powerful effect, has put a sibe expelled, or they buried in the ruins of their milar prediction in the mouth of the ghost of country. Darius, when evoked by Atossa and the chorus : puties time, the Athenians had sent deIn the mean to Sparta, to complain of their tardiness, In Plataea's plains, their breach of promise, and desertion of the Beneath the Doric spear, the clotted mass in not opposing the enemy in cause, common require that they would in their assistance, order that send an they might oppose him in Attica,recommending to the Thracian plain as the fittest give him battle. Freed from immediate danger, the Peloponnesians seemed careless about the matter ; but at length, fearing that the Athenians, who
next army to
were

Bceotia; and

to

Of carnage shall arise : that the high mounds, Piled o'er the dead, to late posterity Shall give this silent record to men's eyes : That proud aspiring thoughts but ill beseem Weak mortals ! For oppression, where it springs, Puts forth the blades of vengeance, and its fruit Yields a ripe harvest of repentant woe."

Shortly before the battleof Plataea,Mardonius furnished with a striking specimen of exasperated at their conduct, would realize was he Grecian spirit. Among his auxiliaries, was their threat of quittingthe confederacy, making by a body of a thousand Phocians, who peace with the king, and becoming his allies, joined driven to his ranks from necessity. Either were they sent off hastily a force of 5000 troops to or toward the isthmus. their assistance, suspecting theirfidelity, to prove theircourage, Mardonius, discovering this,and fearing to be Mardonius menaced them with destruction by his cavalry, which surrounded them on allsides. attacked by the confederates in Attica, which feated The Phocian commander to disadvantageous for his cavalry, and if dewas exhorted his men " by them, to be intercepted in the narrow die like heroes," and to show that they were he reached Grecians : upon which they faced about every passes, retired into Bceotia. When The the Theban territory, convenient for way, and closed their ranks in column. which was rected, his cavalry, in which his chief strength consisted, Persian cavalry retired,as Mardonius had dihe fortified large camp near the river Asopus, a and he sent a herald to inform them that for a place of refuge should he be defeated. he only meant to test their courage, and exhorted The disposition which prevailed among the them to act with alacrity in the war, at the Persians at thistime, and the fear that possessed same time holding out large promises of reward them respecting the issue of the campaign, is for their services. dotus by an anecdote related by HeroRoused by the example of the Lacedaemonians, well illustrated " Whilst the barbarians were : the rest of the Peloponnesians prepared to proemployed secute on the war with vigour. They raised their this work, Attaginus, a Theban, prepared a ians the magnificent entertainment, to which Mardonius quotas,and joined Lacedaemonians and Atheninvited. At table, they thence they marchat the isthmus. From ed and fiftyPersians were in into Bceotia, Mount Cithaeron, the neighto chequered, a Persian and a Theban reclining on bourhood Their army After supper, as they were every couch.* of the Persian army. drinking freely,the Persian who was the associate was under the conduct of Pausanias, king of in chief of Sparta, and of Aristides, consideracommander tion of Thersander, a man of the first at Orchomenos, asked him in Greek what the Athenians. Mardonius, in order to try the he answered, he was ; and when countryman courage of the Greeks, sent out his cavalry to ' This led to a fierce An Orchomenian,' the Persian proceeded thus : skirmish with the enemy. 4 Since you and I share the same table, and the engagement, wherein the Persians were routed, I libations, wish to leave you a memorial same next in and their leader, Masistius, who was of my sentiments, that being forewarned, you consideration to Mardonius himself, slain; an in event which caused great dismay and sorrow may have an opportunity of consulting your own interest. Do you see those Persians at supper, the Persian army. To denote theirgrief for the on the loss of Masistius,they cut off their hair, and the left encamped and the army which we banks of the river ? Of allthese, in a very short manes of theirhorses, and all Bceotia resounded space of time, you will see very few surviving !' with their cries and lamentations. After this sander, conflict, Grecians removed to Plataea, Saying this,the Persian shed many tears. Thernot far the ' from Thebes. at the remark, replied, Does astonished donius, The army of the Greeks consisted of 110,000 it not become you to communicate this to Mar' nians, My the Lacedaemoto those next him in dignity ?' men, the flower of which were and friend,'returned the Persian, 'itis not for man Tegeatae, and Athenians, who numbered The Persian army, to counteract the decisionsof Providence. None in the whole 19,500 men. besides to 300,000 men, it visers, is said, amounted adof them are willing to hearken to faithful as A multitude of Persians share the same t 50,000 Grecians who joinedhem voluntarily, but, like me, me they follow the Thebans, or by compulsion, as the Phocians, sentiments with ; life is Thessalians,and others. from necessity. Nothing in human on From superstitiousotives,* the two armies more deeply to be regretted,than that the wise m " " This,'' man's voice should be disregarded.' M * The soothsayers, upon inspecting the entrails of the I heard from Thersander, the says Herodotus, foretold to both parties victims, according to Herodotus, Orchomenian, who also told me that he had communicated they if they acted only upon the that should be victorious to many before the battleof the same defensive; and threatened them with an utter overthrow Platffia." ifthey made the first attack.
.

times, the ancients sat round a table remote we do, as we read in Homer. This passage shows, as however, that the custom of reclining on a couch at meals was of a very early date. In
more

tion Potter gives a particular account of the mode of divinawhole and by inspecting he entrails. If they were sound", had their natural place, colour, and proportion, all out of order, or wanting, evil was well : if any thing was was unwas portended. The palpitation of the entrails

HISTORY

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remained in their posts for ten days, encamped Mardonius, each side of the river Asopus. who was of an impatient temper, grew uneasy at Famine, also, was so long a delay. menacing him, for he had only a few days' provisions for his army. Accordingly, he held a council of war, and, contrary to the wise counsel of Artabazus, who advised Mardonius to retire under the walls of Thebes, where they would be able to obtain forage and provisions, and eventually to prevail on some of the confederates by bribes to desert the common decided a battlewas cause, upon the next day. The attack was to be made by surprise ; but Alexander of Macedon came secretly about midnight to their camp, and informed Aristides of allthat had passed; an event to which Glover " alludes in his Athenaid :"
on

Aristides hastes : To whom Bulwark the stranger: of this camp! Hear, credit, weigh the tidings which I bear: Mardonius, press'd by fear of threatening want, At night's fourth watch the fatal stream will pass, Inflexibly determined, though forbid By each diviner, to assail your host With all his numbers. I, against surprise, Am come to warn you : thee alone I trust, My name revealing. I who thus hazard both my realm and life, Am Alexander, Macedonian friend Kindly, on a future day, Of Athens. Remember me."
"

sacred purposes, was given to Pausanias, and the others were rewarded each according to his merit. Diodorus Siculus says, that the battle of Plataea was fought in the second year of the seventyfifthOlympiad, when Xanthippus was archon of Athens, B.C. 479, and on the third or fourth day of the month Boedromion, corresponding to the 28th or 29th of August, nearly a twelvemonth after the battle of Salamis. The day on which the Greeks gained the for another victory at Platsea is memorable gained by their fleetover that of the Persians, at Mycale, in Ionia, wherein most of the Persians were put to the sword, their ships burned, and immense booty captured. This battle was an fought in the evening, and that of Platseain the They were morning. each decisive in their By them the great designs of Xerxes nature. frustrated, were and the liberties of Greece and from Greece)restored and of Ionia (colonized Nor were the benefits resulting from secured. They these contests of a momentary nature. freed Europe for ages from Asiatic invasion, during the subsistence of the Persian monarchy, tillthe erection of the fanatical emand even pires the of the Saracens and Turks, of whom

Acting upon this timely information, the Greek generals ordered their officers prepare to for battle. The next day, however, passed without any decisive engagement, and night coming on, numbers of the Greeks deserted from the confederate army, in order to escape the enemy's cavalry, which had annoyed them greatly ; and, Platsea, retiring about twenty stadia towards they encamped near the temple of Juno, opposite to the city. The movement of these deserters brought on a on the ensuing day. general engagement Mardonius, imagining that the foe fled before him, led on his army, shouting as though they were sure however, as of their prey. As soon, they had passed the Asopus, they encountered tbe Lacedaemonians, Athenians, and Tegeans, to the number of 53,000 men, ral which led to a genein which the Persians were engagement, completely defeated, chiefly by the determined valour of the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. Mardonius himself was slain,and of the Persian host, according to the Greek historians, not more 3000 than escaped, except a select body of 40,000 men, under the command of Artabazus, who marched with all expedition towards the Hellespont, whence he transported the remnant (for many of these were slainby the Thracians, or died with fatigue and hunger on the way) from Byzantium, or Constantinople, to Asia. The loss of the Grecians, according to Plutarch, amounted The spoils taken from the only to 1360 men. Persians were immense, consistingof vast sums

subverted the Constantinopolitan empire, the other penetrated through Africa into Spain. The Persian invasion, says Dr. Hales, furnishes lesson to all a salutary and awakening free states to dispute their liberties to the last, to compromise and never with the enemy, let so numerous them be ever and formidable. It
one

and

affords,also, a striking comment of the psalmist:

"

upon the words

There is no king saved by the multitude of an host : is not delivered by much A mighty man strength." Psa. xxxiii. 16.

Victory belongs unto God alone ; and none read the account of this struggle for liberty, without observing his overruling /providence in inflexibly band of patriots, the result. A little determined to conquer or die in their country's to preserve their religion, cause, their laws, and their liberty, triumphed over the mightiest host solation. that was ever assembled for the purposes of deNot Jove, or Who success? gave Juno, or Mercury, or Ceres, or Bacchus, or any of the fabled gods of Greece, but Him in " are the issuesof lifeand death," and who whom glory. overrules all events on earth for his own What, though both the armies of the Persians and Grecians were pagans, He ruled over them ; unmindful of Him, the one and though they were by his alwas mighty exalted, and the other humbled To ourselves, the patriotism of hand. the Greeks reads an important lesson. If they
can

so nobly, and struggled so ardently, for laws, and liberty, all their religion, which were founded on the principlesof paganism, surely we which are established ought to prize our own, of money, gold and silver cups, vessels, tables, upon the enlightened and broad foundations of bracelets, and all kinds of furniture. The tenth Christianity, ance and to contend for their maintenof these, after devoting a certain portion to against the host of infidelfoes with which be Our weapons, it must are we surrounded.

fought

fortunate ; ifthe liver was bad, they inspected no farther. Thus, it may be seen, that their replies depended solely upon the choice of the animal.

and that with thankfulness,are not, remembered, steel; at the present day, those of life-destroying

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" the sword of the Spirit, which need only use Christian patriots,wield is the word of God." thisto the honour of God, and the salvation of are as mankind ; for the principlesof infidelity tive subversive of order in the state, and as destrucof domestic happiness, as the hosts of Xerxes in their wild career.

we

annihilation of the whole of the royal family. He falsely accused the eldest son, the hapless Darius, of killingXerxes, to the thirdArtaxerxes,
and prevailed on him, through fear of death himself, to the assassinationof rashly to consent Darius, after which he placed
ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS

"

upon the throne, in exclusion of Hystaspes, the The defeat of the Persians at Mycale, in the second son, who was governor of the province of Bactria,in which he had succeeded Masistes, neighbourhood of Sardis, drove Xerxes from intending to put him away in his turn. But his that city,where he had resided since he retired career brief. Artaxerxes of wickedness was from Greece. He was driven with disgrace and dismay to Susa, his capital. His route thither anticipated his treason, and cut off Artabanus and his family before his plans were ripe for was marked by plunder and devastation through execution. Thus the mischief that he designed Asia. He pillaged and destroyed allthe Grecian for,and which he had brought upon others,returned temples in his way ;* nor did he respect even head. upon his own the ancient and venerated temple of Belus at After this,Artaxerxes was called upon to sus-* Babylon. He carried off from thence a statue with his brother Hystaspes, who high, probably the tain a war of solid gold, twelve cubits claimed the throne. The unhallowed conflict work of Nebuchadnezzar, as mentioned Dan. iii. Hystaspes was continued for two years, when 1, and slew the high priest,who endeavoured defeated,and Artaxerxes secured to himself the to prevent conduct which he deemed sacrilege. ther quiet possession of the empire. To prevent furPerhaps the desire of making himself amends disturbances,he placed governors in every for the expenses incurred in his Grecian expedition, province, on whose fidelityhe could depend ; might be a prevailing motive for such after which he applied himself to the reform of proceedings ; for itis certain he found immense abuses in the government. treasures in the temples, which had been amassed Artaxerxes Longimanus is celebrated as the through the superstition princes and people of Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, and some other during a long series of ages, or been deposited parts of Scripture. In the third year of his there for safety. Ahasuerus gave a sumptuous ment, entertainThe remainder of the reign of this " son of reign,and sent for his queen Vashti to grace the described by the Grecian as he was violence," banquet. This mandate was contrary to oriental was natural oracles, clouded by the most horrid and unhis notions,and the queen refused to obey ; but the crimes, raging through, and ravaging monarch being inflamed with wine, was enraged family. The atrohousehold and his own own cious at her refusal, and consulted with his sycophant he committed which and complicated injuries council what steps he should take to punish her upon the family of Masistes, his brother, for her disobedience. They represented that her and over which we draw a veil,so roused the disobedience to her husband likely to have was he fled with his indignation of that prince, that the worst effects upon society at large, and sons some towards Bactria, of attendants and carded advised, as a prevention, that she should be disthe which he was governor, intending to rouse from his presence. Their advice was Sacse to revolt. Xerxes apprehending warlike listenedto ; he deposed her for her contumacy : this,intercepted him on the way, and put him, upon which ithas been said, his sons, and his adherents to death. To crown in the horrid measures of his cruelties, a transport for so slight a fault, Severe the punishment Atossa, the mother of rage, he slew his own If it was indeed a fault." daughter of Cyrus, to whose influence he owed After a probation of four years, he chose These atrocitiest length, however, a the crown. Esther, an orphan Jewess, who possessed peculiar his head. His drew down vengeance upon ference chamberlain, Mithridates, introduced into his gracefulness and beauty, to be his queen, in preto all the virgins who were bed-chamber at night Artabanus, the captain of candidates his guards, who assassinatedhim while he slept, for that dignity. In the fifth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, b. c. 464. Egyptians revolted, and chose b. c. 459, the " O joyless power, that stands by lawless force! Inarus, a Libyan prince, for their king. The Curse3 are his dire portion, scorn, and hate, Egyptians called in the Athenians to their asInternal darkness, and unquiet breath; sistance, keep their sacred course, And if old judgments who having a fleetof forty saillying off Him from that height shall Heaven precipitate the island of Cyprus, considered it a favourable By violent and ignominious death." Wordsworth. opportunity of weakening the Persian power, and sailed to Egypt for that purpose. [The It was wisely said by the psalmist,that particulars of this revolt will be found in the to overthrow him." History of the Egyptians.] Evil shall hunt the violent man Psa. cxl. 11. In the seventh year of his reign, b. c. 457, Artaxerxes issued a decree, empowering Ezra, After the murder of Xerxes, Artabanus meditated law of the God of heaven, to for himself, by the the scribe of the the crown securing go to Judea, to restore and enforce the law of Moses, to appoint magistratesand judges out through* Xerxes spared only two temples in the Grecian war; the land, and to punish all transgressors of those of Apollo at Delos, and of Diana at Ephesus.
"
"

Or own the soul immortal, Ail order."" Young.

or

invert

''

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as well as Amyrtseus, who fought for the Egyptian the law with confiscationof goods, banishment, In the year b. c. 45Q, however, the 26. crown. or death, Ezra vii.1 in great danger of Athenians exerted themselves to send another The Jews, however, were extirpation by the edictsof thismonarch in the fleetof 200 sail to Cyprus, .under the command Haman, fourteenth year of his reign, b. c. 450. of Cimon, the son of Miltiades,whence he sent the Amalekite, an inveterate foe of the Jewish sixty sailto the assistanceof Amyrta^us, in the fens. Artabazus, the Persian admiral, being nation,and a linealdescendant of Agag, the king then off the island of Cyprus, with a fleetof 300 of the Amalekites, in the days of the prophet Samuel, (1 Sam. xv. 33,) was at this date prime ships,Cimon attacked and defeated him, and took the bitious third part of his ships, and destroyed many minister of Persia. Haman, who was an amHe pursued the rest to Cilicia, had an undue asmore. ing cendancy and revengeful man, and landhis men by stratagem, as if Persians, he over the mind of the monarch, which he failednot to use for his own poses. surprised and defeated Megabyzus at Eurymeunhallowed purOn one occasion, he obtained a royal don, whose army consisted of 300,000 men, and The returned to Cyprus with a double triumph. edict for all persons to do him homage. Artaxerxes, acting upon the advice of his respected this edict; but Morservilemultitude decai, the kinsman of Esther, doubtless from council,now sought an accommodation with the Athenians. His proposals were listened to ; and some scruple of conscience, refused to bow the knee to the Amalekite. Haman's haughty spirit accordingly they sent ambassadors to Susa, Callias; and the Persians was and he resolved to amongst whom could not brook such a slight, on take revenge of the most ample, unjust, santheir side sent Artabanes and Megabyzus and guinary For this one man's to Athens. The conditions of peace were very nature. offence he They were sought the destructionof the Jewish race ; thus humiliating to the Persian monarch. in 1. That all the Greek cities Asia as follows : displaying the ancient enmity of the Amalekite ! towards Israel,as well as his own Minor should be free,and governed by theirown personal reto the laws. 2. That no Persian governor of the pro!venge. Haman proposed this measure vinces dangerous to king, alleging that the Jews were should march an army within three days' of jthe state ; and Artaxerxes, in a moment of weak- journey the coast. 3. That no Persian ship ness, of war should sail between the Cyanean rocks, passed a royal decree for their public proporus, throughout the Persian at the northern extremity of the Thracian Bosjscription and massacre dominions. After much deliberation the connear the southspirators, of ern and the Chelidonian Isles, in selectingthe most lucky days, itwas promontory of Lycia; thus excluding the determined that the tragical event should take Persians from the entire iEgean Sea, and that place on the thirteenthday of the twelfth month part of the Mediterranean bordering upon Asia vade Adar. Minor. 4. That the Athenians should not inIn the meantime thisdreadful plotwas defeated any part of the dominions of the king of by the piety and address of Esther the queen, Persia. destroyed,This peace, so advantageous to the Athenian himself,who was and turned upon Haman the independence of the Grecian with all his family. Thus did this states, established fallinto the snare which he had laid colonies on the Asiaticcoast. It was concluded wicked man for others, and his name stands in the page of b. c. 449, in the fifteenth year of Artaxerxes, history as a warning to mankind of every gene- thirty years after the victories of Plataea and ration dent not to encourage those evil passions inci- Mycale, and forty years after the firstPersian mense imto human invasion of Greece. The loss of life was nature from the fall ambition during this period,and the blood that was and revenge. See Esther iii. viii. Thus, also, his shed in the did God exhibit his providential care over stain the various conflicts must it the Christian may take people, from whence memory of all those at whose instigation was courage in his pilgrimage on earth. If Israel undertaken throughout all generations. according to the fleshwas tenderly watched over " by the great Father of mankind, how much more the lure of honour draws, Ye monarchs, whom Who write in blood the merits of your cause, Israelshare in his Divine and shall the spiritual
" "

j j

"

"

watchful care ! Glory your aim, but justice your pretence ; On thisoccasion was displayed the mischievous fires Behold in ^Etna's emblematic law of the Medes and Persians, The mischiefs your ambitious pride inspires ! effectof that " * " * " which set forth that the king's decree, when abroad; The trumpet sounds, your legions swarm by him, and sealed with his seal,could signed Through the ripe harvest lies their destined road : Artaxerxes was not be revoked. obliged to At every step beneath their feet they tread issue a counter decree, empowering the Jews to The lifeof multitudes, a nation's bread! in its loveliest dress a garden Earth seems arm themselves in self-defence, and to slay all Before them, and behind a wilderness. The result of those who might attack them. Famine and pestilence, her first-bornsons, this was, the slaughter of 75,000 men, among Attend to finish what the sword begun ; See Esther And echoing praises, such as fiends might earn, whom were the ten sons of Haman. And folly pays, resound at your return. ixA calm succeeds" but plenty, with her train The Greeks, who sailedto the rescue of Egypt Of heartfelt joys, succeeds not soon again ; of Inarus, as related in that And years of pining indigence must show under the command What scourges are the gods that rule below.""CowPEK. history,defeated the Persians in the first battle, Afterwards, and slew theirleader Achsemenes. the reign of Arta- | the Persian monarch having assembled an overwhelming In the twentieth year of b. c. 444, he granted to the Jews that force, re-established his authority in xerxes, to Egypt, and expelled the Greeks from that country, permission which he had long refused, rebuild

Who

strike the blow, then plead your

own

defence,

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it till his death. To Megabyzus the walls of Jerusalem. This favour was granted the king of Persia owed both his life he appointed at the instance of Nehemiah, whom and crown, when he Nehemiah ascended the throne, which makes his conduct tirshatha, or governor of Judea. to repair the wall,and set up the was appear in a more empowered unfavourable light: it may wards gates,to build a palace for himself,and after- be, that the monarch envied the renown of to rebuild the city ; and, in the conjunction valour and wisdom of Megabyzus, for he the best counsellor and greatest general of with Ezra, the priest and scribe, to establish was the civiland ecclesiastical polityof the nation, the Persian empire. In the thirty-fourthyear of the axerxes, all which he accomplished notwithstanding he reign of Artthe oppressive system of the Athemet with great opposition from Sanballat the nian Samaritan and his army, Tobiah the Ammonite, policy armed the confederates against that the Arabians, and the Ashdodites in the course state in the Peloponnesian war, which lasted See twenty-seven years, ending in the overthrow of his administration of twelve years. of 4 ; and xi. 1,2. the Athenian dominion. 1 Nehemiah ii. iv.; vi. 15 ; vii. The assistanceof Artaxerxes This change in the conduct of Artaxerxes was sought by both parties, but he counted respectingthe Jews, says Dr. Hales, may be acwisely declined to assist either. The Athenians for upon sound political sent another embassy, but when and principles, they reached Ephesus they received news not merely from regard to the solicitationsf o of the death of Artaxerxes. Nehemiah, or the influence of his queen ; and the humiliating conditions of the treaty with " Put not your trust in princes, the Athenians corroborates this opinion. Thus Nor in the son of man, in whom there is no help. from the whole line of sea coast, excluded His breath goeth forth, he returneth to his earth ; Dr. Hales adds, and precluded from keeping In that very day his thoughts perish."" Psa. cxlvi. 3, 4. came garrisons in any of the maritime towns, it beBy Persian writers,Artaxerxes was both of prudence and necessity a matter surnamed Bahaman, to conciliate the Jews, to attach them to the signifying "kind," or "beneficent." Persian interest,and detach them from the According to Thucydides, his favourite maxim Grecian, by further privileges, that the Persians was, that " the gates of a king should never be have the benefit of a friendly fortified shut." He carriedthisnoble maxim into practice might town like Jerusalem, within three days' journey with Themistocles, who had done so much mischief to Persia,and for whose head he had of the sea, and a most important pass, to keep offered a reward of 200 talents, open the communication^ between Persia and (nearly 40,000/.,) it may be on his accession to the throne. When Egypt. To confirm this banished conjecture, from Greece and every part remarked, that in all the ensuing Egyptian wars of Europe by the inveterate persecution of his countrymen, he to the Jews remained faithful the Persians, and even threw himself upon the mercy of Artaxerxes, after.theMacedonian invasion ; and it may who, as we have seen in the history of the polity reasonably be supposed, that Artaxerxes had some such argument as this to oppose to the of Persia, made a princely provision for him. in ence jealousy displeasurethismeasure excited in Themistocles used to say to his children, referand to this treatment, " We should have been the neighbouring provinces hostile to the Jews, had so much weight with undone if we had not been undone ;" and the whose remonstrances him in former days. strongest inducement afterwards held out by any Persian to a Greek was, that " he should live In the engagement in which the Greeks had been driven from Egypt, Inarus, and a body of with him, as Themistocles did with Artaxerxes." The chief praise due to Artaxerxes is the had surrendered themselves to his auxiliaries, played the Persian monareh, afterobtaining a promise regard he had for the temple of Jehovah, as disin these verses : " And I, even The queen-mother, I Artaxerxes of pardon from Megabyzus. a haughty and cruel princess, the king, do make a decree to all the enraged at the loss that whatof her son Achaemenes, entreated Artaxerxes to treasurers which are beyond the river, soever Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of violate the capitulationgranted to Inarus by Megabyzus, and to deliver the prisonerstaken at the God of heaven, shall require of you, it be Byblus to her revenge. He resistedthe proposal done speedily, unto an hundred talents of silver, for five years, but was at length wearied into and to an hundred measures of wheat, and to an compliance, and the unhappy captives perished hundred baths of wine, and to an hundred baths by cruel tortures. Indignant at such conduct, of oil,and salt without prescribing how much. by the God of heaven, Megabyzus revolted, (b. 447,) c. ported Whatsoever iscommanded and being suplet itbe diligently done for the house of the God by the Syrians, repeatedly defeated the should there be wrath royal forces. He was at length allowed to dictate of heaven : for why his own terms, and he returned to court. Shortly against the realm of the king and his sons ? Also we certify you, that touching any of the however, he was perfidiously seized for the after, priests and Levites, singers,porters,Nethinims, slightoffence of shooting a lion at a royal hunt or ministers of this house of God, it shall not be before the king had discharged his arrow, and he was lawful to impose toll,tribute,or custom, upon to perpetual exile at Cyrta, condemned And thou, Ezra, after the wisdom of thy a city standing on the Red Sea. This cruelty them. God, that is in thine hand, set magistrates and the sons and provoked afresh the hostility of friends of Megabyzus, whose turbulence again judges, which may judge all the people that are ment, disturbed the state ; but afterfive years' banish- beyond the river,all such as know the laws of he secretly returned to Susa, when, by the thy God ; and teach ye them that know them intercessionof his wife and mother-in-law, he And whosoever will not do the law of thy not. God, and the law of the king, let judgment be was in reinstated the king's favour, and
" " " "

enjoyed

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executed speedily upon him, whether it be unto to engross the whole pleasures and amusements, death, or to banishment, or to confiscation of authority to himself. Under the name and protection 26. goods, or to imprisonment," Ezra vii. 21 of queen Parysatis,indeed, to whose will This decree shows that Artaxerxes acwas and quainted pleasure he was devoted, he disposed of all the affairs of the empire. The name with the true religion; and Dr. Hales only of " king was wanting, and, to obtain this,he formed rightly observes, that he was happy in two such Ezra and Nehemiah." a design to rid himself of Darius, master-counsellors as and ascend the On the death of Artaxerxes, b. c. 423, his only throne. The plot,however, was discovered, and legitimateson, he was by seized and delivered up to Parysatis, he was whom put to a cruel and ignominious XERXES II., death. ascended the throne. Within forty-fivedays, By this it will be perceived, that eunuchs had however, Xerxes was by his natural murdered at this date acquired considerable power in the brother court of Persia : at a later period they governed SOGDIANUS, absolutely in it, to the great danger of the princes. Some idea may be formed of their who usurped the throne,but was quickly deposed* character by the picture which Dioclesian,after by another illegitimateprince, Ochus, who, on he had resigned the empire, and reduced himself his accession,took the name of to a private stationof life, drew of the freedmen II., had gained a like ascendancy over " DARIUS who the ^S " " gitimate," Four or five persons," says but who is usually called Nothus, that is, ille- Roman emperors. " to distinguish him from deterthe other he, who are closelyunited,and resolutelymined to impose on a prince, may do it very title. princes of the same The reign of Darius Nothus was turbulent easily. They never show things to him but in brother Arsites, born such a light as they are sure will please. They and unfortunate. His own conceal whatever would contribute to enlighten mother, seeing in what manner of the same him ; and as they alone beset him continually, Sogdianus had supplanted Xerxes, and had been he cannot be informed of any thing but through their afterwards driven from the throne by Ochus, decoyed firstrebelled against him, but he was channel, and knows nothing but what they think fit suggest to him.. Hence itisthat he bestows to into a surrender, and smothered in ashes, a death Sogdianus had previously suffered. Arsites.. was employments on those whom he ought to exclude from them ; and, on the other side, from removes assisted in his rebellion by Artyphiusr son of Megabyzus, who shared a similar fate. such persons as are most worthy of filling offices f One of the most dangerous rebelliAns Darius them. In a word, the best prince isoften sold by Nothus had to encounter occurred in Lydia. these men, though he be ever so vigilant, and in despite of bis suspicion of them." amPisuthnes,governor of that province, was bitious The greatest misfortune which happened to pose of making himself king, for which purDarius during the whole course of his reign was he enlistedin his service a body of Grecian ian. the revolt of the Egyptians, the particulars of troops, under the command of Lycon the AthenAfter Darius sent Tissaphernes against this which are related in that history, (page 60.) defeated,and time, the commissionthis,the Medes rebelled, but were opponent, giving him, at the same reduced to their ancient allegiance. To punish of governor of Lydia, of which he was to dispossessPisuthnes. By bribes and promises, them for their revolt,their yoke, which hitherto Tissaphernes brought over the Greeks to his had been light, was made burdensome : a fate
"

side, and

Pisuthnes, thus weakened,

was

compelled

rebellious

they are subdued. to surrender. A promise of pardon was About b. c. 407, brought held out to him, but the instanthe was doomed to undergo the " youngest of his sons, before the king he was

generally subjects Darius

experience when

same cruel death as Sogdianus and Arsites. The death of Pisuthnes, however, did not put an end to alldanger in this quarter. Amorgas, his son, saphernes, with the remainder of his army, withstood Tis- upon him. The hatred which Darius possessed against the the and for two years laid waste Asia Minor, till length Athenians, led him to deviate from his father's at maritime provinces of he was taken by the Greeks of Peloponnesus in policy respectingthe Grecian states. Artaxerxes Iasus, a city of Ionia, who delivered him up to assistedthe weaker against the stronger,and so balanced matters between them, that they conTissaphernes, by whom he was put to death. tinued to harass each other, and thereby were A plot within the precincts of his own court Three had nearly proved fatal to Darius. prevented from uniting against the Persians. On the contrary,Darius commissioned Cyrus to assist eunuchs had usurped all power therein,but. one these three presided over and governed the the Lacedjemonians with large subsidies against of Artoxares,, the Athenians, which enabled Lysander, their was rest. This man, whose name himself into the confidence of general, to finish the Peloponnesian war had wormed with the overthrow of the Athenians, and demolition Darius. He had studied allhis passions,in order by to indulge them, and govern the monarch about b. c. 404. of their fortifications, Shortly after the appointment of Cyrus to He plunged him continually in means. their the government of the provinces of Asia Minor, " The two brief reigns of Xerxes and Sogdianus, he put to death two of the nephews of Darius, amounting only to eight months, are omitted in Ptolemy's because they had not folded theirhands in their is included in the last year of canon, but their amount Artaxerxes, according to his usage. sleeves,as was customary among the Persians in

gave Cyrus, the the supreme command of all the provinces of Asia Minor : an important commission, by which he made allthe provincial governors of that part of the empire dependent

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the death of a traitor. But the intercession of his mother prevailed with Artaxerxes ; he pardoned him, and even dismissed him again to his government. Artaxerxes had scarcely ascended the throne fluence of Persia when be was engaged, through the inhis wife Statira, in a most tragical of scene ; than which history presents nothing more in the succeeding article. seen terrible. Adultery, incest,and murder marked In the same year that the Lacedaemonians, ians, every step of it; and itbrought the queen-mother, by the aid of Cyrus, triumphed over the Atheninto Parysatis, and the reigning queen, Statira, Darius Nothus died, and was succeeded he gave a fiery collision,hat the flames of revenge t Athenaeus says such by Arsaces, to whom couid only be quenched by the death of one or the best instruction in the art of reigning; the other of the unlovely princesses. in all things, toward namely, "to do justly The generous forgiveness which Artaxerxes God, and toward man." in history had extended to his brother Cyrus ought for ever The reign of Darius is memorable to have bound the latterin the bonds of love and by the reference thereto in sacred prophecy. He fealty to the former. But the nature of Cyrus kings foretold to precede was the first the four of had injured and not thus affected: "he phecy the dissolutionof the Persian empire : the pro- was out the could not forgive :" his ambition remained as of the seventy weeks, pointing a menced mounting as before it had received check ; and time of the coming of the Messiah, also comone of superadded to this active principle, was in the fourth year of his reign, or b.c. for equal fireand buoyancy" that of resentment See Dan. ix. and xi. 420. A fiercedesire of On his accession to the throne, Arsaces assumed the disgrace he had suffered. burned within him, and he resolved upon revenge the title of the dethronement of his brother. With this view ARTAXERXES ; he employed Clearchus, a Lacedaemonian general, to raise a body of Grecian troops, under the pretence, and he was distinguished by the Greek writers Mnemon, among others, of a war meditated against by the epithet from others of that name " Thrace ; and, doubtless to forward the same obfor that "intellectual ject, or memory," he being remarkable he presented to Lysander a galley of two power," which is one of the choicest cubits in length, as a congratulatory compliment faculties bestowed upon man. life of Darius upon a naval victory. This giftwas subsequently It has been recorded in the Delphi ; consecrated to Apollo in the temple of Nothus, that Parysatis,his queen, had sought the find Lysander at Sardis, likeXerxes, he had and afterwards we kingdom for Cyrus, because, from the allies to been born after his father's succession to the charged with rich presents had been disappointed in Cyrus. throne, and that she that Cyrus It was upon occasion of this visit her views. The monarch, influenced either by had the celebrated conversation with Lysander, or a sense justice, dictates of affection, of the disregarded her importunities, and gave the related page 32. The seeming virtue which Cyrus displayed in to Arsaces, bequeathing the provinces crown only the instrument for this conversation, was to Cyrus. This, and all other This action of Parysatis,and perhaps her pri- forwarding evil designs. vate in pretences of a similar kind, he made use of to conduct, kindled the flames of ambition of the attract the notice and win the esteem the breast of Cyrus ; and when ambition has degenerate or were ever unwary, heart, there is no crime, howwho powerful, once engrossed the By arts of is not ready enough, to abet his unnatural rebellion. foul in its nature, which man the affections of the a like description he won himself towards the to advance to perpetrate barbarians under his government ; and with the however unhallowed they summit of his desires, he raised secretly, be. Thus it was with Cyrus. Despairing aid of Clearchus and others, may in several places, and under various pretexts, a Persia, of otherwise ascending the throne of he placed his body of Grecian troops, on whom him to which his too fond mother had taught Nor was this all. Influenced by chief reliance. consider as his legitimate right,he resolved upon ment his intrigues,several provinces of the governthe death of his brother ; and, regardless of the selves flicting of Tissaphernes revolted, and placed themnear tieswhich united them, he decided upon inincident and hand. "" under his jurisdiction; this that death with his own ; nes, If any circumstances could deepen the guilt of giving rise to a war between him and Tissapherhis designs was it was the time at which, used as a cloak to cover this atrocious project, his brother, and the crown of upon the life of and the place where, the dark deed was intended ther's Persia. Under the pretence of warring with It was on the day of his broto be performed.
""

incensed Darius was presence of their kings. him, both for the heinous deed, as well against due only to himself as for challenging honours in the empire, and designed to deprive him of He was pose, his government. recalled for this purtenderly but Parysatis his mother, who loved him, reconciled Darius to him, and used declared heir to all her influence to have him for the same reason the crown, which had exalted Xerxes to the throne ; namely, that he was born Darius resisted after his father's accession. ment this request,but bequeathed to him the governof his provinces in Asia Minor, confirming to Arsaces, his eldest son, by his own crown This struggle for supremacy the same mother. fearful display of human to the most gave rise depravity between the two brothers, as will be

self he was about to strip himrobe, and put on that of the by the latter ere the robe worn ancient Cyrus on to the throne ! It was he came the day of that in sight of the court of brother's coronation Persia, and in the very temple of the gods ! But the design of Cyrus was frustrated. He had entrusted the fatal secret to one only, the vealed priestwho educated him, and by him it was reCyrus to die to the king, who condemned
of his

when rejoicings,
own
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Tissaphernes, he now assembled troops from slight a purpose, he sent information of the proceedings to the king, accompanied mation speciously to amuse various quarters ; and more with an intisaphernes the court, he forwarded complaints against Tisof what he believed to be the real designs to the king, and submissively implored of Cyrus. The intelligenceroused Artaxerxes from his his protection. Artaxerxes, deceived by these appearances, lethargy, and threw the whole court into alarm. lievedRecollections of her former criminalitynow drew reposing in imprudent and indolent security, bethat the preparations made by Cyrus were all eyes upon the mother of these belligerent Taking brothers, and all employed directed against Tissaphernes alone. in her service were The suspected of being in league with Cyrus. advantage of this supineness, Cyrus redoubled two queens, the mother his efforts; and, by means xerxes, voured of emissaries, endeaand the wife of Artato prepare the minds of the people for evinced on thisoccasion the most deadly flamed These emissaries in- hatred for each other. " Where," cried the latter, the approaching change. " discontent where they discovered it, the faithwhich you have so often and where is now They it where it was not. pledged for the conduct of your son ? This is sought to create our laboured industriouslyin their fiend-likeavocation, reward for listening to those ardent prayers that preserved from death a traitor against the exalting the feigned merits of Cyrus, and king his brother ! It is your unhappy fondness depreciating the qualitiesof Artaxerxes, whom they represented as a moth of peace, saying that that has kindled the flame of war, and plunged us into an abyss of evil." the state required such a ruler as Cyrus, one Summoning force in haste,Artaxerxes a numerous and showered favours on those who loved war, marched in all the pomp and pride of war who served him, a valiant king, fired with the noble ambition of upholding and extending the to meet his brother. The expedition of Cyrus is amongst the most gloriesof the state. At the same time, Cyrus was endeavouring to remarkable recorded in ancient history and cours It is interesting, crown the whole of his designs by obtaining sucnot only classicalgeography. he had from the importance of the prize at stake the from the Lacedaemonians, whom In a diadem of Asia, but also from the circumstance of Greece. assisted to become masters letter he wrote them, he spoke of himself in of itscombining together a military history and He told them he had a a journal travels. of magnificent terms. The first part of the march of Cyrus was from royal heart than his brother ; and more greater Ephesus to Sardis, about fifty-eightmiles in a that he was better versed in the philosophy and direct distance. He then crossed Mount Mesthe knowledge of the magi, by which was meant dis sogis,and the river Maeander, south-east of Sarscience of religionand government ; and that he in four ; and then turning north-east, came could take more wine without being intoxicated rians, days' marches to Colosse, to the inhabitantsof a very meritorious quality amongst the barbahim to the which St. Paul addressed an epistleupwards of but not so proper to recommend less, four centuries afterwards, about eighty-fivemiles good opinion of those he addressed. NevertheFrom Colosse the army of Cyrus came the Lacedaemonians sent orders to their fleet more. in three marches to Celaenae,about sixty miles to join that of Cyrus immediately, and to obey the commands of Tamos, his admiral, in every north-east. From thence in two marches they but without the least mention of' came to Peltae, particular; which Rennel recognises in the Artaxerxes, or intimation of the evil designs Peloti of Edrisi,situateon the road from Tarsus
" "

of 130,000 men were mand collected,and placed under the commanded of experienced leaders. Clearchus comthe Peloponnesian troops, except the Achaeans, who were led by Socrates of Achaia. The Boeotianswere under Proxenus the Theban, headed by Menon. and the Thessalians were The barbarians had Persian generals, the chief Ariaeus. The fleet consisted of was of whom thirty-five ships under Pythagoras, and twentyby Tamos the Egyptian, admiral fivecommanded of the whole fleet. With this formidable host, Cyrus set forward, keeping his unholy purpose a profound secret still Clearchus the Greek. To this from all, save policy he was instigatedby the fear that so bold less no an enterprise might dismay his soldiers, than by the necessity of concealing his intention from the Persian court. Nevertheless,the wily stratagistas baffled, w and He had given out his was made known. object leading this force against the Pisithat he was dians, who had infested his province with their incursions; but Tissaphernes saw through a pretext so shallow, and assured that preparations be made on so mighty a scale for so could never

of Cyrus. At length, troops to the amount

to Abydos,

distance of twenty-eight miles a brate allowed to celenorth, where the Greeks were the Arcadian festivalcalled Lycaea.* In to the two north, they came marches more, Forum of the Kramians, the ancient Cotyaeum times, and the modern Kutahiah. of the Roman This city stands on the road leading from Broussa to Cilicia, Syria, and Cyprus through Iconium, have to pass for upwards so that Cyrus would sive of two hundred miles through deep and extenvalleys, lying at the northern foot of the The first Pisidian and CilicianTaurus. city his Caystrus, about eighty-five to was army came miles south-east from the Forum of the Kramians, Sakli, called to the modern and which answers Ketchluk by Kinnier. From Caystrus, or Sakli, Rento Thymbrium, in two marches they came nel'smodern Karatepe,and Kinnier's Akshehr,or
* An LupercaArcadian festivalresembling the Roman lia. It was celebrated with games, in which the conqueror A was generally rewarded with a suit of brazen armour. human sacrifice was anciently offered at this festival. It firstobserved by Lycaon, in honour was of Jupiter, surname, or the Lycaeus, either from Lycaon's own named Lycaeus, which Arcadian the Arcadians pretended mountain the true Olympus, whence they called it " the was sacred hill,"because Jupiter was feigned to have received his education there.

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the White City, a distance of twenty-eight miles. These tidings were ill-received first but induced at ; distance they came In the same to Tyriseum, by the promise of a considerable gratuity, considered by Kinnier to be the modern Eilgoun, as well as encouraged by an artifice Menon's, of but which Rennel thinks lies twelve geographithey passed from thence over cal the Euphrates : thus devoting themselves to the service of Cyrus. miles farther east. In three marches more, or fifty-six After having passed the Euphrates, in to Iconium, the anmiles, they came cient teen ninecapitalof the Aladinian sultans,and standmarches further,Cyrus reached the Araxes, ing in the ancient Lycaonia* mentioned in the Khabour, about two hundred and the modern Acts of the Apostles (chap. xiv. 6, 1 1.) From this eighty miles distant,which is about fifteen miles city the march continued five days almost due per diem. On crossing the Araxes, Cyrus entered t east through Lycaonia, and terminated a littleo the desert of Arabia, now called the Desert of the south of Erekli, anciently Heraclea, a few Sinjar.This vast tract he crossed by forced " Pass out of miles from the northern foot of Mount Taurus. marches to the Pylse Babylonia?, or The distance traversed in this five days' march hillsinto the plains of Babylonia," which he the was five of these eighty-fivemiles. At the end of it,Cyrus reached in eighteen days. The first With one division marches were through a perfect flat,without made a divisionof his army. he marched himself to the valley of Tyana, trees, and often covered with absynthum. The through a rugged seventy miles distant; whilst Menon, with the other thirteen marches were phrates, other, took the route of Erekli, south-east, and and hilly tract, on both sides of the river Euhundred This ascended the north-west face of Taurus. extending to one miles in At the end of the fifth march they breadth. part of Taurus is called by the Turks Ramadan Oglu Balakklar, and is so broad that itrequires came to Corsote, a large uninhabited city,surrounded by the river Masca, the modern Saccotwenty-five hours to cross it,and there are several difficult ras, where they stayed three days, and made their That by which passes in the way. Cyrus himself entered Cilicia is denominated to CarCorsote they came provisions. From the Northern Pass, and ison the directroad from mande, which Rennel supposes to be the modern Cesarea Mazaca, Hit, about twenty geographical miles above the in Cappadocia, to Tarsus. Rennel says that when Cyrus arrived at Tyana,f Pylae. From the Pylse, Cyrus marched thirty he found the pass occupied by Syennesis, king of miles across the plains of Babylonia, and then, Cilicia, in the and that therefore he encamped after reviewing his troops at midnight of the third day, he marched about ten miles farther on plainbefore it, which was sincedenominated from him, " The plain of Cyrus." According to Xenothe fourth day in order of battle. On the sixth phon, the army of Cyrus reached TarsusJ in day he arrived at a place called Cunaxa, from four marches, the probable distance of which is whence was discerned a thick dust like a white cloud, which was succeeded firstby a darkness, sixty miles. At Tarsus, Cyrus halted for twenty days, after which he marched to the Sarus, or which enveloped the entire plain, and then by lances, and modern Seihoon, twenty -eight miles in two days. the resplendent glitter the armour, of Another day's march, eastward, fourteeen miles, standards of an almost countless host. This was brought his army to the Pyramus Jeihoon ; the army of Artaxerxes, his brother, for whose or forty-two miles, to Issus,where Cyrus had undergone so many hardships crown and two more, in his expedition. ander the battle was afterwards fought between AlexThe two armies were soon and Darius. From Issus,in another day's arrayed in order of sand battle. On his right hand Cyrus posted a thouto the Syrian they came march of fifteen miles, phrates, Strait, gates of Cilicia and Syria ; and in anPaphlagonian horse, supported by the Euor other infantry of the distancethey reached Myrianof the same and the light armed drus, which was a large maritime city,no traces Greeks ; and next them, Clearchus, Proxenus, to of which now and the rest of the general officers Menon, at remain. From this place Cyrus Ul the head of their several corps. The leftwing, made twelve marches to Thapsacus, now Der. composed of Lydians, Phrygians, and other by Ariseus, While at Thapsacus, Cyrus declared to his Asiatic nations, was commanded self generals the real object the expedition, and of who had a thousand horse. Cyrus placed himin the centre, where the chosen troops of the desired them to communicate it to the soldiers, posted. He and to endeavour to gain their willing service. Persians and the barbarians were had round him six hundred horsemen, armed at their horses with frontlets * Lycaonia formed part of the satrapy of Cappadocia, all points, as were breastplates. was a steppe impregnated and and with salt, and containing Talta. The sole occupation of its ina salt lake named by habitants The commanded army of Artaxerxes was appears to have been that of pastors or shepherds. Tissaphernes on the left, which divisionconsisted armed with white cuirasses,and of t This city was at the foot of the Anti-Taurus, and it of cavalry, the light-armed infantry. In the centre was to the district. It was name the birth-place of a gave were heavy-armed foot, a great part of whom celebrated impostor called Apollonius, who lived a.d. 90, and whose life and feigned miracles are recorded by PhiEgyptians,* and entirely covered with wooden lostratus. bucklers. The rest of the light-armed infantry, X Tarsus, now Tersoos, or Tarasso, was the principal The and of the horse, formed the right wing. Cilicia,situated at the mouth of the river Cydnus. city of foot were drawn up with as much depth as front, In the Greek annals it is celebrated for the learning and
In Scripture it excites an refinement of its inhabitants. interest as the birth-place of St. Paul, who calls it " no mean city," Acts xxi. 39. It was made a free colony by the Greeks, an honour which was mans conceded to it by the Roalso, whence St. Paul asserts his privilege as a freeborn Roman, Acts xxii. 25.
here mentioned, supposes that the Egyptians, the descendants of those who are spoken of as having been received into the favour and confidence of the elder Cyrus.
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square battalions. and in that order composed The king had posted himself in the main body, with the flower of the whole army, and had by horse for his guard, commanded 6000 in the centre, he Artagerses. Though he was beyond the leftwing of the army of Cyrus, was so much did the front of his own tent exceed in exthat of the opposing force. A hundred and fifty placed in chariots armed with scythes were I the front of the army, and they were so fixed as down allbefore them. to mow as itwas, The army of Artaxerxes, numerous or on moved confusion. When without noise they had nearly reached that of Cyrus, the Greeks began to sing the hymn of battle: and drawing
nearer, they shouted after their usual wont, still strikingtheir darts upon their shieldsto frighten the horses, and then moving onwards in a body, they sprang upon the barbarians,who fled at the

the daring effortsand final overthrow of an ambitious spirit, hose aims were w narrowed to the attainment of mere worldly power and grandeur, a lesson for thine own ! Happy he, the humble on wayfarer, who, during his sojourn earth, prepares for an inheritancethat fades not, and looks forward to a crown that is eternal.

onset.

Artaxerxes, after having caused the head and right hand of his brother to be cut off,pursued the enemy to their camp, and there possessed himself of great part of their baggage and provisions. The Greeks had defeated the king's leftwing, commanded by Tissaphernes ; and the had King's right wing, under his own command, routed the enemy's left; and as neither knew gined what had occurred elsewhere, both partiesimanes, they had gained the victory. Tissapherhowever, acquainting the king that his men had been put to flightby the Greeks, he immediately rallied his troops, in order to attack

The Greeks, under the command fully exnow was them. erted, of savage spirit war of Clearchus, easily repulsed them, and pursued Cyrus exultingly beheld the advantages occasionally presented to his them to the neighbouring hills. which were As it was laid forces : and these were so successfullyimproved almost night, the Greeks now boldly though pre- down their arms to refresh themselves with rest. by the Greeks, that he was maturely They were surprised that neither Cyrus nor any proclaimed king by allaround him. from him appeared, and imagined that either The crown He one was not to adorn his brows. had climbed the unstable ladder of ambition to he was engaged in the pursuitof the enemy, or was be precipitatedto destruction. Perceiving that. making,haste to possess himself of some ant importArtaxerxes was wheeling his right to attack him place. They determined, therefore, to return in the flank, he marched to their camp, where they arrived about nightfall, him directly against, stroyed with his 600 horse. With his own hand he de- and found the greatest part of their baggage Artagerses, who commanded the king's taken, with all their provisions,which obliged them to pass the night in the camp without reguard of 6000 horse, putting the entire body to freshment flight. Then, discovering his brother, his eyes The next morning, the Greeks heard of the sparkled with fury as he cried,"I see him !" and death of Cyrus, and the defeat of that part of the he spurred forward his horse, eager to commit the two-fold crime of destroying his brother and aiTny. Upon this they sent deputies to Ariseus, his king. of Persia. offeringhim, as conquerors, the crown The battle now became a single combat be- Ariseus refused the offer, and acquainted them tween Artaxerxes and Cyrus ; and the brothers that he intended to set out early next morning on him in were seen transported with the deadliest rage, his return to Ionia,advising them to join each endeavouring to plunge his sword into the the night. They followed his directions,and, other's heart, and thus rid himself of a rival under the conduct of Clearchus, began their march, and arrived at his camp about midnight, reminding the spectatorsof Eteocles and Polythe Greek poets say, that their whence they set out on their return to Greece. nices, of whom At this time, the Greeks were in the very heart as ashes separated on the burning pile, ifsensible ous of resentment, and hostileto reconciliation. of the Persian empire, surrounded by a numerFor a time,the advantage was with Cyrus, who and victoriousarmy, and they had therefore no way to return into Greece, but by forcing their succeeded in killing the horse of Artaxerxes, which fellwith him to the ground. The king retreat through a vast tract of the enemy's country. however, surmounted Their valour and resolution, recovered himself, and mounted another, when Cyrus again rushed upon him, inflicted second a and, despite of a powerful all these difficulties, wound, and had upliftedhis arm for the infliction army, which pursued and harassed them all the of a third,when Artaxerxes, like a lion wounded way, they made good their retreat, travelling by the hunters, only the more furious from the over the space of 2325 miles, through provinces smart, sprang forward, impetuously pushing his belonging to the enemy, and reached in safety the horse against his opponent, Greek cities long, on the Euxine Sea. Clearchus had who, running headthe conduct of the army at first but he being and without regard to his person, threw ; himself into the midst of a flight tary slain by the treachery of Tissaphernes, the miliof darts aimed at him on all sides, historian Xenophon was appointed in his and at that instantreceiving a wound from his brother's javelin, Cyrus fell stead, and it was chieflyowing to his valour and dead : his chief lords were slain likewise,resolv- wisdom that his countrymen surmounted their ing dangers. not to survive him. Behold, reader, the fittingreward of indomitable The retreat of the 10,000 is equally celebrated in history with the expedition of Cyrus, but that courage, energy, and ability, admirable moje qualitieswhen directed to the accomplishproperly belongs to the history of Greece. ment The victory which Artaxerxes had gained of proper ends, but only casting additional blackness on the crime when employed followed by a sucin the over his brother Cyrus was cession furtherance of unworthy ones ! Behold, too, in Fearful of atrocious crimes in his court.
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Agesilaus swept all before him, as the deed of shedding the blood of a brother is, of Persia. Tissaphernes sent a messenger to inquire the monarch was ambitious that the action should whereupon to what end he was be attributed to him alone. Mithridates,a young into Asia, and come Persian nobleman, boasted that he gave the morAgesilaus replied, tal why he had taken up arms. to assist that he was come cruel and the Greeks inhabiting wound, and he suffered the most revolting death for his boast. A Carian soldier Asia, and to restore them their ancient liberty. Tissaphernes, unprepared for war, now had also claimed the glory, and he was delivered to Pary satis, to stratagem. recourse at all times He assured Agesilaus, whose tender mercies were on him the most exqui- that Artaxerxes would grant him his demands, site cruel,and who inflicted for ten days, and then put him to a torments provided he committed no acts of hostility till cruel death. Masabates, by whom, at the king's the return of his couriers. Agesilaus believed phernes order,the head of the fallenCyrus was decapitated, him, and a truce was agreed upon ; but Tissasuffereddeath for the deed also,by the command made no other use of itthan to assemble taxerxes. of queen Pary satis. Nor did she stop here. troops on all sides, and to obtain aid from Arble Having, as before stated,conceived an implacaAs soon as Tissaphernes had received the aid he hatred against Statira,she was poisoned by Arher command in a most refined manner. Agesilaus to depart from sought, he commanded for the lossof his beloved Asia, denouncing war against him in case of retaxerxes, being afflicted fusal. Statira, The Lacedaemonians and their confedeand suspectinghis mother, caused all her rates domestics to be put to the rack, when Gygis, one were alarmed : but Agesilaus heard the heralds of Tissaphernes with composure, and desired of her accomplices, discovered the whole. ArItaxerxes put the informant to death, and confined them to tell the wily satrap that he was his mother to Babylon ; but at length, time havunder great obligations to him for having made he {ing alleviatedhis griefs, allowed her to return the gods, by his perjury, enemies to Persia and to court, where, by an entire submission to his friends to Greece. Having thus dismissed the heralds, he made a show of invading Caria ; but will, she regained his favour, and bore much her death. finding that Tissaphernes had caused all his sway at court till After the death of Cyrus, Tissaphernes being troops to march into that province, he turned sent back to his former government, and invested towards Phrygia, the greater part of which he overran : after which, loaded with the spoils of power as the fallen prince, began with the same to harass and oppress the Greek cities within that province, he marched back by the sea-coast into Ionia, and wintered at Ephesus. the limitsof his authority. These cities sought The next spring,Agesilaus took the field, the aid of the Lacedaemonians, who sent Thimbro, ing givB.C. 399, with an army against them, which being phernes Tissaout that he would march into Lydia. believed that he would march directly strengthened by the forces brought back from Persia, they took the fieldagainst Tissaphernes. for Caria, and marched his troops thitherfor its Thimbro was, however, recalled upon some comdeceived. Agesilaus plaints, protection. But he was phernes entered Lydia, and approached Sardis. Tissaand sent into banishment, and the next hastened to its relief; but his horse year Dercyllidas was appointed his successor. Dercyllidas was a brave general, and a famous having arrived before the infantry,Agesilaus attacked were attended and defeated them with great slaughter, engineer, and his movements phernes Having heard that Tissa- and enriched both himself and his army with the success. with some Pharnabazus were at variance, he spoilsof the conquered Persians. and In the greatest prosperity we should be minda truce made with the former, and entered the ful Hitherto, Tissaphernes had province of the latter, advancing as far as JEolis. of a change. Pharnabazus was driven from city to city,and revelled in the smiles of Artaxerxes. The loss fearingthat the conqueror would invade the monarch's favour. At at length, of thisbattle forfeited Phrygia, the chief province of his government, the same time, Conon, arriving at the Persian he made a truce with him, leaving him in poscourt, made the breach wider by a complaint session he he brought against him of depriving the soldiers of the cities had captured. The conqueror now abling turned his arms against on board Conon's fleet their pay, thereby disof Tissaphernes in Caria, where he usually resided. him from rendering the king any service. Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus united against The charges were aggravated by queen Parysatis, him, and surprisedhim in a disadvantageous post. who was actuated by an irreconcilablehatred Pharnabazus advised an attack upon the Greeks, against all who had a share in the defeat and but Tissaphernes, who had experienced their death of Cyrus. Artaxerxes resolved upon the valour at Cunaxa, sent heralds to Dercyllidas to destructionof Tissaphernes ; but, being afraid to invitehim to a parley, and a truce ensued till the thority attack him openly, on account of the great auhad to he had in Asia, recourse answers was of their respective masters should be known. treachery for the accomplishment of his designs. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians, receiv- He charged Tithraustes, captain of the guards, ing from Asia, that Artaxerxes was accounts with this commission. He gave him two letters, nian, the one directedto Tissaphernes, empowering him under Conon the Atheequipping a powerful fleet then an exile in Cyprus, and supposing, to pursue the war against the Greeks at his own designed against them, rediscretion the other was addressed to Ariaeus, solved ; rightly,that it was him to assist to send Agesilaus, one of their kings, into governor of Larissa,commanding Asia, to make a diversion. Tithraustes with his counsel and forces in seizing Accordingly, Agesilaus set sailwith a consid- Tissaphernes. The willof the kings of Persia was erable body of troops, and arrived at Ephesus is law ; and had this not been the case, it to be feared before his expedition was heard of at the court that his wishes would have been too readily com-

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plied with, base though they may have been, in the surrounding countries to supply his army order to obtain his favour. In every country, and with provisions. Tithraustes, finding that Agesilaus was in all ages of the world, those have been met with for in Asia, sent Timocrates of carrying on the war who would readily imbrue their hands in the blood in order to gain the favour of Rhodes into Greece, with large sums of their fellow man of money, in their cities, retheir superior,utterly settingaside the rights of to corrupt the leading men to kindle humanity, and disregarding the laws of Heaven. a war against the Lacedaemonians. Gold, Such an one was Ariaeus. Upon the receipt of which is at alltimes a powerful incentive to good had in this case the desired to or evil, this letter,he desired Tissaphernes to come effect. The him, that they might confer about the operations cities Thebes, Argos, Corinth, and of others, entered Tissaphernes went into a confederacy, and war raged of the ensuing campaign. again ; but while he was among these unhappy states, b.c. 395. with a guard of 300 men In the beginning of the next spring,Agesilaus, bathing, according to the Persian custom, he was seized, and disarmed, and put into the who had already made the provinces of Upper hands of Tithraustes,who caused his head to be Asia tremble at his name, formed the design of struck off, and sent into Persia. It was given, attacking the king of Persia in the heart of his Xenophon, by the king to Parysatis,an ache was upon the point dominions. As ceptable says of putting his designs into execution, the Spartan Epicypresent to one of her revengeful temper. Well has itbeen said of revenge, that it sitslike didas arrived to let him know that Sparta was threatened with a furious war, poison upon the stomach : itswells and convulses and that the Ephori recalled him for the defence of his counnature, and there isno good health to be expected try. it Agesilaus obeyed the summons, till is conquered and expelled. thereby to have This dark deed of Artaxerxes seems demonstrating the truth of what was said," That been considered by ancient writers as a retribu- at Sparta the laws ruled men, te and not men phernes e act of justice; and it is certain that Tissa- the laws." On his departure, he said, " That looked upon probity and honour as 30,000 of the king's archers drove him out of Asia," alluding to a species of Persian coin, the that he made a jest the most of empty names; Daric, which had on one side the figure of an sacred oaths ; and believed the whole abilityand policy of a statesman consisted in knowing how archer, and which had been dispersedto that number to deceive others by hypocrisy, fraud, perfidy, in Greece, to corrupt the leading men in the The fact is, in these dark ages of other states. It was by these acts of deceitful and perjury. bond of union betwixt and deceiving policy that the Greeks were no the world, there was led All had strayed into the paths of onward to ruin. The poet has well man and man. said : error, and none of the rulers of the earth sought " Unless corruption firstdeject the pride after that light from heaven which could alone And guardian vigour of the free-born soul, guide them into the paths of truth. It remained All crude attempts of violence are vain : forrevealed religioninthegospel of the Redeemer For firm within, and while at heart untouch'd, Ne'er yet by force was freedom overcome. to teach mildly beaming on the heart of man, But soon as independence stoops the head, the world true honour, humanity, and justice. To vice enslaved, and vice-creating wants, As a reward for the execution of the command foul corrupting band, whose waste Then to some These heightened wants with fatal bounty feeds, ceed of Artaxerxes, Tithraustes was appointed to sucFrom man to man the slackening ruin runs Tissaphernes. His firstact was, to send Till the whole state, unnerved, in slavery sinks." presents to Agesilaus, telling him that the cause Thomson. being removed, nothing could prevent of the war On his return from the Persian court, Conon, an accommodation ; and that Artaxerxes would allow the Greek citiesin Asia to enjoytheir having brought money to pay the soldiers and liberty, and to supply the fleet mariners their arrears, paying him the customary tribute, which was all on thatthe Lacedaemonians requiredwhen they with arms and provisions,took Pharnabazus first The Agesilaus replied,that board, and sailed in quest of the enemy. the war. commenced he could do nothing without orders from Sparta. Persian fleet consisted of nearly 100 vessels; As he was willing, however, to give Tithraustes that of the Lacedaemonians was not so numerous. Cnidas, They met with each other near the satisfaction freedom from danger, he removed of Conon, who into a maritime city of Asia Minor. out of his province, and marched Phrygia, Tithraustes defraying the charges of had in some measure occasioned the capture of his march. On hisway thither, Agesilaus received Athens, by losing the sea-fightat iEgospotamos, " from the magistrates of Sparta, giving him a letter The Goat's River," determined to make an or the command the fleet, well as of the land as of effortto regain his lost honours. On the other forces ; by which new hand, Pisander was desirous of justifying his by commission he became sole commander of all the troops in Asia. This conduct and valour the choice which Agesilaus, drew him down to the sea-coast, where he put his brother-in-law, had made in appointing in the fleet order, and appointed Pisander admione him admiral. The struggle was a severe ; ral, but Conon having boarded Pisander'sown ordering him forthwith to stand out to sea. vessel, Having settledthe maritime affairs, Agesilaus slew him, when the rest of the fleetsought refuge in flight. Conon pursued them, and took fifty He renewed his design of invading Phrygia. of their ships, which destroyed the power of the spoiled the country, and from thence marched by the invitation of Spithridates,a noble Persian, Lacedaemonians by sea. into Paphlagonia. He concluded a league with After this victory, Conon and Pharnabazus Cotys. king of that country, and returning into sailed round the islands and coasts of Asia, Phrygia, took the strong city of Dascylium, and and reduced most of the cities which, in those The to the Lacedaemonians. wintered in the palace of Pharnabazus, obliging parts, were

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which agreed to this treaty, against the refractory, by which clause the treaty was enforced upon all. Such was the fruit the jealousy divisions of and which armed the Grecian citiesagainst each other. By this treaty,the articles the former Athenian great revolution ; and finding themselves unable of to maintain a war of equal bravery with men peace of b.c. 449 were rescinded,and the paramount influence of Persia in Greece with themselves, they despatched Antalcidas,one established. to Tiribazus, governor of SarBy it,allthe various states were of their citizens, pendent rendered indedis, entreating him to conclude a peace with of each other, and those powerful confederacies Artaxerxes upon the best terms he could. The which had so long harassed and endangered nians other cities of Greece in alliancewith the Athethe Persian empire, demolished ; while the last " sent at the same time their deputies,with clause of enforcing the peace with ships and Conon at their head. The terms which Antalcidas a fresh source money," proved of discord,and king should possess enabled Sparta to tyrannize afresh over the states proposed were, that the volved allthe Greek citiesin Asia ; but that the islands that refused obedience to her authority, and inher in a ruinous war bans and other citiesin Greece should enjoytheir with the Theliberty, and be governed by their own laws. Thus when Sparta under Epaminondas. The Athenian deputies were unanimous in reshook jecting the astonished Artaxerxes on his throne, ests these proposals. Setting aside the inter- from her divisionwith the other states, in the language of the poet, she gave up, of the Greeks in Asia, they saw themselves exposed by this treaty : the Athenians to the loss " fair-spread o'er Asia's sunny shore, of the islesof Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros ; the Their kindred cities to perpetual chains. Thebans to the cities Bceotia; and the Argives of What could so hase, so infamous a thought to Corinth, with the loss of Argos in prospect. In Spartan hearts inspire ? Jealous, they saw The deputies therefore withdrew without conBespiring Athens rear again her cluding :
walls And the pale fury fired them, once again anything. To crush this rival city to the dust. Tiribazus,however, was resolved to carry into For now no more the noble social soul effect so desirablea treaty. The firstthing he Of Liberty my families combined ; Conon, who was But by short views, and selfish resolved upon was, the ruin of passions, broke, Dire as when friends are rankled into foes, the great barrier in the way of its accomplishment. They mixed severe, and waged eternal war : nians. In this he was aided by the LacedaemoNor felt they, furious, their exhausted force; for this brave man's Revenge success Nor with false glory, discord, madness blind, in the restoration Saw how the blackening storm from Thracia came. of Athens dictated to them a Long years rolled on, by many a battle stain'd line of policywhich reflects the greatest disgrace The blush and boast of fame ! where courage, art, talcidas And upon the Spartan character of this period. An: military glory shone supreme by them to accuse Conon of was But let detesting ages from the scene charged Of Greece self-mangled, turn the sickening eye." ment purloining the king's money for the re-establishThomson. of the Athenian state, in which accusation zus there was not the shadow of truth. But TiribaArtaxerxes being now deliveredfrom all fear grasped at it, and imprisoned Conon, by of his long dreaded opponent, Greece, turned his which act he was assured that there would be no further opposition on his part This done, Tiri- whole power against Evagoras, king of Cyprus, bazus next who had refused to agree to the peace, and he secretly aided the Lacedaemonians for the purpose of reduced the whole island,b.c. 385. with large sums of money During the next year, Artaxerxes engaged in fittingut a fleet,hat they might be able to oppose o t he went the other states of Greece. After this, another war againstthe Cardusians,who probably This people inhabited to the (Jourt Persia, to give Artaxerxes an account had revolted from him. of of the negociation. Artaxerxes was pleased the mountains between the Euxine and Caspian with the terms, and urged their adoption. At the Seas, in the north of Media, and being inured same were actime, Tiribazus laid before the king the from their infancy to a laborious life, counted Artaxerxes marched a warlike people. the Lacedaemonians had accusations which brought against Conon ; and some against them with an army of 300,000 foot, authors, according to Cornelius Nepos, have affirmed,that and 20,000 horse : but the country, by reason he was taxerxes. itsbarrenness, not affording provisions cient of executed at Susa by the order of ArsuffiNotwithstanding the silence of Xenoto maintain so numerous an army, they were soon the rect reduced to the extremity of feeding phon on this subject, statement may be corbeen the policy of despotic upon their beasts of burden. Their provisions ; for it has ever became so scarce, that an ass's head was sold for able to rulers to put to death allthose who were oppose their wishes and designs. sixty drachmas, about thirty-five ounds sterling, p The king's provisions began to fail, Upon the return of Tiribazus, B.C. 387, he and only a few horses remained. In this critical the deputies of the Grecian states to juncture, summoned be present at the reading of the treaty,which Tiribazus contrived a stratagem which saved the " 1. That all the Grecian citiesin read thus: army from destruction. The Cardusians had Asia Minor, with the important islesof Cyprus two kings, who were encamped apart from each to and Clazomenae, should be subject Persia : and, other. Tiribazus found that there was a division 2. That all the cities between them, and that jealousy prevented their of Greece, both small and Acting upon this,he advised great, should be free, and governed by their acting in concert. laws." own Artaxerxes engaged to assist by the king to enter into a treaty with them, which sea brought sepabeing adopted, both princes were and land, with ships and money, the states

the revolt of consequence of the victory was, almost all the alliesof Sparta, several of whom declared for the Athenians, and the rest resumed their ancient liberty. The Lacedaemonians saw this with concern

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ratelyto submit to Artaxerxes, and thus saved his army from impending ruin. At this time, Tiribazus stood accused by a jealous rival, Orontes, of forming designs against Artaxerxes, and of secretly corresponding with Ou the king's return to the Lacedaemonians. Susa, the service which Tiribazus had rendered him, inclined him to have his cause examined, sioners and to grant him a fair hearing. Three commisappointed of distinguished probity were
for the purpose, and the result was, that he was ished restored to the king's favour, and Orontes ban-

check the ambition of Ochus, who had shown towering disposition,he declared Darius, the

and allowed him to wear eldest, his successor, taxerxes ArTiribazus. whom the royal tiara. But had provoked by successively promising him two of his daughters in marriage, and afterwards disappointing him by marrying them himself, drew Darius and fiftyof his brothers into a conspiracy against the lifeof their father. signs, The day was fixed for the execution of their de-

the court in disgrace.

From thirst of rule, what dire disasters flow! How flames that guilt which pride has taught to glow ! desire, Wish gains on wish, desire surmounts Hope fans the blaze, and envy feeds the fire. From crime to crime aspires the furious soul, Nor laws, nor oaths, nor fears, its rage control. Till Heaven, just, at length, awakes, supremely And levels all its haughty schemes in dust." Smollet.

privy to the when an eunuch, who was plot, discovered it to the king, and the conspirators were seized as they were entering the palace, and put to death. between Ariaspes and A contest now arose Ochus, the legitimate sons, and Arsames, a favourite natural son of the king, about the succession. Ochus, however, contrived the death of both his brothers, and by these atrocious acts secured for himself the possession of the for these domestic throne. He soon ascended it, tragediesbroke the old king'sheart,in the ninetyfourth year of his age, and the forty-sixthof his

Artaxerxes had long meditated the invasion of reign. Artaxerxes was Egypt ; but the foregoing events had prevented a mild and generous prince, him from carrying this design into operation. and governed with great wisdom, clemency, and At length,in the first justice ; whence he was honoured, and his authoryear of the reign of Nectaity lowing respected throughout his empire. The folnebis,b.c. 374, a powerful army of Persians was sent thither,under the command of Pharnabazus, anecdotes, says Dr. Hales, as recorded by his character, and to by Grecian mercenaries Plutarch, seem to mark which was augmented under Iphicrates. The war was to begin with the confirm the treason of Cyrus, his brother, before his open rebellion. siege of Pelusium, but Nectanebis having had " " At first," t sufficientime to provide for the defence of that says Plutarch, Artaxerxes Mnecable, to imitate the mildness of the approach to itwas found to be impracti- mon place, seemed entirely he bore, by t either by sea or land. The fleet,herefore, the first Artaxerxes, whose name instead of making a descent there, sailed to the behaving affably to allwho addressed him, and Mendesian mouth of the Nile,which not being so by distributinghonours and rewards to persons as well fortified the Pelusian, where the enemy of merit with a lavish hand. He took care that be embittered with was expected, they carried the fortress that punishments should never insult. If he received presents, he appeared as guarded it,and put all the Egyptians that were crates found in it to the sword. After this action, Iphi- well pleased as those who offered them, or rather as those who received favours from him ; and in advised the embarkation of the troops, and the attack of Memphis ; but the main body of the conferring favours, he always kept a countenance thing, army not being yet arrived, Pharnabazus would of benignity and pleasure. There was not anyThis prob however trifling,rought to him by way not undertake any affairof moment. bably tians saved Egypt, for the delay gave the Egypof present, which he did not receive kindly. Even when one Omisus brought him a pometime to recover their courage, and to pregranate pare ' for the conflict. The expedition was tually virsize, he said, By the of uncommon if he were at an made end ; and the only effect that it light of Mithra, this man, produced was, a mutual enmity between the two governor of a small city,would make it a great When himself,laid one.' he was once and generals : for Pharnabazus, to excuse upon a journey, the whole blame of the failure upon Iphicrates, people presented him with a variety of things by having nothing else Pharnabazus. on reason, the way, a labouring man, and he, with more Pharnabazus, however, was the strongest at to present to him, ran to the river,and brought Artaxerxes, in his hands. him some court, of which Iphicrateswas water well assured, and, byhis humour knowing the Persian character, he privatelyhired pleased with the act, showed 1000 darics. a ship, and returned to Athens. a gold cup and sending the man Twelve years after, Artaxerxes resumed his When Euclidas, the Lacedaemonian, said many designs of insolentthings to him, he contented himself with Egypt to his rule. Tachus, subjecting him who had succeeded Nectanebis, drew together ordering the captain of his guard to give ' his forces to repel the invader; but having this reply, You may say what you please to the king ; but the king would have you to know that marched out of Egypt into Phenicia, in order to " These anecdotes Persians there,the Egyptians revolted he can not only say, but do.' attack the denote the merciful prince: nevertheless there in his absence, and placed his cousin NectanebuS have seen, when the king as we were on the throne. (See moments, the History of the Egyptians.) humanity, The close of the reign of Artaxerxes was paid little respect to the rights of bent on revenge. Yet Artaxerxes may be by domestic broils. The monarch when embittered had three legitimate sons, Darius, Ariaspes, said to have been one of the best of the monarchs To Ochus, and 115 that were of the ancient empire of Persia ; and it is strange and spurious. that his reign is omitted by Persian historians. and to prevent contentions about the crown,
.

86

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

t and joinedhe Egyptians, who still maintained At first, their independence. Ochus sent his The death of Ariaspes and Arsames had alien- generals against them ; but these having failed ated to reduce them, Ochus himself took the the minds of the nobles and people from command Ochus : and fearing this public odium, he concealed of the expedition. He besieged Sidon, which betrayed to him by Mentor, the Rhodian, was the death of his father for ten months, donians and conducted the administration of affairsin and Tennes, the king of that place. The Sihis own his name, set fireto the city,and destroyed men, until he deemed authority e and children, with all their treasures. sufficiently stablished. By one of his decrees, women, Ochus sold the ashes, which contained great he caused himself to be proclaimed king throughout for a high the whole of the empire, as though by his quantitiesof melted gold and silver, father's order. At length, however, he openly Tennes, the traitor, price, and rewarded with death. The fate of Sidon terrified the rest ascended the tbrone, taking the name of Arof'j He is known in history chieflyby his the Phenicians into submission, among whom taxerxes. Ochus. to have the Jews may be included, who seem proper name, No sooner -was the death of Artaxerxes cause. t joinedhe common made known, than all Asia Minor, Syria, Phenicia, After this,Ochus invaded Egypt, b. c. 350, in and many other provinces, revolted. By this the ninth year of his reign, which he reduced of the chiefly by the assistance of Mentor, the Rhodian, general insurrection, half the revenues diverted into different See the History of crown were and his Greek mercenaries. channels, and to the remainder would not have been sufficient the Egyptians. All the revolted princes being reduced, and mal-contents, carry on the war against so many But this formidable had they acted in concert peace established throughout the empire, Ochus the destruction of the gave himself up to ease and luxury, leaving the revolt, which menaced to nought, through the Persian empire, came to administration of public affairs his ministers. Bagoas, the Egyptian treachery and corruption of the leading partisans, The chief of these were especiallyof Orontes and Rheomitres, chiefs of eunuch, who was a great favourite,and Mentor, Asia Minor, who delivered up their forces into the Rhodian ; the former of whom governed the the monarch's hands. Datames alone, governor provinces of Upper Asia, and the latterthose of Lower Asia. trouble, and of Cappadocia, gave him much About b. c. 344, alarmed by the greatness of to Cornelius Nepos, he was assassinated according Philip,king of Macedon, Ochus sent some by Mithridates, one of his intimates, who had of his been suborned to the act by Ochus. trustiest ministers on an embassy to Philip,under Ochus was the most cruel and wicked monarch pretence of offeringhim his friendship and alliance, but in reality to discover his strength, vent of this race of the princes of Persia. To prefuture disturbances at home and abroad, he resources, and designs. The young Alexander, then about twelve years old, entertained the amcut off in one day all the royal family, without Ocha, bassadors in the absence of his father, and gained i any regard to consanguinity, age, or sex. he had by his own theiraffections his politeness and good sense. { sister and mother-in-law, (for Even at this early age, he exhibited signs of was married her daughter,) buried alive ; and he j one caused his archers to slay with their arrows approaching greatness. The ambassadors were j of his uncles, and 100 of his children and grandchildren. surprised at his questions,which related to their j This uncle appears to have been the monarch and their kingdom, and the geography ; They father of Sisigambis, who was mother of Darius counted the famed j of their country. Codomannus ; for Q. Curtius relates,that Ochus shrewdness of Philip as nothing compared with j caused eighty of her brothers to be massacred in the vivacity and enterprizing genius of his son, " day. All the nobilitywho were one suspected and said to each other, This boy, indeed, will be a great king ; ours is a rich one ;" an observthroughout the empire, shared the of disaffection ation fate as the relativesof Ochus. The sorrows ture same which remarkably accords with the Scripto have been his sport. characters of both kings, of the goat and of mankind seem 5 But the cruelties 7 ; xi. 2, 3. that Ochus practised had the the ram, Dan. viii. It has been recorded in the history of the reverse effect of that which he intended. If a he Ochus acted monarch desires the fidelity his subjects, Egyptians in what a cruel manner of must gain it by a spirit of love ; severity and, towards that people ; trampling alike upon their laws, and liberties, more, the whole and filling still cruelty only estrange their affections religion, In revenge for his counfrom the throne. In the fifthyear of his reign, country with dismay. try's Artabazus, governor of one of the western provinces, wrongs, Bagoas, who had long waited for an opportunity to rid his country of itsoppressor, revolted, and, by the assistanceof Chares at length, in B. c. 338, poisoned Ochus, and placed and an Athenian force, defeated 70,000 of the Arses, his youngest son, upon the throne, allowking's troops. Ochus threatened to make Avar ing him the name on the Athenians, and they recalled Chares. of king, while he himself retained Afterwards, however, Artabazus procured assistance all the authority. from the Thebans, and defeated the armies of Ochus in two engagements ; but the king having bribed the Thebans, Artabazus was Arses did not long his enjoy shadow of power ; again left single-handed, and after three years' for in his third year Bagoas, finding that his likely to be punished by the joung resistance, he was forced to fleeand take refuge treasons were with Philip of Macedon. and put him monarch, anticipated his intention, This rebellion was no sooner and his whole family to death, in the third year quelled, than the Sidonians, Phenicians, and Cyprians revolted, of his reign, b. c. 335.
DARIUS

OCHUS,

OR

HARAB

I.

"

"

'

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

S7

DARIUS

CODOMANNUS,

OR

DARAB

II.

confine himself to such underhand he raised a powerful army, collected a large fleet, and engaged able officers to command both, among whom may be mentioned Memnon the Rhodian. Darius Codomannus; therefore,in the beginning of his reign, involved himself in a war with this mighty monarch, of whom the voiee of prophecy had said," And a mighty king shallstand that shall rule with great dominion, up, and do according to his will," Dan. xi. 3; which received a remarkable accomplishment in the event we are about to narrate, and others that will be found in the history of the Macedonians. It was early in the spring of the year b. c. 334, that Alexander set out on his On the accession of Darius Codomannus to expedition. His army consisted of 30,000 foot, the throne, he had no competitors ; for the royal and 5000 horse. With these he arrived in twenty days family and the principalnobility had been destroyed at by Ochus and Bagoas. The latter, ever, Sestos, on the Hellespont, over howwhich he had them conveyed to Asia by a fleet fear for his life. Finding caused him some of 160 galleys, besidestransports. No army opposed hislanding. that Codomannus was not to be entirelygoverned, Before he set out, Alexander Bagoas resolved to remove him as he had done assembled his his predecessor, by poison. The attempt was dis- army at Dios, in Macedonia, where he exhibited covered, in games and sacrifices all the pomp of Grecian and Bagoas was compelled to drink on the fatal potion himself. The empire was superstition. It was this occasion that he now, had a remarkable dream, or therefore,fullyestablished, and Codomannus was vision,in which, as " he related himself,while he was far richer" than " the last three kings" considering how of to subdue Asia, a Persia, because he was person in the dress of the possessed of the vast additional treasures procured by the plunders of Jewish high priest appeared to him, and encouraged him not to delay, but to pass over Ochus, after the reduction of Egypt and the with confidence; for that he himself would head his other revolted provinces. His personal bravery gained him universal respect and admiration army, and give him the Persian empire. This circumstance, throughout the empire. which is related by JoDarius ascended the throne shortly before the sephus, has been questioned, because it is not noticed by any heathen historians;but their assassination Philip of Macedon, which event of to his positive took place near the end of the same silence is not sufficient invalidate year ; and, as Alexander complained, by Persian instigation, testimony. As these questioners belong to the of those who doubt the verity of the and bribery of the assassins. This was alleged number as one supernatural details of his publicgrievances ; and Bagoas, who of the sacred history itself, it is impossible not to see that the then governed the Persian empire, would not principle of here have scrupled to remove their objection is the same. There are five a foe by such a mode, cogent reasons, however, which demand our belief especially as Philip had been elected captain general of the Grecian states, for the purpose of of thisstatement. 1 Because Alexander had been invading Persia. Codomannus himself set the a clear and conspicuous object prophecy, and of ander, that an operation upon his mind by dream, or viprice of 10,000 talents upon the head of Alexsion, was as likely as the cases of Nebuchadnezzar with which Alexander also openly reproached him by letter. The assassinemployed and Belshazzar, and similarto them. 2. Because it seems to be as necessary thatthe Almighty Alexander, son of iEropus, commander was should of the Thessalian cavalry ; but the plot was covered dis- have been made known to him as the bestower of by Parmenio. empires* as to the other great conquerors, all of In his letter, it. 3. Because Alexander complained of the whom had been brought to avow an operation upon the underhand aggressions of Darius, and charged mind of Alexander, showing him in what position he stood, was a neceshim with sending " improper letters"through sary all parts of Greece to excite them to make war sequel to the operations upon the minds of on him, and with sending money to the Lacedaemothose former conquerors. 4. Because the impression nians described as being made by this dream to and others, corrupt his friendsand break the peace. This accords in a remarkable manner upon Alexander, and the conduct which resulted is with Scripture, which represents Darius as the from it, in unison with his character and conduct first as described by other historians. 5. Because aggressor in the war that ensued. " And now the Jews enjoyed the privilegeswhich are will I show thee the truth. Behold, there shall stand up yet three kings in Persia, [Darius thus, described as the result of this transaction,and NoArtaxerxes Mnemon, and Darius Ochus which itwould not otherwise be easy to account ;*] for,or to refer to any other origin. : " The short reign of Arses, which was merely nominal, The spiritin which Alexander invaded Asia is omitted both by Justin and Scripture. In chronology, it is sometimes added to that of Ochus, as in that of Dr. may be learned from the followingcircumstances. Hale's Analysis. Before he left home, he disposed of almost all
not
measures:
-

This prince was a collateral branch of this dynasty. His grandfather was brother to Darius Nothus, one of whose sons only, Ostanes, escaped the ruthless massacre of the family by Ochus. Ostanes married Sisigambis, his own by sister, he had Codomannus. whom During the reign of Ochus, this prince lived in obscurity,and supported himself as an astanda, or courier, by carrying the royal despatches. At length, however, he signalizedhimself in killing a Cadusian champion, who had defiedthe Persian manner as army to single combat in the same Goliath defied the armies of Israel. For this was rewarded by exploit Darius Codomannus Ochus with the important government of Armenia, from whence he was advanced to the throne, upon the murder of Arses and his family by Bagoas.

xi. 2. Darius did

and the fourth shallbe far richer than they all: and by his strength through his riches he shall stir up all against the realm of Grecia," Dan.

88 the

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

his friends, revenues among of the crown and he took with him only seventy talents,or a When Perdiccas month's pay for his army. asked him what he reserved for himself, he " This itwas that furnished him replied, Hope." to advise and execute ; this itwas with energy that set both his head and heart to work, and that animated him to do his utmost ; this itwas overcame all difficulties, and aided him in the accomplishment of designs that seemed almost beyond his reach. To hope is the way to have, and the issue is often owing to beliefand expectation. Transcendant above all other hopes, however, is the Christian'shope, of which the poet has said,
"

with

an

army

of 100,000

foot,and 20,000

horse,

to oppose his passage ; contrary to the advice of

that experienced general, Memnon the Rhodian, whose opinion was, that they should not hazard a battle,but lay waste the plains,and even the

t cities, hereby to starve the invaders, and oblige Alexander to return into Europe ; as well as to make a powerful diversion,by carrying war into Macedonia and Greece. This plan was
"

rejected

Hope ! let the wretch once conscious of the joy, Whom now despairing agonies destroy, Speak, for he can. and none so well as he, What treasures centre, what delights in thee. Had he the gems, the spices, and the land That boasts the treasure all at his command, The fragrant grove, the' inestimable mine, Were light when weighed against one smile of thine." Cowper.

as Alexander landed in Asia, he went to and sacrificed Pallas,the patroness of the Greeks, and offered libationsat the tomb he proposed for his of the hero Achilles,whom model. soon

As

to Troy,*

Alexander marched to Lamphad determined to destroy,in order to punish the rebellionof its inhabitants. Anaximenes, a famous historian, who had been very intimate with Philip his father, and his own (Alexander's) tutor, was a native of this ander, to meet him, and Alexcity. Anaximenes came suspecting that he would plead for his city to be spared, in order that he might be beforehand with him, declared that he would not grant " The favour I any request he might make. have to desire of you," said Anaximenes, " is, that you would destroy Lampsacus," by which witty evasion the city was saved. Alexander passed onward from Lampsacus, to the river Granicus, % in the lesser and came Phrygia. On the banks of this river he found the governors of the western provinces assembled, raising cries of joy. The Persians,seeing the detachment advance * Respecting the site of ancient Troy, modern phers geograinto the river,began to let fly their arrows, and have been greatly at a and classical antiquaries was loss. The plain of Troy has been repeatedly visited by not so march to a place where the declivity classical travellers, in order to verify Homer's description great, in order to prevent the Macedonians from of the tomb of IlUs, the green fig trees, the hot and cold landing. As they drew near the bank, a fierce Simois, and of the Scamander, springs, and the sources Thymbrius vouring ensued ; the Macedonians endeaengagement ; but none of them have agreed in fixing the localities of the Iliad. In the days of Strabo, however, to land, and the Persians pushing them Troy was considered to have stood within three ancient commanded again into the river. As Memnon Ilium, which, as Strabo informs us, was miles of New in this place, the first ranks of the Macedonians only a small village,distinguished by a temple dedicated to Minerva. perished ; and the rest, after having with great into difficulty is about thirty miles in direct distance t Lampsacus gained the shore, were driven anew from Ilium, and was for its safe and capaonce renowned the river. Alexander, however, who had followed cious harbour at the entrance of the Propontis, or Sea of them closely, reinforced them with his best Marmora, cated opposite Callipolis, and its noble temple deditroops, and putting himself at their head, routed to Cybele, the Phrygian goddess. It was also famous lowed for its excellent wine, on which account it was the Persians, upon which the whole army folgiven to From
Troy

w sacus,thich he

with scorn, as unworthy of the magnanimity of the Persians." Arsites,governor of Phrygia, moreover, protested that he would never suffer the Greeks to lay waste the country over which he presided. The Persian cavalry, which was very numerous, lined the banks of the Granicus ; and the foot, consisting chiefly of Greek mercenaries, was posted behind the cavalry on an easy ascent. Parmenio, commander fantry, of the Macedonian inobserving the dispositionof the enemy's army, advised Alexander to encamp on the opposite banks of the river,that his troops might have rest, and not to attempt the passage till the next morning, the river being deep, the banks craggy and steep, his troops fatigued with their march, whilst those of the enemy had rested for several days. Alexander repliedthat itwould be a disgrace to him and his army should they, after crossing the Hellespont, suffer their progress to be stopped by a rivulet. The two armies continued some time looking at each other on the opposite banks of the river, The Persians waited as if dreading the event. tillthe Macedonians entered the river,in order to charge them to advantage upon their landing, and the latter seemed to be making choice of a positions place proper for crossing,and observing the disof theirenemies. Alexander, at length, having ordered his horse to be brought, commanded his nobles to follow him. He himself the right wing, and Parmenio the commanded left. The king first caused a strong detachment to march into the river,himself following itwith the rest of his forces. Parmenio advanced afterwards out wing ; the trumpets throughwith the left the whole host sounding, and the whole army

manus.

Themistocles, the Athenian Longiexile, by Artaxerxes By some travellers its ruins have been identified lately discovered at and around a village called with those Tchardack.

t The Granicus lay thirty-five miles from Lampsacus in direct distance. It is a narrow, deep, and rapid stream, originating in the northern slope of the range of Ida, and a north-east course running of forty geographical miles to the Propontis. Its western hanks are said to be high, Its modern is the Oostrola. name steep, and rugged.

after and attacked the enemy on all sides. The Persian horse A sickening scene ensued. first defeated with great slaughter,and the was fantry fate. The Grecian ininfantry shared the same retiredin good order to a neighbouring hill, whence they sent deputies to Alexander, leave to retreat unmolested ; but demanding Alexander following the dictatesof wrath rather

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

89

than those of reason, rushed into the midst of this body of soldiers, and destroyed the whole, taken prisoners. except 2000, who were In this engagement, the Persians lost 20,000 On the side of the foot, and 2500 horse. Macedonians, twenty-five of the royal horse

Having possessed himself of Miletus,Alexander into Caria, in order to besiege Halicarnassus, the capital|| that province, which defied of This city was his power. cess acof most difficult ; nature and art combined in its defence. had thrown himself into it Memnon, moreover,
marched

with a considerable body of troops, and seconded b~ of great prowess, Ephialtes,he ,nothergeneral resolved to withstand the Macedonian power to they were years after carried the utmost. Whatever could be expected from the many whence to Rome by Q. Metellus. According to Arrian, most intrepidbravery, and the most consummate knowledge in the art of war, was practised on killed,and about sixty of the other horse were donians, laid this occasion by the adverse parties. The Macethirty foot, who the next day were nearly up and equipage in one common with immense labour, filled the ditches, with their arms * Their fathers and children had an and brought theirengines near the walls ; but their grave. demolished, and their engines exemption granted them from every kind of works were soon burned. Repeated attempts of this nature were tributeand service. The victory of the Granicus put Alexander in made, and any other general but Alexander would have foregone the enterprise; but he encouraged t possession of Sardis,fhe capital of Asia Minor, his troops to persevere, and at length they sucwas the bulwark of the Persian empire on ceeded. which The citizenssurrendered Memnon the side next the sea. and, going abandoned the city, board the Persian fleet,of which he was adon his approach, upon which Alexander gave on miral, he conveyed the inhabitantswith all their them their liberty, and permitted them to enjoy to ander, their own laws. effects the island of Cos, not far distant.AlexAlexander arrived at Ephesus, J finding the city without riches and inhabitants Four days after, only carrying with him those who had been banished rased itto the ground, the citadel from thence for being his adherents, and restored excepted. To conciliate itspopular form of government. Here he offered the Asiatic coloniesfrom Greece, Alexander now declared them free, and exempt sacrificesto Diana, and assigned to the temple from tribute. This had the wished-for effect ; of that goddess all the tributesthat were paid to the Persians. He was all the Greek cities Asia declared in his favour, ambitious of having the of h name of the celebrated temple of Diana, which which very much facilitatedis progress. The last action of this military campaign, acwas then rebuilding,changed for his own, and he cording in to Diodorus Siculus,was offered to defray the whole cost of the work on with the Maran such conditions; but the Ephesians evaded the arians,^[ inconsiderable people inhabiting border of Lycia. Their city was inconsistent the western request, by telling him that it was for one god to erect temples to another ! placed on a rock, and was accounted impregnable. These rude mountaineers fellon the rear of the The force of flattery could no further go." Macedonian army, destroyed many men, and captured This enBefore Alexander leftEphesus, the deputies of a great part of their baggage. raged Alexander, who immediately invested their the citiesof Tralles and Magnesia waited upon him with the keys of those places. stronghold, and attacked itby storm for two successive From Ephesus, Alexander marched to Miletus," days. The old men among the besieged, seeing no prospect of a longer defence, would -which city,deceived by the hopes of a powerful have advised surrender; but the young men support from the Persian fleetthen lying off the Memnon coast, closed their gates against him. scorned such advice. Their elders then advised had shut himself up in this fortress, together them to put alltheirsuperannuated men, with many determined to make a of his soldiers, and was and children, to death, and then, with their women donians. to vigorous defence. After several days' fruitless if possible, force their way through the MaceEvery This advice was acted upon. sieged efforts,however, Alexander compelled the beto capitulate. He treated the Milesians one going home, made a great feast, and after with great humanity, allowing them to live aceating and drinking with his wife and children, cording to their own laws. Memnon was shut the door of his house, and set it on fire! allowed to march While the fireswere out with his Greeks unmolested ; but of raging, to the number the Persians were put to the sword, or sold for six hundred, they forced their way through the Macedonian guards, and escaped to the mounslaves. tains. perished at the firstattack. Alexander ordered Lysippus to make their statues in brass, which were set up in Dios, a city of Macedon, from
"

This account is taken from the Greeks, the only one have of the battle nf the Granicus. It seems incredible, in the combat with the Greek that mercenaries, who were men of equal courage with themselves, they should all have been killed on the spot, after a brave defence, without a proportionate carnage on the part ans. of the MacedoniFalse love of their country's glory, doubtless, caused the Greek historians to depart from the truth in narrating this event.
we

Alexander now put his army into winter quarters ; but before he did this, in order to
rect of Miletus in dionce It is now distance. a heap of ruins. It was or famous for the stately mausoleum, tomb, erected in honour of Mausolus, king of Caria, of which this city was the capital, by Artemisia, his widowed queen. Herodotus, Diothe father of historians, was born here ; so also was nysius, the Greek historian of Rome, and the poets Heraclitus and Callimachus. 11 The appellation, Marmarians, still exists in Marmoof a bay on the south-east side of the Gull rice, the name habitants of Macri, on the west side of Lycia; and the present in-

liThis city lay forty miles south-east

+ Sardis lay about 138 miles in direct distance, the Granicus.

lay south-west of Sardis, I Ephesus about Roman miles in direct distance.

s. e.

of

sixty-three

" Miletus lay twenty-eight

in

by

miles south-east of Ephesus direct distance, on the Lalmian Gulf, which is supposed some to be the Lake of Ufa Uashee.

habits

as

described are their ancestors.

as

being

of the

same

predatory

90

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

the foot of the pass, of which the Telmessians conciliate his soldiers,he dismissed such as had married that year, and sent them to their had possessed themselves, at the close of night, homes, with orders to return again next spring. hoping that the fear of an attack would induce This was a wise military regulation,and seems To his great joy they did them to withdraw. to have heen derived from the law prescribed withdraw, and shut themselves up in their city, so that he passed through by Moses, Deut. xxiv. 5. Probably Aristotle, the without any obstruction. He passed their city by as one of inferior tutor of Alexander, learned it from the Jews, of he makes honourable mention : the phi- consequence, his great being now to gain losopher, whom object he met indeed, speaks of a Jew, whom From possession of the interiorof Asia Minor. information to the defile of Telmessus, Alexander crossed the in Asia, as communicating more him in the Greek language than he received in high upland of Milyas, which Bochart deduces from the Phenician word mulia, " an elevated return. Alexander adopted the mound," to Celgenae,t About the same time, which surrendered after a truce of sixty days, granted by him bold expedient of dismissing his fleet, which was with a promise to that effect, no if too small to cope with the Persian fleet, succours collected should arrive from Phenicia and Egypt, and yet too large for in the interim. clared From CelaenaeAlexander marched over his treasury to maintain. In doing this he dethe lofty chain now to his lieutenants, that by conquering the calledthe Moorad Dagh, to Gorland, he would render himself master of the sea, dium,t the ancient and celebrated residence of king Midas, situated on the river Sangarius. since every harbour that surrendered to him must Having taken the city,he was desirous of seeing diminish the naval resources of the enemy, and tend to disablethem from invading Greece in his the famous chariot to which the Gordian knot absence ; and also contribute to hold open his was tied. This knot, which fastened the yoke troduce dominions, and in- to the beam, was tied with so much art, and the communication with his own fresh supplies from thence, when he in a strings were adjusted so intricate manner, should find it expedient to advance into the that it could not be discovered where they commenced, heart of Asia. or where they ended. An oracle had Next spring,B.C. 333, Alexander recommenced foretold, that the man who could untie it should the reduction of the maritime provinces. His possess the empire of Asia ; and Curtius relates, interruption. that Alexander being fully persuaded that this progress at firstmet with some on the west Near Phaselis,a small sea-port, he, aftermany fruitless side promise relatedto himself, " trials, of the gulf of Attaliah,and on the eastern shore exclaimed, It isno matter which way itbe of the Lycian Peninsula, is a defilealong the sea untied," and thereupon cut it with his sword. but Aristobulus,however, who was an shore, which is always dry in the summer, eye-witness us, that Alexander when the sea risesis impassable. As the winter of the transaction, assures was not yet past,his forces were obliged to march wrested a wooden pin out of the beam of the but they surmounted a whole day in the water, the beam chariot,which being driven in across Some histo- held it up, and so took the yoke from it. In this rians the difficulty, and passed onward. relatethat the sea, by the Divine command, version of the story Plutarch coincides. In the mean time, Darius was opened a way to him, contrary to the usual course preparing to the Rhodian gested of nature ; but this is evidently a parody, sug- make a vigorous defence. Memnon by flattery,n the astounding miracle of advised him to retaliate, carrying the war into o by through the Red Macedonia, statingthat the Lacedaemonians and the passage of the Israelites Sea. adverse to several other Greek nations,who were While Alexander was in the neighbourhood of the Macedonians, would be ready to join him, Phaselis,he discovered the conspiracy to which turn and that Alexander would be compelled to reto defend his own page 87.] allusion has before been made ; [see country. Darius approved The traitor was discovered, and suffered death admiral of of the plan, and appointed Memnon for his perfidy. signed the fleet, and captain general of allthe forces deFrom Phaselis,Alexander marched to Perga, was for that expedition. Memnon at the in Pamphylia, on the river Cestrus ; and from island of Cos when he received this commission, thence to Aspendus, on the river Eurymedon, and this place was the rendezvous for the fleet. soon east of Perga ; which, though a well fortified Memnon commenced operations. He made place, surrendered without sustaining a siege. himself master of the island of Chios and all From From hence Alexander marched Lesbos, the city of Mitylene excepted. north-west to in the pass of Telmessus, a strong defile the range thence he was preparing to pass over into Eubaea, of Taurus, and which, had the inhabitants of that but he died before Mitylene, which city he was vantageous place known how to avail themselves of the adcompelled to besiege. loss to the a severe The death of Memnon was manded position of their city,*which comNo one was Persian monarch. the pass on one side,as a high mountain able to supply did on the other, they might have defended it his place, and the only enterprise which could against all Alexander's attempts to penetrate have saved his empire w7as therefore abandoned. through it into Phrygia, and compelled him to ander attempt a passage in some other quarter. Alext Celsenae lay about seventy-five geographical miles knew this, and therefore he encamped at north-west of the defile of telmessus.
This city must not be confounded with the Telmessus was on the south-east angle of the Gulf of Macri, which once a large and flourishing city, as the sarcophagi, and other remains found there, certify.
*

% Gordium lay a littleeast of Celamze. fix its site,but all agree that it stood on It was founded by Got dius, but it did not honours ; for in the time of Strabo it had
village.

It is difficultto the Sangarius. long retain its become a mere

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The sole resource lay in the arof Darius now mies pass by which the younger Cyrus had entered that to Tarsus,* which, from Sora, of the east, and these he resolved to command country. He came in person. The rendezvous of his army a march was of 430 miles direct. Through this city the Cydnus runs, a river reBabylon, where, upon mustering, they were was markable for its clear and limpid streams, found to be about 400,000, 500,000, or 600,000 but men ander ; for such are the different accounts of ancient very cold, with a gentle winding current. Alexhaving imprudently bathed in this authors. river in One of the king's counsellors,Charidemus, a the heat of the day, and when covered with sweat ing Greek refugee, had opposed the monarch's headthe consequence, and dust, a serious illnesswas his own troops ; saying, that he ought not to which threatened his life. He was recovered from his sickness by the skillof his ; risk his life and he pledged himself that, with physician, Philip, an Acarnanian, and his own a third the command of whom of 100,000 men, nimity magnain drinking the potion prescribed, after part should be Greek mercenaries, he would his enterto abandon intimating that he was prise. he had received a letter, compel the conqueror bribed by Darius to poison him, while Philip was Darius was disposed to accede; but his ministers, generally, rejected this course reading itwithout any emotion. He knew the attachment through envy, and insinuated that Charidemus and fidelity which his physician bare to to the Macedonians. him, and doubt was removed. to betray their cause It was well said by meant he called them cowards in Aristotle, Fired at this insult, that friendship is composed of a single the king's presence, for which he was ordered true soul inhabiting a pair of bodies. Where to his death, friendship exists,pain and joy are mutual ; and to instant execution. As he went he exclaimed, that the king would shortly repent he that touches the heart of one friend, touches and of his injustice, be punished with the loss of the heart of the other. his empire ; which was verified by the event, and In the mean his time, Darius had commenced march at the head of his numerous required no gift of prophecy to suppose, now army, and leftto themselves. had advanced as far as the plains of Mesopothat the Persians were tamia. Before Darius departed to meet Alexander, acHere the Greek mercenaries advised him cording he had an ominous to ancient historians, to wait for the enemy ; but imagining that Alexander's dream. He thought he saw the Macedonian tirdiness to meet him was the effect of terror, and fearing that he would fleefrom him ; phalanx on fire that Alexander waited on him, as a servant, and in his former courier dress ; to avoid an action, he hastened toward Cilicia, and that he then went into the temple of Belus, where the cavalry and the number of his troops, Plutarch says, that by this from the mountainous nature and disappeared. of the country, dream, Heaven seemed to signifythat honour and would be of little service to him. The order Darius observed in his march was prosperity would attend the Macedonians; and as follows. Before the army that Alexander would become master of Asia, were carried silver like Darius, who, from a simple courier, became altars,on which burned the fire, called by them king ; but that he would soon die, and leave his sacred and followed by eternal; and these were This result accords with the magi, singing hymns, and 365 youths in glory behind him. (seeDan. scarlet robes. After these came a consecrated prophecy in a remarkable manner, 5 8, xi. 3, 4 and it is probable, as Dr. viii. ;) carfdrawn by white horses, and followed by Hales suggests, that it might have been dis- one of an extraordinary closed size,which they called " by the magi, who understood these proThe equerries were phecies, The horse of the sun." dressed in white, each having a golden rod in though they dared not unfold them to the king. his hand. Next appeared ten sumptuous chariots, We Big with the hope return to Alexander. enriched with curious sculptures in gold of conquest, he passed from Gordium east to Anand silver; and then the vanguard of the horse, ferent cyra,* a city of that part of Phrygia, afterwards composed of twelve different nations, in difThis body was armour. called Galatia,from the Gauls, who seized upon succeeded by it. From Ancyra, Alexander proceeded north to those of the Persians, called " The Immortals," Paphlagonia, crossing the lofty ridge of Olympus, amounting to 10,000, who surpassed the rest of which separates Galatia from Bithynia and the barbarians in the sumptuousness of their Paphlagonia, the terminus of which march was * Tarsus was twelve miles north of the mouth, about probably the city of Sora, eighty-three miles in and thirty miles south of the southern brow of the pass direct distance from Ancyra. From thence he In the days of the had passed. through which Alexander this city rivalled Athens, Antioch,and rus emperor Augustus, marched south-east by the Halys and Mount TauAlexandria, in wealth, grandeur, literature, and science. to Cilicia,crossing, in his way, the same Julius Cesar, It was Juliopolis, in honour
"

" Ancyra lay fifty-five geographical miles south-east of the in Rennel's map, near the assumed site of Gordium It source of a river, which flows south-east to the Halys. formed one of the three capitals of Galatia, the other two It is celebrated in profane i"eing Tavium and Pe"sinus. history as being taken by the consul Cneius Manlius Vulso ; as being raised to the rank of the metropolitan by Augustus; as city of that province entertaining and In the apostate Julian, on his way to the Persian war. sacred history, Ancyra is noted for having received the impress of the feet of the great apostle of the Gentiles. It was to the Galatians. In the here St. Paul preached Anfourth century, Ancyra was cyra made an episcopal see. is the modern Angora, which is a city of considerable note in the east.

who of called Here spent several days here in his pursuit of Pharnaces. patra. it was first met with the fascinating Cleothat Antony Here it was, also, that the great apostle of the Political changes have reduced it to Gentiles was born. insignificance. Kinnier, who spent a week comparative at Tarsus, could not discover a single inscription, or any It contains two monument of beauty or magnificence. several handsome of mosques, public baths, a number caravanserai, and a church of great antiquity, said to have During the winter, been erected by the apostle Paul. 30,000 inhabitants; but many of the families there are to the mountains. during the hot seasons remove dedicated to t Quintus Curtius says, that this car was to the Persians, it was Jupiter; but as this god unknown is probable he calls Mithra, the firstand greatest of their gods, by that name.

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dress; for they all wore collars of gold, and having large clothed in robes of gold tissue, About sleeves, garnished with precious stones. the king's relations, thirtypaces from them came or cousins,* to the number of 15,000, apparelled like women, and more remarkable for the pomp of their dress than the glitterof their arms. Darius himself, attended by After these came his guards, and seated on a chariot, on a throne. as The chariot was enriched, on both sides, with images of the gods in gold and silver; and from the middle of the yoke, which was covered with two rose statues, a cubit in height; the jewels, one representing War, the other Peace, having a golden eagle between them with extended wings. The king was clothed with a garment of purple stripedwith silver; and over it was a long robe,
were

At length Alexander

himself set forward in

He first came to Adana,* quest of Darius. twenty-eight miles due east of Tarsus, on the right or west bank of the Sarus. From this city

Alexander marched to Mallos, thirty-fivemiles in direct distance, almost due south of Adana, tween and the southernmost projectionthe coast beof Tarsus and the head of the Issic Gulf. From hence he pursued his march north-east to Castabala, the modern Kastanlae,a city amongst hills, ronting the head or innermost recess of the f gulf. In his way thither he crossed the Jeihoon, large stream, a about 160 yards in breadth. From Castabala, about three miles distant, commences a defile of five miles long, through the belt of level shore, stretching hills, a narrow to nearly two miles east and west, and about three quarters of a mile broad from the foot of the hills with gold and precious stones, on which glittering The mouth of this defile is called to the sea. were represented two falcons rushing from the Kara Capi, " The Black Gate." Along this belt clouds at each other. Around his waist he wore his scimitar hung, the a golden girdle, whence the road runs to Issus, where the contest for the On was covered with gems. empire of the east took place. scabbard of which Parmenio had taken the little each side of Darius walked 200 of his nearest city of Issus, and followed by 10,000 horsemen, whose after possessing himself of the pass of Syria, had relations, lefta body of forces to secure it. Alexander left lances were plated with silver,and tipped with the sick in Issus, and marched his whole army f gold. After these marched 30,000 foot,the rear 400 horses belonging to through the pass, and encamped near the city of of the army, and, lastly, Myriandrus, where the badness of the weather the king. About 100 paces from the royal division the obliged him to halt. of In the mean Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, time, Darius, contrary to the adarmy came vice of the Greeks, was seated on a chariot,and his consort on another, advancing towards the straits Cilicia. They advised him to wait for of with female attendants of both queens riding on in the plains of Assyria fifteenchariots,in the enemy horseback. Afterwards came ;J but his the king's children, and those who courtiers biassed his mind against their advice, which were had the care of their education. Next to these and had persuaded him that Alexander's long delay was the effect of terror, inspired by the were the royal concubines, to the number of 360, The adverse lowed allattiredlike so many queens. These were fol- approach of the Persian army. hosts missed each other in the night, and Darius by 600 mules, and 300 camels, which entered Cilicia by the pass of Amanus, carried the king's treasure, and were guarded by which lies beyond that of Syria, through which AlexAfter these came ander a body of bowmen. the wives had entered that country. Darius had not and the lords of the court ; officers, of the crown And then the sutlersand servants of the army advanced far into Cilicia, when he was informed in finally, the rear, were a body of light armed that Alexander fled before him, and was retiring in great disorder into Syria. He therefore turned troops, with their commanders. Such was Surrounded the army of Darius. short towards Issus,where he barbarously put to this mighty pomp, he fancied he was great, death all the sick that Alexander had lefttherein, with In his arrogance, a few soldiers excepted, whom, after making and was confident of success. he wrote a letter to Alexander, styling himself them view every part of his camp, he dismissed. Word brought to Alexander, that soon was to king, without giving that title Alexander. His Darius was behind him in the straitsof Cilicia. arrogance was returned with interest, may which His keen eye saw that he was taken as in a net, illustrate the dispositionsof the belligerent moand he immediately prepared for the conflict. narchs. Alexander, upon learning that Darius was advancing towards the Euphrates, in order to enter * Adana is a large city, superior to Tarsus, and the population, d Cilicia, etached Parmenio with part of the army is of Turks and Turkmans, chiefly composed It is beautifully situated on a in number. to seize the pass of Syria, that he might secure a nearly equal by groves of fruit trees and rising ground, surrounded As for himself, he free passage for his army. There is a bridge over the Jeihoon, (Sarus,) from Tarsus to Anchialos, a city vineyards. marched west cient said to have been erected by Justinian ; part of the anket-place wall stillremains, and a noble gateway in the marwhich is said to have been builtby Sardanapalus. architecture of the Turks. mocks the mean From hence he came to Soli,where he offered act t There is a great diversity of opinion concerning the exsacrificesto iEsculapius, the god of physic, in site of the city oi Issus, and consequently of the precise for the recovery of his health. Alexander fought. D'Anville conceives gratitude spot where the battle was headed the ceremony himself with lighted that the ruins of Ayasse represent the ancient Issus; Kinnier places it at Pias ; whilst Rennel and Arrowsmith tapers,followed by the whole army ; and he there tix it on the site of Oscler, called Karabolat by the Turks. solemnized games; after which he returned to likely, as it is Of the three, the latter seems the most Tarsus. the Jerusalem supported by the authority of Xenophon,
.

It

was

some

not

of them might be so understood

thus that this body was called, and probably be the king's relations; but it must of all.

travellers. itinerary, and five different reports of modern J Arrian calls them the plains of Assyria, but they were in reality the plains of Syria. By Greek ers, and Latin writAssyria often comprehended however, the term all Indus. to the river the tract from the Mediterranean

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to the gods, he advanced The next day, Alexander, after visitingthe offered a sacrifice him, and drew up his army on a wounded, caused the dead to be buried in great pomp, in the presence of the whole army, which spot of ground near the city of Issus, which was drawn was divided by the river Pinarus, and bounded by the up in battle array. He treated the manner, side,and by the sea on the persons of distinctionin the same mountains on one and permitted the mother of Darius to bury as many other.* Here Darius, not being able to extend front beyond that of the Macedonians, could as she pleased according to the his ceremonies used 'only draw up his army in so many lines, behind in Persia, one The conqueror treated his royal the other. The Macedonians soon put the captiveswith line to flight, first Plutarch says, great tenderness and humanity. and that recoiling upon the " that they were in Alexander's camp, not as in and so on second, and the second on the third*, throughout the whole host, an indescribableconfusion that of an enemy, but as in an holy temple, designed for the asylum of virtue ; they followed. The issue of the battle was all living so retired, Darius, who fought in the that they were by any one, not seen speedily determined. culty, firstline,escaped in the tumult with much diffi- none daring to approach their pavilion but such as were appointed to attend them." From a letter and fled on horseback through the pass by which Alexander wrote to Parmenio, we find which he came. There are two passes of the name that the consort of Darius, and her two daughters, of Amanus, It appears to have being princessespossessing great beauty, he the Upper and the Lower. been by the former that Darius advanced and reto see them after his first treated. resolved never visit, lay, which was The camp of Darius, on his flight, the day after the battle. Alexander Dubesak, had the one great as will be seen, at Sochos, the modern of object the Persian empire in From in the great plain on the river Aswad. view, and he avoided the debasing influence of this to the foot of the Upper pass of Amanus, is pleasure, lesthe should lose the prize. It would be well for the Christian warrior to act thus from twenty geographical miles direct north. From this to the supposed scene of the action on the nobler motives. With the kingdom of heaven in Pinarus, is a distance of ten geographical miles view, he should resolutelyavoid every pleasure leads from direct. The Upper pass of Amanus of earth that would deprive him of his crown. Killisto Ayasse. Connected with the history of His path is surrounded by roses that have thorns, this engagement, therefore,there are four passes : which would pierce his inmost soul ; by pleasures 1. That from Cilicia to Tarsus ; 2. The marithat would rob him of eternal happiness. The time etc. ; 3. The pass, by which Cyrus came, world cries: Lower pass of Amanus, which Darius avoided ; " I am thine end ; Felicitymy name ; and, 4. The Upper pass of Amanus, by which The best of wishes, pleasures, riches, fame, he advanced and retreated. Are humble vassals, which my throne attend, Alexander was And make you mortals happy when I send : prevented from immediately In my left hand delicious fruits I hold, following Darius, by the prowess of the Greek To feed them who with mirth and ease grow old; mercenaries. This powerful body charged the Afraid to lose the fleeting days and nights, Macedonian phalanx, killed Ptolemy the son of They seize on time, and spend itin delights. Seleucus, with 120 officers distinction,esides b My right hand with triumphant crowns is stored, of

Having

to meet

"

great many private men ; and, though attacked in flank by Alexander in person, maintained they were their ground till reduced from 20,000 to 8,000. They retiredthen in good order over the mountains, towards Tripoli in Syria, where, finding the transports that had conveyed them from Lesbos lying on the shore, they fitted out a number, and sailed to Cyprus. As soon as Alexander had repulsed the Greek he hastened after Darius. He pursued ^mercenaries, in vain ; and growing weary, he returned to the camp at midnight, and refreshed himself in the baths prepared for Darius, whose tent was taken, with his mother, wife, and children,and a vast booty, and reserved for the conqueror, during the plunder of the enemy's camp. According to Arrian, the Persians lost 110,000 in this battle; ancient authors, however, men differ cult very much on this subject ; and it is diffito determine which is correct. The loss of lifewas doubtless great, and that on both sides, though Quintus Curtius relates that not more than 450 of the Macedonians were slain.
a
* Arrian as soon as he heard of says that Alexander, the approach of Darius, returned from Myriandrus, and seized upon the straits he was obliged to pass, the evening before the battle. These straits are a narrow border of low lands at the foot of high steep cliffs,nd called the a Syrian gates, at the river Kersus, the modern Mahersy, They answer to the eight miles south of Alexandria. the text. second maritime pass of

Which all the kings of former times adored : These gifts are thine : then enter where no strife, No grief,no pain shall interrupt thy life." Beaumont.

Beware of these snares of the world ; forScripture declares, " the friendship of the world is enmity with God," James iv. 4. posited The principaltreasures of Darius had been deAlexander, shortly after at Damascus. the battle,detached Parmenio thither with the Thessalian horse, to take possession of them. They were betrayed into Parmenio's hands by the governor, who, in return for his treachery, men, was killedby one of his own and his head immense, to Darius. The treasures were carried sufficient, says Plutarch, to load 7,000 camels. Thirty thousand prisonerswere also taken at the were same time, among many of great whom : distinction there was scarcely a noble family in Persia who did not partake in this calamity. In Darius we behold the mutability of earthly seizing his grandeur. Whilst Alexander was before, was at riches,he who, but a few hours the head of so mighty an army, and who came into the fieldwith all the pride of a conqueror, fleeing for his life. He rode swiftly the was ants. whole night, accompanied only by a few attendchos, In two or three days, he arrived at Sowhere he assembled the remains of his including army, which amounted only to 4000 men,

^ ""-^ar

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From hence he and mercenaries. hastened to Thapsaeus, in order to have the Euphrates between him and Alexander. In the mean time, Alexander advanced into Syria, most of the cities which surrendered at of Being arrived at Marathon, he his approach. now at received a letter from Darius, who was Babylon, complaining of his aggressions, offering his wife,mother, and children,and to ransom The letter was to treat about peace. written, notwithstanding the fallof Darius, in the usual ander haughty style of the kings of the east. Alexc ing answered him in the same spirit, onclud" When you write next with this sentence : to me, remember that you write to the king of Asia. Treat me no more as your equal, but as lord of all you possess. K you dispute my title, prepare to do so in another general engagement ; for wherever you go, I am but attempt not to flee, determined to pursue you." Thus was he like a bird seeking itsprey. ravenous Alexander marched from Marathon into Phenicia,where the citizensof Byblos opened their gates to him ; and their example was followed by The others as he advanced into the country. Sidonians,who had, as stated in the life Ochus, of been cruelly treated by that prince, retaining an abhorrence- of the Persians, received Alexander with great joy. This people were among the first

Persians

chadnezzar, according to the voice of prophecy, had laid ancient Tyre in the dust, and that the Tyrians continued without a king for seventy years, to which period the duration of their subjection limited by prophecy, Isa. xxiii. was 15 17 ; that is, to the termination of the Babylonian monarchy, when the Tyrians, with some
"

other remote nations,were restored to comparative independence by the Persians. But Tyre, after she had recovered her losses and repaired her ruins, forgot her former state of humiliation,and the guilt which had reduced her to it, unmindful of the finger of prophecy which pointed to her future ruin. Yes, while Ezekiel speaks primarily of the destruction of continental Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, he, by a transition not unusual in Scripture, glances at the subsequent destruction of the insular Tyre by Alexander, near 400 years after the first. Its doom was also foretoldby the prophets Isaiah and Zechariah.
"

Pass through thy land as a river,O daughter of Tarshish : There is no more strength. He stretched out his hand over the sea, He shook the kingdoms : The Lord hath given a commandment against the merchant city, To destroy the strong holds thereof. And he said, Thou shalt no more rejoice, O thou oppressed virgin, daughter of Zidon: Arise, pass over to Chittim, [Macedonia;] There also shalt thou have no rest."" xxiii. 10"12.

in the country who submitted to him, and they -Isa. did so in opposition to their king, who declared in favour of Darius. Alexander deposed him, And Hamath border thereby ; also shall Tyrus, and Zidon, though it be very wise. and permitted Hephsestion to elect whomsoever And Tyrus did build herself a strong hold, of the Sidonians he should judgeworthy of so And heaped up silver as the dust, descended remotely And fine gold as the mire of the streets. exalted a station. Abdalonymus, from a low from the royal line, was taken Behold, the Lord will cast her out, And he will smite her power in the sea ; the diadem, in compliance stationin lifeto wear And she shall be devoured with fire. the with thispermission. Alexander commanded Ashkelon shall see it,and fear; to be sent for, and after newly-elected prince Gaza also shall see it,and be very sorrowful, : And Ekron ; for her expectation shall be ashamed ; spoke to this effect surveying him attentively, " king shall perish from Gaza, Thy air and mien do not contradictwhat isrelated And the 5. Zech. ix. 2 And Ashkelon shall not be inhabited." but I should be glad to of thy extraction ; know with what frame of mind thou didst bear The prophet powerfully describes the conduct " Would to the gods," he replied, thy poverty?" from of the Tyrians after their redemption " that I may bear thiscrown with equal fortitude. is the cause of their second obscurity, which These hands have procured me all I desired; humiliation. and whilst I possessed nothing, I wanted nothing." Socrates has well observed, that he is the richest " After the end of seventy years shall Tyre sing as an harlot. man ment Take an harp, go about the city, who is contented with the least; for contentThou harlot that hast been forgotten ; is the riches of nature. The inspired precept " Make sweet melody, sing many songs, Having food and is far more emphatic : That thou mayest be remembered. raiment letus be therewith content," 1 Tim. vi. 8. to pass after the end of seventy years, And it shall come While Alexander was in Phenicia, some of the That the Lord will visit Tyre, And she shall turn to her hire, Persian generals who had escaped the slaughter And shall commit fornication with all the kingdoms of Issus, drawing together the remains of the at the world Upon the face of the earth."" Isa. xxiii. 15"17. scattered army, attempted, with the aid of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians, to recover defeated in several enLydia; but they were gagements Thus, after her season of obscurity, seventy Alexander had by Antigonus, whom years, the prophet foresaw that Tyre would appointed governor of that province. At the again endeavour to appear with the air of a same time, the Macedonian fleet sailingfrom harlot; that she would promote her commerce Greece came up with and destroyed the fleet by fraud and deceit; that she would visit every Darius had by Aristomenes, whom commanded part of the world to collect the most rare and on the Hellespont. the cities sent to recover delicateproductions of every country, to inspire now All Syria and Phenicia were subdued by the various nations of the universe with a love Alexander, insular Tyre excepted, to which he and splendour ; and admiration for superfluities her next laid siege. that she would use every effortto renew and It has been seen in former pages,* that Nebuthe confidence of a ancient treaties,nd to recover her former correspondents, with her trade and " See the History of the Assyrians, and the present history, credit. And such had been the policy of the page 59.
"
"
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an Tyrians. Under the Persians, the people of Tyre oath of fidelityto Darius, they would never portance. any other sovereign as long as he acknowledge recovered much of their former wealth and imlived. Alexander now As into one common turned aside from Gaza, storehouse they tain, with vengeance in his heart, to punish them for the amber of Prussia, the tin of Bricollected the linen of Egypt, the spices of Arabia, such rare conduct, which ought to have been his admiration. the slaves of Caucasus, and the horses of ScyIn this exigency, Jaddua the high priest,who king of Tyre was thia. The present at the narch, governed under the Persians, relying on the protection of war which Xerxes, the Persian mocouncil held concerning the Greeks, and his seat of the Almighty, gave orders that public was prayers should be made to implore his assistance, second only from the king, which shows to what importance Tyre had again risen in the and offered sacrifices. No nations or individuals have ever truly sought the protectionof Heaven scale of nations. But her second overthrow was are Alexander told, Jaddua took Tyre, after a siege of in vain. The night after, we at hand. in a vision to cause flowers to it, slew 8000 of the was seven commanded months, burned be scattered up and down the city,to set open all Tyrians, crucified 2000 more, and sold 30,000 r bouring the gates, and to go clothed in his pontificalobes, captives,in order to strike terror into the neighments, states by the severity. His enlarged with all the priests dressed also in their vestAlexander ; and not to fear any to meet views of commercial policy, however, induced counhim to re-people Tyre from the adjacent tries, evil from the king, inasmuch as he would protect Accordingly, this august procession, the A them. thus undesignedly fulfilling prophecy. A in the distance for Tyre. brighter era was out of the city to an very day after, marched a day was coming when called Sapha, which eminence she should no longer be commanded a scandal and a stumbling block to the nations view of the city and temple, and there waited the when her inhabitants should embrace arrivalof Alexander. around, The conqueror came. As he approached, Christianity.(See Psa. xlv. 12 ; lxxii. 10 ; Isa. Many struck with awful respect, he advanced alone to of the xxiii. 18.) And thus it was. first,and the high priest, saluted him meet people of Tyre in the end embraced the Jewish and that city was one of the firstthat adored the sacred name of Jehovah written on religion, the front of his mitre, to the great surprise and received the faithof Christ. He had, while on disappointment of the Phenicians and Chaldeans, earth, himself visited the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, and miraculously healed the woman of who expected his orders to destroy the Jewish Paul found Canaan's daughter. there some priestsand plunder the city. Alexander recognized in Jaddua the person whom he had seen faithful disciples in his journey Jerusalem ; to in the vision at Dios. He explained this to his and in the persecution under Dioclesian, there followers; adding, that having undertaken the were many sincere believers at Tyre, who lives dear unto them. counted not their own expedition by a Divine mission,he should conquer But Tyre stillseems to have been devoted to Darius, overthrow the Persian empire, and succeed destruction ; and successive persecutions have in all his designs. After this explanation, he embraced the high priest and his brethren ; caused it literallyto become, as the prophet Ezekiel prophesied it should become, then walking in the midst of them, he arrived at Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices to God " A place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the in the temple, according to the high priest's Ezek. 5. sea."
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directions. During the siege of Tyre, Darius wrote again While at Jerusalem, the high priest showed to Alexander, offering to cede to him all the Alexander the passages in the prophecy of Daniel demand our provinces west of the Euphrates, to give him his relating to himself, and which now daughter in marriage, as a friend and ally,and attention. The prophecies which relate to the 10,000 talents for the ransom Macedo- Grecian empire are exceedingly remarkof his family. In able order to gain his consent to these terms, Darius in the ; and the reader, in tracing them pointed out to him the inconstancy of fortune, dreams and visions,cannot fail to observe, that and described in pompous terms the numberless definite, they become progressively more tillat troops which were When lastthe " king of Grecia," Alexander, isdistinctly at still his command. these proposals were We communicated to his privy mentioned. shall notice them in the order " council, Parmenio said, I would accept them, they were revealed. I Alexander." were "And I too," replied he, The first dream, b. c. 569. This was of a "were I Parmenio." But Alexander returned brass, and iron, image of gold, silver, compound " the following answer That he wanted no : denoting four successive kingdoms, Dan. ii, money from Darius, nor would accept part of the 31"45. Now in ancient coins and medals it is country, since he was lord of the whole ; that if usual to see citiesand nations represented by he chose he could marry the daughter of Darius, human figures, male or female. A vast image of even a human figure was without his consent ; and that he required therefore a fit emblem of Darius to come to him, if he wished to make rials sovereign power and dominion, while the mateAlexander his friend." of which it was composed significantly Despairing of peace with such a haughty foe, typifiedthe character of the various empires, the Darius continued his preparations for war, succession of which was foreshown by the vision, while Alexander proceeded on his systematic plan of and which has been so well explained by the conquest. derived prophet himself, and with the illustration The from his own future visions, people of Jerusalem had refused him o that littler no cavil supplies during the siege of Tyre, and has rejected taken place on essentialpoints,except in that his friendship; declaring,that as they had taken " portion yet unfulfilled. The head of finegold,"
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in the article Nebuchadnezzar, his strength, after the succession of the Persian have seen as we power under Cyrus ; ithad two horns, with which represented the Babylonian empire. The other it was pushing or butting, "westward, and northrepresented the great empires parts downward ward, nia, and southward," or subduing Lydia, Babylowhich should successively arise upon its ruins. breast and arms The of silver denoted the and Egypt with their dependencies, and doing And it is remarkable Medo-Persian kingdom. according to his will, and becoming great, Dan. frequently orna3, that their arms was the armorial ensign of and shieldswere mented viii. 4. The ram Alexander or cased with silver, the Persian empire, and rams' heads, with unequal whence institutedthat remarkable body of veteran in- horns, one higher than the other, are fantry to still be " on the ruined pillars of Persepolis. The called Argyraspides, from their silver seen shields;" after the conquest of the Persians, lower horn denoted the Median power; the " came of the conquered nations. higher, which adopting the manners up last," the Persian. This empire lasted from b. c. 536 to the battle While the prophet was meditating on the ram, The " belly and thighs of a he goat from the west, with a notable horn of Arbela, B.C. 331. brass" (seeDan. ii. 32) denoted the Macedobetween his eyes, (Alexander the Great,)ho w Grecian kingdoms cessors. touched not the ground, (for traversed of Alexander and his sucswiftness,) And the Greeks usually wore brazen the whole earth, (or the Persian empire,) ran and armour, the Egyptian oracle described at the ram Codomannus) in the fury of whence (Darius " brazen men his power ; and was "moved them on one occasion as risingout with choler against This empire lasted 163 years to him, and smote the ram, and brake his two horns, of the sea." the conquest of the first kingdom, Macedonia, and cast him down to the ground, and stamped b. c. 168, and 300 none liver years to the conquest of the that could deupon him : and there was " last, Egypt, b. c. 30 ; when the legs of iron," Therefore the the ram out of his hand. " feet, part of iron and part of clay," he goat waxed he was and the very great: and when broken ; and for it which refers to the Roman power, trampled over strong, the great horn was them by conquest. four kingdoms of came up four notable ones [the This vision correThe first Thrace, Syria, and Egypt] toward vision,b. c. 558. sponds Macedo-Greece, to the dream, portraying the same things 8. The the four winds of heaven," ver. 4 The four kingdoms in interpretation this vision is given by the anunder living emblems. of gel " it are represented by four ferocious wild beasts The ram who showed it to the prophet. rising out of the sea, agitated by the four winds which thou sawest having two horns are the beast resemkings [or bled strivingfor the mastery. The first o kingdoms]f Media and Persia. And lion with eagle's wings, to denote the the rough goat is the king [orkingdom]of a fiercenessand rapidity of Nebuchadnezzar, the Grecia : and the great horn that is between his founder of the Babylonian empire, which accords Now that eyes is the firstking [Alexander.] prowith the descriptionof that monarch by the phets being broken, whereas four stood up for it,four Jeremiah and Ezekiel. See Jer. iv.7 ; xlviii. kingdoms shallstand up out of the nation, but not 40 ; and Ezek. xvii.3. At the time of thisvision, in his power," ver. 20 22. Ancient authors state its" wings were plucked, and itwas lifted from that the figure of a goat was represented on the up the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a royal standard of the Macedonian kings ; and that " heart," and not a man's man ;" and it also had the origin of this device commenced withCarais thus was the boldness of the lion ; that is,its career nus, the first those kings. The reason of a native of checked, and its stability weakened by the vic- assigned. Caranus, they say, was tories 4. The second beast reArgos, and a remote descendant of the renowned sembled of Cyrus, Dan. vii. a bear, raised on one side, -withthree ribs Hercules. Caranus left his native city,accompanied in its teeth,aptly expressing the Medo-Persian by a considerable body of Greeks, in empire ; Darius the Mede being of a sluggish search of a foreign settlement. Consulting the rus, oracle where he should establish his colony, disposition, until stimulated to conquest by Cyhis nephew, who reduced Lydia, Babylonia, he was answered that he should be guided in his by the direction of the goats. He measures and Egypt under his dominion, three kingdoms into the country since known answering to the three ribs, ver. 5. The third pursued his course beast resembled a leopard in its nature and motions, by the name of Macedonia, and particularlythe with two pair of wings to express rapidity, small principality iEmathia, then governed by of nian to itscapia prince called Midas, and drew near tal, which aptly denoted the founder of the MacedoEdessa. The sky being suddenly overcast, empire. This beast had also four heads, which shadowed forth the four kingdoms of the and a great storm coming on, Caranus observed Greeks Macedon, Thrace, Syria, and Egypt for shelter to the city. a herd of goats running into which his empire was divided afterthe death Recollectingthe response of the oracle, he commanded The fourth beast, which to follow them closely,and enhis men tering of Alexander, ver. 6. rible represented the Roman the city by surprise, he possessed himself power, was the most terIn gratiof all,exceedingly strong, with great iron of it,and afterwards of the kingdom. tude teeth, to his conductors, the goats, he changed the with which it devoured and brake in pieces " the city of the others, and trampled upon the residue, etc. name of the place to JEgea, or 7, 8. ver. goats," called his people iEgeates, and made use The second vision,b. c. 556. At the date of of a goat in his standard, in order to perpetuate As the ram, therefore, this vision,the Babylonian empire was fallenrapidly the memory of this event. into decay ; hence it describes more was the symbol of the Medo-Persian empire, ticularly parander the succession of the second, third,and so that of a goat was symbolical of Alexfourth empires. On the banks of the river Ulai, the Great. In this vision, the Roman Daniel saw a ram standing, or established in power, which was to triumph over these empires,
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him to visit theirtemple, which who solicited he declined, stating that he was compelled to hasten onward to the conquest of Egypt. They from paying the sethen requested exemption venth year tribute, which had been granted the Jews ; but receiving an ambiguous answer to the question whether they were Jews, Alexander tillhis return, and consuspended the matter tinued his march towards Gaza. rals,] On his arrival Gaza, Alexander found it deDan. xi. 2"4. fended at by a strong garrison under the command From these prophecies, the reader willperceive that the Almighty presides over all events which of Betis,one of the eunuchs of Darius ; who being happen in the world, and rules with absolute a man of great experience in military affairs, and faithfulto his sovereign, resolved to hold out man, sway over and empires ; while he cities, against Alexander to the lastextremity. As this conceals the operations of his wisdom, and the wonders of his providence, beneath the veil was the only inlet or pass into Egypt, it was necessary for him to take it,and therefore he was In all and ordinary events. of natural causes that profane history exhibitsto us, whether sieges, obliged to besiege it. But although every art of battles won or the capture of cities, or lost,emplayed pires war was resorted to, and great bravery was disby his warriors, two months elapsed bescribed fore established or overthrown, God is not deits reduction. Exasperated at this impediin these things, ment as having any concern in his march, and his receiving two wounds, is abandoned and some would suppose that man he destroyed ten thousand men, on taking it, to work according to his own and will and pleasure. But to prevent our falling into such a temptation, sold all the rest, with their wives and children. He treated the governor, who was taken prisoner, so itself, the repugnant to religion and reason Most High sometimes condescends to discover to in the last assault, with unwonted barbarity. When brought before him, covered with honourable our vidence, wondering eyes the secret springs of his proby causing his prophets to foretell, wounds, instead of using him kindly, as his ages before the event, what shall befall the different valour and fidelity merited, he ordered a hole to nations of the earth. He reveals here to the be made through his heels,when a cord being put "man greatlybeloved," the order, the succession, through them, and tied to a chariot, he caused he and the differentcharacteristicsf the four great him to be dragged round the city till expired. o lamentable actions,and denote that empires to which he has determined to subjectThese were the different nations of the universe ; namely, the sentiments and conduct of Alexander began to change with his prosperity. that of the Babylonians, of the Persians and Medes, of the Greeks, and of the Romans. Ancient historians relate, that the conduct of These, and other Alexander towards Betis sprung from a desire prophecies,in which God explains himself so clearly,should be of imitating the ferocity Achilles,in dragging of considered as the dead body of Hector thrice round the walls of very precious, and serve as so many keys to open to our understanding the secret Troy. This is one of the mischiefs of a warlike methods by which he governs the world. These bright rays of light education : it disposes the mind to delight in the to see should enable a rational recital deeds of carnage, and no poem is more and religiousman of than and acknowledge the Divine hand in the varied calculated to produce such fiendishfeelings Alexander excelled even events of profane history. Strains should follow the Iliad of Homer. his prototype Achilles in cruelty. Achilles was the review of this prompted by the passion of revenge for the death of acknowledgment addressed Hector had of his much loved Patroclus, whom To an Authority enthroned above The reach of sight."" Wordsworth. slain,and over whom he mourned in the tenderest The conduct of Alexander towards accents. The effectwhich the narration not attended with exof these pro- his fallen foe Betis was phecies tenuating had upon the mind of Alexander circumstances. He had no other motive may be his inhuman rage but the brave dereadily conceived. He looked upon the conquest to satiate fence of the Persian empire as already in his hands, which Betis made of the city entrusted to
shall stand up, that shall rule with great dominion, and do according to his will.And when his his he shall stand up, [in strength,]kingdom shall be broken, and shall be divided toward the four winds of heaven ; and not to his posterity, nor according to his dominion which he ruled : for for his kingdom shall be plucked up, even for others beside those," [namely, his four gene-

is represented under the figure of a "king of amfiercecountenance," ple which will claim more notice hereafter. In the revelationof b.c. 534. The fourthision, v this vision,after Daniel had been recovered from he had fallen,by the touch a trance into which " of the hand of the angel, the plain Scripture of sians truth" isunfolded. That which relatesto the Per" And now and Alexander reads thus : will I show thee the truth. Behold, there shallstand him from up yet three kings in Persia, [after Darius Nothus ; the vision commenced, whom Ochus, and Darius namely, Artaxerxes Mnemon, CodomanCodomannus and the fourth [Darius ;] be far richer than they all: and by nus] shall his strength through his riches he shall stir up as all against the realm of Grecia, [which, we And a mighty king [Alexhave seen, he did do.] ander]
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and he soon passed on to obtain this consummation of his wishes. Before he leftJerusalem, he assembled the Jews, and bade them ask any favour they pleased. They requested to be allowed to live according to the law of their fathers,as well as the Jews resident in Babylonia and Media ; and to be exempt every seventh year from their usual tribute, explaining, that they were forbidden by theirlaws to sow in that year, and consequently could reap no harvest. Alexander granted these

requests, and promised all who were willing to serve under his standard, that they should follow their own mode of worship, and obey their own customs, which act of policy gained an augmentation to his forces from that people. Alexander had no sooner leftJerusalem than he was waited upon by a deputation of Samaritans,

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the country through which he was to pass. But his charge by his lawful sovereign, unless we Achilles. it was too late. With his usual rapidity, Alexander except the vain desire of imitating had reached and passed that rapid river,in There is yet another lightin which thisaction It must be remembered that it about twenty-three hours' travelling, must be viewed. according to was not the act of a halfcivilizedsavage, (for Hadgy Khalifa, above MousuL and twenty-four it better no were At this season, the heroes of Homer miles below the ridge of Zaco. ;) was the Tigris was at itslowest ebb. committed by a civilized prince, one who was Alexander encamped two days on the banks of brought up at the feet of Aristotle,the greatest the Tigris. On the evening of the second day, nowned philosopher of his day, and who was himself refor his learning and philosophy. And Sept. 20, there was a remarkable lunar eclipse, no of those barbarous sovereigns, which gave Alexander and his army great unaction yet easiness. The soldiersexclaimed that Heaven the Persian kings, could exceed this in refined w cruelty. Alas ! civilization ithout Christianity displayed the marks of itsanger ; and that they is but another term for barbarism. It is only by were dragged, against the will of the gods, to the the hallowed doctrines of the gospel that man extremities of the earth ; that rivers opposed Already, Christianityhas learn humanity. can their passage ; that the stars refused to lend their usual light,and that they could see nothing but mitigated the feelings of ambition and revenge, have arisen to the human deserts and solitudesbefore them. They were upwhence so many woes on This is a noble achievement. Hereafter, race. the point of an insurrection, when Alexander the officers his army intohistent, and of mankind will be taught by itshallowed doctrines summoned stroyer as a deto look upon a hero in his true light, the Egyptian soothsayers to declare commanded These under itsbenign what they thought of this phenomenon. of his species; hereafter, men influence, were they will weep over the recital deeds of well acquainted with the nature and over the slaughter of their causes of eclipses ; but without explaining these, of blood, and mourn " pass they contented themselves with stating,that the species; hereafter they shall universally from war," averse in Persia ; by securely as men serving sun ruled in Greece, and the moon whence, as often as the moon under the banner of the Prince of Peace. sufferedan eclipse, As soon as Alexander had ended the siege of some calamity was portended to the country. This answer Gaza, B.C. 332, he left a garrison there, and t satisfiedhe superstitiousmultitude, towards turned the whole power of his arms and their hopes and courage revived. Taking advantage of the ardour of his army, Egypt, of which country he possessed himself Alexander recommenced as his march after midwithout a singleconflict, related in the History night. On his right hand lay the Tigris, and on of the Egyptians, to which the reader is referred his leftthe mountains called Cordyaei.* At dayfor the details. break he received intelligence Having settledthe affairs Egypt, Alexander that the army of of Darius was near set out from thence in the spring of the year, ; but it proved only to be the into the east against Darius. detachment sent to prevent his passage across the B.C. 331, to march Tigris. These retired before him, and He firsthalted at Tyre, where he appointed the rejoined the army of Darius. general rendezvous of all his forces. From About this time, Alexander intercepted some thence he marched to the Euphrates, which he letters crossed, according to Rennel, at Racca, or Nicewritten by Darius to the Greeks, soliciting tray phorium, and continued his march towards the them, with great promises, either to killor beTigris. him. Word was brought to him about the same During the absence of Alexander in Egypt, time Samaritans, perhaps enraged that they had some that Statira, the wife of Darius, was dead. He as not obtained the same privileges the Jews, set caused the funeral obsequies of the deceased he had fireto the house of Andromachus, whom princess to be performed with the utmost magnificence, and comforted the other royal prisoners appointed their governor, and he perished in the flames. The other Samaritans delivered up the with great tenderness. Darius was informed of to queror this,and being assured of the respect paid to her culprits Alexander on his return ; but the conso enraged, that, not satisfiedwith by the conqueror in her lifetime,he is said to was have prayed to the gods, that if the time ordained the Samaritans their punishment, he removed donian for the transferring of the Persian empire into from their city,and transferred thither a Macesideration colony. This event precluded the reconother hands was arrived, none might siton the Overcome by of'theirprevious claim, respecting the throne of Cyrus but Alexander. S sabbatic year ; and thus excluded frojcnamaria, the tenderness and humanity which Alexander the Samaritans thenceforth made Shechem their had shown his wife, mother, and children,Darius dispatched ten of his relations as ambassadors, metropolis. In the mean time, Darius, finding that there offeringhim new conditionsof peace, more advantageous hopes of an accommodation no were than the former ; offering him, indeed, unless he resigned the whole empire, applied himself to all that he had conquered, and returning him For thanks for his kindness to his royal captives. make preparations for another engagement. this purpose, he assembled a very considerable Alexander returned the following haughty answer: tween "Tell your sovereign, that thanks, beand army in Babylon, with which he took the field, marched towards Nineveh. Advice being brought persons who make war against each other, him that the enemy was advancing, he detached * Satropates, commander This proves that Alexander passed the Tigris above of the cavalry, at the From the defile of Zaco to that place the counMousul. try head of 1000 chosen horse, and Mazseus, governor is for the most part a plain, having the Tigris on the of that province, with 6000, to prevent hand, and the range of the Zagros at a distance on right Alexander from crossingthe Tigris, and to waste the left.

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fully confident of obtaining the empire of the east superfluous ; and that in case I have behaved on the morrow, and that he should reign without with clemency towards his family, it was for my in- a rival. clination, own sake, and not for his ; to gratify my own Tne morrow To insult the came, and not to please him. and both sides prepared I do not for battle. Both armies were drawn up in the unhappy is a thing to me unknown. same order, the infantry in the centre, and the attack either prisoners or women, and turn my The front of the Persian rage only against such as are armed for the fight. cavalry on the wings. If Darius were covered with two hundred sincere in his demand for peace, army was chariots, I then would debate on what was to be done ; armed with scythes, and twenty-five elephants. Besides his guards, which were but since he still continues, by lettersand by the flower of his army, Darius had posted the Grecian infantry money, to spiritup my soldiers to betray me, and deter- near his person, believing this body alone capamined my friends to murder me, I therefore am ble As to pursue him with the utmost vigour ; and phalanx. of opposing the Macedonian his army spread over a larger space of ground that not as an enemy, but an assassin. It indeed becomes him to offer to yield up to me what I than that of the enemy, he intended to surround, Would he be satisfiedwith and to charge them at the same time, both in already possess ! ranking second to me, without pretending to be front and flank. Alexander anticipatedthis,and Tell gave directionsaccordingly. He had posted, in my equal, I might possiblythen hear him. line,the greatest part of his him that the world will not permit two suns nor the front of his first bowmen, in order that men, two sovereigns. Let him therefore either choose and javelin slingers, to-morrow to surrender to-day, or meet me the effect of the chariots, they might counteract ; and by discharging their missiles at the horses, to himself with the hopes of better success not to flatter Those who led the wings were frighten them. than he has had hitherto." By thisthe reader will perceive that Alexander ordered to extend them as widely as possible, Oh, but in such a manner had become intoxicated with his success. as not to weaken the main Parmenio commanded body. how hard it is to bear prosperity with a proper the leftwing, and Alexander the right. The two frame of mind ! Truly has it been said,that when armies soon issue. The chariots failed in the effect high, and every appethe channels of plenty run joined tite is plied with abundance and variety, so that intended, and the Persian cavalry in the left repulsed, upon which Darius set his word to express its wing were satisfaction is but a mean then the inbred corruption of the whole army in motion, in order to overwhelm enjoyment, Upon seeing this,Alexander human heart shows itself pampered and insolent, the Macedonians. too unruly for discipline, tion. employed a stratagem to encourage his soldiers. and too big for correcWhen was the strife at the height, and fury pervaded formed The ambassadors of Darius returned, and inevery breast, Aristander, the soothsayer, him that he must now prepare for battle. clothed in his white robes, and holding a branch Accordingly, he pitched his camp near a village of laurel in his hand, advanced among the an troops, crying that he saw eagle (a sure called Gaugamela,* and the river Bumellus, the hovering over Hazir Su, in a plain at a considerable omen the head of of victory) modern led distance from Arbela, where he had before level- Alexander, to which pretended bird he pointed the ground, that his cavalry and chariots with his finger. The soldiersrelying upon his At the the ease. word, and imagining that they also saw and act with more might move
are

time he had prepared caltrops f to annoy the enemy's horse. Alexander hearing that Darius was so near, continued four days in his camp to rest the army. During thistime, he was engaged in surrounding it with deep trenches and palisades, mined being deterto leave bis baggage there, and such of his troops as were in unable to join the conflict. On the fifthmorning, he set out about the second watch, designing to engage the enemy at break of day. Arriving at some mountains from whence he could descry the enemy's army, he halted ; he debated and having assembled his officers, whether he should attack them immediately, or encamp in that place. The latter opinion being adopted, he encamped there in the same order in which the army had marched, and, after having consulted with his soothsayer, as was his usual he retiredto repose, wont on the eve of a battle,
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tion eagle, renewed the attack with greater resoluThe battle was than ever. obstinate and ander bloody ; but the Macedonians prevailed. Alexhaving wounded the equerry of Darius the Persians, as well as the with a javelin, imagined Macedonians, that the king was killed; upon which the former were seized with the greatest consternation. The relations of Darius, who were at his left hand, fled away with the guards ; but those who were at his right him from surrounded him, in order to rescue death. Historians relate,that he drew his scimitar, and reflectedwhether he ought not to lay violent hands upon himself,rather than fleein an ignominious manner ; but the love of life prevailed, and he fled to Arbela, where he arrived
same night. After Darius had passed the Lycus, some of his attendants advised him to break down the bridge,in order to stop the pursuit of the enemy ; men but he, reflectinghow many of his own

the

The camp of Darius was about ten miles to the or Zab. north of the Lycus According to Niebuhr and Rennel, the ancient Gaugamela is to be recognized in the The ground modern village of Kamalis. around here to the evolutions and moveoffers littleor no impediment ments of the largest armies. instruments t These were composed of spikes, several of which were anciently laid in the field through which the cavalry was to march, in order that they might pierce the feet of the horses.

hastening to pass over, generously replied, were that he had rather leave an open road to a pursuing enemy, than close it to a fleeing friend. When he reached Arbela, he informed those who had escaped with him, that he designed to leave all for the present to Alexander, and flee into Media, from whence, and from the rest of the

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during which time the people northern provinces, he could draw together new selves abandoned themhis fortune in battle. to pleasures of the forces,to try once more ander grossest nature, Alexsians Historians differas to the number of the Pertowards Susa, passing through marched day. Curtius says 40,000 ; the fertileprovince of Sitacene. He slainon this fatal arrived at Susa in twenty days. The Arrian, 30,000; and Diodorus, 90,000. As he approached the donians city, Abulites, governor of the first of these authorities states that the Maceplace, sent his lost only 300 men, son him, with a promise to surrender to meet while Arrian does not the city into his hands, with all the treasures of not allow a third of that number ; but this canDarius. The young nobleman conducted Alexbe true : if the battle was so obstinate, and ander it, as they make to the river Choaspes, where the Persian army so numerous Abulites himself met him, and performed his 700,000, or 800,000 men,) they could (600,000, promise. The treasures of Susa were not have bought the empire thus cheaply. There added to the coffers is, doubtless,on the one side exaggeration, and a mighty robber ! of Alexander. Surely he was He found in this place the brazen statues on the other extenuation, with reference to the of fought on the Harmodius and Aristogiton,which Xerxes had numbers stated. The battle was brought out of Greece, and Alexander now October, b.c. 331. first reof stored Alexander, after offeringmagnificent sacrifices them to Athens. Leaving a strong garrison in the city of Susa, to the gods, for the victory, and rewarding those sued pur- Alexander, after having appointed Archelaus who had signalizedthemselves in the battle, Darius as far as Arbela ; but before his arrivalgovernor of the city, Mezarus, governor of the there, the fallenmonarch had fled over the citadel, and Abulites, governor of the province of his of Susiana, marched into Persis. Having mountains of Armenia, attended by some relatives,and a small body of guards called crossed the river Pasi Tigris (the modern Jerahi) he entered the country of the Uxii. This a golden Melophori, because each of them wore province extends from Susiana to the frontiers of apple on the top of his spear. In Armenia, he Persis, and it was by 2000 Greek mercenaries who was joined governed by Madctcs, who was had escaped the slaughter. not a follower of fortune. Faithful to his Alexander took the city of Arbela, where he sovereign, he resolved to hold out to the last sums on immense of money, with all the extremity ; for which purpose he retired into a seized rich furniture and equipage of Darius, and then stronghold, in the midst of craggy mountains, and surrounded by steep precipices. Having returned to his camp. been chased from thence, he retired into the The conqueror rested but a few days. Some pro- citadel, vinces whence the besieged sent thirty deputies cities yet remained untaken, and some to Alexander, to sue for quarter. Alexander uneasy tillthey unsubdued, and he was listento the petition but rein his possession. He first proceeded to were ; would not at first ceiving letters from Sisigambis, whom Babylon. Mazaeus was governor of that city he had Madetes was related, and province, and he had, after the late battle, left at Susa, and to whom he not only pardoned him, but restored him to the remains of the body he retiredthither, with his former dignity,set all the prisoners free,left He was almost powerless ; upon commanded. Alexander's arrival, therefore, he delivered the the city untouched, and the citizens in the full o or's city,himself, and his children, into the conquerenjoymentf their ancient libertyand privileges. followed by Having subdued the Uxii, Alexander ordered His example was hands. to march Bagaphanes, governor of the fortress, wherein all Parmenio with part of his army deposited ; and through the plain,while he himself, at the head the treasures of Darius were Alexander entered the city at the head of his of his light armed troops, crossed the mountains, day, which extend as far as Persia. On the fifth whole army, as though he had been marching against the enemy, and received the riches of he arrived at the pass of Susa. Ariobarzanes, Babylon. with 4000 foot, and 700 horse, had possessed During his stay in Babylon, Alexander held himself of this pass, and he had so posted his band, that they were out of the reach of many conferences with the magi, and acting little As soon Alexander advanced in as their advice, he upon gave directions for arrows. molished rebuilding the temples which Xerxes had de- order to attack them, they rolled from the top of ; and, among others, that of Belus. the mountains stones of a prodigious size,which, deans, down He frequently conversed, also, with the Chal- rebounding from rock to rock, smote famous for theirknowledge in whole ranks. The conqueror was astounded, who were He withdrew nomical and gave orders for a retreat. astronomy, and who presented him with astrotaken by their predeces- about thirty furlongs, where he lay encamped sors observations, some during the space of 1903 years, which were time, afraid to proceed, and ashamed to return. ander, His pride was sent by Callisthenes,who about to be humbled, and accompanied Alexserter his career of victory checked, when a Greek deto Aristotle. Before he departed, he gave the government of the province to MazaeuS, and coming to his camp, offered to conduct him through by-paths to the top of the mounthe command tains, of the forces he left there to Apollodorus of Amphipolis. whence he might compel the Persians to Accordingly, Alexander, at the head of About this time, Alexander received recruits retreat. to the number chosen troops, having followed his guide of 2000 horse, and 13,500 foot, some corporated These he in- by night over rocks and precipices,arrived a under the command of Amyntas. b into his veteran army ; himself being little efore day-break, at the top of a mountain present at the reviews as often as they were which commanded all the hillswhere the enemy was posted. A charge was made, and they fled; exercised. After a stay of about thirty days in Babylon, and Craterus, who had been leftin the camp be-

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self low, advancing with the troops, possessed himcrushed under the ruins of an empire already shaken to its foundation ; while at the same of the pass. Ariobarzanes, with part of the open to them, and offered cavalry, breaking through the Macedonians, (by time Bactriana was riches. These intrigues were which act many were slaughtered on both sides,) them immense the mountains, designing carried on with great secrecy ; but, nevertheless, made his escape over to the ears of Darius, and he would not to throw himself into Persepolis ; but he was they came In vain did Patron, who comchased back again by the enemy below, and he, believe them. manded the Greeks, entreat him to pitch his with most of his valiant band, perished on the tent among them, and to trust the guard of his mountains. Alexander now he might deon pend. pursued his march into Persis, person with men whose fidelity distance from He replied, he was at some or Persia. When that it would be a less affliction to him to be deceived by, than to condemn Persepolis, the metropolis of that province, he governor of that the Persians ; that he would suffer the worst of received lettersfrom Tiridates, ants city,urging his speedy arrival,lest the inhabit- evilsamidst those of his own nation,rather than of the city should seize the treasures of seek for security among strangers, how faithful ander, and affectionate he might believe them ; Darius, to which act they were inclined. Alexsoever sian this news, lefthis infantry behind, and that he could not die too soon, if the Perupon valry, soldiers considered him unworthy of life. marched the whole night at the head of his caDarius was soon undeceived ; the traitors and passing the Araxes by a bridge he seized sepolis. to Perhim, bound him in chains of gold, by way of had previously ordered to be made, came honour, and putting him in a covered chariot, Diodorus tellsus, that Alexander, having asthey marched towards Bactriana. sembled In the mean his troops, made a speech, wherein he time, Alexander advanced rapidly able He reached that province in towards Media. charged this city with having caused innumermischiefs to Greece, with implacable hatred twelve days, moving nearly forty miles each day. In three days more, he reached Ecbatana, where towards her, and with growing rich by her he he was informed that Darius had retired from spoils. To avenge these injuries,gave it up to them, to do with the inhabitants and their thence fivedays before, with intent to pass into censed estates whatever they thought proper. The li- the remotest provinces of his empire. He then Parmenio to lay up all the treasures commanded soldieryrushed into the place, and put to tin, the sword, without mercy, all they could find. of Persia (which,ccording to Strabo and Jusa The cruelties exthey committed were revolting to sterling, amounted to about 30,000,000/. clusive human nature : they show to what a dreadful of the rich gifts Alexander had munificently the demoniacal spirit of revenge will extent given at various periods to his followers) censed carry a man when left to himself, or when li- in the castleof Ecbatana, under a strong guard, by a superior. which he left there. Alexander, with the rest After thiscruel act, leaving Craterus and Parof his army, pursued Darius, and arrived the eleventh day at Rhages, which is about a day's menio in the place, Alexander proceeded with a from the Caspian Straits. He was formed inand journey small body to reduce the neighbouring cities some that Darius had passed those straits strongholds, which submitted at the approach of his troops. He returned to Persepolis,and. there time before, which information leaving him took up his winter quarters. It was during this again without hopes of overtaking his prey, he stay that he destroyed the palace, as related in halted for fivedays, during which time he settled the account of " Persepolis;" an act worthy of a the affairs Media. of Goth. The season From Rhages, Alexander marched into Parwas spent in feasting and tance thia,and encamped the firstday at a small disrevelling,regardless of the havoc he had made from the Caspian Straits.He passed those among his species, and of the devastation of the had passed. straits over which his ambitious feet the next day, and he had scarcely entered countries The spring found Alexander again on his Parthia, when he was informed of the conspiracy march in quest of Darius. That unhappy prince against Darius. had still foot, among whom for Alexander to an army of 30,000 This was a fresh motive 4000 Greeks who continued faithfulto his hasten his march. were At length he overtook them ; and seized and the barbarians, on his arrival,were jcause. Besides these, he had 4000 slingers, I upwards of 3000 cavalry, most of them Bactrians, and reputationof with consternation. The name by Bessus, governor of the province Alexander, a motive all powerful in war, filled commanded Bactriana. All these declared that they them with such terror, that they universallybetook of were themselves to flight, ready to follow him whithersoever he notwithstanding their should go, and would shed the last drop of blood exceeded that of the pursuer. Bessus number in his defence. But there were traitorsin the and his accomplices requested Darius to mount Nabarzanes, one of the greatest lords of his horse, and fleefrom the enemy ; but he replied camp. Persia, and general of the horse, conspired with that the gods were ready to avenge the Bessus to seize upon the person of the king, and evils he had suffered,and invoking Alexander ander he to do him justice, refused to follow them. At put him in chains. Their design was, if Alexthemselves should pursue them, to secure these words, full of rage, they discharged their by giving up Darius alive into his hands ; and, darts at the unhappy monarch, and lefthim in the event of their escape from the conqueror, wounded to the mercy of the Macedonians. This to murder Darius, usurp his crown, done, they separated, Bessus fleeing towards and begin a The traitors soon new war. won over the troops Hyrcania,*and Nabarzanes into Bactria,hoping by representing to them that they were going to thereby to elude the pursuit of the enemy, or be certain destruction; that they would soon oblige him to divide his forces. Their hosts

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first Cyrus, under thirteenkings, from b.c. 536 dispersed themselves up and down, as fear or hope directed their steps,and many thousands to b.c. 331 ; datingfrom the time of the annexation were of the Babylonian empire to that of the slain. In the mean time, the horses that drew the Medes and Persians. But the dissolution the of cart in which the once mighty Darius was seated, empire was not owing to the maladministration halted,for the drivers had been killed Bessus, of Darius Codomannus ; it sprung from causes by way. near a villageabout half a mile from the highover o which he had littler no control. The Polystratus, Macedonian, being pressed seeds of itsruin had been sown in its a very origin in It with thirst the pursuitof the enemy, was soon and primitiveinstitution. had been formed after conducted by the inhabitantsto refresh by the union of two nations,of different ners manhimselfat an ing fountain. As he was filla and inclinations. The Persians were adjacent his helmet with water, he heard the groans sober,laborious, modest people ; the Medes were of a dying man, and looking round, discovered devoted to pomp, luxury, softness, and voluptuousness. a cart, in which, on The example of frugality drawing near, he found the and simplicity The hunters had long pur- which the truly great Cyrus had set them, and unhappy monarch. sued him, and they found him at length in the their being obliged to be always under arms to agonies of death. He had yet strength suffi- gain so many victories,nd support themselves cient a to call for a little in the midst of so many enemies, prevented water, which, when he had taken, he turned to the Macedonian, and, those vicesfrom spreading for some time ; but had prevailed,and all were with a faint voice,said,that in the deplorable when their arms state to which he was reduced, it was no small subdued before them, the fondness which the to Medes had for pleasure and magnificence soon consolation him that his lastwords would not be lost.He, therefore, ander came charged him to tellAlex- |lessened the temperance of the Persians, and bethat he died in his debt, without having the prevailingtaste of the two nations. had the power of returninghis obligations that The conquest of Babylon added to the declension. ; " he thanked him for the kindness he had shown That " mother of harlots intoxicated her to his mother, wife, and children that he be- victorswith her poisoned cup, and sought ; enchanted them with her pleasures. She furnished them the gods to give victoryto his arms, and make him master of the universe; and that he with ministersand instruments adapted to promote luxury, and to foment and cherishvolupthought he need not entreat him to revenge the tuousness he suffered, this d as was mon traitorouseath the com; with art and delicacy and the wealth cause of kings. Then taking Polystratus of the richest provinces in the world being at " by the hand, he added : Give Alexander your the disposalof their sovereigns, enathey were bled hand, as I give you mine ; and carry him, in my to satiate theirdesires. Cyrus himself contributed name, to this, the only pledge I am able to give,in this without foreseeing the consequences. Having After his victories, inspiredhis he condition, f my gratitude o and affection." utteredthese words, Darius expired in the arms with subjects an admiration for pomp and show, spise of Polystratus. which, hitherto,they had been taught to deHe suggested that magniAlexander, itis said, as airy trifles. coming up a few minutes ficence after, and beholding the dead body of the fallen and richesshould crown exploits, glorious monarch, burst intotears, and bewailed the cruel and be the end and fruit of them ; thereby authorizing lotof a prince,who, he observed, was worthy of them to indulge themselves in their a betterend. Vain tears, and mock bewailings naturally corrupt inclinations.He spread the were these. He had pursued him through life, evilfarther by compelling the various officers f o ness the only season we have for showing real kind- the empire to appear with splendour before the he weeps and to our fellow-man, and now the better to represent his own greatmultitude, ness. bewails over his lifeless The consequence of thiswas, that these corse. and unregardless They might have been, however, tears of joy; officials and trappings mistook their ornaments for now he had gained the height of hisambition, for the essentials of their employments, while he owned the empire of the east without a now tion, the wealthy proposed them as patterns for imitafollowed by the different soon rival. Alas ! what a miserable creature is man and were Tby nature ! Tormented with the evil passionsof grades of society. his lifeaway in a corrupt nature, he fritters These acts undermined the ancient virtuesof " Cyrus dead, when the Persians. Scarcely was seeking rest, and findingnone." After having wept over the body, (whetherthere arose up as it were another nation,and for joy or sorrow, who can say?)Alexander monarchs of a different genius and character. Instead of the severe educationanciently ed bestowpulledoff his militarycloak, and threw itover the loathed objectthen causing it to be em; balmed, on the Persian youth, theiryoung men were to ; and the coffin be adorned with regal brought up in splendour and effeminacy whence of magnificence,he sent it to Sisigambis,that it they learned to despisethe happy simplicity theirforefathers, the nation became corruptand ed. might be interred with the ancient Persian moIn one generation,under this enervating narchs. Such was the end of Darius Codomannus. He the tuition, Persian character became haughty, died in the fiftieth ; year of his age, and sixthof vain, effeminate,inhuman, and perfidious and his reign. He was a mild and pacificprince, they, of allpeople under the sun, were the most his reign having been unsullied abandoned to splendour, luxury, feasting,and with injustice, or cruelty, any of those vices to which some of drunkenness ; so that itmay be affirmedthat the his predecessorshad been greatlyaddicted. empire of the Persianswas almost from itsvery In Darius Codomannus the Persian empire birth what other empires became through length I but ended, afterhaving existedfrom the reign of the of ages. Rome sunk under her corruptions, |

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her decay

imperceptible : the Persian emwas pire fancy. ruin almost from its inexhibited its own ferent This character of the Persians in difby the ages has been aptly compressed : poet Thomson
"

Persia, sober in extreme, Beyond the pitch of man, and thence Into luxurious waste."

reversed

cause of the ruin of the Persian the carelessness displayed in military empire, discipline,and the substitution of a confused impressed for the who were multitude of men, service from their respective countries. It was Long time were the Persians enslaved. They Greeks, that they only in their mercenaries, the dynasty for quently had any real strength, and their valour was fre- groaned under the Macedo-Grecian 102 years, and when that was overturned by the counteracted by the unwieldiness of the the Parthian yoke for 454 Persian hosts, and their lack of a knowledge of Parthians, they wore At the end of that time, a.d. 225, the more.* Cyrus knew the military tactics. The younger Parthians being greatly weakened by their ous ruinof Greece ; hence, as soon as value of the arms wars his brother's throne was with the Romans, Artaxeres, a gallant the design against Persian, encouraged his countrymen to seize the decided, he with great care extended his connexions The only soldiers, in opportunity of shaking off the yoke, which they also, among them. did in a battle of three days' continuance, when the army of Darius, who performed their duty, defeated, and Artabanus, king the enemy were faithful to him to the last,were and continued of the Parthians at that time, taken and slain. the Greeks. The Persians, therefore,again appeared on the The monstrous corruptions of the court, or theatre of human action, and they played their rather of the harem, says Heeren, was another no part during 411 years, their monarchs being less powerful cause of the decay of the Persian known as the " Sassanian kings." here to the Every thing was empire.

One

great
was

To the lascivious pipe and wanton song, That charm down fear, they frolic it along, With mad rapidity and unconcern, Down to the gulf, from which is no return. They trust in navies, and their navies failGod's curse can ten thousand cast away sail. They trust in armies, and their courage dies; In wisdom, in fortune, and in lies: wealth, But all they trust in withers, as it must, When He commands, in whom they place no trust. Vengeance at last pours down upon their coast A long despised, but now victorious host ; Tyranny sends the claim that must abridge The noble sweep of all their privilege ; Gives liberty the last, the mortal shock: Slips the slave's collar on, and snaps the lock." COWPER.
"

subject

influence of the eunuchs, or of the reigning It worse, of the queen-mother. queen, or, still is necessary to have studied,in the court history the character and violent accusations of Ctesias, more a Paryof an Amytis or Amistris, or still CHAPTER V. to satis, form an adequate idea of the nature of The gratification such a harem government. of THE KINGDOM OF PERSIA. pulse the passions,the thirstfor revenge, and the imof hatred, no less than voluptuousness and KINGS. SASSANIAN the springs which moved every thing pride,were in this corrupted circle passions which acquire : ARTAXERES, ARDSHIR OR BEN BABEK, OR a force in proportion to the narrowness BABEGAN. of the narch, circle in which they are exercised. The moHistorians differwidely in their account of the enervated with pleasure, instead of governing, family of Artaxeres. The Byzantine authorities is governed by his courtiers. Despotic acts represent him as rising to the throne from for the most denoted, in the last alone, part, a mean and spurious origin, while the oriental stages of the Persian empire, that he possessed writers say, that he was the grandson of Sassan, In a word, all was any power in the state. brother of a Persian queen, during the Parthian lows corrupt, and where corruption prevails,ruin foldominion ; and by his mother's side,the grandson in the train ; for per. of Babek, who was governor of Persia ProThis latter account is considered by Dr. Not only vice disposes and prepares Hales as the most credible; and hence, he says, The mind that slumbers sweetly in her snares, To stoop to tyranny's usurped command Artaxeres assumed the title Babegan, and the of And bend her polished neck beneath his hand ; dynasty that of Sassanian. (A dire effect by one of nature's laws On the death of his grandfather, Babek, Artaxeres Unchangeably connected with its cause;) But Providence himself in will intervene applied to be appointed his successor To throw his dark displeasure o'er the scene. the government, but was refused by Ardevan, All are his instruments, each form of war, burns at home, or threatens from afar: What who was jealous his merit, and disturbed by of Nature in arms, dream, portending the loss of his life and her elements a at strife, The storms, that overset the joys of life, crown. Upon this disappointment, Artaxeres Are but his rods to scourge a guilty land, fled to Persepolis, and formed a strong party it at the bidding of his hand. And waste in He gives the word, and mutiny soon roars among the Persian nobility, conjunction with In all her gates, and shakes her distant shores: he effectedthe overthrow of the Parthian whom The standards of all nations are unfurled ; On ascending the throne, a.d. 225, he empire. She has one foe, and that one foe the world. the pompous title of Shah in Shah, assumed And if He doom that people with a frown, " And King of kings." them mark with a seal of wrath pressed down,
"

Obduracy takes place; callous and tough, The reprobated race grows judgment proof: Earth shakes beneath them, and heaven roars above; But nothing scares from the course them they love:

* The particulars, during this period, will be found Seleucidse, narrated in the histories of the Macedonians, and Parthians.

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1. When a king applies himself to Artaxeres was no sooner seated on the throne, tice, render jussian the people are eager to render him obedithan he conceived a design of restoring the Perence. ingly, empire to its pristine greatness. Accord2. Of all princes, the worst he gave" notice to the Roman is he whom the governors of the bad hope. the provinces bordering on his dominions, that good fear,and from whom 3. All the branches of a community separabl inhe had an unquestionable title,as the successor are Cyrus, to all the Lesser Asia, which he comconnected with each other, and with manded of have recithem to relinquish, as well as the provinces the trunk ; hence kings and subjects procal cares on the frontiers of the ancient Parthian and duties ; which, if neglected on kingdom, which were either side,produce ruin and confusion to both. already under his sway. 4. He feltso much the danger of his high staThe emperor Alexander Severus, who at that tion, from self-deception, that he appointed one sent letters time ruled over the Roman empire, him every morning, to Artaxeres, importing that he would show his of his courtiersto examine as his confessor, and to require an account if he kept within bounds, and not out wisdom of all that he had said or done the preceding day. of hopes of conquest rekindle war, which might 5. The royal authority cannot be supported be unsuccessful ; that he ought to consider he a nation to cope with a nation used to war, was without troops, nor troops without taxes, nor and Severus, taxes without culture of the lands, nor this culture whose emperors, Augustus, Trajan, had often vanquished the Parthians. without justice well administered, and a Artaxeres, regardless of these letters, police well regulated. raised a 6. By the assistance of a council of seven great army, and attacked the fortifiedposts of on the river Euphrates. His conthe Romans quests sages, he abolished the superstitionand idolatry that had been introduced under the Macedoso rapid, that Alexander over them were Grecian and Parthian dynasties,and revived the was compelled to raise an army, and to march in order to check his reformed religion of Darius Hystaspes : hence towards Mesopotamia he proclaimed throughout the empire, that " he career. the sword of Aristotle,the Artaxeres heard of the approach of the had taken away When Roman emperor, he was employed in the siege philosopher, which had devoured the nation for 500 years ;" meaning the civil and religiousinnovations of Nisibis, or Antiochia, which he immediately of Alexander, the pupil of Aristotle, raised,that he might prepare for the contest. At the same time he sent 400 deputies, gorgeously which had prevailed during that period. Artaxeres was succeeded in his kingdom by arrayed, and commissioned, when they should be to introduced* the emperor's presence, to speak " the thus : The great king Artaxeres commands SHABOUR, OR SAPOR, Romans, and their prince, to depart out of all sians fierce and Syria and Asia Minor, and to restore to the Per- his son, a prince whose nature was covetous this side the iEgean untractable ; and who was of glory, all the countries on haughty, insolent, and cruel. and Pontic seas, as of right descending to them Shabour was no sooner from their ancestors." These deputies performed seated on the throne, He their commission ; but Alexander, to show his than he meditated a war with the Romans. stripped them of their equipage, was abetted in his designs by the traitor Cyricontempt of it, name ades, the son of a commander of the same and sent them into Phrygia, where he assigned in the Roman In for their subsistence. army. with them farms to cultivate conjunction Odomastes, a Persian general, Cyriades wasted Artaxeres now repaired to Mesopotamia, with An the adjacentrovinces, and having at length the Roman a large army, to meet p emperor. prevailed upon the king himself to take the engagement ensued, in which the Romans were field, he, with a number of deserters, who, for victorious. But though Artaxeres was defeated, he was not subdued. He recruitedhis army, and the sake of plunder, followed him, attacked the Philippi, of which the Roman of emperor having divided his forces cities Antioch and Cesarea into three bodies, he attacked them separately, cities they possessed themselves. Upon the conquest Cyriades took the title of of these cities, and though repulsed by one body in Media, he destroyed another, which had invaded his terri- Cesar, and afterwards of emperor. tories, Provoked by these proceedings, Gordian, then emperor returned afterwhich the Roman He entered the city in triumph, and to Rome. emperor of Rome, resolved to carry his arms into the east, for the double purpose of chastising assumed the title Parthicus and Persicus. of Persian power. Artaxeres now employed himself in recovering Cyriades, and checking the he had lost,and in restoring the honour of With this view, he marched into Syria at the what bour He ruled with much reputa- head of a numerous army, and he chased Shathe Persian name. tion dominions, whither the eminto his own his death, which occurred a.d. 240. peror till followed him, taking Charra, or Haran, Dr. Hales observes that this re-founder of the He was in Mesopotamia. Persian monarchy one was preparing to push his of the best and further,when he was murdered by conquest still their kings ; and that it was his wish greatest of he had made by to retrievethe ancient glory of the kingdom the treachery of Philip, whom to the maxims a steady adherence the Pisch- captain of his guards, on the death of his fatherof dadians and Kaianians in politicsand religion. in-law. Philip,having possessed himself of the soveHe composed a book for the use of the entire reign " body of his peace with Sapor, and authority, made entitled, Rules for living subjects, to him Mesopotamia and Armenia tical well," from which, etc., the following wise poli- abandoned The senate, however, disapproving of his from are derived, as again. paraphrased maxims Herbelot. conduct, regardless of the treaty, he recovered

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part of these provinces, and then, leaving troops he marched back into to secure the frontiers, Italy. As soon as the Roman forceswere withdrawn, Sapor and Cyriades renewed their incursions ", and the latter growing stronger and stronger, The affairs began to be treated as an emperor. in such a sinking condition,that of Rome were sity, many of its provinces took shelter,out of necesunder his protection. At length, however,

and attentiveto the welfare of his subjects, the improvement of his kingdom in the construction of public works, such as cities, queducts, etc. a Mirkhond says that his administration of justice so rigid, was that some of his rapacious courtiers were alarmed, and set fire to his tent during a stormy night, that it might be thought to have been occasioned by lightning. In the reign of Sapor, the famous Mani * or Manes, the founder of the Manichaean heresy, flourished, and he is said to have favoured him, and to have builtfor him, on the borders of the province of Susiana, a place of retreat called This was Dascarah. only, however, while he Mani acted the part of a philosopher: when to reconcile his philosophy attempted with

Valerian, though advanced to the empire at a to reduce the numerous great age, took measures He carried his arms provinces to obedience. -westward and northward, and there victoriously was every prospect of uniting them all again But while he was thus under the Roman sway. Christianity, to mix the gospel with some or engaged, Sapor, with a formidable army, invaded of his national superstitions,nd thereby to frame burned and pillaged the the Roman territories, a system of religion,which he hoped to country, and at length advanced as far as Edessa, a new both infidels and Christians, to which he laid siege. Valerian hastened to its propagate among to any innovations in the taken for compelling Sapor, who was averse and necessary steps were relief, A mutiny of national religion,persecuted him, and obliged the Persians to retreat. the soldiersof Cyriades, who put him to death, him to flee for his life. The errors some they of of the Manichaeans were added to the power of Valerian, for whom declared. Sapor, however, resolved to venture a the most pernicious that have ever been promulgated. Mani pretended to be an apostle of Jesus battle,and an action took place before Edessa, Christ,and a prophet illuminated by the Holy in which Valerian was made prisoner,a.d. 268. Spirit, to reform all religions,and to reveal According to the Byzantine historians, Sapor truths which the Saviour had not thought proper used his fortune with an insolence the people could Instigated by despair, they first, to reveal to his disciples. To carry out this not endure. he and afterwards imposture, he chose twelve apostles, whom under the command of Callistus, sent forth to preach his doctrines. His doctrines, under that of Odenatus, prince of Palmyrene, sults, time from his in- says Neumann, his symbolical language, and in protected themselves for some finally compelled him to retire into particular, men, the division of his followers into layand his own ent dominions. and priests, auditores, and the differelecti, In his march, Sapor is said to have made use duties prescribed to each of them, seem to be verbally copied from Buddhism. His boast of the bodies of his prisoners to fill the hollow up the passages of his carroads, and to facilitate riages was, that he had obtained a perfect knowledge of over rivers. On his return, he was solicited all things, and that he had banished mysteries from religion. He by the kings of the Cadusians, Armenians, Bacprofessed to teach every rian thing by demonstration, and the knowledge of trians, and other nations,to set the aged ValeBut never God, by the light of reason. free ; but this only increased his cruelty yet has God, 1 Cor. i.21. He used him with the most the world by wisdom known towards him. When reason, says an excellent writer, has tired shameful indignity,mounting on horseback from his neck as a footstool; and, to crown all, after and bewildered herself in searching after God, the result must be non est inventus,that is, He is several years' imprisonment, he caused him to be flayed alive. Faith may look upon him, not to be found by me. After his return, the affairs of Sapor were and that with comfort, but for unassisted reason to gaze too much upon him is the way to lose her straitened. Flushed with victory, Odenatus,

clothed with the character of president over the sight. Roman provinces in the east, not only checked OR HORMOUZ, HORMISDAS. the progress of the Persian arms, but caused that he This prince was the son of Sapor, whom people terror in their own country. Twice did During his reign, this general advance as far as the city of Ctesi- succeeded on the throne. phon ; and when he died,the celebrated Zenobia, which continued only for about the briefspace of his wife, continued successfully to oppose the interest occurred. one year, nothing of political Persians, till she was conquered and made pri- By Persian historians he was called Al Horri, soner " by the emperor Aurelian, who appeared beloved the liberal;" and they say that he was is to vindicate the honour of the Romans An on this by his subjects. instance of his liberality sian The governor of Ormus, on the Peron record. side of the empire. Aurelian also took ample monds dialerian. Gulf, having purchased for him some vengeance on Sapor, for his ill-treatment of VaHe carried away many for 100,000 pieces of gold, informed him, prisoners and much spoil from the Persians, with which he * Archbishop Usher"has Notwithstanding, shown that Mani in Persian, graced his triumphs at Rome. in Greek, and Menachem in Hebrew, mean Manes cisely preSapor continued to enlarge his dominions at the His followers a the same, namely, comforter." his barbarous neighbours tillhis expense of forter the Paraclete, or Comadduce this as a proof that he was death, which occurred a.d. 271. promised by the Saviour, a pretension to which he Although Sapor was cruel and vindictive to- laid claim. This explains the reason why the Manichees wards scent the Act3 of the Apostles ; the account of the dehis enemies, according to Persian historians rejected the day of Pentecost, comof the Holy Ghost on pletely he was liberaland munificent to his friends,and destroyed such pretensions.
"

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THE

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induced him to seek peace. This was that if he did not choose to keep them, he might granted, dispose of them at double the cost ; or, in other and internal discords prevented the Romans from carrying into effect their after intentions of rewords, might gain cent, per cent, profit. Hor" invading Persia ; so that Varanes may be said misdas replied, To me a hundred or a thousand But if I meddle in merto cent, is nothing. chandize, have reigned in peace. The duration of his per reign, according to both Greek and Persian who will undertake the functions of the king? and what will become of the merchants?" writers,was seventeen years. He died, a.d. 292 ; The following saying is attributed to Hormisand das : " Princes are like fire,which burns those VARANES BAHARAM III., OR III. those that approach too near ; but greatly serves his son, the throne. This prince ascended that keep at a proper distance." A wiser saying " Humanity reigned only four months ; and, according to both : than this is attributedto his successor did nothing wororiental and Greek historians, be defined, because it comprehends thy cannot of notice. To him succeeded the virtues." Well would ithave been for the all world had all itsprinces thought thus, and acted NARSES, OR NARSI. Nature has formed in the spirit the maxim. of This prince,acting in the spiritof Artaxeres, livingcreature, for the man, more than any other the Persian provinces, exercise of the virtues of sympathy ; and he lays sought the reduction of all held either by the barbarous nations, or confeelings, who acts quered hands upon his own violent The state of the Roman by the Romans. companied with cruelty towards his species. The act is acempire seemed to favour his designs ; for war was punishment. with itsown raging in every part. Narses, with a large army, " Man is dear to man invaded Mesopotamia, and in a short time reco; the poorest poor vered Long for some in a weary life, moments, most of the places which had belonged to When they can know, and feel that they have been At this time Diocletian and Gahis ancestors. Themselves the fathers, and the dealers out nominatio Of some leriusreigned at small blessings ; have been kind to such conjointlyRome, under the deAs needed kindness, for this single cause of the two Cesars. The latter took That we have all of us one heart." the field against Narses, and in two battles near Wordsworth. Antioch defeated him. Galerius passed the river Tigris, and advanced into the very heart of the Hormisdas was succeeded in his kingdom by king's dominions ; but abating his care and circumspecti man I., BAHARAM Narses fell suddenly upon the RoVARANES I., OR lerius is known, than that army, and they were totallydefeated. Gamore very little of whom t himself escaped with difficulty,o tellthe he reigned three years. Persian historians say He was at first received coldly that he reigned with great applause ; and that his tidings at Rome. by Diocletian, but, by his importunities,he was death, which was caused by treachery, as he was sians. the Perendeavouring to allay a tumult, was a great grief entrusted with another army against He took a terrible revenge. Adding and loss to his subjects. like Narses, he watched his prudence to fortitude, During the reign of Varanes, the Romans, under the Persian army the command of Saturninus,kept the Persians opportunity, and stole upon whereby he gained a complete victory. on limits. He was the unawares, succeeded within their Narses himself was wounded, and forced to flee, throne by his son, of his army, into the with a small remnant His treasures and papers, as also II., OR II. VARANES BAHARAM mountains. his sister, queen, concubines, and children, with This prince,at the commencement of his reign, many nobles, fellinto the hands of Galerius. It acted with such haughtiness and cruelty, that the in vain that Narses endeavoured to retrieve was that is, of Khalef, people gave him the surname his misfortunes : no fresh army could be col" lected thronement unjust."Hence they contemplated his debeing shortly ; and the victorious Romans ; but the magi undertook his ation reformby render after joined Diocletian,he consented to sur; and they did this with such warmth, and the five provinces west of the Tigris ; on listened to such evident loyalty, that Baharam was granted him, and his their sage admonitions, and became an excellent which condition,peace retained queen restored. The other prisoners were prince. These acto grace a triumph at Rome. cumulated " The way of a fool is right in his own eyes: misfortunes broke the heart of Narses, But he that hearkeneth unto counsel is wise." a.d. 300, after he had reigned seven years. He
was succeeded by his son ranes, remarkable act of the reign of VaOR HORMOUZ. MISDATES, says Sir J. Malcolm, was the execution of According to oriental historians, this prince the celebrated Mani, about a.d. 277, who returned When he saw that during his reign into Persia. At firstVaranes was eminent for his justice. to the rich oppressed the poor, he established a though showed a disposition embrace his faith, for ; most that this was a mere court of justice the redress of the latter and authors contend text preto lull Mani and his followers into a fatal he frequently presided himself, to keep the judges Misdates likewise devised many new to confirm this in awe. security. The result would seem opinion ; for Mani and almost all his disciples laws and regulations for the encouragement of were he was trade ; whence careful of the maritime slain by his order. Varanes contemplated war is said to have with the Romans ; coasts and the ports of Persia. He but his resolutionwas by the activityand extended his dominions considerably, but the shaken prowess of the Roman particularsare not related. His reign was brief, emperor Probus, which

Prov. xii. 15.

The

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107

the peace which pliment that prince,and to renew had recently subsisted between the two empires. This was the avowed of object the embassy ; but they had seeret orders to inquire into the strength of the Romans, and to purchase arms, of which he stood in need. Constantine was informed of the designs of Sapor ; but he received his ministers graciously, granted their requests, and, at their return, charged them with a letter for Sapor. The purport of this letterwas, to intercede for SAPOR II., OR SCHABOUR DOULAKTAF. the Christians. In it the emperor gave a brief During the minority of Sapor, the Persians account of his faith; then of his success and grandeur, were exposed to many disasters,and especially which he attributed wholly to the Divine to the ravages of the Arabs, who, leaving their blessing. He afterwards expatiated on the odious but without alluding to the cirarid plains on the southern shores of the Gulf, folly of idolatry, cumstance of Sapor's being an idolater. He next entered Persia in vast numbers, spread desolation of patheticallyrepresented the miseries which had wherever they came, and carried offthe sister bour, the late king Hormouz, and the aunt of Schastancing constantly attended unjust and cruel princes,ininto captivity. When Sapor came Valerian,whom he asserted to have been of age, he resolved to revenge these injuries. put happy in all his undertakings, until he became a He their king to death, and treated the inhabitants persecutor of the Christians. Finally,he recommended ental the Christiansto the favour of Sapor, and of Yemen, or Arabia, with great cruelty. Orihistorianssay, that he was chieflyinduced besought him, for his sake, to look upon them as to act thus by the advice of his astrologers,who This letter appears to good and loyal subjects. one asserted that some of their nation would, in have had a good effect,for Sapor afterwards future, subvert the Persian empire. Malek ben treated the Christians with less severity. Nasser, an ancestor of Mohammed, But Sapor still dhered to the plan of raising their ambasa sador, himself and his successors to the empire of the remonstrated with Sapor, and suggested that eitherthe predictionmight be false,or that, east. After he had made sufficientreparations, p if true, his cruelties would only provoke the he acquainted Constantine with his intentions, Arabs to retaliate. This caused him to wherein he claimed reflect, transmitting to him a letter, and he afterwards treated the Arabs so kindly, all the dominions anciently belonging to the " Persian emperors ; and affirmed that the river that they called him Doulaknaf, on the wings," or theirprotector ; from the the legal boundary of his empire. eagles carrying their Strymon was His letterread thus : " I have re-assembled my young on the wings. This was a lovely character, I am numerous and one which reminds us of the reference resolved to avenge my army. to Jehovah in the Hebrew Scriptures, Exod. who have been plundered, made captives, subjects, xix. 4; Deut. xxxii. 11, 12, and to the Saviour and slain. It is for this that I have bared in the Gospels, Matt xxiii. 37. my arm, and girded my loins. If you consent Sapor was to pay the price of the blood which has been shed, a zealous supporter of the honour of the Persian diadem, and pursued steadilythat to deliver up the booty which has been plundered, policy which Artaxeres had adopted, namely, and to restore the city of Nisibis, which is in that of uniting all the territories the ancient Irak, (Arabi,) belongs to our empire, though and of Persian kings under his sway. in your possession, I will sheath the sword In pursuing this now plan, however, his measures different from were of war ; but should you refuse these terms, the hoofs of my horse, which are hard as steel,shall those of his predecessors. Instead of waging war himself, he encouraged the barbarians dwelling effacethe name from the earth : of the Romans on the frontiersof the Roman provinces to ravage and my glorious scimitar,that destroys like fire, This he did openly, shall exterminate the people of your empire." and harass them. Constantine returned Sapor a letter replete when the Romans were in confusion, and covertly, when they were free from internalalarm. After with dignity and resolution ; and though he was this, he extended his dominions eastward and But now advanced in years,he prepared for war. his northward, increased his revenues by encourag- justas he was on the point of commencing ing trade and commerce, disciplined his troops, march for the eastern provinces,he was removed and effected a profound veneration for the civil from this world of strife. Upon the death of Constantine, Sapor, taking and religiousinstitutions his country. of At the instigation the of cuted magi, Sapor perse- advantage of the dissensions that ensued in the both the Jews and Christians the former Roman empire, entered their provinces, and re; as evil-minded and subjects, avowed enemies of annexed to his dominions the parts which his their religion; and the latter, being attached had lost. Many as ancestors occupied years were to Constantine the Great, and after his profession of in this struggle,and with various successes Christianity. The power reverses of fortune. In pitched battles, as at of Constantine was too a great for Sapor to attack him openly ; he there- Siugara, and in the defence of fortresses,s at fore sent an embassy to Constantinople,to comNisibiu,the Romans usually had the advantage, but in rapid marches, equestrian skirmishes and * Some authors interpret this word, " Lord of the surprises,the Persians triumphed. shoulders," and say, that the name was derived from his All thishappened during the reign of Constans, manner Arab tribes, which was to pierce of chastising the the shoulders of his captives, and then to dislocate who had succeeded Constantine in the empire of them by a string passed through them. the Romans, and in the early part of the reign of

When he was years. continuing only seven dying, the infant,of whom the queen was nant, pregwas ; the magi having elected his successor He was prognosticated that it would be a son. " called Schabour Doulaktaf,"* that is,one upon " fore whose shoulder the government devolved behis birth ;" an eastern form of expression, siah, a reference to the Meswhich recallsto memory Isa. ix. 6,) (see signifying his royal power, as King of kings.

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At length, the last-mentioned emperor, contrary to the sage advice of Hormisdas, a Persian general on the side of the Romans, advanced too far into the country, and being already half conquered by thirst and famine, his army was destroyed by Sapor, and himself slain. on A peace was now concluded with the Romans

Julian,his successor.

VARANES
was so

IV.,

OR

KERMAN

SCHAH,

Jovian, the successor of advantageous terms. Julian, ceded the five provinces in dispute for to the Persians, together with the strong ever fortress of Nisibis, in Mesopotamia, which had boundary so long been the bulwark of the eastern of the Roman empire. This peace was concluded,
a.d.

denominated from his having been who the ancient ruler of the province of Kerman, Carmania. Varanes governed the kingdom of Persia eleven years, during which no event of importance occurred. Internal revolts seem only These were to have disturbed his peace. quently fredangerous, and he was eventually killed by an arrow, when endeavouring to quell a tumult in his army. The throne of Persia was next filled by
ISDEGERTES,
OR

JEZDEGARD

AL

ATHIM.

363.

Sapor now turned his attention to that part of bounded by Tartary and his empire which was India. He was thus occupied for some time ; but Jovian, the Roman jects, emperor, dying, and the while the former represent him as a monarch affairsof that people being again embarrassed, deservedly renowned for his many virtues. Both regardless of the peace subsisting between the Dr. Hales are overcharged, and two empires, he again invaded the Roman tories. terri- accounts, says we may ascribe each to his partialityfor the The particulars of this invasion have he, first of all the Persian All we know is Christians, whom to us. not been handed down monarchs, favoured and protected. he slew Arsaces, who reigned in Armenia, that Procopius and Cedrenus relate, that the emperor and reduced a large territoryunder his obedience ; Arcadius left Isdegertes guardian of his Arinthius, he was conon the arrival of that strained Theodosius n., and protectorof the Roman son to abandon a great part of his conquests ; empire, a trust that he faithfullydischarged. that upon this he transferredthe imperial seat to The Greek writers also relate, that during his emCtesiphon, the old capital of the Parthian pire, for twenty-one years, he lived in the that he might improve such opportunities reign, harmony utmost with Theodosius. This fully he did not as might offer and that after this act ; vindicates the character of this prince from the gain any great victory. the Persian priesthood, who practised The restless and ambitious Sapor ended his calumnies of several pious frauds upon him, for which he days in the beginning of the reign of the Roman ordered the magi to be decimated ; allowed the emperor Gratian, about a.d. 375, or 377, after Christians to build throughout his churches having reigned seventy or seventy-two years dominions ; and repealed the penal laws enacted differ on this point) with great (forauthors less against them by his predecessors. It was doubtvariety of fortune ; a variety that might have that extended this indulgence and toleration taught him the folly of pursuing the honours the fame of Isdegertes among strangers, and He and possessions of this changing world. caused it to be handed down with execration by lacked wisdom. to have by no means seems They themhis own selves, country. Some of his observations have been preserved, the priesthood of however, have preserved some ings, of his saya knowledge mind. of the human which exhibit breathing a spirit that contradicts the character " Words," he used to say, " may be more vivifying He often rethey have given of him. marked, than the showers of spring, and sharper than the " say they, That the wisest of monarchs destruction. The point of a lance may sword of he who never was punished when in a rage, and from the body; but a cruel word be drawn followed the firstimpulse of his mind to who be extracted from the heart it has never can serve reward the deserving." He used also to obwounded." " That whenever a king ceased to do good : Sapor was succeeded in his kingdom by actions,he necessarilycommitted bad ; and that ARDSCHIR, OR ARTAXERXES, the thought of eternity could not for a moment be absent from the mind, without its verging is recorded, concerning whose origin and life nothing towards sin." Such sentiments as these are save that he maintained peace with the even of a Christian philosopher. his dominions four years. worthy Romans, and governed a.d. 418, the magi, At the death of Isdegertes, To him succeeded through hatred to him set up Kesra, a nobleman, Gour, or Jur,* SCHABOUR, BEN in opposition to his son Baharam SCHABOUR III., OR SAPOR was then abroad, educating by an Arab for five who who governed the kingdom of Persia however, prince. By the assistanceof the Arabs, years in great tranquillity.He was contemporary his crown, Baharam raised an army to recover with Theodosius the Great, whose friendship he which he did almost without a struggle. during his reign. Persian writers say enjoyed killed by the fall of his tent ; the that he was JUR. V., OR OR BAHARAM GOUR, VARANES broken by a whirlwind,* and the cordage was The first of Baharam was to reward Noman, act pole struck the monarch while he slept. Sapor who had educated him ; his second, to pardon m. was succeeded by his brother to deprive him of those who had endeavoured disSuch gratitude and clemency the crown. *
in Persia. Malcolm These violent gusts are common line of tents levelled by a whole says, that he Iras seen their force, and some of them carried to a distance from the spot where they were pitched.
* was This surname hunting the jur,or wild

The character of Isdegertesisdifferently given by the Byzantine and Persian historians. By the latterhe is represented as a monster of cruelty, whose death was hailed as a blessing by his sub-

derived
ass.

from

his fondness

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fled,during this persecution, for protowards this Numbers tection posed the hearts of all his subjects to Theodosius, who espoused their cause. prince ; and his munificence, virtue, and valour, 2. Theodosius, in the days of Isdegertes, had are the theme of every historian. His generosity but exwas not limited to his court or capital, tendedlent a certain number of miners to that prince,to some over So unbounded work anew neglected gold and silvermines all his dominions. in Persia. These miners he now his liberality, hat his minister,dreading the was t required, and Baharam refused to send them back. effectsof its excess, presented a memorial to him, It was from these two causes sure tween that the war bethe possession of treapointing out how essential was to support the throne. the Romans Baharam wrote and Persians, at this date, " Fired with indignation,Theodosius took arose. under this representation, If I may not employ followed the example. benefits and rewards to gain the hearts of free up arms, and Baharam The contest was attended with no success men their obedience, let the who render me of any framers of this memorial inform me what means great consequence to either. Alternate victory I am to use for attaching such persons to my and defeat made up the whole sum of it; and it ended in a truce for 100 years, in which it was government." Under Baharam, it is said, minstrels and agreed that an end should be put to the severities first introduced into Persia,from exercised upon the Christians. musicians were A noble Christian action, however, contributed, India. Sir J. Malcolm says that this circumstance, more than the peace between the two empires, to with others of a similar nature, produced foreign powers that the king an impression among the re-establishment of Christianity in Persia. When immersed in luxury ; and the province of Azazene was were and his subjects ravaged by the Romans, in the beginning of the war, 7000 that the love of the dance and song had superseded brought to the city of that martial spirit,which had so lately Persian prisoners were in extreme Acases, bishop of misery. rendered Persia the terror of surrounding nations. Amida The king of Turan, or Turkistan, acting under that place, having assembled his clergy, represented to them in pathetic terms the misery of this impression, invaded Persia. He crossed the He then represented Oxus at the head of a large army, and laid waste these unhappy creatures. This invasion spread the whole of Khorassan. that as the Almighty preferred mercy to sacrifice, he would be better pleased with the relief a dismay of greatly increased by the which was disappearance of Baharam, who itwas concluded these his creatures, than by being served with had fled from a sense gold and silvervessels in their churches. The of inabilityto meet the impending storm. The result of this was, the suggestion was adopted: all the consecrated plate of gold and silvervessels were sold for the universal terror of the Persians,and the unguarded " ceived maintenance of their enemies, and they were confidence of the Tartars. The great king "consent home at the conclusion of the war the war was over, and that he had only to ney with moto defray their expenses on the road. Baharam receive the submission of the Persian chiefs, who was so struck with this act, that he invited his favour dailycrowded to his standard to itnplore and protection. Baharam, however, was not lost: the bishop to his capital, where he received him fetching a compass round by the coast of the with the utmost reverence, and granted the Caspian Sea, he gained the important pass of Christians many favours at his request. Thus, " Khuarasme, in the rear of the Turks ; and while by heaping " coals of fire upon the head of this high-minded prince, says Dr. Hales, did these the invading host was buried in wine and sleep, he fell upon them with seven thousand of the Christian miners melt his heart to mutual compassion bravest warriors of Persia,and put them to flight. and kindness, verifying St. Paul's precept, Rom. xii.20, 21. This is the true genius The slaughter was great : the chief of the enemy fell under the sword of Baharam, who pursued of the ever blessed gospel of Christ. After this,Baharam the fugitives across the Oxus. peace as long as enjoyed The use Baharam made of this victory was, to he lived ; and having reigned, twenty-three years, establish peace with all his neighbours, after he died, beloved and honoured by his subjects, a.d. 441. which he returned to his capital. Baharam The Persians relate a romantic tale about the one was that of the best monarchs ever ruled Persia. During his whole reign, the adventures of Baharam in India ; and they assert his was that, after his return, he was very successful in happiness of his subjects his sole object, Illincursions into the Arabian and Roman some persecution of the Christians excepted. into the latter, territories, carrying his arms most al- timed zeal on the part of Abdas led him into the to the gates of Constantinople. In this lat- crime, and overwhelmed row. ter the Christianswith sorA good man's assertion, however, their flatteryhas misled zeal should be ever on the lowing them, as the reader will perceive from the fol- wing ; but it should be united with discernment account of the war, as derived from Greek and prudence, or itwill be blind and extravagant, To historians. the and injure cause it intends to advance. be genuine, zeal must be free from a persecuting The cause of the war between Baharam and Theodosius was twofold. spirit. :. Baharam was succeeded by his son 1. Abdas, the Persian prelate, rantable with an unwarhad burned a firetemple to the zeal, BAHARAM. BEN JEZDEGERD VI., OR VARANES ground. Baharam, who had a great respect for him, gently reproved him, and commanded him Varanes vi. is represented as a wise and brave to rehuild it This he refused to do ; and at the prince,who took the best means of ensuring the instigationof the magi, the king put him to prosperity of his empire, by retaining the favourite death, demolished the churches, and confiscated of ministers and officers his father, while he the estates of the nobles who would not recant. himself carefullyattended to business. Varanes
"

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was particularly strictin the administration of the Persian forces, and he therefore retreated as H equal and impartialjustice.e restored the ancient they advanced ; but he was soon enabled, by the devotion of one of his chief officers, not regulations that had fallen into disuse,and only to laws by the advice of his council. preserve his country, but to destroy his foes. framed new in He likewise kept up discipline his army withThis officer,after communicating the plan he out severity,and never punished but with reluct- had formed, entreated his prince to order the ance, " called Siphadost. a lover whence he was mutilation of his body, and then to cast him in the route of the Persian soldiers. This was of his soldiers." According to the Persian historians, Varanes done ; and he was taken up, and carried to Peroses, broke the peace, and waged war mans with the Rowho asked him who had reduced him to " That cruel tyrant, Khoosh; but this is not probable, for the Greek this sad condition. no further mention of him than that Nuaz," was the answer annals make ; and being interrogated he was contemporary with Theodosius n. and his for what the deed was done, he replied," Because Martianus. successor I took the libertyof an old and faithfulservant, By some Persian writers the character of Varanes to represent the consequences of his bad government, is represented as unchaste, avaricious,and to and to tell him how unequal he was cruel: they style him Aitam, which has refer- meet the troops of Persia, conducted by such a ence This to violation,pillage,and massacre. hero as Peroses. But I will be revenged," he " I will lead you may have arisen from their displeasure at his added, as he writhed with pain ; by a short route, where you shall,in a few days, countenancing Christianity, which, by the preaching tamia, intercept the tyrant's retreat, defeat his army, of Manetha, bishop of Diarbekr, in MesopoPeroses believed made and his coadjutors, great progress in and rid the world of a monster." his dominions during his reign. the tale, and the Persian army marched Varanes died a.d. 459, and he was they not till succeeded according to his directions. It was in his kingdom by his son had been several days without water, and famine

PEROSES,

OR

FIROUZ.

Varanes had two sons, Firouz and Hormouz. His wish was, that Hormouz, the younger, should succeed him ; and for this purpose he sent away Peroses to be governor of Nimrouz,* including Accordingly, upon his Sigistan and Makran. of his country." father'sdeath, Hormouz The greatestpart of the Persian army perished assumed the throne, and was supported by the nobility ; but Firouz engaged in this desert, and Peroses was only permitted to or the Haiathelites, White Huns, an Indoreturn with the survivors through the clemency Scythian tribe,who bordered on his provinces, of Khoosh-Nuaz, to whom he sent to soliciteace, p to assist him in the recovery of his right,pronant mising and with whom he entered into a solemn coveto invade his territoriesgain. never their king, Khoosh-Nuaz, the province a With these auxof Nimrouz, as a recompense. iliaries,But Peroses was tormented by the thought of the degradation he had suffered. The generosity and some of the Persians who espoused his cause, Peroses invaded Persia, defeated his of his enemy was also hateful, as it made his base and inexcusable. brother Hormouz, and put him to death. own conduct appear more ficulties, he extricated from his difIn the beginning of the reign of Peroses, there Hence, no sooner was was a dreadful drought of six years'continuance, than, in violation of his oath, he collected his kingdom to a an army, delivered over which was interpreted,in that superstitious age, his brother,) from Heaven for the crime of regent, (who,the Greeks say, was as a punishment ranes.and once more crossed the Oxus, resolved to acting contrary to the will of the virtuous VaAccording to the Tubree, this drought conquer or perish. even Peroses perished. The Haiathelites having so excessive, that not the appearance was timely notice of his intention,prepared to meet of moisture was leftin the beds of the Oxus and Jaxartes. Concealing their forces behind some him. In the seventh year, plenty was restored ; and mountains, they issued forth suddenly on all the firstact of Peroses, after this national sides of the Persian army, and totallyrouted it.f thelites, Almost all the soldiersof which itwas composed scourge, was to invade the country of the HaiaPeroses his benefactors. The great object his were of eitherslainor taken prisoners,and i the Persian life,ndeed, appears to have been to destroy the himself perished,after he had worn he to whom diadem for twenty years. Such was the reward power of the generous monarch mentioned by any owed his throne. He pretended to discover,from of ingratitude,a vice never testation Tartar exiles, that their heathen writer but with particular marks of dethe evidence of some Christiansit should be doubly king was a tyrant ; and with the pretext of re; among lieving from his yoke, he invaded his abhorred. subjects Peroses was succeeded by his son too weak to oppose Tartary. Khoosh-Nuaz was The faithless
sians, Seistan. The Peris part of the modern Nimrouz says Malcolm, have a tradition that this country was formerly covered with a lake, which was drained by some the name genii in half a day, whence of Nimrouz, or halfday ; but as Nimrouz means also mid-day, it is probably man, used metaphorically in the Persian, as in French, Gerand several other languages, to designate the south ; lies directly south of Bulkh, the ancient and this province capital of Persia.
"

was raging among their ranks, and they saw themselves surrounded by enemies from whom they had no hopes of escape, that they discovered they had been led to ruin, and that the conquest over them had been effected by one, who had " The preserver of courted death to obtain the title

t Some of the oriental writers say, that the army was They dug, say they, a large dyke taken by a stratagem. in the middle of a plain, and after having covered it over, they entrapped the Persian army into it. But this must be looked upon as romance ficient ; for to have dug a pit of sufhave for such a purpose, they must dimensions have with the earth, which would reared up a mountain the Persians look well to told the tale, and have made feet. their

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almost entirely destroyed. mander, they were The only execution they did, was the destruction of a detachment of Haiathelites, whom they found who proved to be an excellent prince, tender, on the banks of a river, the streams of lessen- alone ing and desirous of compassionate, and just, dyed with theirblood. which were the misery of his country, which, at the Cobad had scarcely gained his second victory death of Peroses, was rendered tributary to over the Romans, when he was informed that the He paid the tributefor two years, Khoosh-Nuaz. Huns had broken into the northern provinces Haiathelitestwo more, war and waged with the of his empire; upon which he was compelled he died. He was out with cares, when, worn he expelled the to return into Persia, whence by his brother succeeded invaders. After the departure of Cobad, the Romans, in CAVADES, OR COBAD, several bodies, surrounded Amida, in order to tion who was of a martial and enterprizing disposi- prevent the garrison from receiving provisions. tension ; ready to undertake They also devised means to betray Glones, the any thing for the exto of his kingdom, into an ambuscade, in which and jealous the last Persian commander, degree of his authority, and the glory of the he perished, with 200 of his forces. The garrison
VALENS,
OR

BALASCH

BEN

FIROUZ,

Persian name. In the tenth year of the reign of Cobad, Mazdak, an impostor, appeared in the desert, who set up for a prophet, and pretended to introduce a purer religion than had hitherto been revealed Cobad sanctioned the impostor to mankind.*

was eventually compelled to capitulate ; and some a time after, truce for seven years was concluded between the Romans and Persians, and hostages on both sides were given for itsdue observance. A lastingpeace was afterwards negotiated in the days of Justin, but this failed and in the days ; and his enormities,which struck at the root of of Justinian,a new broke out between the war rection, chastity and property. This produced an insur- two empires, in which the Persian army, under in which the Persian nobles dethroned Peroses, was tamia defeated by Belisarius in MesopoCobad, and imprisoned him, appointing Giamsian the Per; and Mermores, who commanded king asp, a person of great wisdom and integrity, forces in Armenia, was twice defeated by in his stead. Some time after,however, Cobad Doritheus. Two castles,with the dependencies, contrived to escape from prison, to the king of fell also under the power But of the Romans. it would appear he the Haiathelites, with whom kept the field.He raised new Cobad still armies, had made peace in the days of his prosperity, and invested the city which defeated Belisarius, his who assisted him with an army to recover of Martyropolis, a place of the last importance to kingdom, which he accomplished: he deposed trigue, the Roman empire. The city was saved by inGiamasp, and put out his eves. and a truce was soon afterwards concluded As soon as Cobad was restored to the throne, between the two empires. he embarked in a war with the Romans, to repay Cobad also During the last years of his life, the king of the Haiatheliteslarge sums of money carried on a war with the Haiathelites,with which he had borrowed, and for the charges He died, a.d. 532, after a long varied success. He marched of the expedition to restore him. ing diversifiedreign of forty-nine years, includand rapidly into Armenia, raised excessive contributions imprisoned, for the period in which he was from the inhabitants,and then laid siege to which Dr. Hales allows eight years. Amida, the principal fortress in those quarters. Cobad left several sons ; but he always appears As the province had for many years enjoyed found proto have shown a decided preference for peace, the city was unprepared for the attack Chosroes, or Nouschirvan, who seems in every however, refused to open their ; the citizens, respect to hare been worthy of his father'sfavour. gates,and prepared to make an obstinate defence. At his death, Cobad bequeathed his kingdom to He took it after eighty days, and the citizens Chosroes, and the testament was committed to were only saved from destruction by a well-timed it by whom the principal mobud, or high priest, though flattering compliment, from one of their was read to the assembled nobles of the empire. Cobad having asked him why they number. These declared their cheerful submission to the treated him as an enemy ? " Because," said the fused will of the deceased monarch ; but Chosroes re" citizen, itwas the will of God to deliver Amida the proffered diadem, on the ground of his not to your power, but to your valour." Pleased inability reform the great abuses of the governto ment. " with this reply, Cobad spared their lives, and he All the principal offices." exclaimed, some time afterwards he restored their privileges, M filledby worthless and despicable men are ; and directed the walls and public buildings to be a vain attempt and who, in such days, would make repaired. He lefttherein Glones, a Persian nobleman, to govern this kingdom ciples according to prinwith a garrison of 1000 men, and treated ? of wisdom and justice If I do my duty, I it rather as a benefactor than a conqueror. the result of which The tidings of these proceedings at length must make great changes, may be bloodshed ; my sentiments toward many immediately reached Rome, and an army was which of you would perhaps alter; and families, marched to the frontiers, under the command of I now regard, would be ruined. I have no desire Ariobindus. Greek writers say, that there never to be engaged in such scenes of strifeand ruin ; better forces sent against the Persians than were nor my they are neither suited to my inclination these,or men tles, of greater reputation. In two batThe assembly character, and I must avoid them." however, through the neglect of the comof assented to the justice these observations ; that a reform and convinced, for the moment, * Mazdak to revive the system attempted of Mani, with was they took an oath to support him requisite, some additions of his own, very far from tending to purity in his measures, to obey his directionsimplicitly heart.

of

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introduced for the were management of these governments, and every check established that could prevent abuse of power in the officers appointed for theiradministration. CHOSROES, OR NOUSCHIRVAN. In all these regulations Chosroes was ably assisted by his prime vizier, When Chosroes ascended the throne, he assembled called Buzurge Mihir, " the well beloved," who was his court, and addressed them as follows : raised from the " The authority which I derive from my office lowest station to the first rank in the kingdom ; is established over your persons, not over your and the minister'svirtues and talents have shed a lustre even hearts : God alone can penetrate into the secret on those of the great monarch who, by his penetration,called them into I desire that you should unthoughts of men. derstand action. The from this, that my vigilance and conPerwisdom of Buzurge is greatly celebrated by sian trol can they relate the following writers,of whom not over extend only over your actions, anecdotes, which prove it. One day, in council, your consciences: my judgmentshall always be s founded on the principlesof justice, on the when others had spoken at great length, Chosroes not ? " Because," said dictatesof will or caprice : and when, by such a asked why he remained silent he, " a statesman ought to give advice, as a I shall have remedied the evilswhich proceeding, physician have crept into the state, the empire will be medicines, only when there is occasion." At powerful, and I shall merit the applause of posterity." another time, at one of the assemblies of the sages, the king proposed as a subject debate, of " What is misery in the extreme Acting upon this spirit toleration,tis said ?" A Greek i of that,in the commencement philosopher,looking only to the present life,na porized swered, of his reign, he tem" Poverty in old age ;" in the same At length, with the followers of Mazdak. spirit, " an Indian replied, Great pain, with dejechowever, he caused that licentious and false protion phet to be apprehended, and sentenced to death ; of mind ;" but Buzurge, looking beyond the i declaring his determined resolution to extirpate grave, (fort is said that he was privately a Christian,) " A late repentance at the close damental the followers of this pestilentheresy, the funanswered, ;" of principle which was, the annihilation of life to which a universal assent was given. And truly Buzurge was right. Bitter indeed is of property, and itsresult,anarchy. There are several reasons cup, who, at the close of his earthly given for this act of that man's looks back upon a life sin and shame, The most probable, because most consonant career, of severity. that and forward to a justand an avenging God. with the characterof the monarch, is, h one ture of his subjects complained to him of his wife Hope, that solace of life, e can hardly dare vento entertain ; he doubts if his repentance be having been taken from him by a disciple of Mazdak. The king desired the falseprophet to sincere ; he cannot adopt the promises of mercy as his own ; and the darkness of despair thickens his follower to restore the woman command ; but the mandate of the earthly monarch was treated around him. We will not attempt to limit the Holy One of Israel, or discourage a true with scorn and contempt, when its effect was tent peni; but surely it is highly improper, and may contrary to what was deemed a sacred precept. be fatal,to neglect the Saviour in the time of Chosroes, enraged at this opposition to his authority, health,and trust to a late repentance. And yet ordered the execution of Mazdak, which followed by the destruction of many of his how many thousands are there who build on was followers, that their hopes for eternity! and the proscription hisdelusiveand of

and to devote their persons and property to his service and that of their country; upon which he ascended the throne.

abominable tenets. Chosroes was indefatigable his endeavour to in promote the prosperity of his dominions. One acts was, to disgrace the public officers of his first who had been obnoxious to the people in the last reign. All bridges which had fallen into decay he ordered to be repaired, and he directedmany new to edifices be built. He also founded schools

"

and colleges; and gave such encouragement to learned men, that philosophers resorted to his For the general instruction court from Greece. " Chosroes early engaged in a war of his people,he circulated the admirable Rules with the for living well," written by Ardshir, and required Romans, and throughout the whole course of his every family in Persia to possess a copy. For his long reign, he maintained this war, at intervals, instruction, berius; own he procured a work of the fa- with the Emperors Justinian, Justin, and Timous Pilpay, from India,entitledHomaioun Nachased notwithstanding the former had pur" The Royal Manual," or fables on the art a disgracefulpeace in the beginning of meh, his reign. Four times he invaded the Roman transwas lated of governing, which, by his direction, into Persic. territories successfully. He captured Sura and Chosroes divided his kingdom into four great Antioch, reduced all Syria, conquered Colchis The firstof these governments governments. and Iberia, and established his power on the comprised Khorassan, Seistan,and Kerman ; the banks of the Phasis, and on the shores of the second, the lands dependent upon the citiesof Euxine. During these invasions, he levied great Ispahan and Koom, the provinces of Ghelan, dismantled in contributions the Roman territories, Aderbigan, and Armenia; the third, Fars and their cities,nd plundered the rich offerings in a Ahway ; and the fourth, Irak, which extended to the churches. After he had captured Antioch, the frontierof the Roman lations empire. Wise regu- and transplanted the inhabitantsinto Persia,Jus-

All promise is poor dilatory man, And that through every stage : when young, indeed, In full content, we sometimes nobly rest, Unanxious for ourselves, and only wish, As duteous sons, our fathers were more wise; At thirty, man suspects himself a fool; Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan; At fifty, delay, chides his infamous Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve; In all the magnanimity thought, of Resolves, and re-resolves then dies the same." Young.

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that went abroad of my death, has, without waiting for itsconfirmation,taken up arms : he has sure released many prisoners ; he has expended treawhich I meant to employ againstthe enemies of my kingdom ; and he has taken the field without reflectionon the consequences which may result from such a number of Christians of Justinian, who stirred up enemies If,however, Nouschizad will and tampered with his acquiring power. againsthim on every side, Christian to send back the prisoners subjects shake their fidelity. At return to his allegiance, duced, the same time, he intimated that he might be in- he has released to their places of confinement, by a sum of money in hand, and an annual put to death some particular officersand nobles subsidy,to return home and make a lastingpeace. who have espoused his cause, and allow the rest A peace was of his followers to disperse and go where they concluded very advantageous to himself, and ignominious to the Romans ; but choose, I will consent to pardon him ; but should he continue in rebellion, Chosroes did not hold it sacred. With a fond and not submit when he desire of accumulating wealth, he went on taking receivesthis assurance of mercy, Ram-Burzeen is directed not to lose an instantin attackinghim. wherever and raising contributions city aftercity, descent, whose disposition his besetting sin ; A man he came. Covetousness was of illustrious inclineshim to evil, h should be treated according and to fill is coffers he long kept the Romans to his conduct, not his birth. It is a good action in alarm. to slay a wicked man in arms Nor was itby his own arms only that Chosroes against the king, He encouraged the Sara- who is the sovereign of the earth. Let no fear cens t terrifiedhe Romans. ; and Goths to invade the Roman territories prevent your cutting the thread of his days ; it and when Justinian remonstrated, Chosroes replied will be by himself,not by you, that his blood is that his brother, the Roman shed. He flieswith ardour to the religion of emperor, had Christ,and turns away his head from our crown. no right to complain, since it could be proved, by But should Nouschizad be made prisoner in acletters, his own that he had practised the same tion, hurt not a hair of his head ; shut him up in arts with the Saracens and Huns, to induce them before confined, to invade Persia. the same place where he was After allhis successes, the empire of Chosroes along with the slaves who attended him. Let extended from Syria and the Mediterranean Sea, him be furnished with all he wants, and allow to the river Indus, eastwards; and from the none of our military officersto use expressions Sihon and Jaxartes, to the frontiersof Egypt, ings that can in any degree insult or wound the feelhold dear. If any we southwards. He erected his capital, Madain,* of a son whom still from Bagdad. on the Tigris, ; should abuse Nouschizad, lethim losehis life for about a day's journey He adorned this city with a statelypalace called although that prince has dishonoured his birth Thak Khosrou, " the dome of Khosru," from its still is from us that he derives his existence, it posited magnificent cupola, in the vault of which he de- and our affection continues his security." The mandate of Chosroes was obeyed. Ramble his treasures. This building was so durain construction,that the caliph Almanzor was Burzeen brought the prince to action,in which Nouschizad was forced to desistfrom an attempt to pull it down, quested slain. Before he died,he reon that his body might be sent to his moaccount of the greatness of the expense and ther, tian. labour. Most of the palace remained undethat he might have the burial of a ChrisThus was the house of Chosroes divided molished, upon which a Persian poet wrote the following distich: "divided against the father was against itself: the son," because he had relinquished the worship " See here the reward of an excellent work ; of his forefathers,thereby verifying the All-consuming time still spares the palace of Chosru." to words of our Saviour, Luke xii.53. It were The only insurrection which disturbed the be wished, however, that Nouschizad had suffered these persecutionswith Christian resignation. Nousthat of his son reign of Chosroes, was Historians have dwelt on the magnificence of tian, chizad. The mother of this prince was a Chrisroes. Chosand he was brought up by her in her faith, the courts which sought the friendshipof a Among to the wish of Chosroes. these, the emperors of Chit. and The profescontrary sion Their presents which thisyouth made of his belief in the India are the most distinguished. to him are described as magnificent, as doctrinesof Christ was a bold one, and he poured in curiosity This enand richnessany that were contempt on the ritesof the magi. raged exceeding before seen. This may, however, be oriental Chosroes, who, to punish what he deemed torians hyperbole ; for Mirkhond and other Persian hisheresy, placed him in confinement. Nouschizad, because dwell with delight on the however, deceived by a rumour subject, of the death of roes. to exalt the character of Choshis escape,released other his father,effected soners, pri- the act tended collected a number of followers,of whom The internal regulations of the kingdom of Christians, many were and attempted to establish Chosroes, says Malcolm, were himself in Fars and Ahwaz. excellent. He Chosroes sent an land tax oyer army to quell this revolt, and gave a letter of established and fixed a moderate instructionto Ram-Burzeen, the general, to this all his dominions. He also imposed a capitation " tax on Jews and Christians. All persons under My son Nouschizad, hearing a rumour : effect were twenty and above fifty vice. exempted from ser* By some writers, Madain is supposed to have been disciThe regulations for preserving the pline Ctesiphon. If this be correct, the city the same with more even stringent of his army were was roes erected during the Parthian domination, and Chosthan those of the civil would therefore only improve it,or add thereto. government. But all the

tinian expostulated by his ambassadors upon this breach of the first peace. The wily Persian and with received the ambassadors with civility, tears in his eyes deprecated the miseries of this into which he was war, reluctantly driven, he to by the Persian nobility, resistthe aggressions said,

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he till had gained the possession,though vent of Chosroes could not previgilanceand justice o corruption and tyranny among the officers f itsprice was blood, this action is well calculated The knowledge of thiscame to raise the character of Chosroes in the reader's to the government. the monarch's ears, and he appointed a secret estimation. He may, indeed, be considered as he one Had of the greatest of Asiatic monarchs. commission of thirteen persons, in whom he been a Christian,how had he blessed manplaced implicit confidence, to inquire into and kind! ferior And how many bring him a true report on the conduct of the innominal Christians are officersof the state. The result of this shamed by his conduct ! This great king, as we have seen, was genercommission was, the discovery of great abuses, ally too the execution of twenty-four petty governors, successfulin his wars, (of and which he was by Towards the fond,) his arts or his arms. and convicted of injustice tyranny. latter end of his reign, however, a campaign in which this intelligencewas The manner t against Cappadocia proved disastrous. Justin, conveyed to the monarch, aptly illustrates he despotic principles of ancient oriental states, the emperor of Rome, had in his lastyears been where able and good ministers could only hint incapable of directing the affairsof the empire. sian Under these circumstances, his wife Sophia sent at abuses through the medium of incident. Persay, that during the latter years of letters to Chosroes pathetically describing the writers the reign of Chosroes, an immense number of miseries of the Roman empire ; beseeching him from the fields Tartary into the to remember came the kindness of former emperors, jackals of the sending him physicians ; and reparticularly provinces of Persia, the inhabitants of which presenti were the uncertainty of all worldly greatness, greatly alarmed at the horrid shrieks and screams and the small glory that would result to of their new visitors. Intelligence of this was sent to court, and Chosroes partaking him from conquests made over a headless nation Chosroes, on reading in the superstitionof the age, demanded of the and a helpless woman. these letters,immediately withdrew his troops what it portended. chief mobud, or high-priest, from the Roman The officer empire, and consented to a truce gave a reply which, while it shows for three years, Armenia excluded. This truce his own uprightness,denotes that Chosroes was favourable to the Romans, and their affairs was a true oriental despot, to whose ear truth could were be spoken indirectly. " By what I have by the diligenceand quickly re-established only success learned from the history of former times,"said the of Tiberius, the successor of Justin,who " itiswhen injustice prevails,that beasts was an active and vigilantprince, and a warrior mobud, Chosroes took of great experience. Chdsroes, who had no idea of prey spread over a kingdom." the hint,and appointed the commission described. of these changes, prepared early the next spring in to enter Armenia, resolving to penetrate CapThat Chosroes was padocia, a lover of justice the sense and to make himself master of Cesarea, of the word, cannot be doubted. strictest in A Persian manuscript relates the following cuseeing rious and other cities that quarter. Tiberius,forethe consequences of this invasion, sent account, which he used to give,of the sense " I one first ambassadors to dissuade Chosroes from this exof justice springing up in his mind. pedition, foot throw a on day, when a youth, saw a man and to engage him to make a solidand lastingpeace ; but at the same time he sent these ment stone at a dog, and break the animal's leg ; a moambassadors, he directedJustinian to assemble all afterwards a horse passed, and with a kick leg ; and this animal had only broke the man's the forces in the eastern provinces, in order, if when itsfoot slippedin necessary,to repel force by force. Chosroes re galloped a short distance, a hole, and its leg was broken. I gazed with ceived the ambassadors haughtily, commanding them to follow him to Cesarea, where he should wonder and awe, and have sincefeared to commit Not long after,he Though this anecdote may partake be at leisure to hear them. injustice." army, which, contrary to of orientalexaggeration, yet it shows that in all met with the Roman justicehis expectations, was extremely numerous, and ages of the world, a sense of retributive eager to engage his forces. It is thought by pervaded the minds of men. some historiansthat he would have retired to There is a time, and justice marks the date, a convenient camp, insteadof enduring a conflict, For long forbearing clemency to wait ; had not Curtius,a Scythian, who commanded That hour elapsed, the incurable revolt the I Is punished, and down comes the thunderbolt." right wing of the Roman army, charged the left Cowper. in person. of the Persians,where Chosroes was An interesting is related illustrative The combat was severe, but at length the Persians anecdote A defeated,and the royal treasure, and were J of Chosroes' love of justice. Roman ambas! sador, sent to Ctesiphon with rich presents,when b the sacred fire,efore which the king worshipped, ' taken in his sight. The next night, under the admiring the noble prospect from the windows spot of cover of the royal palace, remarked an uneven of darkness, Chosroes retaliatedupon one detachment of the Roman ground, and asked the reason why it was not army, routing them " It is the property of an rendered uniform. with great slaughter,after which he marched to minions. aged woman," said a Persian noble, "who has the Euphrates, in order to winter in his own doJustinian,the Roman to ever, general, howobjectionssellit,though often requested to do so by our king ; and he is more penetrating his design, followed him so willing to have his prospect spoiled,than to commit violence." closely, that he was forced to pass the river on " That irregular spot," replied the Roman, an elephant, with great risk of being drowned, " lowers. a death which was the lot of many consecrated as it is by justice, appears more of his folbeautiful trasted The Romans than allthe surrounding scenery." Conpursued them across the sian time wintered in the Perwith the conduct of Ahab, who coveted river,and for the first the field Naboth, and who could not rest contented of provinces.
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The Greek writers say, that Chosroes died almost immediately after this loss of a hroken heart. It is certain that the effects itbrought of him to the grave ; but it would appear that he lingered on tillthe followiug spring, and that before he died, he made peace with the Romans, and enacted a decree that none of his successors should risk their persons in a general engagement his on ; thereby conveying a tacit censure own rashness. The disasters which oppressed him most, were, the loss of the sacred fire,the
mutinous

What is long life,or what a glorious reign, If our successors follow in our train ? My fathers left this crown, and I the trust Mu3t soon resign, and mingle with the dust.

behaviour of his soldiers,and the to raise a monumental pilethat might record the in of his subjects general,who, like other in part mischiefs he had done. But this was ever when ready to murmur communities, were of the Persian its dark shadows over their rulers. owing to the despotic nature adversity cast The monarchs of Persia,whatever government. Chosroes died a.d. 580, after he had reigned have been their dispositions, were compelled forty-eight years. His last instructions to his may by their constitutionto repress rebellion, etaliate r son were and successor admirable for patriarchal attack, and to attain power over foreign nations wisdom and piety,resembling those of Cyrus to in order to preserve their own in peace, which his offspring. They read thus : led them to commit many actions at variance " I, Nouschirvan, sovereign of Persia and S with humanity and justice.uch was their state India, address these my last words to Hormouz, policy. Nor theirs alone. The four great monarchies him as a lamp son, that they may serve my tion of antiquity stood mostly upon a foundain the day of darkness, a path in his journey They injustice. grew up by unreasonable through the wilderness, a pole star in his navigation of quarrels and excessive revenge, by ravage and the tempestuous ocean through of this bloodshed, by depopulating countries, and by world. " Let him remember, in the midst of his great- laying cities and villages into ruinous heaps. ness, Tully justly observed, that if the Romans would that kings rule not for themselves, but for have been exactly just,edeundam erat ad casas, r their people ; respecting whom they are like the they must have given the conquered nations their heavens to the earth. How can the earth be have resigned their they must fruitful, unless it be watered, unless itbe fostered country again; empire and wealth, shrunk into peasantry, and by the heavens ? My let your son, all subjects feel your beneficence : the nearest to you first, retired to their old cottages. The same may be If I durst, said of some modern states. Their power has been so on by degrees, to the remotest. and the ruin of other nations. I would propose to you my own example ; but I also reared upon to remind Lands intersected by a narrow firth choose rather you of that glorious Abhor each other. Mountains interposed luminary which has been an example to me. Make enemies of nations who had else Behold the sun : itvisitsall parts of the world ; Like kindred drops been mingled into one. and if sometimes visible,at other times withThus man devotes his brother, and destroys; drawn from view, it is because the universe is And worse than all,and most to be deplored As human nature's broadest, foulest blot, successivelygilded and cherished by itssplendid Chains him, and tasks him, and exacts his sweat Enter not into any province but with a beams. With stripes, that mercy with a bleeding heart Weeps, when she sees inflicted on a beast. prospect of doing good to the inhabitants; quit Then what is man ? And what man it not but with the intention of doing good elseseeing this, where. feelings, does not blush And having human Bad men must needs be punished : to And hang his head, to think himself a man?" is them the sun of Cowper. majesty necessarilyeclipsed; but the good deserve encouragement, and require Alas ! that it should be the maxim of the to be cheered with itsbeams. do world, that he that is strong enough, may son, often present thyself before Heaven "My to implore its aid ; but what he pleases; One stronger than they will approach not with an bring them to judgment. impure mind. Do thy dogs enter the temple? Chosroes was succeeded in his kingdom by his Should evillusts be admitted into the temple of thy soul ? If thou carefully observe this rule, son, thy prayers shall be heard, thy enemies shall be BEN II., OR HORMOUZ NOUSCHIRVAN. HORMISDAS confounded, thy friends shall be faithful. Thou be a delight to thy Hormisdas n. ascended the throne of Persia shalt and subjects, shalt have to delight in them. cause Do justice, pire under very auspicious circumstances. His emabase the love your children, was not only extensive, but he had for his proud, comfort the distressed, protect learning, be advised by your ancient counsellor the celebrated Buz urge Mihir, the in Persia, and the firstminister of counsellors, suffer not the young to meddle in wisest man Chosroes. Buzurge had been the preceptor of state affairs,nd let your people's good be your a Hormisdas, and had faithfully performed that Farewell, I leave you a sole and supreme object. mighty empire ; you will keep it if you follow arduous trust. The natural dispositionsof the indolence, luxury, pride, and my counsels ; but it will be impossible for you to royal pupil were do so, if you follow strange counsel." cruelty ; and these sad features in his character, That Chosroes took Cyrus the Great for his though not corrected, were far restrained so example, may be gathered from the fact,that he while Buzurge frequented the court, that in the beginning of hisreign,Hormisdas promised to surcaused a similar inscription to be engraved on pass his tiara. Chosroes himself. He treated Buzurge even
"

Such was His name the mighty Chosroes! ranks high in the pages of history,and perhaps he approached nearer to the character of a good and just prince than any human being placed in such a situation, nd in such an age. His own a to regret his loss; others, country had cause however, doubtless in ing rejoiced his death. Copysome of his predecessors, he toiled ardently content dis-

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with so much deference, that he would not wear the tiarain his presence ; and when some of his courtiers thought thisextraordinary,and asserted to a father, he more than due even that it was say right, my friends, I owe answered, "You dom to him than to my father : the life more and kingI received from Nouschirvan, willexpire in I shall acquire by a few years ; but the fame following the instructionsof Buzurge, will survive to the latestages." Here was a fineprospect of a happy reign ; but it soon vanished. When the venerable Buzurge retired from the court, Hormisdas fell a prey to the adulation and sycophancy of younger and false counsellors. His character became changed. Released from the wholesome restraint which the example of his father, and the lessons of his tutor had imposed, he plunged into every excess, and involved himself and his empire in the greatestcalamities. His most faithful judges

but untheir numerous complete victory over discipline hosts. The khakan was slain; and his son, who re-assembled his defeated army, was also killed in a second action. The spoils immense, were of the Tartars, which were sent to Madain to Hormisdas. Baharam was now sent against the Romans. Orders were given him to pass the river Araxes, on and to ravage the Roman territories that side. To oppose him, the Roman emperor sent Romanus

feated with a powerful army, who entirelydethe Persian conqueror, and thereby gave a fatalblow to the Persian affairs. When Hormisdas received advice of thisdisaster, he sent Baharam a woman's garment, in contempt, and threatened to decimate his troops. The rough soldierput on the dress he had received, " and presented himself to his soldiers. Behold," he, " the reward with which the monarch I said has deigned to crown serve my services." A revolt was the consequence. The soldiershailed and counsellors were either removed, or put to fell death, and multitudes of his best subjects a Baharam as their sovereign,and demanded to be led against the reckless monarch who had dared, to his violence for imputed disaffection or prey from the midst of his luxurious court, to cast It is even said that he put to death the treason. such an insulton the defender of their country. wise Buzurge himself! Baharam was too indignant to repress the vioThe early consequences of this change of rule, lence foreign wars were of his troops, but veiling his ambition, he and internal rebellions. He forbade the overthrow of the house of Sassan ; first quarrelledwith the emperor Tiberius. When that money should be struck in that monarch sent ambassadors to renew the last and commanded das. dainfully, of Chosru Parviz, the son of Hormispeace made with Chosroes, he treated them dis- the name This measure as a caused dissensions in the and required a sum of money to tribute,before he granted it, royal family. Chosru fled, escape the danger which involved him to which he saw himself exposed ; and the king, in a war with the Romans. imprisoned two of his maIn the first ternal afterhis son's flight, campaign, no decisive engagement took place. The Romans, under the command uncles, Bundawee and Botham, which act of his ruin. The friends of these noPhilippicus, bles captured many Persian towns, plun- precipitated dered from prison, but not only liberated them several provinces,and took many prisoners, were p sufficientlyowerful to confine Hormisdas, while the Persian army withdrew into the mountainsforfear. Thenext year,however, Philippicus whose eyes they put out, to disqualifyhim from defeated the Persians, reigning in future. Determined to do as they under the command of Cardariganus, with great slaughter,and the Romans, pleased, they also put to death his younger son to as fitter sions incur- Hormisdas, whom he recommended at the close of the campaign, again made into Persia, burned the villages, a prince reign over them than Chosru, who was and plundered the people. The next spring, the tide of prone to vice of every kind, and regardless of was the public good. Such was the end of the reign success turned. The Persians gained some He gave of the wicked prince Hormisdas n. advantages, upon which Philippicuswas removed, in his place. heed to flattery, and was ruined. and Commentiolus sent to command As soon as Chosru learned the fate of his father, Bat matters wore better aspect, and Philipno picus he returned, and ascended the throne of was and his want again sent into the field, Persia,'. d. 588. a He again restored Commentiolus. of success now engaged the Persians, but he fled at the II., OR CHOSRU PARVIZ. CHOSROES onset ; and Heraclius taking the command, entirely When Chosru, or, as we shall now defeated the Persians, with the loss of Aphraates call him, after the Greek writers, Chosroes, ascended the and Nabades, two of their best generals. In the mean time, about a.d. 585, the hordes of throne, he received the homage of the principal the great khakan of Tartary crossed the Oxus, persons present, amid loud acclamations and ardent prayers for his felicity. Then supposing and demanded a free passage through Persia, on the pretext of making war with the emperor of himself firmly seated on the throne, he gave Constantinople. The alarmed Hormisdas at first sumptuous entertainments, and distributed the him royal treasures amongst those he thought most consented ; but their conduct soon satisfied that he had admitted into his kingdom the most capable of rendering him assistance; largesses dangerous of allenemies. Baharam, one of the were also bestowed upon the people,and the prison doors opened f except to his own father that chiefs in the Persian army, was selected to head the fame of his lenity and liberality ram the troops against the ferocious invaders. Bahamight secure selected twelve thousand of the bravest of the hearts of his subjects. the forces, and marched against them, and was t Some ancient writers say, that he caused his father ever, howto be put to death soon Mirkhond, successful. In the strong mountainous country,* afterwards. relates, that after his restoration to the throne, lie where he opposed the Tartars, his veterans gained
"

"

Some

engaged

in Khorassan that Baharam authors sav it was the Tartars ; others say, Mazanderan

his life he owed put to death his two uncles, to whom and throne, on the specious but cruel pretext that they had dared to lay violent hands upon the person of his father.

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Anathonus heart proof against his defeated and put to death. Soon after, one But there was roes had affectedgreat regard was also slain. The next year, a. d. 593, Chosgenerosity. Baharam into Persia with intent to decide threw oft' the for the house of Sassan, but he now marched Many he had a the war. of the forces of Baharam mask, and exhibited to the world that to Chosroes ; Chosroes honours. quitted his service and went over regard for his own greater and Seleucia,and most of the great citiesnear and promised him sent him magnificent presents, In the the river Euphrates, submitted to him. and the second seat in his kingdom, if he came mean him for his sovereign. Baharam time, several skirmishes had taken place,all acknowledged scorn, his and ordered advantageous to Chosroes. At length,he defeated rejected overtures -with the main army of Baharam him to lay down his crown, with great slaughter, and pay and come by which act he was his respects to him, on which condition he should enabled to reascend the throne. Baharam fled to Tartary, where, though be made governor of a province. Chosroes again to all he had formerly put their forces to shame, he entreated him to be his friend,but, deaf kindly treated by the khakan, under whom was Baharam remonstrances, prepared for war, and ; Chosroes was compelled to meet him in the field, he attained the highest distinctions but his days were to contest with him the crown shortened by poison, which was given him, of Persia. roes The opposing armies met near Nisibis,Chosaccording to Persian authors, by the queen of keeping within the city,while Baharam encampedthe khakan, who dreaded his future designs. On gaining this victory,Chosroes gave a rebefore it. A negotiation was commenced, markable instance of superstitious credulity, in time, but it proved ineffectual. At the same a letter to Gregory, bishop of Antioch, as preChosroes, suspecting some of his nobles, put served It reads thus : affection Disfatalto his cause. by Theophylact. to death. This was them " I,Chosroes,son of Hormisdas, king of kings, spread through his ranks, and when Baharam the suburbs, many of them etc., having heard that the famous martyr Serattacked his gius granted to every one who sought his aid joined standard, and Chosroes was compelled did,on the seventh day of Jauuary, to take refuge in flight. theirpetitions, in the first Baharam now entered the city of Ctesiphon year of my reign,invoke him to grant with the fullpurpose of ascending the throne of me victory against Zadespras ; promising, that if Persia. With this design he threw Bundawee that rebel was either killedor taken by my troops, into prison, and treated all such as had shown that I would give to his church a golden cross : verity enriched with jewels and accordingly, on the any affection to the royal family with great se; while towards the rest of the Persians ninth day of February, the head of Zadespras he aftetced the greatest humanity and condescenbrought to me by a party of horse, which I was sion. But the people in general could not be despatched against him. " The house of Sassan was To give,therefore, depended upon. the most public testimony still favour, and when he assumed of my gratitude and thankfulness to the saint for regarded with general I the regal ornaments and furniture,as a granting my petition, send to his church that t preliminary step to taking the title,he Persian cross, and also another, formerly given by the disdainingto become the of and taken away by my grandfather emperor Justiniau, nobility, subjects one for emanborn their equal, concerted measures Chosroes, the son of Cavades, which 1 cipating found deposited among my treasures." themselves and their country, and restoring Chosroes married a Christian,called by the the ancient lustre of the Persian empire. They commenced the reformation by releasing Roman writersIrene,* and by the Persian Schirin, Bundawee from prison,and acknowledging him "soft," or "agreeable;" for whose sake he for for their chief. By the advice of this prince, they It a long time treated the Christians kindly. "almost a that he was was attacked Baharam in the palace in the dead of the thought by many haram,Christian" himself ; but in a few years after,he Banight, which they did with great courage. however, and his attendants vanquished gave unequivocal proof of his attachment to the so the assailants, that many of them were slain. religion of his ancestors, and of that aversion Bundawee bears to and a few others only escaped, and which the unregenerate heart of man these marched towards Media, and endeavoured the faithof Christ. He conceived an implacable to raise forces for Chosroes. hatred against the Christians, and persecuted Baharam had now a fair prospect of building In this line of conduct them even unto death. up his glory on the ruins of the house of Sassan. he may have been actuated by the counsels of He placed the crown the magi ; for they bore an implacable hatred to upon his head, and resolved it. But Chosroes again appeared in the the to wear likeDemetrius religion of the cross, feeling, fieldagainst him. He had fled to the emperor likelyto be affected of old, that their gains were Maurice of Rome, with whom he had made a by itsextension. Many bitterpersecutionshave tier treaty,and who ordered the governors of his fron- arisen from this unhallowed source, and yet, notwithstandi Christianityhas flourished" a proof provinces to furnish him with whatever might be necessary for his restoration. These that God is its Author. From the moment Chosroes felthimself estabsupplieshad the wished-for effect. The Persians, lished seeing Chosroes in a condition to defend them, the tone of his on the throne, he changed sians, universally acknowledged him, and opened their conduct both towards the Romans and the PerForgetful of the debt of his gates to his forces. subjects. Baharam prepared to meet him, determined gratitude he owed the former, he insulted their hazards to maintain the dignity he had at all Zadespras, one usurped. of his commanders, * By the Byzantine writers. Irene is said to have been having attempted to enter the district of one of the daughter of Maurice, the emperor of Rome ; the the lords who had declared for Chosroes, was Roman accounts say that she was a public dancer.

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doomed to be confounded by the power he was despised. Roused from his lethargy by this in* suiting and impious reply, Heraclius concluded a peace with the other barbarians on their own terms, resolved to make a last and desperate effort, and to put allto the hazard of a battle. He was successful. He out-generalled the Persians, and defeated their army with great slaughter. The conqueror made fresh overtures for peace ; a powerful and punishing the assassin, marched frontiers in his sixteenth but they were Again and again, enarmy into the Roman abled rejected. In vain did the assassin,by his by the plunder of the Christian churches, year, a. d. 603. ambassador, endeavour to appease him with large Chosroes raised fresh armies to oppose Heraclius ; defeated discipline, presents and larger promises ; he regarded nei- but he, preserving the strictest ther, forward. In the first as they appeared in the field, and marched year of them as soon and he proceeded so rapidly in his conquests, that the the war, he succeeded in laying the country under forced to flee from city to contribution. In the next, he reduced several haughty tyrant was fortresses, and recovered others that he had given city with his wives and concubines, in order to to the emperor Maurice in rection gratitude for his aid. escape death. The Romans marched in one diIn the eighteenth year of his reign, he plundered pahan, to Isas far as the Caspian ; in another mense destroying in their progress all his splenall Mesopotamia and Syria, and carried off imdid riches. In the succeeding year, he ravaged palaces, plundering his hoarded treasures,* Palestine and Phenicia with fire and and dispersing the slaves of his pleasure. Yet And in his twentieth year, his generals in the wretched state to which his fortune even sword. an wasted Armenia, Cappadocia, Galatia, Paphlaand character had reduced him, he rejected gonia, as far as Chalcedon, burning cities, queror. and offerof peace made by the humanity of his conBut his career was soon at an end. The destroying the inhabitants without respect to age or sex. of subjects Chosroes had lost all regard for a In a. d. 609, Chosroes took Apamea the sole cause they deemed and of monarch whom Edessa, and blocked up Antioch. This induced the desolation of his country, and they formed a but they were utthe Romans to hazard a battle, terly conspiracy against him. That his cup of misery leftto defeated, so that scarcely a man was might be full,he was seized by his eldest son mourn The death he wished to have excluded from Siroes,whom the death of his companions. of Phocas, and the accession of Heraclius, did the throne. This unnatural prince treated him The year following, with the greatest severity. He firstcast him not put a stop to his career. he took Cesarea, and carried away many thouinto a dungeon, and soon afterwards put him to sands death ; justifying parricide by the assertion the of people into captivity. He conquered Judea also, took Jerusalem, which he plundered, to the deed by the that he was compelled carried away the pretended cross on which the clamours and importunities of the nobles and fondly believed that the Redeemer superstitious people. stance inThe fallof Chosroes affords a memorable suffered, and sold 90,000 Christians for slaves to the Jews in his dominions, who put them of of the instability human greatness. At to the demands all to death, thereby displaying their ancient the time he sent the impious answer living in Heraclius for peace, he was to the cause the gospel. They still enmity of of despised their Messiah, as " the man of Galilee," splendour and luxury, such as Persian monarchs h The vast territories is armies never they persecuted his followers, though whence exceeded. brethren according to the flesh. Thus Jews had subdued were exhausted, that his palaces and and pagans combined to root out true religion the gorgeous state of his court might exceed all from the earth ; but the more that history ever they raged, the recorded of kingly grandeur. it grew and prospered, watered with the He had a palace for every season more ; he had dew of God's blessing. invaluable thrones, particularly that called These conquests inflamed the ambition of Takh-dis, formed to represent the twelve signsof Chosroes. In his twenty- seventh year, a. d. the zodiac and the hours of the day; 12,000 614, he invaded Egypt, took Alexandria, reduced ladies,who, in the hyperbolic language of the in beauty, atboth the Lower and Upper Egypt, to the frontiers east, were tended equal to the moon his court; and mirth and music were of Lydia and Abyssinia, and added this kingdom to his dominions ; a conquest of his heard throughout his halls. But, like Belshazwhich none mighty, he lifted up his heart and defied the Alzar, predecessors had been able to effect. The year him that moment following,he once more his forces against sentence turned against and spised, he had long deforth. The foes whom the Constantinopolitan empire, and he reduced went long trampled upon, driven to despair the city of Chalcedon, to which he had long laid and by his oppressive violence,flew to arms, and went siege. Alarmed at his progress, the emperor aclius on in their conquests, till Heralmost the whole of his beneath their feet,and he himself sent to implore peace upon any conditions. empire was But Chosroes, elated with his success, and melaid in the dust. The haughty spoiler of the ditating in itsglory. as world fell an oak cut down nothing less than the destruction of the Roman name, that he would arrogantly replied, never peace, tillthey grant him or his subjects * One of these treasures was called Badawerd, or, "The their crucifiedGod, and embraced the been cast upon his abjured gift of the winds," because it had Persian religion. its way to the Roman on emperor, his territory, when He never prospered more. The proud boaster benefactor. upon ambassadors, and threatened to make war them : and unmindful of his duties towards the he ruled them with a rod of iron,treating latter, them with great rigour. It -was not long before Chosroes carried his empire. In a. i". 602, the army into the Roman emperor Maurice was murdered by Phocas, and Chosroes, under pretext of avenging his murder,

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"

ber publicly in Mecca, and daily added to the numof his disciples. The Koreish soon took the with his friends were alarm, and Mohammed Chosroes was succeeded in his kingdom, a.d. to take refuge in flight. He retiredto 627, by that son who was the instrument of his obliged Tayef, apparently yielding to the storm, but death, waiting in realityfor an opportuuity of exerting himself with advantage. The time he chose was OR SIROES, SHIROTJIEH. the sacred month, in which the caravans of pilgrims to conclude a perlike the to Mecca, and which was, The first came act of Siroes was, petual " " liberty in the middle peace with Heraclius, and to set at period called the truce of God the Roman of universal peace. Mohammed captives, and among the rest, ages, a season all j Zacharias, patriarch of Jerusalem. He also, it returned to Mecca at this season, and announced is said,sent back the wood which the supersti- his mission to the strangers,who came thither tious on Among on these strangers were supposed to have formed part of the cross pilgrimage. and which had which the Saviour was crucified, pilgrim Jews from Yatreb, or Medina, who longed salem trous been carried by Chosroes in triumph from Jeru- for the coming of the Messiah, and a tribeof idolainto Persia. Arabs from the same city,who held these When Siroes did not long survive the parricide of Jews in the Medinese Arab subjection. he had which he had been guilty, He died after pilgrims heard the account of the new prophet at " Can this be the Messiah of months, according to the oriental, Mecca, they asked, reigned seven more than a year, according to the whom or a little the Jews are constantly speaking ? Let us Roman historians. Rozut-ul-Suffa states that his find him out, and gain him over to our interests." lifewas terminated by melancholy arising from Mohammed saw the advantage he should gain by his crime ; but Roman historians say that he was their alliance, and replied that he was the person succeeded whom the Jews expected, but that his mission murdered by one of his generals. He was by his son was universal; for allwho believed in God and his prophet should share its advantages. From that his cause, and itflourished. they joined BEN SCHIROUIEH, ARDESCHIR moment OR ARDESIR,
Wordsworth.
"

The forked weapon of the skies can send Illumination into deep, dark holds, hath not power to pierce. Which the mild sunbeam Ye thrones that have defied remorse, and cast Pity away, soon shall ye shake with fear."

Constantinople, and

Chosru

Parviz in Persia,

himself as a prophet. For some time, he announced was unheeded, except by a few intimate friends. At length, however, the impostor began to preach

After having given his disciples permission to defence, when his power child of seven years of age, a. d. 628. Ardesir stand up in their own He was deposed further strengthened, he issued his comwas months. mand still reigned only seven to propagate the new of the forces, religion by force of and murdered by the commander " Sarbarazas, or Scheheriah, who the When arms. usurped ye encounter the unbelievers," throne ; which, however, he held but a few days, said he, "strike off their heads until ye ha,ve being slainby the adherents of the royal family. made a great slaughter among them ; and bind After the death of Sarbarazas, according to mission them in bonds ; and either give them a free disPersian writers,a queen of the name of Pooranuntil the afterwards, or exact a ransom This comdokht, the daughter of Chosru Parviz, reigned war mand shall have laid down its arms." lowers. one to the feelings of his folwas consonant year and four months ; then her cousin, ShahShenendeh, who only reigned one month ; then They firstwaged war with the Meccans of Arzem-dokht, another queen of the name and the Jewish tribesnear Medina. Success sister to the former ; then Kesra, reported to crowned their efforts,recruits crowded from all have belonged to the royal family, who was quarters to joinhis banners, and at length the were quickly murdered; then Ferokhzad, the son of armies of the Mussulmans spread over Chosru Parviz, whose days were Arabia, and were to be seen on the shores of the terminated by Jezdegerd, under whose rule Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, and even in Syria. poison; and finally Elated with the success of his predatory incursions, the Persian monarchy sunk to rise no more. Nothing of interest recorded during the pe- itis said that Mohammed is sent a letterto Chosru riod in which the above kings and queens reigned. Parviz, inviting him to embrace his doctrines, Their rapid elevation and destruction denotes a Such was with contempt.* which was rejected itsfounder state of great anarchy, and shows that the managethe state of Mohammedanism ment when was at this period a of public affairs subjectdied, and Abu-Bekr succeeded to the khaliphate, the nobles, who veiled their a.d. 632, the same of contest among year that Jezdegerd ascended ambition under the garb of loyalty and attach- the throne of Persia. The khaliph not knowing ment to the house of Sassan. for the vast multitude how to find employment of enthusiasts that arose in every part of Arabia, lam resolved to displaythe standard of the faith of IsHORMISDAS, OR JEZDEGERD BEN ments in the fields Syria. He first sent detachof SCHEHERIAH. to the borders of Syria and Babylonia.
a

Jezdegerd was raised to the throne of Persia, He was a grandson 632. of Chosroes by one of his sons, and, itis said,the only surviving
aj".

branch of the royal family. The reign of Jezdegerd was brief and disastrous. born at Mecca, Mohammed, who was a.d. 569, had, during the reign of Heraclius in

This letter commenced son thus : " Mohammed, of Allah, the apostle of God, to Chosru Parviz, monarch it had been read thus far, of Persia, greeting." When hammed the monarch seized it,and tore it in pieces, because Mohad placed his name first. When Mohammed heard of this,he exclaimed. " Thus may God tear his kingdom," an expression as which after events justified a prediction in the sight of his enthusiastic followers.

Abd

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This speech, wherein are displayed the marks These encountered no obstacles, and returned laden upon which the khaliph invited all of pride and weakness, was heard by the envoy with plunder, " Whatever in thou the Arabs to join the enterprise he projected, unmoved, and he replied thus : responded to the invitation. hast said concerning the former condition of the and great numbers Arabs, is true. Their food was tine From the cowardice and treachery of the Byzangreen lizards; they buried their infant daughters alive; nay, tered provincial governors, the invaders encounsome no effective of them feasted on dead carcases, and drank opposition; and in less than two blood; while others slew their relations, and subdued. years, the greater part of Syria was from this thought themselves great and valiant,when by While the Saracens, as the Arabs were
time generally called, were thus pursuing their such an act they became possessed of more property suc; they were ceeded clothed with hair garments ; of victory, Abu-Bekr died, and was in the khaliphate by Omar, who thirsted knew not good from evil; and made no distinction between that which is lawful and that which to massacre phet. allwho would not believe in the proNo sooner Omar placed at the head is unlawful. Such was our state. But God, in was his mercy, has sent us, by a holy prophet, Mohammed, t of affairs,han the armies of the Mohammedans a sacred volume, the koran, which seemed to have acquired tenfold vigour. The teaches us the true faith. By it we are commanded greater part of Syria and Mesopotamia had been to war quest and to exchange against infidels, subdued during the lifeof Abu-Bekr ; the conour poor and miserable condition for wealth completed, and of these countries was now We now and power. sent into Persia, Palestine, Phesolemnly desire you to rearmies were ceive so weakour The Persians were Egypt. ened religion. If you consent, not an Arab nicia,and by the incessant wars of Chosroes, and the shall enter Persia without your permission ; and leaders will only demand our that they could not the established subsequent civilcommotions, taxes,* which all believers are bound to pay. If hope to repel their powerful assailants. Hence, on their appearance, Jezdegerd sent an envoy to you do not accept our religion,you are required to pay the tributef fixed for infidels should you Omar had appointed to : Saad, the leader whom both these propositions, the chief command you must prepare of his forces in Persia; and reject for war." Saad, in compliance with their request, sent a Jezdegerd was too proud to submit to such degrading deputation to Madain, consisting of three old Arab chiefs. When these were seated in the conditions; and a battle ensued near the city of Cadessia, which was fought with great presence of Jezdegerd, that monareh addressed fury for three days, and which at length ended himself to the principal person among them, lowing Shaikh Maghurah, in the fol- in the total defeat of the Persians, and the greatwas est whose name " We have always held you in part of the Persian dominions fell into the words : hands of the conquerors, a.d. 636. the lowest estimation. Arabs, hitherto, have On the loss of this great and decisive battle, been only known in Persia in two characters, as Jezdegerd fled to Hulwan, with all the property merchants and as beggars. Your food is green lizards;* your drink, salt water ; your covering, he could collect. Saad, after taking possession of Madain, pursued him, and sent his nephew garments made of coarse hair. But of late,you Hashem to attack a body of troops which had have come in bands to Persia; you have eaten This force food, you have drunk of sweet water, and arrived from Shirwan and Aderbijan. of good have took shelter in the fort of Jelwallah, where they the luxury of soft raiment. You enjoyed brethren, to have reported these were captured; upon which Jezdegerd left his enjoyments your Hashem But, army, and fled to Rhe. advanced to and they are flocking to partake of them. Hulwan, which he reduced ; and, soon after,the not satisfied with all the good things you have fate. Saad thus obtained, you desire to impose a new gion reli- city of Ahwaz shared the same from thence, by Omar's order, to on us, who are unwilling to receive it. You marched Amber, and from thence to Koofah, a place appear to me like the fox in our fable,who went fah, into a garden, where he found an abundance of which soon afteracquired celebrity. From Kooturb Saad was recalled by Omar, on account of a The generous gardener would not disgrapes. him. The produce of his abundant vine- complaint made against him by those under his yard cessor. d appointed his sucrule ; and Omar Yuseer was would, he thought, be little iminished by a himself; but the animal, poor hungry fox enjoying Jezdegerd, encouraged by the removal of a not content with his good fortune, went and leader he so much dreaded, assembled an army informed all his tribe of the excellence of the Hamadan, and placing grapes, and the good-nature of the gardener. from Khorassan, Rhe, and gent foxes ; and its indul- it under the command The garden was filled of Firouzin, the bravest of with forced to bar the gates, and kill the Persian generals, resolved to contest once was owner ever, for the empire. to more allthe intruders, save himself from ruin. HowAs soon as Omar heard of these preparations, as I am y satisfiedou have been compelled he to the conduct which you have pursued from absolute ordered reinforcements to be sent to his army I will not only pardon you, but load in Persia,from every quarter of his dominions ; want, to Noman, your camels with wheat and dates, that, when and committing the chief command to to your native land, you may feast he directed him to exert his utmost efforts deyou return But, be assured, if you are your countrymen. insensibleto my generosity,and remain in Persia, was two* The zukat, or religious charity for the poor, or fifth, you shall not escape my just : the khums, vengeance." and-a-half per cent, upon property
career
was
*

tax to support

the family of the prophet.

The
"

Persians usually called the Arabs, by way naked lizard eaters."

tempt, of con-

+ The

tax paid by infidelswas

thirty-fiveper cent,

on

property.

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

121

a fugitive, years; ten of which he was stroy for ever the worship of fire. The Arabian ing reckonforce assembled at Koofah, and thence marched from the battle of Nahaound, a.d. 642. He was to the plains of Nahaound, about forty miles to the last sovereign of the house of Sassan, Persia during 411 the south of Hamadan, on which the Persians a family which governed had established a camp, surrounded by a deep years ; and the memory of which is still ed cherishDuring two months these great by a nation whose ancient glory is associated entrenchment. with the names armies continued in sight of each other, and of Artaxerxes, Sapor, and At the end of that Chosroes. many skirmishes occurred. drew up his army in order of battle, Thus closes the ancient history of Persia. So time, Noman " My friends, rapid a declension,from a.d. 614, when the Per: sian and thus addressed the soldiers prepare yourselves to conquer, or to drink of the empire was at itsheight, and larger than it I shall now sweet sherbet* of martyrdom. call had been since the days of Alexander the Great, in history. But the rod had blosthe Tukbeer three times : at the first, somed, you will isunexampled your pride had budded, and violence had risen gird your loins; at the second, mount up into a rod of wickedness ; and hence itsdoom steeds ; and at the third,point your lances, and stroyed. rush to victory or to paradise. As to me," said went forth from Heaven, that it should be deThe extraordinary Saracen* power was Noman, with a loud voice, " I shall be a martyr! I am slain, When the instrument by which its overthrow was obey the orders of Huzeefaheffected found ; but the seeds of destruction were ebn- Aly-Oman." Akbar, or, " God Tukbeer is in its own The That impious monarch, bosom. (Allahwas sounded ; and when it had ceased, Chosru Parviz, by his rapacity and cruelty, great") the Mohammedans charged with a fury that was alienated the affections his generals from his of irresistible.Noman was as he predicted ; family, while his rage for war had drained the slain, but the Persians sustained a total overthrow. country of its ablest defenders, and leftit wasted The empire of Persia was for ever lost ; and that and distracted thus itbecame an easy prey to the ; mighty nation fell under the dominion of the needy and ferociousSaracens. They came upon Arabian khaliphs. the Persians as an overflowing flood, and swept Jezdegerd protracted for several years a their power from off the earth. Animated by an wretched and precarious existence. He first enthusiasm which made them despise the most fled to Segistan, then to Khorassan, and lastly fearfulodds, as the ministers of vengeance, they to Merou, on the river Oxus, or Gihon. The sought battle as a feast,and counted danger a governor of this city invited the khakan of the sport. They had ever in their mouths the magnificent to Tartars! take possession of the person of the orientalism, traditionally ascribed to " The invitation fugitivemonarch. In the shades of the scimitars is was accepted ; Mohammed, his troops entered Merou, (the gates of which paradise prefigured ;" and under the influence of were Such opened to them by the treacherous govern- these feelings, their power was irresistible. or,) is the ever- changing nature of all mundane and made themselves masters of it, after a affairs. brave resistance from the inhabitants. Jezdegerd In this age, power and empire are in the during the contest, hands of one people ; in the next, a nation unescaped from the town heard forth, and rudely plucks and reached a mill eight miles from Merou, and of before comes itfrom their hands. By whose directiondo these The man entreated the miller to conceal him. promised his protection; but, yielding to the things occur? temptation of making his fortune by the possession Happy the man who sees a God employ'd of the rich arms and robes of the unfortunate In all the good and illthat chequer life; The prince, he treacherously murdered him. Resolving all events, with their effects governor of Merou, and those who had aided him, And manifold results, into the will in a few days began to suffer from the tyranny And arbitration wise of the Supreme. Cowper. of the khakan, and to repent of their treachery. They encouraged the to rise upon the citizens Tartars ; and they not only recovered the Reader, let it be your prayer, that you may city, but forced the khakan to fly this loss to with great enjoy happiness,that you may see the Divine Bokharah. hand in past,present, and coming events ! The fate of Jezdegerd was discovered, now * Concerning the etymology of the word Saracen, there and the rapacious and treacherous miller fell a have been various opinions; but its true derivation is victim to the popular rage ; and the corpse of the Sharkeyn, in Arabic, the eastern people." which means, monarch was embalmed, and sent to Istakhr, to This was first corrupted into Saracenoi, by the Greek, be interred in the sepulchre and thence into Saraceni, by the Latin writers. The of his ancestors,
"

a.d.

652.

Jezdegerd possessed the royal titlenineteen

In warm countries, where wine is forbidden, sherbet lemonade is the beverage in which they delight. t Khondimir says it was the king of the Hiatila, of Huns." "White he invited; but Ferdosi whom says it was a chief or Turan, who ruled at Samarcand.
or
"

douin to have been applied by Pliny to the BeArabs, who inhabited the countries between the Euphrates sessions posand the Tigris, and separated the Roman in Asia from the dominions of the Parthian kings. In course of of time, it became the general name the faith of Islam, and all the Arab tribes who embraced spread their conquests widely through Asia and Africa, and part of Europe.
name seems

BRIEF

SKETCH

MODERN

HISTORY

OF

PERSIA.

The hand of the great Ruler of the universe [from the Caspian and the sea of Aral, to the may be as clearly traced in the modern, as in Indus and the Persian Gulf. This mighty power, however, soon vanished. the ancient history of Persia. For more than two centuries after the Mohammedan the redoubtable ruler of the conquest, Gengis-Khan, Moguls beyond the Jaxartes, invaded Persia, a mere the country was province in the empire of the caliphs. With the decay, however, of a. ". 1218, with a mighty host, and chased ence the power of the caliphs, the successor the spirit of independ- Mohammed, of Takash, from his revived, so that about a.d. 868, Yakub Ibu dominions. The son of Takash struggled manfully Lais threw off his allegiance to the caliph, for the kingdom ; but he dying, a.d. 1230, founded the Soffariandynasty, and fixed at Shi- the Khorasmian power was dissolved, and Persia ras the capitalof a dominion including nearly all laid prostrate at the feet of the Moguls. Persia. Gengis-Khan and his successors ruled in Persia His brother and successor, Amer, was subdued during about ninety years, when Persia became a. d. 900, by the Tartar family of the Samadivided and distracted by numberless petty dynasties nides, who ruled Khorassan and Trans-Oxiana, perpetually at war with each other. This was till a. d. 999, while Western Persia again acthe signal for another invader. knowledged The celebrated Tamerlane, already master of allegiance to the caliph till a.d. Trans-Oxiana and Tartary, invaded Khorassan, 936, when the utter disruption of the Abbaside in 1381, and in twelve years subdued Persia to his power threw it into the hands of the three sons Ruku-ed-doulah, In a few years afterhis death, however, sway. of Bouyah, Amad-ed-doulah, Persia relapsed into a state of divisionand anarand Moazz-ed-doulah, who shared the kingdom chy, These, with theirsuccessors, worse than even that which had preceded his among them. ruled irruption. His son, indeed, ruled over Khorassan, Persia, with more less success, till or a.d. 1028, Trans-Oxiana, and Tartary ; but his descendants who, thirty years before, had when Mahmood, founded the dynasty of the Ghazneoides in were expelled by the Uzbeks, at the end of the conCabul and Khorassan, subdued their last successors tested century, while the western provinces were in Eastern Persia. by two races of Turkomans, distinguished The whole country was on the point of falling by theiremblems of the Black and White Sheep, into the hands of this conqueror, when the Sel- the latterof which finallyprevailed,a.d. 1469, Turks, originallyreceived as vassals by under their leader, Hassan the Tall, ruler of jukian Diarbekr. the Ghazneoide princes,snatched the prize from The White Sheep dynasty was tion. their hands. Pouring down from Central Asia, of brief duraHassan the Tall,encountering the superior they defeated Massood, the son and successor of Mahmood, Nishapur, and placed power of the Ottoman sultan, Mohammed il, a.d. 1040, near their own sultan, Togrul Beg, in possession of sustained a signal defeat in Anatolia, 1473, Persia, to which, a.d. 1055, he added Bagdad latives which greatly weakened his power, and his refinallysupplanted and Irak, with the guardianship of the caliphate, and descendants were deposing the last of the house of Bouyah. and crushed, in 1502, by Ismael Shah, the nasty. This Perso-Turkish monarchy rose to great founder of the Seft, Sooffee, or Seffavean dybetween splendour ; but civil wars commencing This race of sovereigns, by their rule and the sons of Malek Shah, about a.d. 1120, and continuing their devastations to the next gene- character, imparted to the Persian monarchy ration, a greater degree of stability, settheir power was gradually weakened, so tled and a more that, a.d. 1194, Persia fellunder the yoke of the form of government, than it had enjoyed Khorasmian sultan, Takash, who slew their last for some centuries. They sat on the throne of successor, Togrul hi., and extended his sway Persia during two hundred and twenty years, at

HISTORY

OF

THE

PERSIANS.

123
on

the end of which time, a. b. 1722, the Afghans of Cabul and, Caudahar revolted, and, under their routed the Persians at chief, Meer-Mahmood, Goolnahad, and invested the Persian capital, Ispahan, which, after enduring the horrors of famine for seven months, was obliged to capitulate. Hussein, the last of the family of Ismael to the conqueror, and Sooffee, resigned his crown Persia fellunder the yoke of the Afghans. But the tenure of the Afghans also was briefin Persia. The crown prince, Tahmasp, with his great general, Nadir-Kooli, after a struggle of

encroached
and

the northern provinces,

added Georgia to itswidely extended empire. At the end of this time, the candidates for royalty were reduced to two, Lutf Ali Khan Zend, and Aga Mohammed Khan the Kajar, latterof whom prevailed,a. d. 1795, and founded or This ruler was the Kajar, reigning dynasty. he had assassinatedby his own attendants,whom provoked by his severities, and he was succeeded by his nephew, the late Shah Futtah Ali, who reigned from a. d. 1797 to a.d. 1834. At the death of this prince,who ceded most of

the Caspian provinces,with Eriwan and the country gained eight years, exterminated the invaders, and reto the Araxes, to the Russians, aftertwo disastrous the throne of Persia. The real power, wars, a struggle commenced for the crown however, remained in the hands of Nadir, who dethroned Tahmasp, a. d. 1732, and placed his among his descendants ; but it was speedily terminated, by the influenceof England and Russia, he infant son, Abbas in., thereon, in whose name the in favour of the present Shah Mohammed, son grandgoverned as regent for four years, when of Futtah Ali, by his son Abbas Mirza, who young monarch dying, Nadir declared the Seffavean dynasty at an end, and himself assumed the died before his father,and while yet the crown in his view. was crown of Nadir Shah. under the title Who This great man next will ascend the throne of Persia, raised Persia,by his conquests, how long the reigning dynasty shall sit to a high state of prosperity ; but his barbarities or and avarice led to his destructionby the hands of thereon, the progress of time can alone unfold. Its situationbetween the two great Asiatic emhis own a.d. pires out subjects, 1 747. Persia was now witha ruler,and anarchy and confusion prevailed of England and Russia, and its manifest The Uzbek states threw off the internal weakness would lead to a conclusion every where. independent that it will never an regain its former rank in yoke, and Afghanistan became conwas and powerful kingdom, while the crown tested the scale of nations. Of this, however, the sian by several competitors, and the kingdom reader may be assured, that, whether the Perhold rule on the earth, or their distractedby civilwars. rulers still The successful competitor was Keerem-Khan, power is absorbed in either of these great empires, the control of the all will be under of the Zand family, who possessed himself of By his God. events great Disposer of human supreme power, a. d. 1759, which he held under the titleof Wakeel, or Administrator, tillhis mandate death, a. d. 1779. At the death of Keerem-Khan, All regions, revolutions, fortunes, fates, fresh disorders prevailed in Persia. Of high, of low, of mind, and matter, roll Through the short channels of expiring time, During the period between 1779 and 1789, six Or shoreless ocean of eternity, chiefs ascended or claimed the sovereign authority In absolute subjection. for dominion, thirst ; while Russia,in her insatiable Young.
"

THE

FOLLOWING

DYNASTIES
ARE
TAKEN

OF

THE
FROM
DR.

PERSIANS
HALES.

I. PERSIAN

DYNASTY.
Y.

Here

which
529 YEARS. 1. Kaiumarath,
or

follow the Macedo-Grecian and held rule over Persia tillthe

Parthian

ties, dynas-

Keiomarras

Siamek)

(560)

An 40

III. PERSIAN
2150
SASSANIAN

DYNASTY.

1. Artaxeres, or Ardschir ben Babek ...14 2. Sapor, or Schabour 120 31 3. Hormisdas, or Hormouz 1 7 4. Vararanes, or Baharam 3 12 Vararanes 5. u., or Baharam n 30 17 6. Narses or Narsi 30 (7) 8 7. Misdates, or Hormouz 7 8. Sapor n., or Schabour doulaktaf End of the dynasty.... 529 70 1661 9. Artaxerxes, or Ardschir 4 A long interregnum syrian, 10. Sapor in., or Schabour ben Schabour... 5 succeeds, and the Turanian, Asdominations ; after which succeeds and Median 11. Vararanes iv., or Kerman Schah 11 the 12. Isdegertes, or Jesdegerd al Athim 21 13. Vararanes v., or Baharam Gour 23 II. KAIANAN DYNASTY. 14. Vararanes vi., or Jezdegerd ben Ba-\ ia 18 haram (17) / 228 YEARS. KINGS, PERSIAN 15. Peroz, or Firouz 20 16. Valens, or Balasch ben Firouz 4 B.C. 1. Cyrus, or Kai Chosru, in Persia Cavad, or Kobad ") 11 559 8) Media V 8 15 551 17. Zambad Babylon Cavad 30 536 j 7) 2. Cambyses, or Lohorasp, 7y.5m. 1 18. Chosroes, or Nouschirvan 48 529 Smerdis Magus 7 m. j Hormouz 19. Hormisdas II., or ben\ " 3. Darius, son of Hystaspes, or Gushtasp 36 Nouschirvan 521 ..) 39 4. Xerxes 485 20. Chosroes n., or Khosru Perviz 21 5. Artaxerxes Longimanus, 1 or Ardshir Dir-\ 21. Siroes, or Shirouieh 461 22. Ardesir, or Ardeschir ben Schirouieh\ / azdest, or Bahaman 2 6 Darius Nothus 19

Kaiumarath again 2. Hushang, Houschenck, or called) Pischdad, or Chedorlaomer* J 3. Tahmuras (700) 4. Giamschid, or Giemschid 5. Dahak, Zahak, or Zoak ...(1000) 6. Aphridun, Phridun, or Pheridun 7. Manugiar, called Phirouz ...(500) 8. Nodar 9. Apherasiab, or Afrasiab 10. Zoab, Zab, or Zoub 11. Gershab, or Gershasp

30
,n "

KINGS.

411 YEARS.

30
30 30 120

2070
2040 2010 1980 1860 1740 1733 1721 1691
Y. A.S.

225 240 271 272 275 292 300 307 377 381 386 397 418

441 459 479 483 494

502 532

580 588 627 628 630

..

6.

(2 m.)

7. Artaxerxes Mnemon 8. Ochus, or Darab i 9. Darius, or Codomannus,

or

Darab
or

ii

46 23 4

404

358 335

2 23. Sarbaris, or Scheheriah (1y. lm.) ben Sche-\ or Jezdegerd Hormisdas,

0
.

heriah

J
Saracen Dynasty..'.
411

632

Conquered

by Alexander,

Ascander... 228

331

636

having been slain,accordDr. Hales identifiesHushang ing with Chedorlaomer, from the circumstance of Hushang's Persian romances, fragments of rocks hurled against him by the giants, his mortal foes, in the province by some in his camp, in the Chedorlaomer, he says, might have been slain, either when surprised by Abraham of Adherbigian. home, in some later engagement. mountainous country, near the springs of the Jordan; or afterwards, upon his return is connected history of Chedorlaomer He might, but this is merely supposition, and, besides, it is a question whether the forthe identification Persians : Elam not being Persia, properly so called. He adduces no other reason with that of the of this Scripture king with this hero of Persian romance and this is very unsatisfactory.
*

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