1

JIF 416/3 - Nuclear and

Radiation Physics
Dr. Sabar Bauk,
Associate Professor,
Physics Section,
Pusat Pengajian Pendidikan Jarak Jauh,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang,
Malaysia.
sabar@usm.my
2
Marks
Final examination: 70%
Course works:
Assignments 10%
Continuous assessment 20%
3
Video Conference 1
Introduction to the Nucleus
4
Objectives
The student should be able to:
describe the discovery of the nucleus.
describe the discovery of the neutron.
relate the number of nucleons and the
periodic table.
discuss the static and the dynamic properties
of a nucleus.
determine the nuclear radius.
determine the nuclear binding energy.
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Thomsons model (pudding cake)
(1898)
6
particle scattering is small for
Thomsons model
7
Rutherfords scattering experiment
(Geiger & Marsden ?) (1911)

Zinc
sulphide
screen
Gold
foil
Alpha
particle
8
particle interactions with the
nucleus
9
Discovery of neutron in the nucleus
1932 Boethe & Becker bombarded Be with o
particles & found a new type of radiation.
Curie & Joliot found that this radiation produces
protons when bombarding paraffin (a hydrogen-
rich material).
1932 James Chadwick suggested the radiation
consists of neutral particles whose mass is
almost identical to the mass of proton
neutron.
Neutron is unstable outside the nucleus; free
neutron will decay into a proton, an electron &
an antineutrino (T
1/2
~ 10.8 min).
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Components of a nucleus

p
n
Other
elementary
particles
Nucleons
(e.g. neut rino, meson,
hyperon et c.)
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Symbol
X
A
Z
Z A N =
neutrons 8 protons, 6
e.g.
14
6

C
Chemical
symbol
Mass
number
At omic
number
12
13
Terminology
Isotopes: same Z.
e.g.
35
Cl &
37
Cl
Isobars: same A.
e.g.
3
He &
3
H
Isotones: same N.
e.g.
2
H &
3
He
14
Stable nuclei (dark) & radioactive
nuclei (grey)
All nuclides wit h Z > 83 & N > 126
are not st able.
15
Characteristics of stable nuclei
All nuclei with Z > 83 & N > 126 are not stable.
Pairs effects:
Most even-even nuclei are stable. (168)
Many odd-even or even-odd nuclei are stable.
(107)
Only four odd-odd nuclei are stable (
2
1
H,
6
3
Li,
10
5
B &
14
7
Ni).
No stable nuclei at Z = 43 & 61, at N = 19, 35,
39, 45, 61, 89, 115 & 126.
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Unit & dimensions
1 fm (femtometer) = 10
-15
m (fermi)
1 eV = 1.602 x 10
-19
J
1 u (a.m.u.) = 1.661 x 10
-27
kg 931.502 MeV
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Nuclear properties
Static properties:
electric charge, radius, mass, binding energy,
angular momentum, parity, magnetic dipole
and electric quadrupole moments, and
energies of excited states.
Dynamic properties:
decay, reaction probabilities.
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Nuclear shape parameters
Mean radius:
where the density is half its central value
(50%).
Skin thickness:
density drops from near its maximum (90%) to
near its minimum (10%).
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Nucleons density distribution
( )
(

+
=
a
R r
r
e
exp 1
0

R
e
: Radius when =
0
/2.
a: Nucleon thickness measure.
4.4a: Nucleon surface thickness.
R: Nuclear radius.
r
0
: Nuclear potential radius.
Skin
thickness
Mean
radius
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Nuclear radius
What it is that the distribution is describing?
depends on the type of experiment used.
if we measure the Coulomb interaction of a
charged particle with the nucleus such as high
energy electron scattering Distribution of
nuclear charge.
if we measure the strong nuclear interaction of
nuclear particles such as Rutherford scattering
Distribution of nuclear matter.
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1. Distribution of nuclear charge
Diffraction-like pattern
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One amazing conclusion:- the number of nucleons
per unit volume for all nuclei is roughly a
constant.
3
1
3
1
0
3
3
4
constant ~
A R R
A R
R
A
=

23
Electron scattering
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t is roughly constant at 2.3 fm.
25
... from electron scattering
R
0
= 1.23 fm
26
... from muonic x-ray measurements
R
0
= 1.25 fm
27
... from Coulomb energy difference
R
0
= 1.22 fm
28
Hence, nuclear radius
3
1
0
A R R =
fm. 25 . 1 2 . 1 where
0
= R
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2. Distribution of nuclear matter
involves the nuclear force between two nuclei.
the radius is characteristic of the nuclear, rather
the Coulomb, force.
indicates the distribution of all nucleons in the
nucleus, not only the protons.
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... e.g. scattering by much
heavier target of
197
Au
at high energies,
Coulomb repulsion is
overcome.
they may approach
close enough for
nuclear force to act.
breakdown of
Rutherford scattering
formula gives a
measure of nuclear
size.
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... e.g. decay
o particle must
escape the nuclear
potential.
half-life for o
emission depends
on the probability to
penetrate the barrier
depends on its
thickness.
measured half-lives
can be used to
determine R.
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Nuclear binding energy
Einsteins mass-energy equivalence principle
Mass defect
Binding energy
2
c m E A = A
( ) | |
X n p
M m Z A Zm m + = A
( ) | |
( ) | |
1 -
2
u MeV 931
J
+ =
+ = A =
X n p
X n p
M m Z A Zm
c M m Z A Zm E B
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Binding energy per nucleon
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Nuclear force
Electromagnetic force?
Proton is positively-charged & neutron is
uncharged repulsive force between
nucleons.
Gravitational force?
Attractive force very weak ~10
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smaller than
electromagnetic force.
Nuclear force:
high magnitude attractive force to overcome
repulsive electromagnetic force.
short range (within nuclear radius range).
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... nuclear force
Weak interaction force
another force existing in the nucleus.
production of -decay process.
Relative strength
F
nucleus
> F
em
> F
weak
> F
gravity
1 : 10
-2
: 10
-13
: 10
-34
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Some qualitative features:
Nuclear force does not depend on charge since
neutrons as well as protons must be bound.
Must be short range; otherwise the nucleus
would pull in additional protons and neutrons.
The nearly constant density of nuclear matter
and the nearly constant binding energy per
nucleon indicate that a given nucleon interacts
with few nucleons in its immediate vicinity.
Nuclear forces appear to favour binding of pairs
of particles and of pairs of pairs (e.g. a pair of
protons and a pair of protons) with a total spin
zero.
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Strength & range r
0
of nuclear force
Force between two nucleons
Consider the wavelength of a nucleon in a
nucleus of radius R.
dr
dV
F =
R 2 s

R

Nucleon
Nucleus
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... strength & range
de Broglie
Since R ~ 3 x 10
-13
cm, equivalent
is calculated K ~ 25 MeV.
velength. Compton wa the is cm 10 1 . 2 where
2
2
14
2

=
= = =
mc
h
K
mc
mc
h
mK
h
p
h

m: nucleon mass
K: kinetic energy
mK
m
K
m mv p
m
K
v
mv K
2
2
&
2
2
1
: Note
2
= = =
=
=
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... strength & range
Potential energy
For a medium mass nuclei
K B V + =
0
cm 10 1 . 2
MeV 35
13
0
0

~
~
r
V
Nuclear
force range
Most st able
( see Segres chart )
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... strength & range
Low energy particle scattering,
V(r) = - V
0
for r <
= 0 for r >
Pot ent ial well
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... strength & range
High energy scattering,
core repulsion at the centre of nucleus.
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Potential well
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Saturation of nuclear force
interactions of each nucleon is limited to the
neighbouring nucleons only; not with all
nucleons (nuclear force has very short range).
for the middle Z, B/A ~ 8 MeV.
i.e.
A B
A
B

~ constant
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Deuteron nuclear force
1 p, 1 n & B = - 2.23 MeV.
force between a proton & a neutron is not clear.
Square well potential
-35 MeV
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expression for V is obtained by solving
Schrodingers equation (spherical polar
coordinate)
separation of variable method
V as a function of r only
( ) 0
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
= + +
c
+ c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
+ c
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
+ c
c
c
V E
r
r r
r
r r

( ) 0
2 1
2
2
2
= +
|
.
|

\
|
R V E
dr
dR
r
dr
d
r

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) u O = + r R r , ,
+ is a wave function
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to simplify, introduce a variable u(r) = r R(r)
for r s r
0
:
for r > r
0
:
where
( ) 0
2
2 2
2
= + u V E
dr
u d

ar B u sin
1
=
br
Ce u

=
2
( ) ( ) E b V E a = + =
2
0
2
2
&
2


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at the boundary:
and
dividing
(1) sin
0
0
2 1
br
Ce ar B
u u

=
=
(2) cos
0
0
2 1
br
bCe ar aB
du du

=
=
b
a
ar =
0
tan
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as an approximation, assume the value of a/b is
large
for the ground state of deuteron, n = 1
2
,........,
2
3
, ,
2
tan
0
0

n
ar
ar
=
=
( )
2
2
2
0
0
0

=
+
=
r
V E
ar

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if assuming E << V
0
,
the better approximation
#
8
2
2
2
0
2 2
0
0
0
r
V
r
V

=
=
#
2
2
8
0
2
0
2 2
0

E
r r
V

+ =
50
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Magnetic moment of nucleon
n
n
p
p
m
e
m
e
2
9128 . 1
2
7925 . 2

=
=

For a free nucleon, the experimental value is far from the expectation
value for a point particle; also, the uncharged neutron has a non-zero
magnetic moment!
proof that a nucleon is not an elementary point particle like an
electron but it has internal structures.
Nuclear
magneton
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