Research 1 Module II Lesson 1.

THEORY OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on the theory of the review of related literature and sampling techniques, you will be able to: 1. define theory and state its functions; 2. state the importance and the purposes of a review of relatedliterature; and 3.conduct and organize a review of literature. Definition and Functions of Theory Kerlinger defines theory as a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. It is necessary that you look for the theoty which links your research topic to related theories and findings of previous studies. Following are the functions of theory as listed by Sevilla, et a1: 1. It identifies the start for the research problem by presenting the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies in previous researches. This provides a conceptual framework justifying the need for an investigation. 2. It puts together all the constructs or concepts related with the researchers topic. The theory then leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own investigation. 3. It presents the relationships among variables that have been investigated. This process enables you to review the topic on hand against findings of earlier studies. Types of Related Literature There are two types of related literature namely, 1) conceptual literature and 2) research literature. Conceptual literature refers to thoughts and ideas related to the topic of the $study coming from books, articles, journals and bulletins, firstly to support the theoretical framework and to give the readers rich information and insights into the topic. For instance, if the person is writing about satisfaction or motivation, then included in this portion of the research report are the writings of Herzberg, Maslow, Vrooms theories, McGregors Theory X and Y management style and the Japanese Theory Z management style, Likert's management system and others.

4 Research literature include empirically based studies related to the present study in terms of subject matter and methodology, such as theses and dissertations. As much as possible, the researcher should use recent research literature to make the review relevant to the times. On the other hand, conceptual literature, especially classical theories, can be used even if they date earlier than th 1950s. For example, Maslow's hierarchy of needs dates as far back as the 40s but it is still being invoked in studies of motivation. Importance of the Review The review of literature is important in all research areas, whether in the physical, natural, or social sciences as well as in the humanities, education and business. The literature in any field forms a solid foundation upon which all future work is built. In other words, through the review of related literature, you will learn what others have done and what still needs to be done. The student therefore should endeavor to make a thorough review before starting his research. Such a review involves locating, reading, and evaluating reports of research and reports of casual observations and opinions related to his planned research. The insights and knowledge gained from it will lead to a better designed research, and greatly improve the chances of obtaining significant findings. Purposes of the Review The purpose of the literature review is to expand upon the context and background of the study, to help define the problem further, and to provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development of hypotheses. More specifically, the review helps in attaining the following (Borg): 1. Delimiting the research problem. The review helps the researcher to limit or narrow down his topic to an area small enough and sufficiently specific for him to work on satisfactorily. Furthermore, the review helps him to define his problem better. A fuzzy or poorly defined problem oftentimes results in collecting unnecessary data which is a waste of time and effort. 2. Seeking new approaches. In the process of reviewing the literature, the researcher should be alert to research possibilities that have been overlooked. His unique experience and background make it possible for him to see what others have not seen. Such new viewpoints are likely to occur in areas where little research has been done, but even in well-researched areas, someone occasionally thinks of an approach that is unique and creative. 3. Avoiding sterile approaches. An exhaustive review of literature reveals a number of similar studies on a particular topic. A researcher should be on the lookout for such

4.

sterile research approaches in his area and should not repeat such unproductive approaches which fail to produce significant results. Giving insights into methods. The review of literature can also give the student a great deal of insight into the methods, measures, subjects, and approaches used by other research workers and can thus lead to significant improvement of his research Suggesting recommendations for fiirther research. Specific research topics are often suggested by authors of research articles, based on their experience in the problem area.These suggestions should be carefully considered by those planning further research in the field.

5.

A Method of Reviewing the Literature The methods of conducting the review differ to some extent from field to field. The following steps for conducting a review are suggested: Step One: Listing Key Words. It is necessaiy that the researcher identify key words related to his topic which he can use to locate sources dealing on his topic. For example, if you are planning a market study, you first identify the key words related to your topic such as feasibility study', project study, methods of projection, supply and demand, financial estimates, pricing, marketing program. Step Two. Cheeking Preliminary Sources. Preliminary sources are references, such as indexes and abstracts, which help the researcher to find research articles and other primary sources of information. Examples: Readers Guide to Periodical Literature, International Index to Periodicals, Educational Abstracts, Social Science Abstracts, Encyclopedia of Educational Research

Step Three. Taking Notes. In doing his review of literature, the researcher should make use of index cards a 3 x 5 index card for the bibliography card for each source that might contain material pertinent to his review and a 4 x 6 card for taking notes. In preparing bibliography cards, accuracy is extremely important as a mistake in copying the bibliographic data can often cause the student a great deal of extra work. A student must take special care in copying the different portions of the bibliographic data, for example, the authors

name, title of the book, place of publication, name of the publishing company, date of publication in the case of a book, and for an article, the authors name, title of the article, the name of the journal, volume number, date of issue and the pages. Properly accomplished bibliography cards will enable him to check his preliminary sources with the least time and effort. Parel, Cristina P. et aL Social Survey Research Design. Quezon City: Philippine Social Science Council, In.c, 1978.

Fil. 300.9599 P53 Figure 1. Sample Bibliography Card In taking notes the student should be as brief as possible but should not omit anything that he thinks he will later use in the design of the study or in the preparation of the research report. A brief outline of the reference using short sentences or phrases with headings for the problem or hypotheses, procedure, findings and conclusions will usually be sufficient. It is also desirable for the student to record his own evaluation of the study and to note how it may relate to his research. This critical evaluation of the research will enable him to determine which of the conflicting results of studies is more acceptable. Advantages and disadvantages Parel, C. SSRD of random sampling 71 - Advantage: much easier to understand than other sampling designs Disadvantages; 1. less precise than other designs 2. quite impractical when population size N is very large and listing of sampling units is required 3. data collection may be difficult by reason of geographical distribution

Figure 2. Sample Note Card In reading articles for your review of the literature., you should keep constantly in mind the objective of your research and attempt to relate the material you read to your research plan. Besides those closely related to your planned work, include studies that are only partially related to your work as these can give you new theoretical viewpoints and acquaint you with new tools and methods that can be profitably applied to your research. Be alert for possible categories of your readings as these can serve as basis for classifying your note cards. Guidelines for Selecting Studies for Inclusion in the Review of Literature The following suggestions are designed to help the student select the most relevant sources of information. 1. Of two similar and equally valuable articles on the same subject, select the most recent for detailed analysis. The older article may be referred to thus; Similar studies were found by Maceda (1950).' In this way, the review is kept as up to date as possible, but credit is still given to earlier relevant works. 2. Some reason should be given for the inclusion of each reference in the review of the literature. Some articles may be included because of their historical interest. Thus the reviewer might state: Although Pavlov (10) appears to have been the first investigator to employ the differential effect of partial versus continuous reinforcement, it was Skinner (12, 46) who recognized the theoretical and practical importance of Pavlovs discoveries.

3.

4.

Some articles might be included in the review because the writer wished to discriminate between various theoretical positions or between findings that are ostensibly contradictory. Where this is the case, the writer can describe the major points of view for each position, and then simply provide a reference to the advocates of each. Thus, the review of the literature might state, Whereas Skinner (1958) has advocated the use of many small steps in preparing material suitable for programmed instruction, Crowder (1960) has suggested that some students may skip materials which are simple for them. In partial support of Skinners contention, Coulson and Silberman (1960) found that the use of small steps led to significantly higher scores on examinations than did the use of larger steps. Where there is disagreement in opinion or methodology in the published literature, the student can select articles for inclusion in the review which seem to be representative of various points of view or which have used different techniques.

In sum, a good guideline for selecting the literature in the review section is to cite references dealing with each of the variables in the study, paying special attention to those articles dealing with each of them. Literature concerning conceptually similar or related variables should likewise be cited. Organizing the Review of the Literature

The review of literature should have a clear organization. One method of organization gives a historical development of the topic and its current status. Another approach provides evidence for and against a given position and then demonstrates how the proposed study will contribute to a better understanding of that topic. Although no one approach is best under all conditions, the review should always be selective, organized and clearly related to the problem. Organizing the literature review section by subheadings makes it easier for the reader to follow. To be most meaningful, the subheadings should reflect the variables and the problem. They should also be your guide to the searching process as well as to thereviewing process. The organization of the review section in terms of the problem enablesyou towork toward establishing hypotheses, thus providing logic for both the reader and yourself. EXAMPLE: Subheadings for a study of the relationship between teacher attitudes and teaching style Teacher Attitudes Overview and Definitions Open-minded versus Closed-minded General Studies Openminded versus Closed-minded Relation to Teaching

Humanistic versus Custodial General Humanistic versus Custodial Relation Teaching Style Overview and Definition Directive versus Nondirective General Studies Directive versus Nondirective Relation to Teacher

Studies to Teaching

Attitudes

It is also recommended that the subsection after each subheading begin with a sentence introducing the purpose, content, or relevance of the literature to be reviewed in the subsection and end with a sentence summarizing the conclusion or trends evident from the literature reviewed in the subsection. EXAMPLE: Theory of Career Development The purpose of this subsection is to identify relevant concepts and data relating to career development. Such concepts and data should help to clarify the human as well as social factors in career development.... Based upon the aforementioned research, the following can be stated as relevant to career development: (1) to (6).... The firstreading of literature is exploratory in nature; that is, the researcher wishes to determine if theinvestigation really bears some relation to his thesis topic. In this instance, he must demonstrate a critical and evaluative stand since he has to make some judgment regarding the profitability of the material. It is suggested that the researcher outlines the salient areas of the investigation on index cards, one source to a car'd.

(SEE NO. 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) Research 1 Module O Lesson 1 SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Select the letter representing the best answer. Write your answer on the blank before each number. ______1. There are two types of related literature and these are: a. conceptual and research literature. b. books and journals. c. bulletins and newspapers. d. encyclopedias anddictionaries. The type of literature that deals with thoughts and ideas from books, journals, articles, etc. is known as the a. related literature. c. conceptual literature. b. research literature. d. theoretical framework. The type of literature that deals with findings of empirically based studies is known as the a, related literature. c. conceptual literature. b. research literature. d. theoretical framework. The first step in conducting a review of literature is to a. ask the librarian for information about your topic. b. check the bibliography of a thesis related to your topic. c. list keywords related to your topic. d. refer to abstracts of studies related to your topic. A bibliography card for a book contains the following information: a. the authors name. c. publicationdata. b. title of the book. d. all of the above. References which help the researcher to find research articles and other primary sources of information are referred to collectively as a. cross-references. c. bibliography cards, b- preliminary sources. d. general references.

______2.

______3.

______4.

______5.

______6.

7.

8.

It is a better method to justify ones study by showingthe a. differences and similarities of the studies mentioned in the review of related literature. b. objectives of the present study. c. objectives of other studies. d. length of the present study. One of the importance of the review of related literature is that: a. it measures the extent of the scholarly work done by the writer. b. it determines his ability to copy other researches. c. it adds to the volume of the research report. d. it lengthens the research report.

(SEE NO, 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) Research 1 Module II Lesson 2. Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on sampling techniques, you will be able to: 1. define and differentiate a sample from a population; 2. identify different sampling techniques; and 3. determine the size of a sample. Sampling Techniques A good piece of research needs empirical data. Direct or empirical data serve as the valid basis for the interpretation of the results. Hence it is important that the researcher knows what sample to get or the sampling technique and the size of the sample. Aside from this, statistical techniques and methods to be used may depend on the type of sample utilized. The Need for Sampling A population is the entire group of items or individuals of interest in a study (Parel> If the SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

11

population is large, using ail the members of the population frame would be very costly; hence, the need for sampling. Inferential statistics say why use the population frame when a sample can be as good provided the sample is a representative sample. Furthermore, the size may be so large, that data maybe unwieldy or that rearranging them for in-depth analysis may be too cumbersome, in addition to the fact that the variations may be too large that it may destroy the visibility of the characteristics of the distribution. Gay (1976) defines sample as a small group from which generalizations of the population can be made. Ferguson (1976) defines a sample as 'any subaggregate drawn from the population. From here we gather two important terms in research 1) population or parameter and 2) sample. There are two types of samples 1) the probability and 2) the non-probability sample. The method or process of taking a part of the population or deriving such sample is called sampling technique.

12

Sample Size principle in sampling which says that: There is a a. the greater the population frame, the smaller the percentage of the sample; b. the smaller the population frame, the greater the percentage of the sample, butin no case should it be less than 30. However, the principles seem generic in the sense that one does not know how large is large and how small is small. There is a consensus among statisticians that 30 is a large sample and that lesser than 30 is a small sample. However, to fend off arguments, the formula: n = N/(l + He2) n = the size of the sample N= the size of the population frame e - the desired margin error should be used in determining the size of the sample. In general the value of e for a research paper to be credible should be from 5 to I percent. For example, if the population frame is 1,000 and the margin error is 5 percent or .05, then the sample size would be: n = N/(l+Ne2) = 1,000 [1 + 1,000 (.OS)2] = 286 One can just imagine the reduction of costs and time as well as effort in analyzing the responses of only 288 respondents instead of the 1,000. Some authors have some ideas of the minimum acceptable sample sizes, depending on the type of research as follows (Gay, 1976): 1. Descriptive Research - 10 percent of the population, but for smaller population sizes, a minimum of 20 percent. 2. Correlational Research - 30 pairs of subjects. 3. Ex post facto or Causal Comparative Research - 15 subjects per group. 4. Experimental Research - 15 subjects per group, although some authorities believe that 30 should be considered minimum. As we said in the beginning, there are two types of samples and the method of getting such samples is referred to as sampling techniques. The types of samples are 1) the probability and the 2) non-probability sample. The probability sample is a sample where the elements have an equal chance of being selected. Samples falling under this category are known as random samples and enjoy the property of independence as well. That is when one member is selected, this should not affect the chances of the other members getting chosen. 13 where:

The different probability samples are the following: 1) simple random sample 2) systematic sample with a random start 3) stratified random sample 4) cluster sample and 5) multi-stage sample. In reality, in educational descriptive studies, the most often used are the first three types of probability samples, while cluster sample is used in business. The multi-stage sample is seldom used, due to economic reasons. It is expensive to do a research report using the multi-stage sample. 1. Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample can be selected through the use of the following 1) the lottery method and 2) the use of the table of random numbers. The former is considered crude, primitive due to the development of the laws of probability and much preference is noted for the use of the table of random numbers. The Table of Random Numbers method itself is easy and convenient; however, for both methods, the population frame must first be constructed before an attempt of sample selection is made. The researcher at this time must have already selected the size of the sample. The writer may list down the elements of the population frame assigning each to a number and in the case of 1,000 elements, the number should start from 001 to 1000. In general, every statistics book has a Table of Random Numbers at its back. The Table of Random Numbers may have two or three digits. If one has 1,000 elements in the population frame and desires to get a sample of 288 elements, then one has to use a table with three digits. The procedure is to select at random a number in the table. Some books say that one must close ones eyes and hit the table, so that eveiy number in the table would have an equal chance of being selected, and the principle of randomness is strictly applied. Then one can move from any direction and count off 288 numbers from this entry point. The numbers in the table will select the numbers in your list of the population frame as elements of the sample frame. The simple random sample is generally used when the characteristics of the population frame are homogeneous.

14

2.

3.

With the advent of computerization and the sophisticated development of probability theory, the lottery method has lost its place in higher research. Systematic Sample with a Random Start. Like the simple random sample, the population frame must first be constructed and likewise determine the sampling fraction, which is the ratio of the sample and the population frame. For instance, if 100 elements are chosen from a population frame of 1000, then the sample fraction is: 100/1000, or 1/10. The sampling fraction is important in the sense that the denominator is the source of the random start. The elements in the set of 10 are: (1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9,10) and it is from this set that a random start is selected. We select a random start from this set using the Table of Random Numbers. If for example 6 is chosen then the elements of the sample are chosen systematically by a multiple of 10, that is the sample of the study must have the numbers 6, 16, 26, 36, and so on till 996. This type of sample is used for population frames which are heterogeneous. Stratified Sample. Vockell (1988) detines this sample as one derived by a strategy in such a way that specific subgroups will have sufficient number of representatives within the sample to provide sample numbers for sub-analysis of the members of these subgroups. However, some authorities do not use stratified in its strict sense, but rather for groups which can be compared. The following principles are used in the selection of members of different subgroups. a) The Principle of Equal Allocation

b)

What would be the best size of the sample from these different groups? The principle of equal allocation asserts that if the differences of the sizes of the population frames are negligible, then equal numbers of elements maybe chosen from the population frames. For example: 100 can be taken from A, likewise from B, C, and D. The Principle of Proportional Allocation If however the sizes of the different population frames are significantly different, the principle of proportional allocation may be invoked. Let us use the data below.

15

A
Ni

B N2 900

C
N3

1,000
n

500
*3

2,000
n

. 90

100

50

200

As one can see, the sizes of the population frames are very different. The principle of proportional allocation asserts that a certain proportion, can be taken from them. If for instance we use a 10 percent proportion then the corresponding sample sizes of Groups A, B, Cand D, will be 100, 90, 50 and 200 respectively. Then the writer can revert back to the simple random sample process to obtain the real elements of the sample. Cluster Sample. This is commonly used by the salesmen. The cluster samples are selected by salesmen when they promote their products. They cluster the houses and use them as a single unit in a random sample. Below is an illustration of cluster sampling. Suppose V is a house and note how the houses are grouped or clustered.

wvw vv
A

VW vw
B

WVW

vw c

wvw vwv D

They form clusters of the houses and use a Table of Random Numbers in the selection of the cluster of houses that they will use as their sample. 5. Multi-stage Sample. A multi-stage sample is seldom used. Let us apply it to a problem. If a researcher had the barrios in the Philippines as the subject of his study, then the researcher would have to random the province, then random the municipalities, then random the barrios, and if one barrio is found in Region 2 and another in Region XII, then you can be sure that he will have a lot of problems. In summary it can be said that probability samples are preferred in research because of their randomness. The characteristics of the random sample can be used to infer the characteristics of the population, aside from being assured of valid results.

16

Furthermore, sophisticated statistical techniques can be used for more information of the data. Probability samples are very viable for finite population frames. Non-Probability Samples Non-probability samples are the opposite of probability samples and constitute elements that do not have equal chance of being selected. Among these are the following. 1. Quota sample. If one wants to make a study of the different cars that will cross Mendiola bridge, then he would have difficulty in selecting a sample, since cars will cross Mendiola every minute of the day. So the best thing for the researcher would be to get a quota sample of the first 200 cars that will cross the bridge. This is known as the quota sample. 2. Purposive sample. If one is interested in determining the attitudes of students towards the American Bases, instead of using the population frame of students, one goes to a particular group of students. This group then constitutes what is called a purposive sample. This is a sample with a purpose. 3. Convenience sample. If one is interested to know what the most popular TV programs are and he uses the telephone, then this is a convenience sample. We have studied different types of samples and sampling techniques. Let us now try to measure how much you have understood of the lesson. When you feel you are ready, take the Self-Progress Check Test and check your answers later with those found at the back of the module. Good luck!!!

Research 1 Module H Lesson 2 SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST On the blank before each number, write only the letter representing the best answer. _____1. A sample is a part of a a. population. c. data gathering method. b. questionnaire. d. probability sample. Before selecting a sample, the writer should first construct the a. population frame. c. theoretical framework. b. sample frame. d. cluster sample. The selection of a random sample depends on the numbers taken from the a. Table of Random Numbers. b. Probability Distribution. c. t-table. d. table. When the elements of the sample have an equal chance of being selected then we call this a a. probability sample. c. research literature. b. non-probability sample. d. population. The sample whose elements do not have an equal chance of being selected is called a a. non-probability sample. c. population. b. probability sample. d. research instrument. A simple random sample is generally used when the characteristics of the elements of the population frame are: a. homogeneous. c. not identifiable. b. heterogeneous. d. many. A systematic sample with a random start is good when the characteristics of the population frame are:

_____2.

_____3.

_____4.

_____5.

_____6.

_____7.

18

homogeneous. c. not identifiable. heterogeneous. d. many. 8. A probability sample, the elements of the population a. are finite. b. are infinite. c. have an equal chance of being selected. d. large. 9. A quota sample is a a. probability sample. b. non-probability sample. c. part of the theoretical framework. d. small sample. 10. In general statisticians believe that 30 is a. a small sample. c. neither large nor small. b. a large sample. d. an indexnumber.

a. b.

(SEE NO. 4 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) Research 1 Module II ANSWER KEYS TO THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS Lesson 1

1.

19