^"

\'

/(Tfi;*

_^ 1^ ^

iiC

' '^jL.

u< ^

if^

'

'

R.

S.H UTCKEON

LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA

PRESENTED BY
ELEANOR HUTCHEON

GRAPHICAL AND MECHANICAL COMPUTATION

WORKS OF
The Late

JOSEPH LIPKA,
PUBLISHED BY

Ph.D.

JOHN WILEY & SONS,

INC.

Graphical and Mechanical Computation An aid in the solution of a large number of problems which the engineer, as well as the student of engineering, 264 pages. 6 by 9. 207 figmeets in his work, ix ures, 2 charts. Cloth.

Also published in two parts 6 by 9. xiv 119 pages. Part I. Alignment Charts. 130 figures, 2 charts. Cloth. by 9. Part II. Experimental Data. Pages 120 to 259. Cloth. 77 figures.

By

S.

R.

CUMMINGS

and JOSEPH LIPKA

Alignment Charts for the Engineer By S. R. Cummings,S.M., Research Engineer, The Hoover Co., and the late Joseph Lipka, Ph. D. Part I. Air and Steam. Twenty charts for various engineering equations and formulas, designed for practical use by the engineer and student of engineering. 9^ by 12. Loose leaf, in hea\'y paper envelope.

By HUDSON, LIPKA,
Engineering,
assisted

LUTHER and PEABODY

S.
B.,

The Engineers' Manual By Ralph G. Hudson,

by the

Professor of

Electrical

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, late Joseph Lipka, Ph.D., Howard B. Luther, S. B., Dipl. Ing., Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Cincinnati, and Dean Peabody, Jr., S. B., Associate Professor of Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A consolidation of the more commonly used formulas of engineering, each arranged with a statement of its application. Second edition, iv -|- 340 pages. 5 by 7|. 238
figures.

Flexible binding.

R. G. Manual of Mathematics
Ph. D.

By

HUDSON

and JOSEPH LIPKA

S.B.,

Bv Ralph G. Hudson,

and the

late

Joseph Lipka,

collection of mathematical tables and formulas covering the subjects most generally used by engineers and by students of mathematics, and arranged for quick refFlexible erence, iii -|- 132 pages. 5 by 7f . 95 figures. binding.

Table

of Integrals

S,B., and the late Joseph Lipka, Ph.D. Contains a Table of Derivatives, Table of Integrals, Natural Logarithms, Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Func24 pages. 5 by 7|. Paper. tions.

Bv Ralph G. Hudson,

GRAPHICAL AND MECHANICAL COMPUTATION

PART
I.

ALIGNMENT CHARTS

BY

JOSEPH LIPKA,
Late Associate Professor of Mathematics

Ph.D.
in

the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY &

London:

SONS,

Inc.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

Limited

Copyright, 1918,
BY

JOSEPH LIPKA

Printed in U. S. A.

2-42

PREFACE
This book embodies a course given by the writer for a number of
years in the Mathematical Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute It is designed as an aid in the solution of a large numof Technology.

ber of problems which the engineer, as well as the student of engineering, meets in his work.
In the opening chapter, the construction of scales naturally leads to a discussion of the principles upon which the construction of various The second chapter develops the principles of a slide rules is based. network of scales, showing their application to the use of various kinds of coordinate paper and to the charting of equations in three variables. Engineers have recognized for a long time the value of graphical charts in lessening the labor of computation. Among the charts devised none are so rapidly constructed nor so easily read as the charts of the alignment or nomographic type a type which has been most fully developed by Professor M. d'Ocagne of Paris. Chapters III, IV, and V aim to give a systematic development of the construction of alignment charts; the methods are fully illustrated by charts for a large number It is the writer's hope that the of well-known engineering formulas. simple mathematical treatment employed in these chapters will serve to make the engineering profession more widely acquainted with this time

and labor saving

r

device.

Many

formulas in the engineering sciences are empirical, and the

scientific

value of

and technical investigations is enhanced by the Chapter VI is concerned with the fitting of equations to empirical data. Chapter VII considers the case where the data are periodic, as in alternating currents and voltages, sound waves, etc., and gives numerical, graphical, and 'mechanical methods for determining the constants in the equation.
discovery of the laws connecting the results.

many

When

empirical formulas cannot be fitted to the experimental data,

these data

may

and integration, by the numerical, graphical, and mechanical methods developed in the last two chapters. Numerous illustrative examples are worked throughout the text, and a large number of exercises for the student is given at the end of each chapter. The additional charts at the back of the book will serve
computation,
differentiation,

interpolation,

still

be

efificiently

handled for purposes of further

iv

PREFACE
BibHographical data to

as an aid in the construction of alignment charts. references will be found in the footnotes.

engineering departments of the Massachusetts of Technology, and to various mathematical and engineering Institute He owes the idea of a Mathematical Laboratory to publications.
Professor E. T. Whittaker of the University of
especially indebted to Capt.
for his valuable suggestions

The writer wishes the members of the

to express his indebtedness for valuable

H. M. Brayton, U. S. and for his untiring efforts in designing a Above all he is most grateful to large number of the alignment charts. in the revision of the manuscript and the his wife for her assistance reading of the proof, and for her constant encouragement which has
greatly lightened the labor of writing the book.

Edinburgh. He is A., a former student,

JOSEPH LIPKA.
Cambridge, Mass.,
Oct. 13, 1918.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Art.
1

I.

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE.

Page
Definition of a scale
i i

2.

3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.

Representation of a function by a scale Variation of the scale modulus

Stationary scales
Sliding scales

2 5
7

The The The

logarithmic slide rule

solution of algebraic equations on the logarithmic slide rule
log-log slide rule

9
il

13 15 16 18

9.

Various other straight slide rules

10.

Curved

slide rules

Exercises

CHAPTER

H.

NETWORK OF
11.

SCALES.

CHARTS FOR EQUATIONS IN TWO AND THREE VARIABLES.

20
21

Representation of a relation between two variables by means of perpendicular scales

12. 13. 14. 15.

Some

illustrations of perpendicular scales

16.

Logarithmic coordinate paper Semilogarithmic coordinate paper Rectangular coordinate paper the solution of algebraic equations of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degrees Representation of a relation between three variables by means of perpen-

22

24 26
28

dicular scales
17. 18. 19.

Charts

for multiplication

and division

30
32 35 37

Three-variable charts.
Three-variable charts.

Representing curves are straight lines Rectangular chart for the solution of cubic equations
Representing curves are not straight lines
of three indices.

20.

21.

Use

Hexagonal charts

40
42

Exercises

CHAPTER
22.

HI.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS.

Fundamental
(I)

principle

44

Equation of form /i(m)

parallel scales
for

+ fiiv) = Mw)

or /i(m)

Mv) =

fs{w)

Three
45~54
45

Chart 24. Chart

23.

equation

(I)

for multiplication

and division

47

vi
Art. 25.
26. 27.

CONTENTS
Page

Combination chart
Tension
(11)

for various formulas

Grasshoff's formula for the weight of dry saturated steam

in belts

48 50
52

and horsepower

of belting

Equation

/i(m) +/2(j')

form +/3(w) + Four or more parallel

of

=fS)

or /i(m) -hiv)

-Mw)

=U{t)
55~63
55 56 57
61

scales

28. Chart for equation (II) 29. Chezy formula for the velocity of flow of water in open channels 30. Hazen-Williams formula for the velocity of flow of water in pipes 31.

Indicated horsepower of a steam engine

Exercises
-

64

CHAPTER

IV.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(m) Equation
of

(Continued).

form /i(m)

= /.(w) h{w)

or /i(m)

= /2(v)A'"')

Z chart

65-67
65 66

32. Chart for equation (IH) 33. Tension on bolts with U.

S.

standard threads

(rV)

Equation of form
for equation (IV)
electric

-^--^

= 4-rT

Two intersecting index

lines

68-7^
68 69 70
71

34. 35.

Chart

36. 37.
38.

dynamometer formula Deflection of beam fixed at ends and loaded at center Deflection of beams under various methods of loading and supporting Specific speed of turbine and water wheel
Prony brake or
(V)

73
inter-

Equation of form
secting index lines

/i(m)

= fiiv)

'

fsiw)

fi{t)

Two or more

*
39.

76-87
76
77
in pipes

40.

Chart for equation (V) Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft 41. D'Arcy's formula for the flow of steam 42. Distributed load on a wooden beam
43.
44.

79 80

Combination chart

for six

beam

deflection formulas

General considerations
(VI)

84 87
87-91 87 89

Equation

of

form "^^^r
/liv)

= "^r^
fiiq)

Parallel or perpendicular index lines

45.
46. 47. 48.

Chart for equation (VI)

Weight of gas flowing through an orifice Armature or field winding from tests

90
91
:

Lame formula

for thick hollow cylinders subjected to internal pressure

(Vn) Equation

of

= /3(w)
49.
50.

/4(g)

Parallel or perpendicular index

form

fi(u)

fi{v) =

f?,{iv)

fiiq)
lines

or

/i(m)

Uiv)

91-95
91

Chart

for equation (VTI)

Friction loss in flow of water

94 95

Exercises

CONTENTS

Vll

CHAPTER
Art

V.
(Continued).
Page

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(Vni) Equation of form /i(m)
index lines
51. 52. 53.
54.

+ f2{v)

I,

Parallel

or perpendicular

97-104
97 99
loi

Chart

for

equation (VIII)
of inertia of cylinder
in
.

Moment

Bazin formula for velocity of flow Resistance of riveted steel plate

(IX) Equation of form
I
.

open channels

loi

/i(w)

^h{v)

Mw)

'

Mu) ^Mv) '^Mw) ^

I

_J

i_

I
_,

'

'

'

^ _i Uq)
104-106
104 106

Three or more concurrent

55. 56.

scales

Chart

for equation (IX)

Focal length of a lens

(X) Equation of
scales

form fi{u)-\-f2{v)-fi{w)

fi(w)

Straight

and curved
106-1 13

57. Chart for equation (X) 58. Storm water run-ofT formula 59. Francis formula for a contracted weir 60. The solution of cubic and quadratic equations

106
107

no no
114-117
1

(XI) Additional forms of equations.

61.
62.
63.
^

Combined methods
,

Chart Chart Chart

/-I

for

equation of form r-^^

-re

Mu)

+ ftM Mv)
1

=
'

y-.

r
= fi(q)

fziw)
fz{i:})

14

for equation of form/i()

for for

fi{v)

114

equation of form/i() /4(g)

equation of form
/i(m)

-\-f2iv)

fziw)
r

14

64. Chart

tt^

+ h{v) -rr^

tt
I

fsiw)

iiS
115

65. 66.

Chart

for equation of
for

form ':{

Mu)

+ -p~ = /2(f)
+

Chart 67. Chart

equation of form/i(j<) /2(g) +M'^) ' M"^) =/5(w) for equation of form/i (u) /2(g) M'^) M'^) = Mq)
III, IV,

116

+ M"^)

n?
117 118

Exercises

Miscellaneous exercises for Chapters

CHAPTER
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
68.

VI.

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES.
120

Experimental data
(I)

The

straight line

122-127
bx 122
bx

69.
70.

The The

straight line, y
straight line, y

= =

-\-

125

VUl
Art.
(II)

CONTENTS
Page

Formulas involving two constants

128-139
128
131
is

71.

Simple parabolic and hyperbolic curves, y = ax^ Simple exponential curves, y = a^^ 73. Parabolic or hyperbolic curve, y = a -\- hx^ (wnere n X X or - = a -\- bx 74. Hyperbolic curve, y =
72.

Known)

135
137

(III)

Formulas involving three constants

ax^

140-152

75. 76.
77.

The parabolic or hyperbolic curve, y = The exponential curve, y = ae^^ -^ c The parabola, y = a + bx -\- exThe hyperbola, y =
X 7
1-

+c

140
142
145 149

78.
79.

The
(IV)

logarithmic or exponential curve, log y

+ bx

-]-

ex- or

ae^^+'^^'

151

Equations involving four or more constants

152-164
152
153

80. 81. 82.

83. 84.

The additional terms ce'^^ and cx"^ The equation y = a + bx -\- ee^'^ The equation y = ae^^ + ee^'^ The polynomial y = a -\- bx \- ex^

156
-\-

dx?

-\r

Two

or

more equations

159 l6l

Exercises

164

CHAPTER VH.
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
85.
86.

PERIODIC

CURVES.
170 170
173

Representation of periodic phenomena the harmonics of a trigonometric series 87. Determination of the constants when the function is known 88. Determination of the constants when the function is unknown

The fundamental and

Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Even and odd harmonics Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Odd harmonics only Averaging selected ordinates. .. 91. Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Averaging selected ordinates. 92. Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Odd harmonics only
89.

90.

174 179 186

192

198

Graphical evaluation of the coefficients 94. Mechanical evaluation of the coefficients.

93.

Harmonic analyzers

Exercises

200 203 207

CHAPTER

VIII.

INTERPOLATION.
95.

Graphical interpolation
Successive differences and the construction of tables

96.
97. 98.

209 210
214 218 210
22 i

Newton's interpolation formula Lagrange's formula of interpolation 99. Inverse interpolation

Exercises

CONTENTS

ix

CHAPTER
Art.
lOO.

IX.

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

Page

The

loi. 102.

methods Rectangular, trapezoidal, Simpson's, and Durand's

necessity for approximate

rules

Applications of approximate rules

224 224 227

231

General formula for approximate integration Numerical differentiation 105. Graphical integration 106. Graphical differentiation The planimeter 107. Mechanical integration.
103.
104.
108.

234 237 244 246 250 252

255 256

Integrators

109.

The

integraph
differentiation.

no. Mechanical
Exercises

The

differentiator

Graphical and Mechanical Computation.

CHAPTER I. SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE.
graphical scale is a curve or axis on which are marked a series of points or strokes corresponding in order to a set of numbers arranged in order of magnitude. If the distances between successive strokes are equal, the scale is said to be uniform (Figs. la, ib). If the distances between successive strokes are unequal, the scale is said to be non-uniform (Fig. ic). The strokes are drawn as fine as possible, perpendicular to the axis which
I.

Definition of a scale.

carries the scale.

.i
I

10

IS

20

Fig. io.
2.

Fig.

\h.

Fig.

\c.

Representation of a function by a scale.

Consider the function

8

u^ of a variable u.

M=oi23
=
o
I

Form
4

the table

4
i6

9
81

lo

w2

25

36

49

64

100

from the origin 0, lengths equal to a; = 0.04 * inches (Fig. 2a) mark at the strokes indicating the end of each segment the corresponding value of u. Thus, a stroke marked w is at a distance Fig. 2a is said to represent the function of 0.04 u^ inches from the origin. u"^ by a scale. The length 0.04 inches is chosen arbitrarily in this case to represent the unit segment used in laying oflf the values of u"^ on the axis. This unit segment is called the scale modulus.

and on an

axis

OX lay off
;

rri

or 2

1
1

'

2 9

~^ 10

(u)
Fig. 2a.

In general, any function /(m) of a variable u such that each value of the variable determines a single value of the function, may be represented

by a

scale.

Form
U
f{u)

the table
U\
fill,)

= =

Ui

W3

fM

fM

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

and on an axis OX lay off from the origin lengths equal to x = mj{u) and mark with the corresponding values of u the strokes indicating the end of each segment. Fig. 2b is said to represent the function f{u) by a scale. The length m inches is chosen arbitrarily to represent the unit segment used in laying off the values oif(u), and it is called the scale
inches,

modulus.

The equation x = mf{u)

is

called the equation of the scale.

(u)
Fig. 2b.

The uniform
f{u)

scale

is

a special case of this representation

when

=
1 1

u.

In Fig. 2c, X
2 "
I
' '

= mu, where
4
'

m =
6
'
'

0.5 inches.*

O
1
1

/
'
1

3
"
'
'

"

'

'

I
'

"

'

"

'

'

I
'

"

'

"

'

"
'

'

I '

"

5
' I

"

'
'

1
1

'

"
I '

"

7
' I '
'

" " "

I

8
'
I

'
'

'

'

" "
I

'

'

'

'

10 "
I

Fig. 2c.

The
/(w)

logarithmic scale
log u.

is

a special case of this representation

when

=
i
I I

In Fig. 2d, X

m log u,
M
3
I I

where
4.

m =
5
1

12.5 cm.*

2
'
I

I
I

I
I

niii|

6
I

7
I

8
I

9
[

10
I

Fig. 2i.

The uniform and logarithmic scales are the most important scales for our work.
After
,

we have

and f{u) we

may wish

constructed a scale for f{u) from a table of values of u to estimate the value of u corresponding to a stroke

intermediate between two strokes of the scale, or to estimate on the scale the position of a stroke corresponding to a value of u intermediate be-

tween two values of u in the table. This process of interpolating on the is of course very much easier for uniform scales than for non-uniform scales. The accuracy of such interpolation evidently depends upon the interval between two successive strokes. Experience has shown that this interval should not be less than i mm. or about ^V in. (very rarely need it be as small as this) this may always be done by the choice of a proper scale modulus. 3. Variation of the scale modulus. By varying the modulus m with which a scale for f(u) is constructed, we get a series of scales
scale
;

Xi

mif{u), X2

m^fiu), xz

mzf{u),

all

representing the

same

* The values of given in the text are those which were employed originally in the construction of the scales; these values do not however refer to the cuts which, in most cases, are reductions of the original drawings.

Art. 3

VARIATION OF THE SCaLE MODULUS

nto,
.

respectively. Only one of these ms, by means of a table of values of /(m), and the others may be derived graphically from this. In Fig. 3a, let OiXi carry the scale Xi = mif{u); we wish to construct the scale X2 = mof{u). Let be any conX, X2 venient point; join OOi and on this line = milmx\ choose such that OO2/OO1 O2 through O-i draw 02-^2 parallel to 0\Xx. If i4 is a point on OxX\ marked u\ then 0\A = *Wi/(m'). and OA will cut O1X1 in a point B
.
. ,

function with moduli mi,

scales need be constructed

such that OiBjOxA

inif{u')

OO2/OO1 or O2B =
and thus

mi be
o,

ntofiu'),

will

also

marked

u'.

By

of the scale

points

of

joining with all the points Fig. 3a. OiXi we shall thus get the the scale O2X2 so that corresponding points on the- same

1.0

OS
Fig. 36.

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

transversal through

Chap.
u,

will

be marked with the same value of

its

and

the scale on 02^2 will have for

equation

X2,

ni2f{u).

need not be drawn, but simply their If the transversals through are drawn, then we may get a scale of any required modulus by merely drawing a parallel to 0\Xi dividing the segment OOi in the required ratio; and Oi will carry a scale with modulus thus a line midway between
transversals through

The

points of intersection with 02^2 indicated.

Fig. 3c.

W1/2, a line | of the

2 W1/5, etc.

way from

to Oi will carry a scale with

modulus

This principle
.9,

is

illustrated in Figs. 36
If

and 3c

for

uniform and loga.1, .2, .3,

.
.

rithmic scales respectively.

we mark

a uniform scale

beginning at O, then the lines through these points parallel to the left-hand scale with modulus m will cut the transversals in scales whose moduli are .1 m, .2 m, .gm, respectively. It is best to make the charts in these figures almost square, and to take m = 10

on the base

line

Art. 4

STATIONARY SCALES

= 25 cm. for the logarithmic scale. The in. for the uniform scale "and chart of uniform scales will then be an amplification of the engineer's
or architect's hexagonal scale,

and the chart

of logarithmic scales,

an

amplification of the logarithmic slide rule.

Note, howsegment representing the interval from u = i to = 10 is of the same length as the segment representing the interval from u = 10 to u = 100, or, in general, the segment representing the interval from u = lo" to u = io"+i. It is convenient to draw Figs. 36 and 3c on durable paper. Only the primary scale with modulus m, the base line and the transversals need be drawn. The paper may then be creased along any parallel to the primary scale to give a scale of the required modulus. Charts of this nature have been used to assist in constructing a large number of the scales and charts that follow, and much time and energy have been saved thereby. (Such charts will be found in the back of this book.) A relation between two variables u and v 4. Stationary scales. of the form v = /(u) may be represented graphically by constructing the two scales x = mv and x = mf{u) on opposite sides of the same axis or on adjacent or parallel axes with the same modulus and from the same
ever, that in the case of the logarithmic scales, the

If

necessary the scales in either chart

may

be extended.

origin or with origins in a line perpendicular to the axes.

If

represents degrees Centigrade

i

heit,

then

and X
origin,

F 32 = .8 = m (1.8 C) on
i.e.,

F represents degrees Fahrenthe uniform scales x = (F 32) opposite sides of the same axis, and from the same
and
C.

We construct

the points
40

marked C = o and F = 32
60
70

coincide.
160

In Fig. 4a,
190 20O ZIO^

r
C -20

10

20 30 O

SO
10

80 90
30

100

110

120

730

140 150

170 780

-10

20

40
Fig. \a.

SO

60

70

80

90

700

m=
If

0.02

in.,

so that the equations of our scales are x

0.02 (F

and x

0.036 C.

By means

of such a figure,

we may immediately
in.,

32) con-

vert degrees Centigrade and Fahrenheit into each other.

pressure
is

expressed as pounds per sq.

W, then
1
I

P =
'

0.434
.'

'l'i '
I I

.0
^w

1234^6 67 89 J^S67as/0
'

M
I

^3
1'

W.

Draw
f s
'

the uniform scales x

6
I'

P, and feet of water, = mP and x =

9
'

7
'

^(j
'I

^'
1'
I

'1

'I'l 'i'
1.
. I

M
1. '1

'I'l'i'
1. '1
' 1.

I'

I'

'

I'

I'

I'

I'

I' 1'

I'

.1 '
I

I'

1 i' .

'1'

1 '1

1. '1

I.
'

'1

I. '1

I. '1

II'1
'1

I.

1'
'

'1

I'

I'

10

Fig. 46.

0.434 W. We another scale for pressure expressed in inches of mercury,

so that

(0434 WO from the same origin. we have the scales x =

In Fig. 46, the scale

modulus

is i in.,

and

.r

may add M: thus

SCALES
0.492

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

P =

means of such a

scale has for equation x = 0.492 M. By (drawn with the aid of chart 3& or a pair of dividers) pressure may be read immediately in pounds per sq. in., feet of water, or inches of mercury. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v = log u, we If we take construct the adjacent scales x = mv and x = m log u. w = 25 cm., the logarithmic scale will be the same length as that of the logarithmic slide rule, and if the uniform scale is divided into 500 parts, we can use such a figure to read easily the values of the mantissas of the

M, and

the

figure

logarithms of

all numbers to three decimals, and conversely to read the numbers corresponding to given mantissas (Fig. 4c). The slide rule

0.1

02
i

0.3
,i

0.4
i i i

OS
|i ,i |i

0.6
i

0.7
|^i,i,

0.8
)i

0.9

1.0

V |iMi,Mi; /

li,i

i, i

n,Ml
,

n|M

i|

|M,i|i^

,i

pl
,

i| |i
,

i,i|
,

3
Fig. 4c.

4-56789/0
||
| |

||iM

,i|ili,i

i|M

contains two such adjacent scales.

for the

The

chart. Fig. 3c, could be used

same purpose

if

we

construct a uniform scale adjacent to the

primary logarithmic scale. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v u'^, we may write this as log v = % log u. Here we construct the adjacent scales X = m log v and x = m (^ log u), i.e., two logarithmic scales with moduli m and 3 w/5 respectively. We use chart 3c and get Fig. ^d, from

/
|

2
,l.,ii,iyi,l, ;i
i.,
,,

3
i|l^
,,
,

5
|

6789 10
'|l|lJi'l ll

20
'
i i

30
'

40
I

50 60 708090100
I

</

|,S|l|

J4
4

il

lli

l|"l"

56789
|

'"i" |"vl|

i'l|

l|'

I'l'i

l'

l'l

10

20

Fig. 4J.

which we can read

when u
i

lies

within the limits

to lOO, or read

u when
u^,

V lies within the limits

to 20.

We may similarly construct two adjacent scales for the relation v =

where p is any positive number. The chart Fig. 3c may conveniently be used for this purpose. We may write the relation as log v = p log u, and we pick out on the chart the scales x = m log v and x = (pm) log u, Since the axes carrying these scales are i.e., with moduli m and pm. parallel with origins in the same perpendicular, any perpendicular to the If /> < i we may use axes will cut out corresponding values of u and v. If ^ > i we write the relathe primary logarithmic scale for the v scale. tion in the form u = v^l"^ and proceed similarly. If in the relation v == u^, p is a. negative number, say, q, then = 10 u~^, we merely shift the position of the deciIf we write V = u-^. mal point in the value of v; then logy = log 10 2 log w. Construct
,

z;

Art. s

SLIDING SCALES

= mlogv and x = m (log lo qlogu) = (qm) log u from the same origin; the latter scale is merely the scale X = (qm) log u constructed from the point x = as starting point and
the adjacent scales x

l|SS 8
'

>o

--Oiiors^O >

<t

<>

I'

Till
I
I I

l_

XL
I
I

rTTTTm

t-f-M
=
u~3 con-

Fig. 4e.

proceeding to the left. Fig. 45 represents the relation structed with the help of chart 3c.
5.

Sliding scales.

Consider two functions /()

=
If

and F(v) and con-

mF{v). these scales are placed mf(u) and x adjacent with their origins coinciding or in the same perpendicular to the axes (we shall call this the stationary position), then for any pair of
struct their scales x

values u and v opposite each other,

hence, mf{u)

we have OA = O'B
F(v).

(Fig. 5a),

and

mF (v),

or
f(u)

(in the stationary position)

(I)

This relation was illustrated in the examples of Art. 4. If now one of the scales is slid along the other scale through any distance d, then for any pair of values of u and v opposite each other, we

have

OA - O'B =

(Fig. 56), or mf(u)

mF(v)

d,

or f(u)

F(v)

0'

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

As an example, consider
logz; or

the scales x

m log u
m

and x
log y

= m
by

log

v.

If

these are placed adjacent, then, in the stationary position,

(I),

log

u =

v,

and

after sliding,

by

(II), log

constant, or
v

log V

constant, or V

constant for

any pair

of values of

u and and

opposite

each other, and each other.

=
if

for

any two

pairs of values of u

opposite

Thus

any three

of the last four quantities are given, the

U-3.7
/

u.= 5.S2
7

10

L
1
\

6
V.= 4^.0

r~rn
8

10,

Fig. sd-

fourth quantity
the scales until
in Fig. ^d,

may

Vi is

are given, slide be found at once; thus if Ui, Vi, opposite Mi, and read v-i opposite u^. This is illustrated
S-92 =

'

'^7 where we read -^

2.5

4.00

We may perform the same operation by means of a single logarithmic sliding along an unmarked axis (Fig. 5^). scale X = m log
11

r
/

-I

r-\ 9 10

IT

Art. 6
6.

THE LOGARITHMIC SLIDE RULE

The
logarithmic slide rule.*

This instrument consists of several

and one uniform scale, some on the stock of the rule and others on the sHde. Any two of these scales may be placed adjacent by means of a glass runner which has a fine hair line scratched on its under side and which is adjusted so that the hair line is always perparallel logarithmic scales

pendicular to the axes (Fig. 6),

All logarithmic slide rules

do not carry the same number

of scales.

The

following

is

a description of the scales and their equations on the

Fig. 6.

modern Mannheim standard rule (polyphase or duplex), commonly called "the lo-inch rule." The length of the graduated part of the rule is 25 cm. and we shall designate this length by m. The scales are distinguished We shall use the corresponding small by the letters A, B, C to represent numbers on these scales. letters a, b, c,
.
,

= ml -log a.

:x

= m\ogc.

D
CI
s).

x X

m log d.
log

log 0.
2

'.

= m = m

10 ci
t).

m KCx = ~ log k.
3

S X =
:

m log
2

(100 sin

log (10 tan

figures in

we can easily read three Rules for the position of the decimal point may be given, but in computing it is best to disregard all decimal points and to estimate the position of the decimal point in the final result. The following are some of the relations which arise through the appliThe C and
scales are graduated so that of these scales.

any part

cation of the principles of stationary and sliding scales to this type of rule. (Other illustrations will be found in the manuals issued by the manufacturers.)

We
it

shall designate the stationary or initial position

by

(I)

calculate with

Gunter invented the logarithmic scale and used compasses to Oughtred invented the straight logarithmic slide rule, consisting of two rulers each bearing a logarithmic scale, which were slid along each other by hand (1630). Rules in which the slide worked between parts of a fixed stock were known in England in 1654. Robertson constructed the first runner in 1775. Mannheim designed the modern standard slide rule (1850). Roget invented the log-log scale
* Historical Note.

(1620).

in 1815.

See F. Cajori's History of the Logarithmic Slide Rule.

lO

SCALES
after sliding

AND THE SLIDE RULE

by
(II).

Chap.

and the position

Numbers opposite each other

are

designated by the same subscript.

(i)

LandD:
/

(I)

log

d and d
(or

antilog
:

/.

(l is

only the mantissa.)

(2)

C and
log c

D
=

and B)
.:

(I)

log d,

d.
-J

(II)

log c

\ogd

=
p

const.,

const,

Multiplication:

y.

=
^

y or -

or 10

other factor

D
C

one factor
divisor

product
I

Division: 2
(3)

=y

or

=
y

or 10

D
ci

dividend

quotient

and CI:
log d
is

(I)

10
log

-^ and
ci

= r
d

(for finding reciprocals).

c is

It

evident that multiplying or dividing d hy

equivalent to

dividing or multiplying d
scale,
scale,

by

ci.

If

the rule does not contain a

CI

we may
d

invert the slide so that the

scale slides along the

scale.

thus transforming the

scale into a

CI

(II) log

log -^
Cv

const.

ci

const,

or

di

cii

= d^X

c^.

(4)

and
log d

(I)

(or C and B) = ^\og a, .:

= Va and

d^.

To

find Vo, divide a, as in arithmetic, into groups of two figures beginning at the decimal point; the left-hand group may contain only one significant figure. Thus, the left-hand groups in 45'. 60', .45'6o',
.oo'45'6 are said to contain

two

figures,

while the left-hand groups

in 4'56., 4'. 56', .04'56', .oo'o4'56' are said to contain only

one

signifi-

cant

figure.

We

read a in the

first

half or second half of the

figures.

scale according as the left-hand

(5)

group contains one or two

and
log i

5
=

(or

C and A):
b,
.:

(I)

I log

= Vb and
.'.

= d\
di

(II)

log 6?

^log&

= const.,

d -^ =

Vb

const.

d^

and

-Tbi

VFi

Vbi

= -rbi

(6)

D andK:
\ogd
i log k,
.'.

(I)

d=\^
;

and k

dK

To

find

Vk, divide

k,

as in arithmetic, into groups of three figures

beginning at the decimal point

the left-hand group

may contain only

in 456.',

one or two

significant figures.

Thus, the

left

hand groups

Art.

SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ON THE SLIDE RULE

II

.456', .ooo'456' are said to

contain three figures, the left-hand groups

in 45'. 6, .045'6, .ooo'o45'6 are said to contain

two

figures,

while the

left-hand groups in

4'. 56,

.oo4'56 are said to contain one figure.

last third of the

read k in the

first,

middle or

We K scale according as the

left-hand group contains one, two or three figures.

(7)

CandK:
log c

(I)

^ log k,

.'.

= \^ and
.'.

c^.

(II)

logC

^ log k
(or

const.,

-T7=

const.,

.'.

^7= =

-rri=-

(8)

A
A

and

and K)
.'.

(I)

I log a

= =

I log k,

Va =

Vk,

or

and

a^.

(9)

and S:
^ loga
^ log (ioosin5),
/.

(I)

loosing and
-^

sin~'

(II)

^logfl

^ log (loosing)

con5/.,

..

sin 5

const, or

"
^

sin^i

sin 52

The

last relation

may be
s,

used
.

in the solution of oblique triangles.

-5

To

find

= =

a sin

we

set

sin
~.

90

sin 5

To

find

sin 5

we

set
sin s

sin

90
s).

We (10) D and
(I)

also note that cos s

sin (90

T:

log d

log (10 tan

/),

.'.

10 tan

and

tan~^

/i

(II)

logff

y
y

log (10 tan/)

const.,

.'.

tan

='const., or '
t

tan

tan

ti

To To

find

=d =

tan

d
t,

set

y
tan tan 45
t

tan 45
set

find

-,

tan/'

tan/
/

We
7.

also note that cot

tan (90

/).

The

solution of algebraic equations on the logarithmic slide rule.

The

relation

between the

that, after sliding, the product of

and CI scales expressed in Art. 6 (3), viz.: d and ci is the same for all such pairs of

numbers opposite each

ci

other,

may

be used to

assist in the solution of

algebraic equations of the second and third degrees.

over d

q,

then over any number y on the

i

scale

Thus we

if

we

set

shall find
is

- on the CI y

scale (since
\

-] and y- on the yJ

scale; this

12

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

illustrated in the

accompanying diagram:

CI
y

(Fig.

7).

We

may

use

ci

lo instead of ci

if

necessary, but care

must be taken

in reading the position of the decimal point.

y2 2
fl/tf

3
I

4
I

5
I

6 7 8 9
I I I
I

1
I

3
_J

4
I

6 7

89

19 8
I I

7
t

6 5
I I

4
I

3
I

T 6

n D

Fig.

7.

(i)

If

we

slide the

runner until the readings on the

- or y-

and CI

scales

are the same, then y

=
3;

and y

Vg.

Thus,

if

y=

5,

or

we have

CI

Art. 8

THE LOG-LOG SLIDE RULE

13

The nature of
i-|-

^
'

the roots of this cubic equation are determined as follows: if g is root is I real root; if 2 is +, root is 3 real roots of which 2 are equal. and 2 roots are or I 3 real and unequal roots; i root is

only

root

is

and

2 roots are

+.

To find the negative roots, we replace y by yi, and the positive roots of the resulting equation are the negative roots of the original
equation.

We also
=
g
is zero.

note that the

sum of the three roots of the equation y + py The complete cubic equation z^ -\- az^ -\- bz -]r c = o must

first

be reduced to the form

y+

/>>'

by the substitution

a y

To
the

facilitate the

the slide so that the

comparison of the A and CI scales, it is well to invert C scale is transformed into a CI scale and slides along

scale.
if

Thus,
since

y+
4

3'

5 or

y+

-, there

is

only one positive root

is

+ =
4
'

+1 >o and q
A
1-33

is

positive.

This positive root

found

27

by

the setting

CI

4-33

I-I53-

D
Again,
li

1153
y

y^

64 27

4.

2 or y^

-, there are three real roots, since root

is

A-^ =
4
27

<

o.

The

positive

found by the setting

A
y

2.21.

14
the required scales
of

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

we must
expressed

write this equation in the form (II) or (III)

in

the

principle
wi,
Ci

Art.

5.

Taking logarithms, we get

log 2

= -log
Ci

or -^^^
Ci

^^
C2

\ and
log
C2,

taking logarithms again,

we

get

log log wi

log

log log 2

or log log

log c

const.

The

equations of our scales are therefore x = w log log n and x = m\og c. scale would be marked n = 10 (since x = The initial point of the

m log log 10 = w log 1=0), and the end point would be marked n = iqI" = m log 10 = m) our scale is to be m cm. long. (since x = m log log
10^''
if

The range from n =

that
it

10 to w

io^ is

not a convenient range for

n, so

what.
(0/

has been found best to modify the equation of this scale someAn instrument called the log-log rule (Fig. 8) has been constructed
10/5
1

01
1

1.03
1

10*
1

OS
1

t.OS
1

1.07
1

lOS
1

103
1

I.IO

LL

17

19

LL2

LL3
I
I I I

Fig.

8.

which the equation of the n scale is x = w log (lOO In II) (where = loge // and e = 2.71828 the base of Napierian or natural logarithms). The scale is broken into three parallel scales of length
in In//
.

m=

25 cm.:
first,

the

marked LLi with a range from

//

ei

(=

i.oi approx.)

to

//

goi,

the second,
the
third,

marked LL2 with a range from // = e-^ to marked LL3 with a range from II =
approx.).

//

=
to

e,
//

e^^

(= 22,000

By
1
1

sliding the adjacent scales x

/
,

m log (100 In
100 In
//

//)

and x

= m logc, we
Cr-

have log (100 In//)

or \/Jll

logc

const., or

const., or

V//

=
"

const.,

\/Jk,

or

II2

//i*^'

hence
Ih,

we have

the setting

C2

Ci

we have Ik, = ll\^ or II2 = //i^". Of and C2/10 have the same position, but on the LL scales the decimal point must be left in its original position. It is easy to see on which of the three LL scales the result is to be read;
If

we

set

Ci

or 10 opposite

course on the scale x

= m

log

c, c^

thus

2^-^

gives the setting

LLo LL3

22.6
4-5
I

.*.

22.6

C
and
y

2'*^

gives the setting

LL2 LL3

1.366 2

1.366.

0.45

Akt. 9

VARIOUS OTHER STRAIGHT SLIDE RULES

note above that the smallest value of
at once be replaced
I

15

We
0.99

//

is

i.oi.

Values of

//

may

by

their reciprocals,
/

and the

reciprocals of

the final result taken, since

lY^

jj-

=[jrj

The LL and

the

scales in their initial position

may

also be used to

find directly the natural logarithm of a

number,

for

we have log

(100 In

//)

log c or In *
It
is

//

=
100

evident that compound interest problems are very easily solved with the log-log rule. Thus, the amount. A, of the sum of $1.00 placed at r per cent interest for n years and compounded q times a year, is given by

(r
I

\"'
1
;

the required setting

is

then

LL

A
nq

V
I

100 g/
or 10

Many
9.

other illustrations

may be

found

in the

manuals published by

the manufacturers.

the use of sliding scales,

As another illustration of Various other straight slide rules. let us construct a slide rule for the expression
If

u
or

I--. V

we choose

for

our scales x

= m\-] and
\uj

ml 10
\
j

v)

),

then for any position of our scales'we shall have

(10

const.

U to be

=
I

const.,

or
Ui

=
Vi

Uo

V2

If

we choose

the modulus, w,

in.,

and the

total length of

our scales to be 10

in.,

then the range

"00*

CM
I

-^aao

<3
I.

a
I

c>
..
I

III

nil.

*0

<0

f^^QQOi

fl

Fig.

9.

u is from u = co {x = = 0.1 (x = o) to from

of
t;

0) to
z;

{x

o.i {x

10),

and the range

9.)

of v

is

00

10).
1

(Fig.

Now

if

we
read

set
off

i2

00

opposite M2

we

shall

have
Ul
Vi,
11 if

=
Vy

-, and
II

we may

any one
rule

of the three quantities Wi,

the other two are known.

This

may be used

to solve the equation ^-

+ -5-

d. where

is

the com-

bined electrical resistance of two parallel resistances R\ and Ri, or to solve

the equation
7-

Ji

+h t

-7.

where/

is

the principal focal distance of a lens

J
focal distances.

and/i and/2 are conjugate

i6

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap. I

A large number of slide rules have been constructed for solving various
Among these may be menmeasuring the horizontal distance and vertioned: stadia slide rules for tical height when the rod reading and the elevation of telescope are known; Nordell's sewer rule for solving Kutter's formula for circular sewers; Hudson's horse power computing scale for obtaining the indicated H.P. of an engine (this rule has two slides); Hazen-Williams hydraulic rule for finding the velocity of the flow of water through pipes (see chart on p. 6i).
special equations in engineering practice.
/

CI.RCU LAR SL/DE

Fig. io.

RULE

10.

Curved
TT

slide

rules.

Divide
log i)
;

point, viz., 2

radians, into looo equal parts

the angular magnitude about a by straight rays drawn

through the point. with the number i

Choose one
(for

of these rays as initial ray

and mark

it

mark

the ray at the end of 301 parts

Art. io

curved SLIDE RULES

17

with the number 2 (for 0.301 = log 2), and the ray at the end of 477 parts with the number 3 (for 0.477= log 3), etc. Then the angle will be divided logarithmically (Fig. 10). The circumference of any circle drawn with the point as center will likewise be divided logarithmically, the
points on the circumference carrying the

same numbers

as the rays

through them. Designating such a circumference by A, the numbers on its radius by r^ inches, the equation of the scale on A is x =
i.e.,

it

by

a,

and

(2 x^a) log a,

the point
point, a

tial

marked ai is at a distance of (2 irra) log ai inches from the iniWe now draw a conI, measured along the circumference.
rb,

centric circumference, B, of radius

carrying a scale x

{2 vrb)

\ogb

and so constructed that the plane

about the center.
If in

of the 5-circumference can rotate

the

initial

position of the scales,

i.e.,

numbers a = i and h = i are on the same bers ai and bi, then we have
7If,

ray, a ray cuts out the

when the num-

(2 TVra)

\0gax
T-

r-.

= Ta
Tb

(2

Trrb)

log bi

'
,

log ai

log

U hi

A and

ai

bi.

after rotation of the 5-scale

bi

through any angle, two rays cut the scales

in ai,
(2 7(2

and
log bi
T

ao, bo,

then
^a = n _ 02
.
,

7rra) logfli
^.j

Trrb)

(2 7rr) logfl2 7r-. r(2 Trrb) log b2

.-.

log

fli

log a2

A log Oi
1

A log 62.
1

ai
bi

bi
is

Hence the

ratio of

two numbers on the same ray

is

constant.

This prin-

ciple of rotating circular scales

therefore similar to the principle of sliding

straight scales.
Multiplication: y
_..
. .

Thus

for

= a^b = r b
off

or -

= ^ we
,

set
^

^
pr

one factor
I

product
other factor

Dimsion:

or

ay =
b
I

we

set

A B

dividend
,.

quotient

divisor

One advantage
difficulty of

of such a circular rule lies in the fact that

we avoid

the

running

the rule, as often happens in setting with the

straight slide rule.

In the instrument called "Sexton's Omnimetre," which Fig. lo reproduces in part, the .4- and 5-circles have the same radius, about 3 inches, so that it is appro.ximately equivalent to a straight rule of 18 inches. A

ray drawn on a strip of celluloid capable of revolving about the center aids
in the setting of the scales.

The
for

plane of the 5-circle also contains the

b

scale X

(4

ir^c)

log c

and

two numbers,

and

c,

on the same

ray,

we

have, in the

initial position,

(4 7rr6)logc 7 , , ,

r,

-,

2 log c

or

-.

(2

irrb)

log b

Tb

log b

^ =1,
^

.'.

c^

and

= ^/rVb.

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

It is evident that if c is to vary from i to lo, the C scale must consist of two concentric circumferences, on one of which c varies from c = i (or X = 6) to c = Vio (or X = 2 irrc) and on the other from c = Vio to The C and B scales thus serve for finding squares c = 10 (or X = 4 irrc). and square roots. We may also combine the C and A scales, and after The instrument also contains three rotation we have ai/ci^ = (h/ci^. concentric circumferences for the scale x = {6irrk) log k; and a com-

bination with the 5-scale, in the

initial position,

gives b

k^ or k

y/h.

The instrument

further contains scales for sines, tangents,

and

versines,

and a scale of equal parts. There are other forms

of

curved

rules.

"Lilly's

Improved Spiral

Rule," a disk 13 inches in diameter, consists of a spiral logarithmic scale and a circular scale of equal parts, and is equivalent to a straight rule

about 30 feet long; it gives results correct to 4 figures. "Thacher's Rule" consists of two logarithmic scales one on a cylinder and the other on a set of 20 parallel bars external to the cylinder. This is really an amplification of the straight slide rule, involving the same principle in its use; the rule gives four figures correctly and a fifth may be estiof

mated.*

EXERCISES.
{Note.

For the constructions

In Exs.

4-10 use charts of uniform and logarithmic

(m

scales, Art. 3.)

1.

Construct scales for the function

V^

o to

100)

if

is i in.,

0.5

in.,

0.2 in., respectively.

2.

Construct scales for the function log u {u

respectively.

= itou =

10)

if

w=

in.,

10

in.,

'^

in.,

3.

Construct a scale for the function log

if

w =

10

in.

4.

Construct adjacent scales for converting inches

/.

(7) to centimeters (C);

we have

C=

2.54

5. Construct adjacent scales for converting cu. ft. per sec. (C) to million gallons per hour (G) we have G = 0.0269 C. 6. Construct three adjacent scales for converting foot-lbs. per sec. {F) into horsepower {H.P.) and kilowatts {K); we have H.P. = 1.818 X IQ-^ F, and K = 1.356 X lo-^ F. 7. Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for the following:
;

(a)

= -;
u
u

(b)

= =

u^;

(c)

= v^;

(d) V

-z;

(e)

u~^-

(/) v

*,

8.

Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for

A =

4 X 144

where

D = diameter

in inches
*

and

A =

area of circle in sq.

ft.

For descriptions and

illustrations of this rule

Calculation, a

Handbook
Bell

of the Exhibition at the

and other rules, see "Methods of Napier Tercentenary Celebration,"

published

by G.

&

Sons, London.

EXERCISES
9.

Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for h

144 P

(^
,

where h

pressure head

in

ft.

and P =

pressure in lbs. per sq. in. for the flow of water.

^\o. C onstruct
head
in
ft.

adjacent logarithmic scales for A

velocity in
ft.

= - =
_2\g

;:

64.4'

where h = velocity

and

per sec. for the flow of water.

iP'

11.

Show how
(a)
(c)

to construct a slide rule for the relation V-

^k

(cos

cos

^)o

12.

Solve by means of the logarithmic slide rule the following equations;

y + 3 y - 7 = o; y _y2 _ 6^ + =
I

W
0;
(g)

{d)

y_

^ + y + 5 = o; f -\r-f -^y -\ =o\

yi

=0.

^ r.^

CHAPTER

II.

NETWORK OF SCALES. CHARTS FOR EQUATIONS IN TWO AND THREE VARIABLES.

Representation of a relation between two variables by means of A relation {u, v) = o between two variables perpendicular scales. represented by means of two perpendicular scales instead u and V may be
II.

(j>

of

two adjacent scales. Construct the scales x = mi }{u) and y = ni2F{v) where f{u) and F(v) are any functions of u and v, on two perpendicular axes OX and OY, and through the points marked on these scales draw Any pair of values of and v perpendiculars to the axes (Fig. iia).
that satisfy the equation
{u, v)

will

determine a point,

viz.,

the

intersection of the corresponding perpendiculars to the axes; thus the pair of values Wi, Vi will correspond to the point of intersection of the through ii = th and the perpendicular to F through perpendicular to

OX

such points is a curve which is said to represent The rectangular or Cartesian equation of this {u, v) the relation o. Y may be found by solving the equacurve referred to the axes OX and = mifiu) and y = moFiv), for u and v in terms of tions of the scales, x
vi.

The

locus of

all

X and

y,

and substituting these values

in

(j>

(u, v)

o.

Py

-)

''X

^My
Fig. lie.

Fig. iia.

Fig. II &.

It

is
z))

(u,

evident that the nature of the locus by which the relation = o is represented, varies with the equations of the scales. If
it

possible,

is well to choose the scales so that the

Cartesian equation is of

the first degree in

line.

x and

y,

for then the representing curve will he a straight

of u, say Uu,

Having drawn the representing curve, and given a value

we can

say Vk, in one of three ways: Fig. iia. Here a network of perpendiculars to the axes is already drawn. Follow the perpendicular through uu on OX until it cuts the
find the corresponding value of
v,

Art.

12

SOME ILLUSTRATIONS OF PERPENDICULAR SCALES

the point P, and read
Vk

21

curve
to

ill

at the foot of the perpendicular

from

OK
Fig. lib.

On

a transparent sheet,

draw two perpendicular index lines,

and /, intersecting in a point P. Slide the sheet so that the point P moves along the curve, keeping the index lines parallel to the axes; then,
/

when

/ cuts

OX

in Uk, Iv will cut

OF in

v^.

(It is

a simple mechanical

matter to keep the index

Fig. lie.
strip.

lines parallel to the axes.)

Draw

the scale x

= mjiu)

with axis O'X' on a transparent

the point Uk
falls

Slide the strip perpendicular to

OF until
Vk

on the

curve; then at 0' read Vk. In any case, the interpolation of Uk and

on the

ii

and

v scales is easily

done by
12.
(i)

sight.

Some

illustrations of perpendicular scales.

v

Consider the relation

U'.

If

we

construct two uniform scales

y = mv on OX and OY respectively, and draw perpendiculars to the axes through the points marked on the scales, we shall have the (Fig. 12a.) rulings of an ordinary piece of rectangular coordinate paper. Here, v = u^ will be represented by the locus whose Cartesian equation We plot this curve from a table is y/m = x^/m^ or x^ = my, a parabola. Note that we could of values of u and v satisfying the equation v = z^^. have constructed the scales x = mxu and y = m^v with different moduli Wi and mi, but the corresponding Cartesian equation m-ix- = mry still

= mu and

represents a parabola.

22

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

one such set and the slope, 2, of the Hne. Note that the points on the scale X = m\U- are marked with + and values of u. It is evident that the representation in Fig. 12b is much simpler than
that in Fig. 12a.

In the former, the straight line

is

much more

easily

constructed and every point on it is definitely determined, while, in the Of course, latter, the curve between plotted points is only approximated.
easier to interpolate on the uniform z^-scale in Fig. 12a than on the non-uniform u-scdAe in Fig. 126. Furthermore, in Fig. 126, we can pro= 10 vertically on ject the point in which the representing line cuts = o and thus draw a second section of the line parallel to the first secs;
it is
z;

tion, for

which

ranges from 10 to 20; this process

may
is

again be used to

get further sections of the line.

A
(3)

third representation of the equation v

u^

given in the next

article.

6^M^
X

Consider the relation v = ae~^'''\ We can write this In = In a (In y = \ogeV). If we construct the perpendicular scales -f niiu? and y = m^ln v, our relation will be represented by the straight
z;

line

whose equation

is

If^X
\-

In a.

This

...
line

'

is

easily

con-

structed
Fig. I2C,

by means

of the points
b

=
I,

o,

a and u
in.,

t, v

-.

In

of natural logarithms
13.

we have taken a = 6, was used

mi

0.2

to construct the scale

where
q log V

Logarithmic coordinate paper. p, q, and a are any numbers.

Consider
We

m2 = 2 in. on OY.

A
ii^v^

table

the relation

a,

= log a. If we and y = m log v and draw

can write this p log u construct the perpendicular scales x = m log u

the perpendiculars to

the axes,

we

shall

Art. 13

LOGARITHMIC COORDINATE PAPER

23

have the rulings of a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig. 13, w = 25 cm. and u and v vary from i to 10. (Logarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges of the variables and with various Our relation will be represented by the straight line whose moduli.)
_
.
.

Cartesian equation ^
of

is

mm
p
,

a:

log a,

which

may be

plotted

by means
one pair

two pairs
iO

of corresponding values of

ti

and

v or

by means

of

24

NETWORK OF SCALES
will

Chap.

= u"^, where u varies from i to lo and hence for all values of u and v since the scale X = m log u, for example, where u varies from lo^ to 10^+^ {p = integer) can be made to coincide with the scale x = w log u, where u varies from The position of the decimal point must be determined indeI to 10. pendently in each case. In finding u when v is given, divide v into groups
M'A,
then represent the relation v
i

and

from

to loo,

of

two

figures each beginning at the decimal point, as in arithmetic (see

;

Art. 6 (4)) the section

if

the left-hand group contains only one significant figure, use

;

OM, if it contains two significant figures, use the section M'A thus when v = 0.64, read u = 0.8, but when v = 0.064, read u = 0.253. (2) For the relation v = ^ mi^, the volume of a sphere in terms of its diameter, the representing straight line passes through the point u = 2, V = %ir and has a slope equal to 3; this gives the section BC m Fig. 13. We continue this line by projecting C into C on OX and drawing CD
parallel to B'C, then projecting

to

CD, and

complete this
parallel to
is

last section

D into D' on OX and drawing D'E parallel by projecting E into E' on OF and
F
will project into the initial point

drawing E'F

D'E;

on

Our relation In values u and v.

completely represented by these sections for all finding u when v is given, divide v into groups of three figures each beginning at the decimal point as in arithmetic (see Art. 6 (6)) according as the left-hand group contains one, two, or three significant

OX.

figures,

use the

first,

second, or third section, respectively.

y^^^ =10, where u is the pressure and v is the (3) For the relation u volume of a perfect gas, our first representing section, HK, passes through the point it = 10, v = i with slope 1/1.41; the second section, X'L, is easily constructed and these two sections will serve for the variation of v from I to 10. If the sections are continued, later sections will overlap

the preceding ones.

14.

Semilogarithmic
'

coordinate

paper.

Consider
We

the

relation

V = p logi; =

q^,
ti

where p and 5 are any numbers.

If

log g -f log p.

we

can write this the perpendicular scales x = miU construct

and y = m-i log y, and draw the perpendiculars to the axes, we shall have the rulings of a sheet of semilogarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig. 14, mi = mi = 25 cm. and u varies from o to i while v varies from
(Semilogarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges Our relation will be repreof the variables and with various moduli.)
0.1 to
I.

seated by the straight line whose Cartesian equation

log p,

is

X =
'V

log g

-|-

which can be plotted by means of two pairs of corresponding values The folof u and v, or by means of one pair and the slope mi log 5/wi. semilogarithmic paper, lowing examples will serve to illustrate the use of (i) The relation v = o.i e-^u can be written logy = (2.1 log e) u -f logo.i, where e is the base of natural logarithms, and is represented

AXT. 14

SEMILOGARITHMIC COORDINATE PAPER

straight line (section
11

25

by the
points

OA

in Fig. 14),
i,

which passes through the

o, V

o.i

and u =

0.817.

To

extend the range of

our variables
tally into

we need not extend

the chart but merely project

horizon-

A' on OY, draw A'f parallel to OA, project F' vertically into F" on OX, and draw F"E" parallel to OA then for OA, u varies from o to I and V from o.i to 0.817, while ior A'F' and F"E", u varies from i to 2 and V from 0.817 to 6.668.
;

F
/.o
--

0.9
o.a

0.7

C.6

OS

0.4

(V)
0.9

o.z

26
tion V

NETWORK OF SCALES
= p
'

Chap. II

q^,

and run our eyes along

are equal
;

this line until

we
v.

find the point

where u and

this

is

the required value of

Thus

to find the solution oi v

resenting the equation v

o.6e~-^^i"

(watching the u and

(Fig. 14).

v scales) to

e""-^^' ", we draw the line BC repand run our eyes along this line the point D where we read u = v = 0.46

0.6

Again, to find the solution of the equation logy = 0.9122; draw the line OA representing the equation logy = 0.912 u i

i,

we

[this

equation

is

equivalent to the equation considered in

(i), since 2.1 log e

run our eyes along this line until we read 0.912 and = V = 0.132. We can find another value of v satisfying the equation u by running our eyes along the section F"E" until we read u = v = i.ij. the solution of algebraic equa15. Rectangular coordinate paper We may use the rulings of a sheet tions of the 2d, 3d, and 4th degrees. of rectangular coordinate paper to solve graphically algebraic equations Let the scales be x = u and y = v where of the 4th, 3d, and 2d degrees.
log o.i

= i] and

the modulus
(i)
If

is i

we draw

the parabola
{h, k)

y^

x and the
r,

circle

(x

hy +

{y

k)-

r^

with center at

and radius

the ordinates of their

points of intersection are found algebraically

these two equations and solving the resulting
first

by eliminating x between equation for y. From the

this in the

equation

we have x =

y^/2,
(y

and substituting
r^,

second equa-

tion

we

get i~

hj
(i

-{-

kY = - Sky
by

or

y+
If

h) y^

-{-4. Qi"

+
/

k""

r^)

o.

we
get

divide this last equation

/S

where

is

an arbitrary number,

we

or

z'^

-\-

az^
,
,

-\-

hz

-\-

=
c

o,

where

y = -,

(i

-^

/^)

Sk

-^,

(fe^

^^
-^

r-')

Conversely, the real roots of the equation z^ -\- az^ -\- bz -\- c = o are found by measuring the ordinates of the points of intersection of the

parabola y^
h

2 x

48
and the
,

circle

with center at

and radius

\/
>

h"^

-\-

k-

where

The

an arbitrary number, and dividing these ordinates by t. t allows us to throw the center of the circle to a always to the right of OY, or as near to or as far convenient point
/

is

introduction of

Art. is

THE SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

27

from the vertex of the parabola as is convenient such that the circle will not cut the parabola at an angle too acute for accurate reading of Note that the one parabola, y- = 2 x, will serve for findthe ordinates.
ing the real roots of
all

equations of the fourth degree (Fig.

v^

15).

To

solve the complete equation

i

pv^

gv~

rv

-\-

o,

we

first

substi-

28

NETWORK OF SCALES
and the other points
z^
-{-

Chap. II

origin or vertex of the parabola,

of intersection will

Hence, the real roots az 6 = o are found by measuring the ordinates the equation 2^ of of the points of intersection of the parabola y^ = 2 x and the circle with bfi 4 at' k = (where / is an arbitrary number) and center at h = o 4 passing through the vertex of the parabola, and dividing these ordinates by t. Note that the one parabola y^ = 2 x will serve for finding the real roots of all fourth and third degree equations (Fig. 15). To solve the
give the real roots of the cubic

az

-\-

o.

complete equation

v^

P'o^ -\-

qv

-\-

o,

we
-{-

first

substitute v

and

this

equation takes the form

2.

z^ -{-

az

o,

and then proceed a?

2^

above.

Example

Let us find the

of the circle
1.88,
is

real roots of the

equation
k

3 s

=
=
y

o.
i.

Here the center

at h

=
4

= -,
4

= =

li t

We
4

read z

=
z

y
3.

1.53,

0.35 (Fig. 15).

-f-

Example

0.

Let

Let us find the real roots of the equation y^ 3 z;^ V -\- 1; then the equation becomes 2^ 2 s 5 = o.
2,,

Here
^

the center of the circle (Fig. 15) is at h = i -\- ^ t^ = We read 3^ = 4.18; hence 2 = y/t = 2.09, and y if / = 2.
(3)
If

k
2

we draw

the parabola y^
k,

2 x

and the straight

2
-\
yfe

line

= 5, = 1.09. = mx + k
s i

of slope

and j-intercept

the ordinates of their points of intersection

2

are found from the equation y^

my
a
a2

m
2

o.

If

we

divide this
2 k
li

by

f (where
z^
-\-

is

an arbitrary number), we get

o,

{'-\

/v\^

2 /y\

/(/)"'
2 k p, mf-

o or
the

az

-\-

where

-y

4,
t

mt

:,

Conversely,

real roots of the equation 2-

&

ordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola

straight line of slope ^^ ^

o are found by measuring the y = 2 x and the

m =

2
at

and y-intercept k
-^

bt

(where

is

an arbitrary number), and dividing these ordinates by /. Note that the one parabola y"^ = 2 x will serve for finding the real roots of all fourth, third, and second degree equations (Fig. 15). Example 4. Let us find the real roots of the equation z^ 1.452
5.6 ^

o.

Here the slope ^

^

of the line
3.86,

is

w=
i.

22
=
read z

and

its ;y-in-

145^

145

tercept
3-20.
16.

is

1.45

^^
1

if ^

We

= y=

1.75

and

of perpendicular scales.

Representation of a relation between three variables by means An equation in three variables of the form

Art. i6
4){ti,

RELATION BETWEEN THREE VARIABLES

29

can be represented graphically by generalizing the method employed in Art. 11 for the representation of an equation in two variables. Thus, if we assign to w a value, say Wi, we shall have 0(m, v, Wi) = o, an equation in two variables u and v, which can be represented by the
v,w)

=0

method

of perpendicular

scales,

mif{n), y

miFiv), as a curve;

By assigning tow a. succession this curve is marked with the number Wi. a series of representing curves, each we get of values, Wi, W2, W3, marked with its corresponding value of w. The equation in three variIt is evident ables is said to be represented by this network of curves. = o can similarly be represented by a that the same equation <t){u,v,w) network of curves found by assigning a succession of values to u (or v) and marking each curve with its corresponding value of u (or v).
. . . ,

(y)

30
until

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

OX
4,

passes through y

5,

and at

its

intersection with the curve

w =
best,

we

read

11

3.7.

The

task of

drawing

the w-curves is often very great,

to

and

it is

therefore

whenever convenient,

choose the scales for u

and

v so that the repre-

senting w-curves are straight lines.

This will not only lessen the labor of construction but will evidently increase the accuracy of our charts.
17.

Charts

for

multiplication

and

division.

This

example

will

illustrate

how

the choice of scales determines the nature of the represent-

ing curves.
(i)

The equation
for our

= mv

uv = w can be represented by taking x = mu and two perpendicular scales, and drawing the corresponding

Fig. 17a.

xy

The equations of our representing w-curves are of the form mhv, a set of rectangular hyperbolas (Fig. 17a) which are quite difBcult to draw and for which the interpolation is very inaccurate. (2) The equation uv = w can be represented by choosing x = mu and y = mw / 10 lor our two perpendicular scales. The equations of our representing z;-curves are of the form y = z;x/io, a set of radiating straight lines of slope Vio. Fig. 176 illustrates this chart, where u and v vary from I to 10. The values of v are placed at the end of the representing lines. For saving of space, the values of w are placed at the points
network.

Art.

17

CHARTS FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

t^

31

= 10 and the ruHngs above this where the horizontals cut the Hne Of course, the position of the decimal point diagonal need not be drawn. in the value of a variable may be changed with a corresponding change
in the result.

The

great disadvantage of this chart

100

is

that the

z;-lines

90

60
70 60

(W)

SO
40

30
20
10

32

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

over a range from o to lOO or, in general, from o to lo*, similarly for the range of v, with corresponding change in the range for w. = w can be represented by writing it in the (3) The equation uv form log u -\- \ogv = log w and choosing x = m\ogu, y = m log v for
our two perpendicular scales, i.e., we have the rulings of a sheet of logarithmic paper. The equations of our representing w-curves are of the

form X

-\-

= m\og
y-axis)

w,

3.

set of parallel straight lines (Fig. 17^).

line

These
m

parallel lines are

very easily drawn, for the

3.1

w =

k, for

example, cuts

w = I (or the hence the line the point on

k,

and cuts

(or the x-axis) at

w =
F

a line joining the point on OX marked u = k with marked v = k. The ranges for u and v may be read from
)^

is

IQP to 10"+^ with corresponding readings in the range for w.

The methods
tion of

illustrated in (2)

and

(3)

may

be extended to any equa-

If we choose x = mjiu) and the form f(u) F{v) = (l)(w). mz4){w) for our perpendicular scales, then the equations of our repre-

senting z;-curves have the form y

But

if

we choose x =

m\ mi log /() and y

F{v)
=

x,
nio

a set of radiating

lines.

log F{v) for our perpen-

dicular scales, then the equations of our representing w-curves have the

form

+ = log

4>{w),

a set of parallel

lines.

18.

Three-variable charts.

Representing curves are straight

lines.

The

following examples illustrate the construction of charts for equa-

tions in three variables, where the perpendicular scales are so chosen that the representing curves are straight lines. = log a 4 log ^3, (1) The equation w = \^a^* can be written 5 log and if we choose x = mi log a,y ^ mi log (3 for our perpendicular scales and
"Zi;

let

mi = W2 =10, the equations of our representing zy-curves are of the form + 4 > = 50 log w, a set of parallel straight lines. These lines have the slope j. They are most easily constructed by noting that when a = ^ = k, we have w = k also. We, therefore, draw a system of parallel lines through the points a = k, ^ ^ k with slope 5 and mark
:x;

w = k (Fig. i8a). = c, for adiabatic expansion of certain gases (2) where p = pressure and v = volume, can be written log p -\- 1.41 log v = = 10 log v, y = 10 log p for our perpendicular If we choose log c.
these wath the corresponding value

The equation

pv^-^^

rx;

scales, the equations of the representing c-curves have the form y -\- 1.41 x = 10 log c, a set of parallel straight lines. These lines are easily con-

structed
V

by noting that the

slope

is

1.41,
=
,

and that through the point

I,

p =

k there passes the line c

k (Fig. iSa).
for the elastic limit of rivet steel,

(3)

Consider the equation /

^^

where

is

the actual load in pounds at the elastic limit,

D is the diameter

Art.

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE STRAIGHT LINES

33

of the bar,

and/ is

the fiber stress in pounds per square inch.

miP, y

= Mif for our

If we choose perpendicular scales, the equations of the repre-

senting Z)-curves have the form v

lines.

'

x,

a set of radiating straight

For Fig.

i8b,

mi

nii,

and the

lines

were constructed by means

/<?

34

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

sum-

Art. 19

CHART FOR THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC EQUATIONS

Consider the equation -

35

(4)

+- =-

where

11

and

v are the dis-

tances of an object and its image from a lens and w is the focal length of the lens, or where w is the combined resistance of two resistances tt and v
in parallel.
If

we choose x =
;

m/ii,

= m/v

for

our perpendicular scales,

36
2

NETWORK OF SCALES
z

Chap. II

According as the point {p, g) falls outside of, on or within the triangular shaped region on the left, we can read one, two, or three values of z, and the corresponding cubic
0.5.

= 04 and

the boundary

of,

equation has one

real root only, 3 real roots

two

of

which are equal, or 3

Art. 20

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE NOT STRAIGHT LINES

37
z^

original equation are then 2

kz'

Thus

to solve the equation

z'^ -{

+2
if

o,

let 2
fe

=
2,

kz',

and the equation becomes

get
z'^

^-z'
k^

choose
If

=
2

we

0.25

z'

% k^
is

o;
z' =

we

0.5

o, for

which we read
-\-

0.69,

and hence

1.38.

the complete cubic equation u^

first

+ au"^

-\-

hn

c
-\-

=
q

given, this

must

be transformed into the equation a

z^ -\-

pz

o hy the sub-

stitution

ti

In a similar
2^

way we may
2^

build a rectangular chart for the solution

of the quadratic equation

^2

o,

or for

any trinomial equation

/J2"

o.

Representing curves not straight lines. Chart for chimney draft. Extensive researches have been carried out by the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to determine an equation expressing the draft
20.
(i)

Three-variable charts.

chimney in terms of its height and the temperature of the flue gases. simple relation between these quantities has been found. From the experiments performed, it was found that if T\ is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the flue gases measured 3 feet above the
of a

No

center of the flue (the lowest temperature point recorded), H^ is the height of the chimney in feet, and T^. is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the flue gases at the top of the chimney, then
2

0.32 {H2

/iJo\0-96

3) LV 3 /

-}
3)-

Now

if

is

the draft in inches of water, with the outside air at a tem-

perature of 70 F., then

Z)

0.192

0.075

^j (^2 -

If the value of T2 from the first of these equations is substituted in the second equation, we shall have an equation in three variables, D, Ti,

and H2.
In Fig. 20a, our two perpendicular scales are x = miTi and y = miD, where Wi = 200 ws, and the representing H-curvcs are drawn for = 50, 300 ft. Thus, for a chimney 150 ft. high and for an absolute 75,

.'

temperature of 1139.5, we read that the draft is 0.955 ^^- of water. (2) Experimental data involving three variables are often plotted by means of a network of curves, and such a chart takes the place of a table of double entry. Fig. 206 gives a chart useful in heat flow problems

where the temperature difference is an important factor. The chart gives the difference between the temperature of pure water under various
gage pressures and the temperature under various vacuums. (Corrections must be applied for solutions.) Let P denote the gage pressure in

38
lbs.

NETWORK OF SCALES
per sq.
in.,

Chap. II

T, the temperature difference in degrees Fahrenheit,

and

vacuum in inches. We first construct the perpendicular scales X = miP and y = miT (in Fig. 206, Wi = 2 ni'^ then the F-curves are constructed by means of a table, part of which is as follows:
F, the
;

Art. 20

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE NOT STRAIGHT LINES

is

39

Such a table
or 4.92

constructed with the aid of Peabody's

in. is

Thus, a vacuum of 25

0.4912

Steam Tables. equivalent to a barometric pressure of 4.92 in. 2.42 lbs. per sq. in., and this gives a temperature of
is

I33.2; a gage pressure of 5 lbs.

(adding the atmospheric pressure of 14.7

equivalent to total pressure of 19.7 lbs. lbs.), and this gives a tempera-

Vacuum
2W
200
190
180

29"

2a'/2'

28'

27'/2'

I70
o

160 ISO

q,

51

140
130

^^

5>

120

110

\^I00

90

80
70

60
{60

40

40

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap.

II

marked "atmospheric"
oration.
21.

gives the temperature difference for open evap-

OX

In Fig. 21a let Use of three indices. Hexagonal charts. and OF be perpendicular axes and let OZ be the bisector of tbeir

Fig. 21a.

Fig. 2ib.

Ill

io$a76

54
I

3.

<u)

\I,

Fig. 21C.

angle.

From any

point

draw

P/i,

Ph,

Ph

perpendicular to

OX,

OY

and
cut

OZ respectively, cutting OX in A, OF in 5, OZ in C. OZ in D, and draw AE perpendicular to OD, cutting OZ

Let Ph also Then in E.

OC = OE-^ED-\-DC = OAcos45+ADcos45-\-DPcos^5=^^^=r^'

Art. 21

HEXAGONAL CHARTS
if

41

Thus,
2

the axes

OX, OY, OZ carry

the scales x

mf{u), y

mF{v),

= 7=0(w) V2

respectively, then the three perpendiculars

from any point

to these axes will cut

them

so that

V2
thus,

V2
of this type

any equation
/i,

indices

h,

h may

may be represented by three be drawn on a transparent sheet and

scales.

The

this sheet is

Fig. 2id.

moved over

the paper keeping the indices perpendicular to the axes.

Fig. 21C charts the equation

hV

= by

and and
let

We can choose the modulus on the same as the moduli for OX OF by following the construction illustrated in Fig. 21b. Here OX OF cut at an angle of 120 and OZ bisects this angle. Join OP and
COP =
a.

w OZ
"

this

method.

angle

Then

42

NETWORK OF SCALES
-{-

Chap. II

OA = OP cos (60 a) = OP (cos 60 cos a - sin 60 sin a) OB = OP cos (60 - a) = OP (cos 60 cos a + sin 60 sin a). OA+OB = 2 0P cos 60 cos a = OP cos a = OC. Thus our three scales are x = mj{u), y = mF{v), z = m4>{'w). Fig. 2id charts the equation uv = w or log u + log v = log w by this method.
.'.

EXERCISES.
Represent the equation v = u^ by a straight line, using natural scales. ^,2 = w^ = 4 2. Represent the equations (a) 2 z^^ 5^ (I3) u^ 2,v^ = i, (c) m^ by straight lines, using natural scales, and find graphically the simultaneous solutions of the three equations taken in pairs. _u2 3. Find graphically the simultaneous solutions of the equations v = 6 e ^^ and
1.

-^

u-

= loe
4.

'.

_tfi

Solve graphically the equation u = 6 e ^^ 5. Construct a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper and draw on lines representing the relations:
(a) V

it

the straight

u^\

(b) V

u^\

(c)

= ;
;

(d) C = wD (circumference of circle) (f) pv^-^^ = 2 (adiabatic expansion of

(g)

{&)

A =
;

- D"^ (area of circle)

a gas)

^
v

= 7

Qi

velocity head in

ft.,

velocity in

ft.

per sec. for flow

of water).
6.

Construct a sheet of semilogarithmic coordinate paper and draw on

it

the straight

lines representing the relations v

7. 8.

0.2 e'-^"
11

and

0.85 (1.5)"^".

Solve graphically the equation

0.2 e^-^".
{pv'')

Show how
known

to solve for

p the equation In

-\

aK

- pv
v.

c,

where

a, b, c, k,

and

are
9.

constants,

when various values

are assigned to

Construct charts for the relations V = irr^h and 5 = 2 irrh (volume and lateral surface of a cylinder) using parallel straight lines only. 10. Plot the equation y = 2 x'" for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as a set of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines. 11. Plot the equation y = e"^ for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as a set of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines. 12. Plot the following experimental data for the relative humidity obtained by a dew-point apparatus, using the wet bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as ordinates.

WET BULB TEMPERATURE

Dry Bulb

(DEG.

P.).

EXERCISES

43

13. Construct a chart similar to that of Ex. 12, using the difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature as ordinates. Which
is

the better representation, that of Ex. 12 or that of Ex. 13? 14. From the chart of Ex. 13, with the aid of graphical interpolation, form a table 1 10, and difgiving the relative humidity for dry bulb temperatures of 40, 50,
.

ference between wet

and dry bulb temperatures

of 0, 5, 10,

45,

and draw the

set of curves for the difference of

temperatures using the dry bulb temperature as ordi-

nates and the relative humidity as abscissas. various values of a and b. 15. Plot the curves y = a sin bx for _ j6. The Brake Horsepower of an engine (B.H.P.) with n cylinders of d

in.
is

diameter,

according to the rating of the Association of Automobile Manufacturers,

given by

B.H.P.
from if
17.
lbs.

2.5

Plot the representative curves for m

in., (a)

2, 4, 6, 8,

12, letting

d range

in.

to 5

using rectangular coordinate paper, (b) using logarithmic coordiof

nate paper.

The volume,
in.

per sq.

V, of one pound of superheated steam which has a pressure and a temperature of T degrees, is given by (Tumlirz's formula)

V=
18.

0.596

-5

0.256 cu.

ft.

Plot representative lines (a) radiating, (b) parallel.

Solve the following equations by means of parabola and

(a)
(c)

circle.

(Art. 15.)

z3-i-3z2?

7
I

o;
o;

(b)

z^
3
z^

sz'

(e)

^+zz^

+ =
I

(^
(/)

=0;
by means

+ z + 5 o; 12 z + 7 = o; -3 + 3 = o.
=
2'

19.

Solve the following equation

(a)
(c)

of the rectangular chart of Art. 19.

(6)
z^
z3

4-

3z

o;
i

s"

-z^

-6z +

=0;

(d)

+ z + 5 = o; = -f z2 + z I

o.

CHAPTER

III.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS.

22.

Fundamental

principle.

The

methods employed

in

the pre-

ceding chapter for charting equations are very useful in a large number of problems in computation, but they have certain disadvantages: (i)
the labor involved in their construction
straight lines;
is

great, especially

when

the rep-

resenting curves are not (2) the interpolation must largely than along a scale, and thus accuracy is be made between curves rather
sacrificed; (3)

the final charts appear very complex, especially

if

the

methods are extended to equations involving more than three variables. The methods to be explained in this and the following chapters are applicable to a large number of equations or formulas and possess certain distinct advantages over the previous method: (i) the chart uses very few lines and is thus easily read; (2) interpolation is made along a scale rather than between curves, with a corresponding gain in accuracy; (3) the labor of construction is very small, thus saving time and energy;
(4)

the chart allows us to note instantly

the change in one of the variables due

to changes in the other variables.

The fundamental
ment charts consists
of

principle involved in

the construction of nomographic or alignin the representation

an equation connecting three variables,

V,

f{u,

w)

o,

by means

of three scales
lines) in

along three curves (or straight

such a manner that a straight line cuts the three scales in values of u, v, and w
satisfying the equation.
Fig. 22.
is

The transversal
which can be rep-

called

an

isopleth or index line (Fig. 22).

We shall

now make a study of some

of the equations

resented in this way, and of the nature and relations of the scales representing the variables involved.*
*

The

principles underlying the construction of

fully

nomographic or a-'ignment charts

have been most

developed by M. D'Ocagne in his "Traite de Nomographic." Further references may be given to "The Construction of Graphical Charts," by J. B. Peddle; "Nomographic Solutions for Formulas of Various Types," by R. C. Strachan

(Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 1359), and to various smaller articles that have appeared from time to time in Engineering Journals.

44

Akt. 23

CHART FOR EQUATION

(I)

45

(I)

EQUATION OF THE FORM /i(u) +Hv) ^Mw) or THREE PARALLEL SCALES. /i(") /2(f) =/3(m').

[The second form of equation (I) can 23. Chart for equation (1). be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of both

members;

thus, log/i(M)

logfziv)

log/sCw).]

Let AX, BY, CZ be three parallel axes with Draw any index (Figs. 23a, 236.) base line.
X

ABC any

transversal or

line cutting the axes in

-- -"'T

r^.

^
^C

"tP'

Fig. 23a.

Fig. 23&.

the points u,

v,

respectively, so that

Au =

x,

Bv =

y,

Cw =

z.

How

are x, y, z related?

U AC CB =
:

mi

nii,

to

AB, then
:

the triangles
:

Ew

Dv =

AC CB
mix

or

if through v and w we draw lines parallel uEw and wDv are similar, and Eu Dw = x z z y = mi m2.

and

+ miy =

(mi

+ m-i) z

or

X m\

mo

m^mi mi + W2

Now
W1W2
I

if

AX, BY, CZ

carry the scales x

last

mifi{u), y

moJo{v), z
-\-

= =

-fiiw),

respectively, the
line will

equation becomes /i(zO

fiiv)

fsiw),

and any index sponding values u, v,

cut the axes in three points whose corre-

satisfy this equation.

We
X

also note that for the equation fi{u)

jiiv) =

fz{w), the scales

mifi{u)

and y

mifiiv) are constructed in opposite directions, as

(I)

in Fig. 236.

Hence
(i)

to

chart equation

fi{u)

-\-

Ji{v)

U{iv), proceed as follows:

Draw two

parallel lines {x-

on these construct the

scales x

and y-axes) any distance apart, and miji{ii) and y = m-zfiiv), where Wi and

46

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. Ill

W2 are arbitrary moduli. The graduations of the ii- and t;-scales may start at any points on the axes. (2) Draw a third Hne (z-axis) parallel to the x- and ^i-axes, such that (distance from z-axis to y-axis) = Wi nh. (distance from x-axis to z-axis) (3) Determine a starting point for the graduations of the w-scale. This may be the point C (z = o) cut out by the line from A {x = o) to B {y = o). If the range of the variables u and v is such that the points A and B do not appear on the scales, a starting point for the w-graduations may nevertheless be found by noting that three values of u, v, w satisfying equation (1) must be on a straight line; thus, assign values to u and V, say Mq and Vo, and compute the corresponding value of w, say Wo, from equation (I) mark the point in which the line joining u = Ho and V = Vo cuts the z-axis with the value w = Wq and use this last point as a
: : ;

starting point for the w-graduations.

(4)

From

the starting point for the ^-graduations, construct the scale

z

msfsiw)

=Wi

W2 + ^ Mw)
I

In practice the index lines need not be drawn; a General remarks. straight edge or a transparent sheet of celluloid with a straight line scratched on its under side or a thread can serve for reading the chart, i.e., for finding the value of one of the variables when two of them are
given.

The

scales should, in general,

distance betw^een the outside scales and the moduli for these be so chosen that the complete chart is almost
line will cut the scales at
is

square.
45,

Then any index

its

an angle not

less

than

and

points of intersection with the axes

accurate. It is the corresponding interpolation on the scales is rarely necessary to choose the moduli so that the length of the longest
scale greatly exceeds 10 inches.

more more

easily noted

and

Charts of logarithmic and uniform scales similar to those described have been used in laying off the scales needed in the construction Much time and energy have been of most of the charts which follow. saved thereby. For greater convenience, the modulus of the primary or left-hand scale was taken to be 10 in. instead of 25 cm. In laying off the w-scale with the help of these charts, the following procedure will increase the accuracy of the construction. Assign two or three sets of values to u and v, and compute the corresponding values Draw the of w, let these be (uo, Vo, Wq), (mi, Vi, Wi), and (m2, ^2, W2). index lines (mq, Vq), (mi, Vi), and (m2, V2), and mark the points in which these Fold the chart lines cut the z-axis with the corresponding values of w. along the scale with modulus W3, and slide this scale along the z-axis until the points of the scale numbered Wq, Wi, Wi practically coincide with the like-numbered points on the axis. This procedure is especially important when the modulus, W3, is quite small. The cuts in the text are reductions of the original drawings.
in Art. 3

Akt. 34

CHART FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Chart for multiplication and division.

47

24.
If

we

write this equation as log u

log v
/

log w,

The equation v = w. we have an equation

of the

form

(I).

Let u and

range
i

from

to 10; then

ranges from

to 100.

Construct (Fig. 24a), 10

in.

apart, the parallel scales x

10 log u and y

= nii log u = m-i log v = 10 log v.

:

Since mi'.nh

i,

the 2-axis

is

mid-

way between
line joining

the x- and y-axes.

The

the 2-axis

= i and v = i must cut \nw = i, and using this last

w
construct
5 log w.

point as a starting point,

the scale z

The
V

nio) (wi index line in the completed chart (Fig. 246) gives the reading w Since the u- and f-scales are logarithmic scales, we 3, w = 21.

r^r "^ =

Fig 24a.

7,

may
rlO

/0-i

100-1
90-.

80
70-\

60
7-1

50
4030-.

5-i
20-.

r4
fi/J

(W)
310-

M
9876-

5
24-\ ^2

2-

/J

l;

C^ART FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION U V^W

Fig. 246.

48

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. HI

read these scales as ranging from lo" to 10^+^ where p is any integer, with a corresponding change in the position of the decimal point in the value of w. As a further illustra25. Combination chart for various formulas.

'

tion of product formulas of the type

(I),

/i()

fiiv)

fsiw),

we

shall

now

represent several such formulas in the

same

chart, with the

same

outer scales but varying inner scale.

Our chart

(Fig. 25) represents six

formulas and undoubtedly others could be added.

In all cases, if mi and mo are the moduli of the scales on the x- and y-axes, then the modulus of the scale on the z-axis is W3 = mim^/imi -\- m^, and the position of the z-axis is determined by the ratio Wi mo. (i) u V = w for multiplication and division. This has already been charted in Art. 24. The equations of the scales are
:

'

=
i
:

10 log u,
i.

10 log

V,

5 log w,

and Wi

m2 =
v^

The

index line gives the reading w

3, y

5,

w =

15.

(2)

-s/u

equation can be written log m

Let mi

McMath "run-ofif" formula. The v = ^ log w and hence z = mz{^\ogw). x = WilogM, y = mi{/^\ogv), = 10 and W2 = 10/4, then W3 = 2, and Wi W2 = 4 i. The
'

= w

occurs in the

4 log

equations of our scales are

10 log w,

=
is

10 logy,

10 log w.

A
V

starting point for the ^i^-scale

then

w =
=

1,
z^

found by noting that when u = i and and by aligning these three points. The index line

gives the reading

(3) pv^-'^^

3,

z;

5, w;

4.5.

c gives the pressure-volume relation of certain gases under adiabatic expansion. The equation can be written log ^ 1.41

log V

log

c,

hence
3;

If

= mi\ogp, = W2 (1.41 logz;), z = mz\ogc. we choose Wi = 10 and mi = 10/1.41, then W3 = 4.15 and mi W2 =
X
:

1. 41

I.

The equations
:x:

of our scales are

= =

lolog^,

=
is

io\ogv,

4. 15 log c.

A
V

starting point for the c-scale

found by noting that when p

points.

and
line

and by aligning these three gives the reading u = 2), v = s, w = 2g. (4) V = 0.785 D^H, the volume of a circular = (log V log can be written 2 log D -j- log
I

then

The index

cylinder.

The equation

0.785), hence

:x;

= mi

(2 log

D),
5

If

we choose mi =

= m^ log H", z = m^ (log V log 0.785) and m2 = 10, then Ws = 3.33 and mi m2 = i
y
:

2.

Art.

COMBINATION CHART FOR VARIOUS FORMULAS

49

H JO

S3

ni VA

f<7

P2S0=A

3ii3HdS JO 3IAimOA
Ol<0

<0 Xl

i|i

? o s M M 0-=.,^-,A'd SVO
I

SS
|i
I I

^Ol'ONlO'O
I i

>
1 1 I I

n
I I I
I I

I
I

I 1

Jo\l

IM

mOA
|i

3H nSS 3tld

I'

'

/lU A

jj.

JO

J.0

naond

\
I'l
l

III

TT?

HzO S910' A-

U3a N II AO\ yvmoyiojo 3ivmoA

r-r-T

'

I I

1
1 I

^H lO 9-0 035 f3d

J.

J no Nl

AXilNV/lb

a-d-n-o JO S3niVA

50

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

of our scales are

Chap.

Ill

The equations
X

lo log D,

lo log H,

3.33 log V,

where we have discarded the expression 3.33 log 0.785 in the value of 2; this may be done since this expression merely helps to determine a starting point for the F-scale; thus the point
2

F=

is

at a vertical distance

= 3-33

log

0785 from

the base line

AB

of Fig.

23a or 236.

We

shall

however determine a starting point for the F-scale by noting that when D = I and = i, then F = 0.785, and by aligning these three points.

= 3, i/ = 5, F = 35. ^ = 0-524 ^^ the volume of a sphere. The equation can be written F = 0.524 D-D-orXogD + i log D = \og V - log 0.524, hence x = mi\ogD, s = ms (log F - log 0.524). y = m2{2\ogD),
The
index line gives the reading Z)
(5)

If we choose Wi = 10 and m^ = The equations of our scales are

5,

then W3

3.33

and mi

m2

I.

x=io\ogD,

y=io\ogD,

3.33 log F,
in the

where we have discarded the expression 3.33 log 0.524

value of

2.

We find a starting point for the F scale by noting that when D = i, V = 0.524 and we align the three points D = i, D = i, and F = 0.524. (6) Q = 6.3 D- Vh gives the quantity of water, Q, in cu. ft. per second which flows through a pipe having a diameter D ft. when = under a head H feet, The equation can be written 2 log D I log H
-{-

(log

(2

-log

6.3).

If

we

choose Wi

5
:

and

ni2

=
4.

20, then

ms

4 and
of

200

mi m2 = I our scales are

r-300

The equations
10 log
10 log
Z^,

X y
2

= = =

H,

4 log Q.

/.oo^.^

Again we discard the expression log 6.3 in the value of 2, and

noting that

find

a starting point for the Q-scale by

when

then

Q =

6.3

D = i and = i, and by aligning these

The index
2,,

three points.

line gives

the reading
-1.96-

D =

H=
97

s,

Q =

127.

26. Grashoff's

formula

w = 0.0165
for the

a/0-'

aooi-^

L^o
Fig. 260.

^PjO.97

0.01296 D2Pi0

weight, Wy of dry saturated steam in pounds per second flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds per sq.
in. through a standard converging orifice of A diameter D in. to a pressure of P2 pounds per

sq. in. or circular orifice of sq. in.,

if

Pi

0.6 P2.

r.o(H

Is

On

10
.9

ISO

.8

l.OO-

0.90-

0.80-

V,0.70^

(^0.60-\

S
^0.50-\
s,

^0.40^

o
k

o
0.30In

-N

Q 0.10-

O.IS

a/o-"

52
If

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

we
write the equation as
2 log Z)

Chap. HI

+ 0.97 log Pi =
of the

(log

log 0.01296)

we have an equation
X

form

(I).

The
s

scales are

= mi{2\ogD),

= ^2

(0.97 log Pi),

= ms

(log

w
5,

log 0.01296).

Let

vary from

o.i in. to 2.0 in.,

then log Z) varies from logo.i

if

= i

to log 2

0.301, a range of 1.301;

we choose

Wi =

the equation of

about 13 in. long. Let Pi vary from 20 pounds to 300 pounds, then log Pi varies from log 20 = 1. 301 to log 300 = 2.477, a range of 1.176; if we choose W2 = 10/0.97, the equation of the P-scale will be j = 10 log P and the scale will be about 12 in. long. Then W3 = Wim2/(wi + m^) = 3.37. The equations of our scales are now
scale will be

the Z)-scale will be x

10 log

and the

10 log

Z),

10 log P,

3.37 log w.

Construct (Fig. 26a) the x- and y-axes 6

divide this distance in the ratio mi
:

in.
:

apart; the 2-axis will

m^

4.85

drawn the zaxis

the j-axis.

at a distance of 1.96 in. from the x-axis

is

A
and

starting point for the w-scale

have therefore and 4.04 in. from found by aligning D = i,

10.
is

We

Pi

100,

w =

1.

13.

The completed
-^
i
1

chart

given in Fig. 26b.

of

27.

Tension in

belts,

=
first

e"""^^^^-'^",

and horsepower
is

belting,

H.P. =
working

(Y

To)

33>ooo
stress in

S
.

In the

of these formulas, Pi

the allowable

pounds per

in.

of width, or the tension in the tight side

of the belt;

the value of this

may

be obtained either from the manupiece in a tension machine; a suitable

facturer of the belt or

by breaking a

Pi may vary from about 50 to 75 for and from 100 to 150 for double belts, a is the arc of contact in degrees of belt and pulley and may vary from 100 to 300. / is the coefficient of friction and is assumed (in this chart) to have the value 0.30 for leather belts on cast-iron pulleys. P2 is the tension in the loose side of the belt in pounds per in. of width. This formula may be written
factor of safety should be added.
single belts

log P2

log Pi

= 0.01745 fa log e
(I).

or

log Pi

0.002274 a

log P2

which

is in

the form
Pi,

The
y

scales are
z

= mi log
if

m-i (0.002274 a),

m^ log

P2.

Now

log Pi varies

from log 50
10,

0.4771;

we choose Wi =

1.6990 to log 150 = 2.1 761, a range of the equation of the Pi-scale will be x =
in.

10 log Pi and the scale will be about 5

long.

Again, a has a range of

200

if

we choose m^ =

-,

the equation of the a-scale will be

40 (0.002274)

Art. 27

TENSION IN BELTS
the scale will be 5
of
in.

53

= 4V and
5.24.

long.

Then ms = mxmi/{mi
z

W2)

The equations
X

our scales are

3'

10 log

Tu

= -4V
nii

5-24 log T2.

Construct (Fig. 27a) the x- and

divide this distance in the ratio

3'-axes 3.75 in. apart; the s-axis

:

must
:

m-z

10

-.

10

11.

40 (0.002274) We have therefore drawn the s-axis at a distance of 1.79 in. from the xaxis and 1.96 in. from the j-axis. !sai SO-n r-lOO

starting point for the T^ scale

is

found by aligning Ti 80, a = 150, = 36.5. The completed chart and T2 is given in Fig. 276, and indicates the reading Ti = 80 pounds, a = 150,

^^ISO

^2

36.5 pounds.

In the second of the formulas,

is

aoi)

the distance traveled

by the

belt

in feet per minute, and

may vary
Tz
is

from 300 to 6000;

Ti

the

difference in the tensions

1.79'vary from 10 to 200; horsepower which a belt of one inch width will transmit; then, knowing I0-* the horsepower which we wish to Fig 270. transmit we merely divide to get the width of the belt desired. The equation can be written

and may H.P. is the

log (Ti

To)

+ log 5
y

log

H.P.

+ log 33,000,
z

which has the form

X

(I).

The
Ti),

scales are

= mi log

(Ti

rri'i

log S,
i

Now
of

log {Ti
if

Ti) varies

from log 10
5,

to log

= mz log H.P. 200 = 2.3010, a

range
will

1. 3010;
^c

we choose mi =

the equation of the {Ti

scale will be

r'2) -scale

about 6.5 in. long. Log 5 varies from log 300 = 2.4771 to log 6000 = 3.7781, a range of 1.3010: if we choose ma = 5, the equation of the 5-scale will be >> = 5 log 5 and the scale will be about 6.5 in. long. Then ms = m\nii/{mi -\- mi) = 2.5. The equations of our scales are
be
5 log {Ti
Ti)

and the

a;

5 log {Ti

-Ti),

3-

5 log 5,

2.5 log

H.P.

Construct the x- and y-axes 4

:

in.

apart; the z-axis must divide this

distance in the ratio mi mo = i i. A starting point for the H.P. scale is found by aligning Ti Ti = 10, 5 = 300, and H.P. = 0.091. The completed chart is given in Fig. 27c and indicates the reading Ti Ti =
:

100,

S =

1000,

H.P. =

3.0.

54

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. Ill

NIIA/

y3d 13 3J Nl (S) 1139 JO a33d9

' I

Li.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

i
/

'

'

'

'

/ / /

m^^ CO

p-n-rp^4

'MM

I I I

11

II

II

/]

Mill

I I I

/ NIO/M JO

HOh/J

yJd

JH

II

/
/

^
^ ^<<">.'>^
"^

I
I

M l|""l
I

^1-U.

S33y03O M/
I
I
I

(-o)

lOVlNOO JO
I

OhlV

fe

MM M M MM MMM h n h h h

\ \
I'
I

Ci

& O
0)

M M
Qi CO

Q N

O
<o

I
I I

p> *o

Q \

1 1

II
1

Ci

HiaiAA

HON I d3dS97('l)30\9 3 SO 01 NO N0ISN31

:!l^ Sc

\
|lll

l|IIIT|ll

r|

M
I

|llll|ili

i|

II

llll

l-l

Q
0

Ci -^

O
ro

?>

S>

5> O)

oo

ci

5^ )

!a

<o

^HIO/M

HONI d3d

997(1) 30/S

IHOU NO N0/SN31

Art. 28

CHART FOR EQUATION

/i(u)

(II)

55

(E)

EQUATION OF FORM
or

+ S,{v)

-\-

Mtv)

= Ut)

fi{u)'Mv)-fi{w)

=Mt). FOUR OR MORE PAR-

ALLEL SCALES.
28. Chart for equation (II). [The second form of equation (II) can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of = log/4(/).] both members; thus log/i() + log/2(i') log/3(w) Equation (II) is merely an extension of equation (I) and the method of charting the former is an extension of the method employed in charting

the latter.

For
tion
in

definiteness, let us consider the case of four variables

the form /i()

is

/o(z;)

+ Mw) =

This equation

in the

form

(I)

and the equaLet /i() 4-/2(2;) = g. and can therefore be charted by means
U{t).

*^o'

'^/
^V,

iL^>

6w,

uhr^

(U. V)

Fig. 28a.

Fig. 286

but the g-scale need not be graduated. (Fig. then have q -}- fsiw) = fi{t), which is also in the form (I) and can therefore be charted by means of three parallel scales one of
of three parallel scales,

28a.)

We

which is the g-scale already constructed. The graduations of the u-, v-, and w-scales may start anywhere along their axes, but a starting point for the graduations of the /-scale must be determined by a set of values u = tio, V = Vo, w = Wo, t = to satisfying equation (II) thus, join Uo and Vo by a straight line and mark its point of intersection with the 5-axis; join this point with Wo cutting the /-scale in a point which must be marked
;

to',

this last point

is

then used as a starting point for constructing the

t-

one joining points on the u- and y-scales, the other joining points on the wand /-scales, intersecting the g-axis in the same point. Fig. 28a illustrates the position of the scales. It is thus easy to find the value of any one of the four variables when the other three are known. The extension of this method to equations of the form (II) containing more than four variables is obvious.
scale.

To

read the completed chart

we thus

use two index

lines,

56

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Considering again the case of four variables, /i(m)
-\-

Chap.
f2{v)

HI

-\-

fziw)

fi{t),

we

can write this in the form

fi{ii)

-\-

chart each of the equations /i() J->.{v) means of three parallel scales, with the g-scale (v/hich
in

f2{v) fi{t) fz{w) = g and = g and ji{t) ji{w) = g by-

is

not graduated)

common.

Again, to read the chart,

z;-scales

we

use two index

lines,

one joining

and the other joining points on the w- and points on the w- and Fig. 286 illustrates /-scales, intersecting the g-axis in the same point.
the position of the scales in this case.

jChezy formula for the velocity of flow of water in open channels, Here, v is the velocity of flow in ft. per sec, r is the hydraulic V c y/rs. radius in ft. (area divided by wetted perimeter), s is the slope of the water surface, and c is a coefificient depending on the condition of the channel.
29.

(See Art. 53 for the construction of a chart

computing

by the Bazin
r

formula.)

ft.

Let our variables range as follows: 5 from 0.00005 to o.oi, Writing the equation to 20 ft., c from 10 to 250.
I log 5

from

o.i

I log r
(11).

+ log c

\ogv

we have an equation g, we can write

(i)

of the

form

Introducing an auxiliary quantity,

\\ogs -\-\\ogr = q

and

(2)

+ log c
z

=
=

log

y.

We now construct a chart

are

for the first of these equations.

The

scales

= mi{\ log 5),

niiih log

r),

mzq.

10 to log o.oi = 8.0 10, from log 0.00005 = 5-6990 a range of 2.3010; and if we choose mi = 10, the equation of the 5-scale Again, log r varies is X = 5 log 5 and the scale will be about 1 1 .5 in. long. from log 0.1 = I to log 20 = i. 3010, a range of 2.3010; and if we choose W2 = 10, the equation of the r-scale is 3; = 5 log r and the scale will be about 1 1.5 in. long. Then W3 = WiW2/(mi + W2) = 5. The equations of our scales are z = 5 2X = 5 log 5, y = 5 log r,

Now log 5 varies

Construct (Fig. 29a) the x- and y-axes at any convenient distance, say 8 in. apart; the s-axis must divide this distance in the ratio Wi W2 = 1:1, and hence the z-axis is drawn midway between the x- and >'-axes. The g-scale need not be graduated. We continue the construction by charting the second equation. The
:

scales are

fmg,

nti log c,

We
2.5.

use the same g-scale as above so that

= m^ log v. ms = 5. Log
b

c varies

from
5,

log 10 I to log 250 2.3979, a range of 1.3979; ^^^ if choose mt = Then W5 = mzmi/{mz -f m^ will be about 7 in. the length of the scale

The equations
2

of our scales are

52,

5 log

c,

2.5 log

y.

Art. 30

HAZEX-WILLIAMS F0R:MULA

57

Construct (Fig. 29a) the a-axis at any convenient distance, say 10 in. from the z-axis. The graduations of the c-scale may start anywhere
along the a-axis for symmetry, we shall place the scale opposite the middle The 6-axis must divide the distance of the scales already constructed.
;

and a-axes in the ratio ^3:^4=1 i and it is therefore drawn midway between them. We get a starting point for the z;-scale by making a single com001
betw^een the
2:
,

putation
o.ooi, r

thus,
I

when
c

=
-100

=
v

and

100,

we have
join 5

r-zso

3.16; hence,

0.001 and r

=
in

i,

k
oooit>^s,

lif

cutting
point,

the

g-axis

CL

-two

and then join this point and c = 100, cutting the 6-axis in a point

which must be marked

V

3.16.

Starting at this

s"
^-0.02

last point

and proceeding
o.oax>s-i

along the axis, the f-scale

is

graduated from

0.02
Fig. 29a.

to y

100.

The completed
the g-axis.
r

chart

is

given in Fig. 296.

(5,

To

read the chart

we need

merely remember that the

ft.

30.

The index lines Fig. 296 show that when 5 = o.ooi, and c = 100, then v = 3.16 ft. per sec. Hazen-Williams formula for the velocity of flow of water in
CR'^-^^S^-^ (o.ooi)-'"^*.

and drawn in
r)

(c, v)

index lines must intersect on

pipes,

V=

Q=
tally

^ttR-V.

The

The

quantity of water discharged,

first

of these formulas has

been derived experimenft.

by Hazen and Williams, who have

also constructed a slide rule

for its solution.

V is

the velocity of discharge in

full;

per sec. from circular

ft.

pipes or channels flowing

cross-section divided
to length of pipe;

is

the hydraulic radius in

;

(area of

by wetted perimeter)
is

6" is

the slope or ratio of rise

a coefficient depending on the material and the

condition of the inner surface of the pipe.

following table of values for C:
BrSLSS,

Williams and Hazen give the

block
"
"

tin, lead, glass

Cast
*'

iron,

very smooth new, good condition

old,

"

"

"

140-150 140-145 125-135 ...100-125

. .
.

Cast iron, old, bad condition

Steel pipe, riveted,

60-100
105-1 15

new
old

"

"

"

90-105
1

Masonry conduits

10-135

Replacing
stead of in

(o.oi)-<'<'4

by

its

value 1.318 and expressing

in inches in-

feet,

the formula becomes

V=

0.2755 CR'^-^S-^, and this

can be written as
0.63 log

-f 0.54 log

5+

log

C+

log 0.2755

log

58

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. Ill

.01

009-

008007 -

100

.006-

ods-

/o-

90 80 70 60 SO

r-zso:

a7

'-zoo

6S-

-ISO

-100

-90 -BO -70

^
<^

5:

-60
-SO

.001-

0003-

0006.0007-

0006-

OOOS.8
.7-

.6-

.S-

.oa .07

OS
.OS

.0001.00009.00008.00007-

.00006^>Q005'-

C VR S
Fig. 2gb.

Art. 30

HAZE^MVILLIA]MS FORMULA
of the
in.,

59

which
in.

is

form

(II).

to 20

5 from

o.oooi to 0.05,

Let our variables range as follows: C from 25 to 200.

from
q.

o.i

We

first

construct a chart for 0.63 log

R+

0.54 log

S =
Wsg.

The

scales are

= mi

(0.63 log R),

Now \ogR
2.3010;
if

varies from logo.i

= m2 =
i

(0.54 log 5),

to log

20

1.3010, a range of

we choose Wi =

X = 5 logi? and from log 0.0001

0.05

5/0.63, the equation of the i?-scale will be the scale will be about 11.5 in. long. Again, log 5 varies

10 to log

8.6990
if

10, a

range of
5/0.54,

2.6990;

we choose m2 =

the equation of the 5-scale will

be 3* = 5 log 5 and the scale will be about 13.5 in. long. Then m^

WiW2/(mi

+ ^2) =

4.27.

The

equations of our scales are

:x;

>

= 5\ogR, = 5 log S, = 4.27 q.

11.7 in. apart;

Construct (Fig. 30a) the x-

and

3'-axes

the
OJXXf
,

z-axis

must divide
mi
:

this distance

in the ratio

mz

5.5
0.63

Fig. 300.

0.54

=
in.

5.4

6.3.

We

from the

ric-axis

have therefore drawn the z-axis at a distance of 5.4 and 6.3 in. from the j'-axis. The q-scale need not

be graduated.

We now
The

continue the construction by charting

2

+ log C + log 0.2755

= mi
(log

log V.

scales are
z

m^q,

+ log 0.2755),

= W5 log

V.

We

use the same q-scale as above so that Ws = 4.27. Log C varies from = 1.3979 to log 200 = 2.3010, a range of 0.9031; if we choose mi = 4.27, the equation of the C-scale will be a = 4.27 log C and the
log 25

about 4 in. long. equations of our scales are

scale will be
2

Then m^ = W3W</(m3

-f mi)

2.14.

The

4.27

q,

4.27 log C,

2.14 log V.

Construct (Fig. 30^) the a-axis at a distance of 4.8 in. from the s-axis. Although the graduations of the C-scale may start anywhere along the a-axis, the C-scale is only about 4 in. long and we shall get a more symmetrical chart by placing the scale opposite the middle of the 5-scale.

6o

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

&-axis
:

Chap.

HI

must divide the distance between the z-axis and a-axis in the = I i, and is therefore midway between them. We get a starting point for the F-scale by making a single computation, thus, when R = 2, S = o.ooi and C = lOO, we have V = 1.02; hence, join R = 2 and 5 = o.ooi, cutting the g-axis in a point, and then join this point and C = lOQ, cutting the 6-axis in a point which must be marked V = 1.02,

The

ratio nis

nti

-.es
7

04

20l
>S
1000too-

80.
60joi

10-

600600400-

9B7"O
e-

009

20
200:^

.008

007
ooe
.005

s-

4k:

e H

to

rsoz
004

JOQ^

k
"~io~

80
60

-.002

k
v;

a 6 H
.4

to

SO

-DOJ

i
,

09
0-70.6

.00 a

k.
-i

^
Ck;

.006 .004

k
06
-

is -oooa^^
-.0009

-jOOO?)^

-.0006^
-.0005

e'IO.i^

6'IO.r

04-

y^ to

OAicr:

-0004

Key:
0.7-^

R-S R

V Q

C
V
^.OOOk

HAIENAND W/LUAMS FORMULA FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES

V-CR"S''O00/''

Q = AV=47T R^V.

Fig. 306.

We shall

now

enlarge the usefulness of our chart

by adding a

scale for

For circular pipes, we have Q, the quantity discharged in cu. ft. per sec. (2 = 4 -wR^V, where V is the velocity of discharge in ft. and R is the hy= draulic radius (one-fourth of the diameter of the pipe) in ft., or (2
0.0873 R}V, where the form
2 logi?

is

expressed in inches.

We

write this equation in

+ log V

= Oog Q -

log 0.0873),

Art. 31

INDICATED HORSEPOWER OF A STEAM ENGINE

scales are
logi?),
b

and our
X

= mi{2

m2log V,
x

nts (log (2

log 0.0873).

As we want to use the and the equation of the

b

i?-scale already constructed,

scale

is

=
nts

5 log R, as above.

we take mi = 5/2, We also want to

7W2

use the F-scale already constructed and hence take

2.14 log V, as above.

is c

Then

= mim2/(wi

W2)

= 2.14 and = 1.15, and

:!c-

get

the

equation of the Q-sca.\e

are 7.8
in.

apart.
2.5
in.
:

The

c-axis
is

mi

m2

2.14; this

In Fig. 30a, the and 6-axes must divide this distance in the ratio accomplished by drawing the c-axis at a dis1.15 log Q.

tance of 4.2

from the
2,

nc-axis.

We

get a starting point for the Q-scale

0.36.

by aligning
that

R =
2

V=

1.02,

and

Q =

Fig. 306 gives the

completed chart.

The

index lines drawn indicate

when

R =

in.,
ft.

5 =

o.ooi,

and C =

100, then

V=

1.02

ft.

per sec.

and Q = 0.36
31.

cu.

per sec.

Indicated
is

horsepower of a steam engine, H.P.

effective pressure in
ft.,

= PLAN
33,000

Here,

the

mean

pounds per

sq. in.,
,

is

the

length of the stroke in

is

the area of the piston in sq. in

and

is

the speed in revolutions per minute.

in steam engine testing practice. from the indicator card and is equal to its area divided by its length. In double-acting steam engines air compressors, air engines, or water pumps we have the fluid acting on both sides of the piston alternately. Here we must apply the formula to each end and add the results in order to get the total power output. For purposes of illustration we shall here use the diameter, D, instead of the area, and write
is

This formula
pressure, P,

used extensively

The

is

obtaiiied

H.P.
where

-.

(33.000) (4) (12)

""^^^'f-

0.000001983

PLPW

L
(i)

is

expressed in inches, as

is

more common.
H.P. = 0.0000019832/.

We
(i)

shall divide the charting of this equation into three parts:

PL = PL = q
X

q,

(2)

D-N =

t,

(3)

form

(I),

can be written and our scales are

log

P+

log

L =
s

log

g,

which has the

= Wi

log P,

= m2 log L,
i

= m^ log q.
in.

If
if

P varies from

10 to 200, log

P varies from

to 2.3010, a range of 1.3010;

we choose mi =

10, the P-scale will

be about 13

long.

If

varies
if

from 2 to 40, log L varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of 1.3010; we choose m2 = 10, the L scale will be about 13 in. long. Then ma mim^/{mi -\- mo) = 5, and the equations of our scales are

10 log P,

10 log L,

slogg.

62

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Construct (Fig. 31a) the x- and
>'-axes 10 in. apart.
:

Chap. Ill

The

z-axis

divide this distance in the ratio

wzi

W2

and

is

therefore

must drawn

midway between them, but

(2)

the g-scale need not be graduated.

D'^N

form

(I),

can be written 2 log and our scales are

/

D+

log

=
c

log

/,

which has the

a
If

= W4

(2 log

D),

= m^ log iV,

= m^ log

/.

2 to 40, log D varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of and if we choose W4 = 5, the equation of the Z)-scale will be a = 10 log D and the scale will be about 13 in. long. If N varies from 50 to 1000, log N varies from 1.6990 to 3.0000, a range of 1.3010; and if we choose W5 = 10, the iV-scale will be about 13 in. long. Then m^ = mimi/{mi + m^ = 3.33, and the equations of our scales are
1. 3010;

D varies from

10 log D,

10 log N,

3.33 log

t.

Construct (Fig. 31a) the a- and &-axes 10 in. apart. Since D and L have the same range and their scales have the same modulus, for y = 10 log L and a \o log D, we find f^
it

convenient to

make

the a-axis

coincide with the

^'-^
lLji>-

3'-axis,

and to
dis-

use one scale for both

L and D.

The

c-axis

must divide the

tance between the a- and 5-axes

in the ratio

^4:^5=

2,

or

the c-axis
'

is

at a distance of

3.33

in.

^^^-

3i<^-

/-scale

from the a-axis, but the need not be graduated.

(3)

H.P.

log 0.000001983),
z

0.000001983 qt can be written log g -f log / = (log H.P. which has the form (I). Our scales are
5 log q,
c

= W3 log g =

where mr
ratio
:

msme/ims
in.

c-axes are 8.33

W3 me

log H.P. The z- and -f me) apart and the d-axis must divide this distance in the 3-33; thus the c^-axis must be at a distance of 5 in. from

= me log = 3.33 log = 2, and hence d = 2

t

t,

= m7 log H.P.,

the z-axis and must coincide with the y- and a-axes.

this triple axis carries the scale for

Thus, one side of

D, and the other side, the scale for H.P. To get a starting point for the H.P. scale we make a single computation: P = 50, L = 14, > = 8, iV = 300 give H.P. = 26.7; hence the line joining P = 50 and L = 14 cuts the g-axis in a point, the line joining D = 8 and = 300 cuts the /-axis in a point, and the line joining these two points cuts the d-axis in a point which must be marked H.P. = 26.7. Fig. 316 gives the completed chart, and the index lines indicate that

L and

when

P =

50 pounds per

sq. in.,

L =
26.7,

14

in.,

D=

in.,

and

300

revolutions per min., then H.P.

'"iiiiii.

II

.1.

......
^

. , .

'
I"
I

'

'

AZ/Af i/jc/
\

Ajy

A// (A/J ajJc/S"

at

\
^

(N-a)

S3HON/ A// n) 3}fOi/JS,OW{OJ yJI3WV/G A/OlS/d

i;

\
\

HONf 'O^yJdSdJ N/fd)3dnSS3i/d 3A/I03JJ3

A/t/JlV

"

'g'
'

'

^ ^ ^

$ ij ^

jq

Jij

55

^^

64

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

EXERCISES
Construct charts for the following formulas.

Chap.

Ill

limiting values for the variables.

tional exercises will
1.

The numbers in parenthesis suggest These limits may be extended if necessary. Addibe found at the end of Chapter V.

AD

D^Pi.

Rankine's

formula, for the weight, w, in pounds per

sec. of

steam flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds (20 to 300) per sq. in. through an orifice of A sq. in. or of diameter D in. (o.i to 2.0) to a pressure of P2 pounds per sq. in., if P2 0.6 Pi. Francis' formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. ft. per sec. over a 2. Q = 3.33 bH'^. ft. (0.5 to 1.5) over the crest. rectangular weir b ft. (2 to 15) in width due to a head of

3.

L =

2ln

h 0.5.

Self-inductance, L,

in abhenries per

cm. length of one of

two

parallel straight cylindrical wires each r cm. (o.i to 0.25) in radius, their axes d cm.

(2.5 to 144) apart, and conducting the small compared with length of wires].
4.

same current

in opposite directions [distance

P=

50,210,000 (75)
sq. in.

Stewart's
steel

formula for the collapsing pressure, P, in

t

pounds per
(l
5.

of Bessemer

tubing

in.

(0.02 to 0.13) in thickness

and

in.

to 6) in external diameter.

sec.
(0.1

Q = I V2 gcbtfi. Hamilton Smith formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. ft. per ft, over a contracted or suppressed weir h ft. (2 to 20) in width due to a head of to 1.6) over the crest, if the coefficient of discharge is c (0.580 to 0.660). [g = 32.2.]

/-^

6.)P = 0.196
sprmg; d
is

d3 Load,
/.

'."^

P, in

pounds supported by a

helical

compression

B. S. gage), r

the diameter of the wire in inches (0.102 to 0.460 or No. 10 to No. 0000, is the mean radius of the coil in inches (0.5 to 2.0),/ is the fiber stress in

pounds (30,000 to 80,000). Conveyor-belt calculations; p is the correct number 7. p = kgW {L + 10 H). is the width of the belt in inches (10 to 60), g is the weight of of plies (i to 15) material handled in pounds per cu. ft. (30 to 125), L is the length of the belt in ft. and 100 is the difference in elevation between the head and tail pulleys in ft. {L + 10 is a constant depending on the type of drive {k = 1/250,000 for a simple to 1500),

H
k

ife

drive with bare pulley, k

= 1/300,000 for a simple drive with rubber-lagged pulleys, 1/375,000 for a tandem drive with bare pulleys, k = 1/455,000 for a tandem drive [Charted in Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, with rubber-lagged pulleys).

Vol.

XIV,
8.

W=

Jan.

i,

1916.]

15 ir&VD.

Flow
(i

of

passing in pounds per min.

(f to 36),

to 30,000), d
ft.

is the weight steam through pipes; is the inside diameter of the pipe

of

steam

in inches

is

the velocity of flow in

to 215

per sec. (15 to 250),

is

the density of the

steam

at the

mean
i

pressure (use a steam table and plot

for values of the absolute

pressure from
9, 1916.]
9.
is

pounds per

sq. in.)

[Charted in Electrical World, Vol. 68, Dec.

p = VDK, where

= 2:^Ii ^i

^V Flow
8.

of

steam through pipes; p

in.

the pressure drop between the ends of the pipe in pounds per sq.

per lOO

ft.

of

pipe (o.oi to 20), and V, d, and

Vol. 68, Dec. 9, 1916.]
10.

are defined in Ex.

[Charted in Electrical World,

p2

ft.

14.72

0.0007 yr^ H.
is

W-

Blast-pressure furnace; H
ft.

is

the height of the

(101025), PFisthe number of cu. to ft. of air at 70 F. per minute (5000 to 80,000), p is the blast-pressure in pounds gage (2 [Charted in Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Vol. XIV, Mar. 15, 1916.] 25).
furnace in
(50 to 100), Z)

the bosh diameter in

CHAPTER IV. NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS (Continued). (HI) EQUATION OF FORM f,{u) =Mv)'Mw) or Uu) = f2W"''~Z CHART.
[The second form of equation (IH) 32. Chart for equation (HI). can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of both members.] The first form of equation (III) is the same as the second form of equation (I), but in Art. 23 we used three parallel logarithmic scales, while here we shall use three natural scales, two parallel and a third oblique to them. In Fig. 32a, let and BY he two parallel axes and AZ any axis oblique to these and cutting these in A and B respectively. Draw any

AX

Fig. 320.

Fig. 32&. u, v,

index line cutting the axes in the points

so that

Aw =
y,

2;

note that

Au

and Bv are oppositely

in the similar triangles

directed.

Au = x, Bv = y. How are x,

and z related? Let AB = k.

:

Then
:

Auw
z,

and Bvw,
x

Au Bv = Aw wB,

or

= =

or

=
k

:ythe last

Now

if

AX and 5 F carry the scales x

=

equation becomes /i(m)

-^

mifi{u)

and y
if

m<ifi{v),

.,

"_

h{v),

and

AZ
,

carries a scale for

w such

that
71 mi{k

= jz{w)
^ '

or
6.S

z)

+ mjiiw)
^
.

TTH

66

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

the equation becomes /i(i<) = f2(v) 'Mw), and any index line will cut the axes in three points corresponding to values u, v, w satisfying this equation.

Hence,

to

chart equation (III) fi{u)

Draw

three axes

= Mw) fiiv) proceed as follows: AX, BY, and AZ, where AX and BY are parallel and
-

oppositely directed, and

AB

is

any convenient

length, k.

With

and

as origins, construct on these axes the scales

Note that

for the construction of the w-scale,

it is

necessary to com-

pute the value of z for every value of w which is to appear on the chart. To avoid thts computation, proceed as follows: On B Y, choose a fixed point F at any convenient distance, /, from B
(Fig. 326),

and on

AX
Then

construct the scale

AC =
AZ.

x'

fsiw).

From
in w,

F as
and

center, project the points

let

C on

the axis

Let

FC

cut

AZ

Aw =
z
:

z.

in the similar triangles

ACw
k

and BFw,

,
:

or

kx' = y
,

+ x'
f
(
,
,

-,

=
\

mxfziw)

mifiiw)
,

+ rrh
first

Hence
x'

to construct the scale z

-

construct

the scale

mi

fs(w)

on AX, and then project

l)

this scale

from the fixed point

on

B Y (where BF =

to the axis

AZ marking corresponding points with

the same value of w.

This type of chart

33.

is

illustrated in the following example.

Tension on bolts with U. S. standard threads,

D=

1.24

y^+
is

0.088.

Here D
we
.

is

the outside d'ameter of the bolt in inches,

is

the

load on the bolt in pounds, and/

sq. in.
,
.

the tension fiber stress in pounds per

If

write the equation

a.s

^ L =

ft

AD t- - 0.088)2
-

(1-24)

Vo

we have an equation

of the

form (HI).
X

The
^

scales are

m,L,

m,U,
if

,mi (D -o.oSSy l-^-^.

o.oooi, the equation

Let

L vary up

to 100,000 pounds;

we choose Wi =
its

Let ft in. be x pounds; if we choose W2 = 0.0001, the equation of the vary up to 100,000 If we choose /t-scale will be 3' = 0.0001 ft and its length will be 10 in. point or center of projection, F, on the y-axis so that I = 8.3 in., the fixed
of the L-scale will

0.0001

L and

length will be 10

then the equations of our scales are

0.0001 L,

0.0001

ft,

x^

5.4

{D

0.088)2.

Art. 33
If

TENSION ON BOLTS WITH

varies from \ in. to 4
off
in.,

U.S.

STANDARD THREADS

67

we compute

the corresponding values

of x'

and lay

the scale on the x-axis.

the
100.000

We

then project this scale from

the point

to

oblique axis, marki

X'O OOO/L

ng

corresponding

points with the

same

value of P (Fig. 33a).

The
point

final

chart,

showing neither the

F nor

the prois

jecting lines,
in Fig. 336.

given

On one

y 0.0001

fr

100.000

side of

the oblique

Fig. 330.

axis the threads per inch corresponding to the various diameters

have been
jt

given.

The index

line indicates that

i

when L = 20,000 pounds and

and there are

37,000 pounds per sq. in., then D = Similar charts can be built up

in.

8 threads to the inch.

for various other threads.

30000-

40000-.

SQOOO

80.000^

HXUXXr^

TENSION BOLTS WITH

U.S. ST'D.

THREADS.

Fig. 336.

68

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

(IV)

EQUATION OF FORM /i(u)

_f.i(tv)

TWO
of

INTER-

SECTING INDEX LINES.

34.

Chart for equation (IV).

or

large

number
'

volving four variables can be written in the form (IV)

such equations as
,

equations

in-

fi{u)'Mv)'Mw)=f4{t)
(IV)
is

fi{u)

f.Xv)

fsizv)

fi{t)

etc.

included in the second form of equation

(II),

but

in Art.

Equation 28 we used

logarithmic scales whereas here

we

shall use natural scales.

BY and AZ, BThe two pairs of parallel axes, where AZ may coincide with AX (Fig. 34a) or AZ may make any convenient angle with
Let

AX,

Fig. 34a.

AX
and and

(Fig. 34^),

point

P on AB
related?

q so
t

and where AB is a common transversal. Through any draw two index lines cutting the axes in the points u, v, w, How are x, y, z, that Au = x, Bv = y, Aw = z, and Bq = t.
the similar triangles in these figures,

From
X
:

we have
:.

AP PB
:

and

AP
z

PB,

t.

Now

if

AX, BY, AZ, X = mjiiu),

: :

BT carry
y

the scales

m2f2{v),

msfsiw),
/](m)
:

ntifiiq),
'.

where Wi m2 = W3 W4, the relation becomes and two index lines intersecting in a point on u, V, w, and q satisfying equation (IV).
Hence,
to

f2{v)

= fziw)

fi{q)

AB
:

will

cut out values oi

chart equation (IV) fi{u)

of a

f^iv)

=fz{w)

/4(g) proceed as follows:

Through the ends

parallel axes

AX

segment AB of any convenient length, draw the and BY and the parallel axes AZ and BT, where A2

Art. 35

PRONY BRAKE OR ELECTRIC DYNAMOMETER FORMULA

make any convenient
y
angle with

69

may

coincide or

AX.
t

On =
:

these axes

construct the scales

niifiiu),

nhfiiv),

nisfsiio),

mifi(q)

where the moduli are arbitrary except To read the chart, use two index lines, one joining 11 and V, and the other joining w and q, and intersecting in a point on AB. The following examples
illustrate this

for the relation

mi

W2

= W3

W4.

////////,

^V/W/A

type of chart:
|^

35.

Prony brake or

f
Fig. 35a.

electric

dynamometer
=
33,000
.

formula, H.P.
for

The sketch

in Fig. s

35a gives the method 00 s

measurmg the power of a rotating shaft. Either the prony brake or dynamometer may be used. With such an arrangement the power is given by the above formula, where L is the length of brake arm
the electric
in
/
2.37/i.

feet,

TV

is

the speed of the

shaft in revolutions per minute,

and
If

is

the load on scale in

write the equation as
,

pounds.

we

H.P. TT =

7W 77- we have an equa ^ 5260/L

form
(IV),

tion

of the

and our

scales are

X
400

niiH.P.,

y
t

= m^N,
=
5260
nii

nisW,

O
Fig. 356.

80

The

following

table

exhibits

the limits of

the variables,

the

choice of moduli, and the equations and approximate lengths of the scales.
Scale

70

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

origin; similarly for the

Chap. iV
lines,

same

N- and

L-scales.

The index

one

joining

L and

W and the other joining N and II.P. intersect on the trans-

versal joining the zero points of the scales.

The completed chart is given in Fig. 35c, and the index lines show that when L = 2 ft., I^ = 50 pounds, and N = 2000 r.p.m., then H.P. = 38.

CD

^^

36.

WL^

192 tl
load on

Deflection of 1728 Here, A F^

.

beam
is

fixed at ends

and loaded

at center.

A =

the deflection of

beam beam

in inches,

is

the total

beam

in pounds,

is

the length of

in feet,

E is

the modulus

Art. 37

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
and /
is

71

of elasticity of material in inch units,

the

moment

of inertia in

inch units.

We
scales

shall take

E =

30,000,000 for
,

steel, so

that the equation

(IV),

may

be

written as

which has the form

and gives the

3.333.000/'

wiA,

= miU,

= mzW,

= W4

(3.333.000) 7.

The

following table exhibits the choice of moduli

and the equations

of the scales.

Scale

Limits

72

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

These
six cases

Chap. IV

may

be represented by

six charts similar to those dis-

cussed in Arts. 35 and 36, for the equation can be written v^ L^

-^,

3.333.000 a/'

LENGTH OF BEAM
II

(L)

IN

FEET
\ \
I

L__J

/.500-

DEFLECT/O/V OF BEAM

(A)

' /^

//VCHES.

BEAM FIXED AT E /V D S -LOADED AT CENTER.

Fig. 36&.

which has the form (IV) when a value

scales are

is

assigned to a.

In

all cases,

the

wiA,

m-JJ,

= mzW,

nti

(3,333,000) al.

In cases

(i) to (4),

and
is

(6),

the x- and 2-axes coincide.

the x- and z-axes are perpendicular, and in cases (5) The scales are arranged so that there
transversal joining the zeros of
all

only one

common

the scales.

In

all

cases the index line joining

W and / and

the index line joining

A and L

must

intersect

on the

common

transversal.

Art. 38

SPECIFIC SPEED OF TURBINE

AND WATER WHEEL

73

The completed
that there
is

chart, Fig. 37, clearly distinguishes the SIX cases so

it.

no

difficulty in reading

LENGTH or BEAM

//V

FEET.

DEFLECT/ON IN INCHES-BEAM FIXED AT ENDS -LOADED AT CENTER.

CO/V!B/NAr/0/\/

CHART -DEFLCT/ON OF BEAMS.

Fig. 37.

tion will

Another and more compact method of charting be given in Art. 43.

38.

this

composite equa-

Specific speed of

turbine and water wheel.

specific

N, =

N VH p. r

The formula

gives

tiie

speed of a hydraulic reaction turbine

74

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

also of a tangential

Chap. IV

and
is

water wheel.
the

Here, N^

is

the specific speed, H.P.

the horsepower,

is

number

of revolutions per minute,

and

H
is

is

Reaction Turbine

the head of water on turbine or

x-o.iNs

wheel

in ft.

The formula
in

ex-

tensively

and

in

Hydraulics water power engineering

used

work; the reaction turbine is used when the head is low and the quantity of water available
is

relatively large, the value of

iVg

the tangential water

varying from lo to lOO, while wheel is

used when the head is great and, as is usual in such cases, the water limited, the value of N^
y=o.oosN
Fig. 38a.

varying from 2 to
^f
^j^jg

6.

Because
the range

difference in

of iVs for the

If

two

cases,

it is

best to construct separate charts.

iV
-rj

we

write the equation as

P. y/H
^

-',

we have an equation

of the

form

(IV),

and our
miNs,

scales are

= miN,

= m^ VH.P.,

ntiH^.

The

following tables exhibit the choice of moduli and the equations of the

scales.

Reaction Turbine
Scale

Modulus
wi W2
nis

Equation

= = =

0.1

0.005
0.28

= y =
X

0.1 iV,

0.005

W2W3

Art. 38

SPECIFIC SPEED OF TURBINE

axis; similarly for the iV-

AND WATER WHEEL

75

common

action turbine

and i7-scales. The charts for the reand the tangential water wheel have been combined as shown in the diagram, i.e., the axes for the former have been placed perpendicular to the axes of the latter, and both charts use the same trans5PECIF/C SPEED
(Ns)

OF REACT/ON TURBINE.

SPEED

IN) IN REV.

PER MIN.
VTTp.

(R. T.J

SPECIFIC

SPEED OP TURBINE AND WATER WHEEL.

N Ns =

Hh

Fig. 386.

versal

on which the index lines intersect, one index and the other joining ll.P. and H.
lines

line joining iV,

and

iV

Fig. 386 gives the completed chart; for the reaction turbine, the index

show that when

=
=

1000 r.p.m., //
700,

then Ns

when

= =

70; for the tangential water wheel, the index lines

1000 r.p.m., //

and

II.P.

and H.P. = 201, show that = 275, then N, = 4.6.

70

ft.,

76
(V).

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

-

Chap. IV

EQUATION OF FORM /,(u) = Mv) Utv) Ut) .... TWO OR MORE INTERSECTING INDEX LINES.
-

large number of equations involv39. Charts for equation (V). ing three or more variables can be written in the form (V), which is
similar to the second form of equation (II), but in Art. 28

arithmic scales, whereas here

is

we

shall use natural scales.

we used logEquation (IV)

a special case of equation (V) when there are four variables present. shall here consider the cases where equation (V) contains three, five, or six variables. The method of charting to be employed is an amplifi-

We

cation of the

method described
Three variables.
J\{ii)
'

in Art. 34. /i(m)

:

Case

(i).

Ji{v)

>

fz{w).
is

be written as
scales are

fiiv)

}z{w)

i,

which
z

of the

This equation can form (IV); the

t

mifi{u),

= moMv),

m^fziw),

nu,

where ^1:^2 = ^3: nii. Here the g-scale is replaced by a fixed point, P, on the y-axis and at a distance m^ from B. The first index line joins u and V, the second index line joins w and the fixed point P; the two lines must intersect in a point on AB. (Figs. 34a, 346.) The fixed point, P, may be used as a center of projection from which the w-scale may be projected on the transversal AB. We shall then have two parallel scales and a third scale oblique to these, and a single index line will cut the scales in values of u, v, and w satisfying the equation. This method was employed in charting the formula for the tension on
bolts in Art. 33.

An example
Case
(2).

illustrating case (i)

Ji{u)
-

is

worked out
-

in Art. 40.
'

Six variables. equation can be written as

/i(w)
:

Ji{q)

j'^{r)

fiiv)

Jz{w)

'

f&ys).

This

hiv)

=Mw)

and

p :Mq) =

fs{r)

Us).

Each of these equations has the form (IV) and can therefore be charted by the method described in Art. 34. In Fig. 39(2, the p-, v-, and r-scales
lie

along a

the
{w,

common axis, but the ^-scale need not be graduated. To read chart we need two pairs of index lines; the index lines (u, v) and p) intersect in a point on AB, and the index lines {p, g) and {r, s) inon BC.
is

tersect in a point

An example
Case
(3)
.

illustrating case (2)

worked out

in Art. 41.

Five variables.

fx{u)

/4(g)

J^ir)

= ^v)

fz{w)

This equa-

tion can be written as

/i(w)
:

h{v)

= Mw)
by a

and

h{q)

= h{r)

and can be considered as a

(Fig. 39a) is replaced

special

fixed point

form of case (2), where the 5 scale through which the fourth index line
is

must

pass.

An

illustrative

example

worked out

in Art. 42.

Art. 40

TWISTING

MOMENT

IN A CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
:

77

We may also

chart the equation /i(zO

f-iiv)

fz{w)

p by the method

described in Art. 34, and the equation /4(g) -/sW by the first method described in Art. 32. The arrangement of the scales is shown in Fig. 396, and this arrangement is more compact than that of Fig. 39a, and employs only three index lines instead of four.

p =

"K..

^?

Fig. 39a.

Fig, 396.

scales are carried

In Fig. 39^, the r-scale lies along the transversal on the same axis; the index lines (m,
illustrative

AB

v)

sect

An

on the transversal AB, and the third index example will be found in Art. 43.
Twisting

line

and the g- and wand (w, p) interaligns p, r, and q.

40.

is

the

moment in a cylindrical shaft, maximum fiber stress in pounds per sq.

M = 0.196 FD^. Here

D
is

in.,

the diameter of
190000

the shaft in inches, and

twisting
If

M
(i).

is

the

moment
:

in inch

pounds.

we

write the equation as

5.1

M:
Our

D^ = F
of the

we have an equation
(V),

form

case

scales are

X
z

= =

rriiM,

y
/

msF,
following
of

= =

miD^,
W4(5.I).
s.r-

The
the

table exhibits

choice

moduli

and

the
FiG. 40a.

equations of the scales:

Scale

Limits

Modulus

Equation

Length
9-5

M
D
F

up up

to 190,000

i" to 4"
to 16,000

= Wo = m-i =
nil

0.00005
0.1

X
A'

0.0005

= = =

0.00005 ^^
0.1 Z)3

6.4"

0.0005

8"

78

]SIOAIOGJL\PHIC

OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

'2.000-

-20.000

4.000- -40,000

6.00(h -60.000

<0

^0080.000

10,000100.000

34 k
o

^12,600120,000

!4.000140,000

16,000160,000

-180,000

TWISTING

MOMENT IN
IV1=

CYLINDRICAL SHAFTS

D.196

F D^

Fig. 40&.

Art. 41

D'ARCY'S

FORMULA FOR THE FLOW OF STEAM IN PIPES

79

hence / = 5.1, and we have a fixed point on the from the origin. We construct the M- and Fscales on the same axis from a common origin, and the ZP-scale and the (Fig. 40a.) fixed point on a parallel axis. The two index lines, one joining and D and the other joining F and the fixed point, must intersect on the common transversal joining the zeros of the scales. The completed chart is given in Fig. 406, and the index lines show that = 63,500 in. when F = 12,000 pounds per sq. in. and -0 = 3 in., then pounds.

Now W4 =

mimzlmx

i,

y-axis at a distance 5.1 in.

41.

D'Arcy's formula for the flow of steam in pipes,

P =

Here, P is the drop in pressure in pounds per sq. in., that is, the difference between the pressure, pi, at the entrance to the pipe and the pressure, p2, at the exit of the pipe; B is the weight of steam flowing in pounds per minute; L is the length of the pipe in feet; c is a quantity which varies

with the nature of the inner surface of the pipe; w is the mean density of i.e., the average of the density at the entrance and the density at the exit of the pipe; d is the diameter of the pipe in inches. This formula is extensively used in engineering practice. We usually desire the pressure drop between two points. The chart to be constructed will however
steam,

any one of the six variables involved. have an equation involving six variables of the form (V), case (2), and as suggested in Art. 39, we shall separate it into two equations each involving four variables, and build up a Z chart for each of these. Taking the square root of both members of the equation, we write it
solve for

We

VLB = VPcV^Vd^,
and equating both members
to

or

^^^^\ VP
i/c

an auxiliary quantity, Q, we write

an
1

Vl
We
Scale

^
<3'

Vd^

Q _ ~

^^
i/c'

now construct a Z chart for each of these equations, the two charts having the Q-ax\s in common. For the first of these equations we have the following table:
Limits

Modulus

Equation

Length

P
L B Q

o to 25

o o

to 1500

to

400

= 4 W2 = 0.4 W3 = 0.02
wi
nii

X = y = 2 =

VP 0.4 Vl
B

20"
16"

0.02

8"

0.002

8o

NOMO(iRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

TheP- and 5-scales (Fig. 41a) are placed on the same axis and starting from the same origin, and the L- and (2-scales on a parallel axis, but the
^-scale
is

not graduated.

For the second equation we have the following table:

Scale

Limits
rrii = W5 = We =

Modulus
0.002
0.06
r

Equation

Length

Q
d

o to 10 o to 10 30 to 70

= = =

0.06

Vd^

19'

6 Vw
180

W7 =

W4

180

The w- and
scales are

(J-scales are placed

on the

common

Q-axis.

on the same axis; hence the w- and LThe d and c scales are placed on a
parallel axis (Fig. 41a).

{c,

We use four index lines. The w) and {d, Q) lines must inter-

sect

of the corresponding scales,

on the common transversal and the {Q, B) and (L, P) lines must intersect on the common transIt is

versal of the corresponding scales.

thus a simple matter to find

the value of
variables

any one

of the six

when

the other five are

known.
of
Fig. 410.

Thus, to find the value

c, w, d, B, and L are known, proceed as follows (Fig.

:

P when

41a)
tion of
in
(c,

join the point of intersec-

w) and the

common

transversal (a) with d, cutting the (J-axis

transversal

a point, Q; join the point of intersection of {Q, B) and the (|3) with L, cutting out the required value of P.
Fig. 41 & gives the
c

common

when

40,

w =
then

2,

L =

800

feet,

completed chart, and the index lines show that d = j in., B 300 pounds per minute, and = 1.34 pounds per sq. in.

42. Distributed load

on a wooden beam.

F=

9JFL

BW

Here,

is

the

maximum
beam

fiber stress in

in inches;

width of the

beam

pounds per sq. in.; L is the length of the the total load on the beam in pounds; B is the in inches; and is the height of the beam in inches.
is

beam (depending on the load which the floor must support), the allowable fiber stress (depending upon the kind and quality of the wood), and the length of the beam, are usually known and the width and height of the beam are to be determined.
In construction work, the total load on the
;

Art. 41

D'ARCY'S

FORMULA FOR THE FLOW OF STEAM IN

PIPES

d'a rc y

equa r/o/v-Fi ow of steam //v p/pes.

Fig. 416.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

Since \vc have two unknown quantities we can of course get various combinations of these to satisfy the equation. By means of the chart to be constructed these combinations of width

readily seen,

and height are and any desired

combinations
chosen.

may

then

be

We have an equation involving five variables of the

form (V), case (3), and introducing an auxiliary quantity,
Q,

we

shall

separate

it

into

two equations; thus,

F Y=
Fig. 42a.

W
T^

and

Q =

H^
chart

We now

construct a
(2-axis in

for each of these equations, the

two charts having the

common.

For the
X

first

of these equations our scales are

nhF,

m2.{L),
table:

= mzW,

nii (Q),

and we have the following

ale

Art. 42

DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A WOODEN BE.\M

83

/5.000 n

14.000-

13.000-

1.000-

9WL DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A WOODEN BEAM- F-bh^

Fig. 426.

84

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

;

Chap. IV

Q-scales are placed on the same axis (Fig. 42a) hence the L- and //-scales are on the common (2-axis. The ^-scale is placed on a parallel axis, on which there is also a fixed point, /, at a distance of 9.0 in.

The H- and

from the

origin.

The (L, F) and {Q, W) lines must intersect four index lines. on the common transversal of the corresponding scales, and the {B, Q) and (/, //) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales. It is thus a simple matter to find the value of anyone Thus to find the of the five variables when the other four are known. value of // when F, L, W, and B are known, proceed as follows: (Fig. 42a) join the point of intersection of (L, F) and the transversal {^) with W, cutting the Q-axis in a point, Q; join the point of intersection of {B, Q) and the transversal (a) with the fixed point, /, cutting out the required

We use

value of H.
If

we wish we can
/,

project the //-scale on the transversal (a) using

the fixed point,

fixed point, /,
will

as a center of projection.
line

We

can then discard the

and the index

through

it,

for the index line (B, Q)

then cut the transversal (a) in the required value of H.

then F, L, and W,
the index line

we determine through Q we can

the point

as above,

Given and by rotating

cut out any desired combination of

and H.
that

The completed chart is given in Fig. 42^, and the index lines show = 10,000 pounds, L = 15 in., F = 1,200 pounds per sq. in., when

and

B=

8 in., then //

=
is

12 in.
six

43.

Combination chart for

beam

deflection

formulas.

A =

~
192

EIP beam in

s:^-.

Here, W
feet,

the total load in pounds,

is

the length of the

is

the

moment

of inertia in inch units,

is

the deflection

the modulus of elasticity (30,000,000 for steel), and factor which determines the method of loading and supporting.
in inches,
is

is

Thus

when

the

beam

is

(i)

(2) fixed at

(3)
(4) (5)

(6)

both ends and uniformly loaded, both ends and loaded in center, supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, supported at both ends and loaded in center, fixed at one end and uniformly loaded, fixed at one end and loaded at the other,
fixed at

P P P P P P

= = = = = =

Pi P2 P3 P4 P5

= 2; = 1 = f _ 1 !^4 Pe = ^\I

of the form (V), case separate the equation We introduce an auxiliary quantity, Q, and (3). into two equations; thus,

The equation

thus involves five variables and

is

g= i

3.333.000 /

!^

and

Q = AP.

Art. 43

COMBINATION CHART FOR DEFLECTION OF BE.AMS

first

85
if

The
write

of these equations has already

;

been charted

in Art. 36,

we

for

indeed

is

the deflection of a

beam

fixed at

both ends and

shall here use the same method of loaded in center, i.e., for P = i. charting and the same scales employed in Art. 36. The scales are

We

miQ,

= m2L\

= mzW,

= m^

(3,333.000) /,

and the following table exhibits the choice of moduli:

Scale

Limits

Modulus
3;

Equation

Length
10'

x = SQ

W
/

up

W2 = 0.000,224 10 to 35 0.000,04 to 200,000 W3

to

2
^

= 0.000,224 L^ = 0.000,04 ^
= 0.003, 735/

up

2000

mi =

W2W3
-

= 0.000,000,00112

nti

scales are arranged in form of a rectangle (Fig. the L- and /-scales start 43a) from one vertex, B, and the Wand (3-scales start from the opposite vertex, A, but the Q-scale The two inis not graduated. and I dex lines, one joining and the other joining L and Q must intersect on the transver-

The
;

the

r-^ too,

06^

sal

AB.

3000-'

Axts-Q
Fig. 43c.

We now
Q = AP by

chart the equation

the

method described

in Art. 32.

m\Q,

m2A,
parallel

The WiP

scales are

where the
the 5-axis

xis

and r-axes must be

and extend

in opposite directions,
is

the transversal through the origins of these axes, and k

the

distance between the origins.

These conditions are met

in Fig.

43a

(where the jc-axis is already constructed) if we make the r-axis coincide with the y-axis, and the 5-axis with the transversal from A to B. We have drawn AB 13" long, and we choose W2 = 8, hence the equations
of our scales are (Fig. 43a)

= SQ,

= 8A,

i3-p^-

axis.

The A- and L-scales are carried on opposite sides of their common The six points Pi, P2, Pe of the P scale are easily con. . . ,

structed

by means
2

of the table
I

Ps:

B^T

8.67"

6.5"

3.7"

2.6"

0.52"

0.2"

86

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

find the value of

Chap. IV

To

A when
c

7,

W,

L, and

lows: join the point of intersection of (/, IV)

n;

are known, proceed as foland the transversal AB with

MOMEA/T OF INTERTIA
A, =

(I)

tN INCH UNITS.

W L^ 1728

Art. 45

CHART OF EQUATION

(VI)

87
P3,
i.e.,

= 100,000 lbs., L = 25 ft., and P = when / = 1000 inch units, both ends and uniformly loaded, then A = the beam is supported at
44.

All the equations charted thus far General considerations. can be brought under the general forms

1.17 in.

Mu)-\-Mv)^Mw)+
Most

=Mt)

and Mic)'f2{v)-Mw)

=/4(0.

of the formulas of engineering can be written in one of these forms. have used various methods of charting these equations, employing In the case of three variables, the underlogarithmic and natural scales. lying principle has been that one index line will cut the scales in three

We

values satisfying the equation.

lying principle has been that

In the case of four variables, the underlines intersecting

two index

on an auxiliary

axis will cut the scales in four values satisfying the equation; this

method

has been extended to equations involving more than four variables.

In the remainder of this chapter, we shall chart various forms of the above equations by methods requiring the use of parallel or perpendicular index lines. In Chapter V, we shall consider some equations which cannot be brought under either of the above forms, but which may be charted by methods requiring the use of parallel or perpendicular index lines or by methods involving the construction of curved axes. We shall end Chapter V with a brief discussion of various combined methods.

(VI)

EQUATION OF FORM Uu) Mv) ^Uw) Uq). PARALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR INDEX LINES.
: :

45.

axes

AX, A Y and BZ, BT

Chart of equation (VI). Consider tAvo pairs of intersecting so constructed that BZ is either parallel to or

Fig. 45a.

Fig. 45&.

coincides with
(Figs. 45a, b).

AX

and

BT

is

cither parallel to or coincides with

AY,

Draw two

parallel index lines,

one meeting

AX and A Y,

and the other meeting

BZ

and

BT in

it,

v,

w, and q respectively, so that

88
All

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

X,

Av =

y,

Bw =

z,
:

and Bq =
y

t.

Then,
if

in the similar triangles

uAv and wBt, we have x

the scales

t.

Hence

AX, A

Y,

BZ,

BT

carry

mifiiic),

y
:

mifiiv),

z
nii,

mzfziw),

niifiiq),

respectively,

where mi

rrii

niz

then
:

X :y

becomes

fi{u)

Ji{v)

fsiw)

:Mq),

which

will cut

equation (VI), and a pair of parallel index lines, (, v) and (w, g) out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying this equation. A pair of celluloid triangles will aid in reading the chart.
is

Consider again two pairs of intersecting axes AX, A Y and BZ, and is perpendicular constructed that BZ is perpendicular to so Draw two perpendicular index lines, one meeting (Figs. 45c, d). to

BT

AX

BT

AY

Z Y

.^ T V

y
A
Fig.
45<i.

\
\
4>-

FiG. 45c.

AX
X
:

and

AY
:

and the other meeting

spectively, so that

Then again our axes carry the scales described above, a pair of perpendicular index lines, (u, v) and {w, q), will cut out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying equation (VI). A sheet of celluloid with two perpenX, y,
t.

Au =

Av =

BZ and BT in u, Bw = z, and Bq =

v,

w, and q re-

t,

and

if

dicular lines scratched

If

on

its

under side

will aid in reading the chart.

i.e.,
:

the equation involves only three variables,

:

f\(u)

f2{v)

'

fziw),

i; here the g-scale is the equation can be written fi{u) f^iv) = f^iw) replaced by a fixed point through which the second index line must always

pass.
It is

evident that there are other positions for the axes than those
c,

illustrated in Figs. 45a, b,

d that

will satisfy the conditions

imposed by

the problem.

Aet. 46

'^^TEIGHT

OF GAS FLOWING THROUGH AN ORIFICE

an
orifice,

89
Here,

46.

Weight

of gas flowing through

of gas in
is

w =
is

ird-v

576

is the weight the orifice in inches, v

pounds flowing per second, d

the diameter of

specific

volume

in cu.

ft.

the velocity of the gas in ft. per sec, and of the gas in the orifice.

V is

the

<>4\^

vo

00

DISCHARGE OF GAS THROUGH AN ORIFICE. Av -TTc/^ w= I4.JI V _ 576 VV

Fig. 46.
If

we

write the equation

d-

183.5 ^>

we have an equation

of

the form (VI).

Fig. 456.

We

shall build

up a chart
z

similar to that represented

by

The

scales are

niiw,

niid"^,

mzv,
of

= m^

(183.5 ^)

and the following table exhibits the choice

'cale

moduli

90
47.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Armature
or
field

Ca\p. IV

winding
in

from

tests.

_.'

=
234.5

^^2

!.__
to

Here Ri and R2 are resistances

final

temperatures Centigrade

in

ohms and h and ^2 are the initial and an armature or field winding.

TEMPERATURES

IN

AN ARMATURE WINDING FROM TESTS.

t2

R!_ 234.S + R, 234^.5*

t,

Fig. 47.

We
X

have an equation of the form (VI) and we

shall build

up a chart

similar to that represented

by
z

Fig. 45c.

The

scales are
/i),
I

Wii?i,

miRi,

= mz

(234.5

+
of

mi,

(234.5

/a),

and the following table exhibits the choice

Scale

moduli
Equation
Length

Limits

Modulus

Ri

Art. 48

LAME FORMULA FOR THICK HOLLOW CYLINDERS

note that the points
ty

9I

o and ^2 = are 23.45 in. from the point and ^axes, which are respectively perpenBut it is a simple matter to arrange the dicular to the X- and 3'-axes. axes so that the h- and ^-scales are within close range of the Ri- and R2The {Ri, R2) and (h, t^) index lines must be perpendicular. The scales. chart is given in Fig. 47, and the index lines drawn show that when ti = 65, h = 33, and Ri = 3.04 ohms, then R2 = 2.71 ohms.
of intersection, B, of the s-

We

48.

Lame
-7-

formula for thick hollow cylinders subjected to internal

pressure.

J-p
is

Here, D
is
is

is

the exterior diameter of the cvHn-

der in inches, d
fiber stress in

pounds per
It

the interior diameter of the cylinder in inches, / is the sq. in., and p is the internal pressure in pounds

per sq.

in.

The formula
cylinders.
is

extensively used in the design of thick

also used in

pump

and press

determine what

known

as the elastic

ordnance work on big guns, to resistance curve of the steel at

shall build

various sections of the gun from breech to muzzle.

We
X

have an equation of the form (VI) and we

up a chart

similar to that represented

by

Fig. 45^/.
z

The

scales are
t

mid?,

W2Z)2,

= m^{f -

p),

mi{f-\- p),

and the following table exhibits the choice

Scale

of moduli:

rH

V)

S3 HON I A/f

(a)-y3aMiiA0 JO y33iMvia yoiiJ3j.x3

-r^-[

y 'I/'
,

1"^"

,1

"Saunod JO safh/^noHj. ni ..cf-/_, /o sjn7\/A

to

-a
-91
61

92

Art. 49

CHART FOR EQUATION

(VII)

93
inches apart, and anfirst

Consider a pair of parallel axes

other pair of parallel axes
pair;

AX

and BY,

ki

CZ and DT, h

inches apart, parallel to the

and CD are also parallel. (Fig. 49a.) Draw two parallel index lines, one intersecting AX and BY and the other intersecting CZ

AB

T
I
-/

^*^

t ?
Fig. 49a.

Fig. 49&.

and

Dq =

and q respectively, so that Au = x, Bv = y, Cw = z, Then in parallel to AB and CD respectively. the similar triangles vEu and qFw, we have x y ki = z t k^. Hence if AX, BY, CZ, DT carry the scales

D J" in
t.

m, v, w,

Draw vE and qF

X = mifi{u),
2

y
t

niifziw),

= =

mjiiv),
^2/4(2),

where mi :ki
X

^ m^

k^,

then
z

-.ki

'.kz

becomes

IM-h{v) =Mw) -Mq),

and a pair
of parallel index lines, (, v)
v,

(w, q), will cut out values oi u,

and w, and q

satisfying this equation.

If

CZ and

DT

are

instead of parallel to
is

.4a:

drawn perpendicular and By, and CD

(Fig. 496),

perpendicular to

AB

then a

Fig. 49c.

pair of perpendicular index lines, {u, v)

{w, q), will cut out values of u,
v,

and w, and

q satisfying the equation.

To
scales
in the

represent the equation /i(zO

f2(v) =

fsiw)

+ fi(q),

the w- and q-

must be laid off in opposite directions. If the axes are arranged form of a square, or if the second pair of axes coincide with the first pair (Fig. 49c) then ^1 = ^2; hence, mi = m2 and all four scales have the

94

NOMOGRAPHIC OR iVLIGNMENT CH.\RTS

Chap. IV
this

same modulus. Because of the restriction on the choiceof moduli,

of chart
is

type

not a very useful one.

We

shall only give a single illustration.

20 /e >e

\-io

FR/CT/ON LOSS /N P/PES LOST H EAD = 2cfg

Fig. 50.

20-^

50.

Friction loss in flow of water.

ft.,

flv' H = ^-^. Here

is

/ is

the length

of pipe in

v is the velocity in
is

ft.
ft.

per sec, d

the internal diameter of

pipe in

ft.,

the lost head in

due

to friction,

is

the friction factor,

and g =

32.2.

Art. so
If

FRICTION LOSS IN FLOW OF WATER

replace g

95

we

by

32.2,

/by
lv~

0.02 (for clean cast-iron pipes)

and express

in inches,

our formula becomes

_
or
(log

0.02

(12)
'

268.33
I

H _v'd'

2 (32.2) d

H + log 268.33)
(VII).

log

2 log y

log d

an equation of the form

We

shall arrange the axes as in Fig. 49c.

The
ac

scales are
(log
IZ'

= mi

+ log 268.33),

= mi log

I,

= mi

{2 log v)

t^m^logd^

The

following table exhibits the limits of the variables

and the equations

of the scales:

Scale

96
4.
<

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGN:\IENT CHARTS

=

Chap. IV

pd

i. Thickness,
.

t,

in inches oi a pipe of

d inches internal diameter

(o to 60)

to withstand a pressure of

p pounds per

sq. in. (o to looj

with a fiber stress of/ pounds

per sq.
5.

in. (o

to 15,000).

Rb p = -77. Approximate

formula

for fiange rivets in

a plate girder;

is

the

depth of the girder (20 to no), V is the vertical shear in pounds (50,000 to 275,000), R is the rivet value in pounds (1000 to 20,000), p is the pitch of the rivets in
efTective

inches
6.

(i

to 9).

-J-7-T

Intensity of
of

stress, /, in

pounds per
(3 to 20)

sq. in. (750 to 1300) in

the outer
(2 to 16)

fiber of a rectangular

beam, h inches

in

depth

due to a bending moment

7.

M inch-pounds.

and

h inches in

breadth

//

-j^

Field

intensity, //, in lines per sq.

cm. at a point on a

line

through the center and normal to the plane of a circular turn of wire of negligible section conducting a current of / abamperes (o to 1000), the radius of the circular turn being r cm. (4 to 12) and the distance of the point from the wire being d cm. (4 V^ to 12 V2).
8.

C = . Centrifugal
ft.

force;
is

is

the weight in pounds

ft.

(i

to 150), v

is

the

velocity in

per sec.

(i

to 50), r

the radius of the path in

(o.i to 10), g

32.2,

is

the centrifugal force in pounds.

g.

P = wh

\
ft.

Resistance to earth compression; w

depth
in
ft.

is

the weight of the

<f)

earth in pounds per cu.

(o to 35,000). 10.

(o to 130), h is the

(o to 15),

is

the angle of
ft.

repose of the earth (15 to 60),

is

the ultimate load on the earth in pounds per sq.

Apply the methods

of this chapter to charting

some

of the formulas of the

combination chart, Art. 25.

11.

and

9, at

Apply the methods of this chapter to charting the formulas the end of Chapter III.

in Exercises 7, 8,

CHAPTER

V.
(Continued).

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(Vm) EQUATION OF

FORM

f,(u) +/2(r)

Mq)

PAR-

ALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR INDEX LINES.

51.

Chart for equation (VHI).

in opposite directions,

Consider two
AT
in u, v, w,

parallel axes,

BY, drawn
where
(Fig. 51a.)

and two intersecting

axes,

AZ

AX and and AT,

AB.
s*

AZ coincides with AX and A T coincides with

Draw two
parallel index lines,

the transversal

one intersecting

AX and BY

and the other

intersecting

AZ

and

and g

respectively,

Fig. 51a.

Fig. 51&.
y,

that

An ^
lines,

X,

Bv =

Aw =
=

z,

Aq =

t.

Draw

BC
=

parallel

to

these

index

and let and Awq, we have

:

AB

k inches.

Then
or

in the similar triangles

ACB

Now

if

AC AB = Aw Aq AX, BY, AZ, and ^T carry

:

-\-

t.

the scales
z

mjiiu),
:

y
:

mjiiv),

nisfsiw),

m.Ji(q),

where Wi

= ms

nii,

then

x-{-y :k

z :t

becomes
97

/i(m) -\-f2iv)

= Mw)

:fi{q),

58

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNIVIENT CHARTS

of parallel index lines, {u,
if)

Chap. V

and any pair

values of
ii,

and

(w, q), will cut the axes in

v,

w, q satisfying this equation.

This type of chart

is illus-

trated in Art. 52.

In Fig. 516,

AX and BY are
that this

drawn

In the

same

direction,

and hence

AC

y, so

arrangement serves

to represent equation

when

fi{u)

and

fiiv) are opposite in sign, or

(VHI) an equation of the form

In the construction of the chart for equation (VIII), we note the following: (i) The U-, w-, and g-scales are all laid off from the same origin,

although

we

could have constructed

AZ

parallel to

AX and AT parallel

Fig. ^id.

to

AB

without affecting the relations of the

scales.

(2)

The

and

v-

or in the same direction acscales are constructed in opposite directions like or unlike signs. (3) The u- and vcording as /i(m) and U{v) have and the moduli and the length of scales have the same modulus, Wi, = mmi/mz- (4) The the transversal, k, are connected by the relation k are always parallel. (m, v) and (w, q) index lines

hiv) = /i(w) -jiiq), conthe equation (VHI) has the form /i(w) Here it can be charted in a similar manner. taining only three variables, w-scale, so that the (w, q) index line cointhe T^-scale coincides with the line cuts the scales cides with the (w, v) index line; hence a single index This type is illustrated the equation. in values of u, v, and q satisfying
If

in Art. 53.

drawn m the same and Consider again two parallel axes, axes DZ and DT, where DZ is perpendirections, and two intersecting

^Z

5F

dicular to

AX 2ind DT

is

perpendicular to the transversal

lines,

AB

(Fig. 51c).

Draw

two perpendicular Index

one Intersecting

AX

and

BY

and

Art. 52

MOMENT OF

INERTIA OF CYLINDER

99

the other intersecting

DZ
z,

and

DT m.
t.

, v,

w,

and

q respectively, so that
to the first of these

Au =

Bv = y, Dw = index lines. Then the

X,

Dq =

Draw BC parallel
and Hence
or

triangles

ACB

Dwq

are similar (since their

sides are

mutually perpendicular).

AC AB = Dw
:

Dq,

t.

Now

if

AX, BY, DZ, and

DT carry
mjiiv),

the scales
z

mjiiu),
:

y
:

niafsiw),

mifi{q),

where mi
X

=
y

ruz
-.k

rrii,

then

-.t

becomes

/i(m)

fiiv)
v)

= Mw)

ifiiq)

and any

pair of perpendicular index lines, {u,

v,

and

{w, q), will cut the

axes in values of u,
trated in Art. 54.

w, q satisfying this equation.

This type

is illus-

In Fig. 5id,

AX and BY are drawn

=Mw)
inertia

in opposite directions,

and hence

AC =
52.

-\-

y,

so

that this arrangement serves to represent equation

(VIII) /i(m)

^f2(v)
of

:Mq).
of

Moment
h
is

cylinder.

(3 r-

/i^).

Here,

cylinder in pounds, r is the radius the height in inches, and / is the moment of inertia in pounds- (inch)2 units of the cylinder about an axis through its center of gravity and perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
in inches,

Wis the total weight of a right circular

Writing the equation as 3

of form (VIII),
chart.
nc

r^

^2

12 I

:W,

vfe

have an equation
the

and we

shall follow Fig.

51a

in the construction of

Here

= mi
=

(3 r^),

m\h^,

= mz

(12 I),

ntiW.

Choosing k
cale

15",

we have

the following table:

Equation

Length

X y
z
/

= = =
=

0.024
0.008

^^
h"^

15"
IT,"

0.000,002,4 / 14"

0.000,375

9"

The
r

(r,

h)

and
30

(/,

W)
and

index lines must always be parallel.

Fig. 52

gives the completed chart,

and the index

lines

drawn show that when

10

in.,

in.,

W=

20,000 pounds, then /

20

10^ Ibs.-

(in.)^ units.

40-i

MOMENTOF INERTIA OF RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER.

lOO
Fig. 52.

Art. S3
53.

BAZIN'S

HYDRAULIC FORMULA
v

lOI

Bazin formula for velocity of flow in open channels,

.

'"^1-3,

where c =
0.552

Here, m

is

the coefficient of roughness, r

is

the

Vr
5 is the slope
sec.

hydrauHc radius in ft. (area divided by wetted perimeter), of the water surface, and v is the velocity of flow in ft. per

We

shall first build a chart for the coefficient,

c.

The equation can

br written
0.552
-Vr + w =
,

87

Vr
,

or

V/- 4 r
,

m
0.552

Vr
0.552
^

87

which

is

the special form of (VIII) where the w-scale coincides with the

w-scale,

and hence only one index

y
15

line

is

required.

Hence
t

= miVr,
=

mi\

),

= WiVr,

mi(
\

\0.552/

-^ /) oj
Length

Choosing k
Scale
r

in.,

we have

the following table:

Limits
0.2 to 20

Modulus
Wi = 2,7 mi = 2.7 W4 = ^ = 15
out values of
r,

Equation X

m
c

0.06 to 2 10 to 155

y
t

= = =

2.7

Vr

12"
10" 15"

4.89

0.0952 c

One index
that

line cuts

m, and
c

satisfying the equation.

line

Fig. 53 gives the chart for this formula,

and the index

drawn shows

when

ft.

and

m =

i.i,

then

78.5.

can consider the equation v = c VTs as an equation of the form and we can build up a logarithmic chart accordingly. We have already constructed such a chart in Art. 29 and Fig. 296 may therefore be used to supplement Fig. 53 for a complete solution of our problem.
(n). Art. 28,

We

In Fig. 296, the

(r, s)

and

(c, v)

index lines must intersect on the g-axis.

Thus, when r = 4 ft., 5 = o.ooi, and c 54. Resistance of riveted steel

78.5,

we

read

4.96

ft.

D) tft. Here, (p R is the resistance of riveted steel plate to tearing between rivet holes in pounds, p is the pitch of the rivet in inches, D is the diameter of the rivet hole in inches, t is the thickness of the plate in inches, and ft is the fiber stress of steel in tension and equals 55,000 pounds per sq. in. The formula is used extensively in boiler design and in structural work.
plate.

R ^

per sec.

The equation can be

form (Vni), and we We have
X

written p

- D =

^'^'"""
,

an equation of the

shall follow Fig. 51c in the construction of the chart.

mip,

= -miD,

= msR/ 55,000,

t'

mtt.

aO

,%0

,30

.ifi

-2
-1.9
,S0

o o

-I.

-1.7

1.6

-2.

-7O

1.5
0

t.3

J.

\
k
lOO

-1.1

-r.o

k
-.9
,llO

-.8

,1^

7
-.6

k
l^O

-.5

-.4
iAO

-.3

2 aS^
V-i

COEFFICIENT
102

//V

BAZ / N'S HYDRAULIC FORM ULA

0.5S2f^
FiG. 5^.

Art. 54

RESISTANCE OF RIVETED STEEL PLATE

103

-/

104

NOMOGRAPHIC OR .\LTGNMENT CHARTS

/^

Chap.

Choosing
Scale

lo

in.,

we have

the following table:

Akt. 55

CHART FOR EQUATION

(IX)

lOS

Now

if

AX

carries the scales

mifi{u), Xi

mijziw) and

^F carries

the scale y

m^fiiv), then
-|

X
and any index

=
y

Xi

becomes

line cuts out values of m, v, w satisfying this equation. construction of the chart for equation (IX) we note the folIn the lowing: (i) The X- and y-axes may make any convenient angle with each

other and they carry the scales x

sines are in the ratio Wi
also carries the scale Xi

mifi{ii)

z-axis divides the angle between the x:

and y = rnihiv). (2) The and y-axes into two angles whose
:

m2,

i.e.,

AD Dw =

mi'.rrh.
is

(3)

The

x-axis
2-

mifs{w), and

this scale

projected on the

by marked with the same value

axis
If Wi = Aw AD =
:

lines parallel to the >'-axis, the points

and

their projections being

of

iv.

W2, then
sin (180

AZ

bisects the angle

:

XAY

= a

(Fig. 556),

Then

a)

sin

or
cos 2

= Aw
.

= sm a a sm
.

2
;X'i

a sm
2

a
Xi

sm

Wi 2 cos - j fsiw).
(

In this case the w-scale

may
y

be constructed on AZ, and the scales are

mifiiv),
2

mifi{u),

= Wi

2 cos -j Jsiw).

Finally,

if

we
X

take a

120, our scales are

simply

niifiiii),

mif^iv),

niifsiw).
is

The method
extension of the

of charting the second

form of equation (IX)

method employed

for charting the first form.

merely an Consider

the case of four variables,

+
By
/,

introducing an auxiliary variable,

write

we can
I
I

I
t

fM'^Mv) We chart each

means
a

^""^

Ij

t^Mw) Mq)'
by
Fig. 55^.

of these equations

of three concurrent scales with

/-scale

common

lines are necessary,

and

g-scales.

which need not be graduated. (Fig. 55^.) Two index one cutting the u- and y-scalcs and the other the wThe (w, v) and {w, g) index lines must intersect on the /-axis.

io6

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap.

Equations of the form (IX) are not very We shall only give one illustration. tice.
56.

common

in engineering prac-

Focal lengths of a lens.

^ f+t

7^

-.

Here,

/
^

is

the focal
is

distance of the object,

is

the focal distance of the image,

and p

the

principal focal length of the lens.

We
are

shall take

our x- and y-axes at an angle of 120, and the z-axis as

the bisector of this angle.

Let mi
y
given
9,

0.5,

then the equations of our scales

z

0.5 /,

=
by

0.5 F,
Fig. 56.

0.5 p.
line

that

The completed chart is when / = 6 and F =

The index

drawn shows

then p

3.6.

:f(S^

5>.

-- 3

y.- 2
,|5

fA'

J'

Z'

Fig. 56.

Another formula which

may
Rl

be charted

in the
I

same way

Is

i?l

i?3

where i?
R3,
. .
.

is

the circuit resistance of a circuit containing resistances R\, R2,

in parallel.

connected

(X)

EQUATION OF THE FORM f,(u) +f2(v) Mw) = Uw). STRAIGHT AND CURVED SCALES
-

(We note that the variable w occurs 57. Chart for equation (X). both members of the equation.) Consider two parallel axes and BY and a curved axis CZ (Fig. 57). Draw any index line cutting these
in

AX

ixes
in

in u, v, and w respectively. Draw wD parallel to AX, cutting AB D, and draw wE and vF parallel to AB. The triangles uEw and wFv

Art. 58

STORM WATER RUN-OFF FORMULA

107
i(

are similar, hence

Bv =

y,

AD =
X

si,

Eu Fw = Ew Fv = AD DB. Dio = 2 and AB = k,\^e have

: : :

Therefore,

Au =

x,

z:z

=
x

z^-.k

Zi

Zy

or

{k

Zi

Zi)

-\-

z^y

kz,

or

+k

Zi

=
k

W2

and
X

if

mjiiu),

Zl

dz
Z\

mif-iiv),

=
Zi

mjiiw),

this relation

becomes
Wife

fiiu)

-\-

fiip)

/sM =

Mtv).

Solving for

Zi

and

we

get
Zl

=
mijziw)

+ W2

Hence
X

to chart equation (X) pro-

ceed as follows: Construct the scales

= mifi{u),
axes

mifiiv)

on two parextending
If

allel

AX

and

BY

in the

same

direction.

AB =

inches, construct the points of the

curved scale
to w,

CZ by
off

assigning values

and laying
mifziw)
X.0
-\-

along
fziw),

AB,

Zi

=
Fig. 57.

AD
allel

m2

and parWiW72
fi{w),

AX,

= D'w =

and marking the point thus

found with the corresponding value of w.

the three scales in values of
ic,

Then any index

line will cut

v,

and

satisfying equation (X).

-

To

chart the equation fi{u)

f.2(v)

f:i{w)

= Mw), we

construct the

and y = m^f^iv) in opposite directions. This equation 58. Storm water run-ofif formula, q + l\q^ = P. arises in the storm water run-off formula given by C. B. Buerger, in the Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXXVIII, p. 1 139, where N and P are quantities which depend upon the sewer run, the area, and the rainfall, and q
scales X

m\f\{ii)

is

the run-off in cu.

If

ft.

per sec. per acre.

we

write the equation

P
Zi

Nq^ =

q,

we have an equation
7I *

of the

form (X), with the scales

X

= miP,

rriiN,

=
m\q^ -f
72

=
Wig'
i

+ w^

a-

Let P, N, and q vary from o

to 10,

and take Wi = W2 =

and k = 14".

io8

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Then our
x
y/v
scales are

Chap.

= P,

y= -N,

si

14 g^
2^

s
I

=
1^

and BY are drawn in opposite and the length of AB is 14 in. (Fig. 58a). We assign values to q, and on AB we lay off AD = Zi, and parallel to AX we lay off DD' = 2 and mark the point D'

The

axes

AX

directions,

with the value assigned to

points D'

q.

We
q.

join the

by a smooth

curve, thus giving a

curved scale for the variable

Any

index

line will then cut out values of P, N, and q satisfying the equation. The completed chart is given by Fig. 58^, and the index line drawn

shows that when

P =

6 and

5,

then g

cu.

ft.

per sec. per acre.

EXPRESSION

IN

BUERGER RUN-OFF FORM U LA.

Fig. 58&.

L/j

Art. 59

FRANCIS F0R:MULA FOR A CONTRACTED WEIR

109

JJ-,

-/

-IS

2^ ^

-J

-3.S

-4

-'fS

FRANCIS FORM U LA.

CONTRACTED WE/R.
Q =3.33 B-0.2 H )
f

1-5

Hi

Fig. 59.

no

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Francis
is

Chap.

Here, Q
is

59.

= 3-33 (B 0.2 H) H^. f ormu a for a contracted weir. the quantity of water flowing over weir in cu. ft. per sec., B

the width of the weir in

ft.

ft.,

and

is

the head over the crest of the

weir in

If we write the equation Q 3.33/7^5 = 0.666 H^ we have an equation of the form (X), with the scales x = niiQ, y ^ m^ (3.33 B),Zx = -, 2

= -

:,

(0.666 H2).
to 33.
If

Let

vary from o to

5,

from o to
k
7

8,

and Q from o
1

12,

our scales are x

0.3 Q,

. r>

we choose mi = 0.3, mo = 0.6, and 12 H^ 0.4 H^ ^ T> ? z = y = 2B,Zi = Hi + 2 Hi + 2

-,

and the length H, and on AB we lay oH AD = Zu We of AB is 12 and parallel to BY we lay oflf DD' = z, and mark the point thus found with the corresponding value of H. We join the points by a smooth Any index line curve, thus giving a curved scale for the variable H. will then cut the scales in values of B, H, and Q satisfying the equation. The completed chart is given in Fig. 59, and the index line drawn shows = 1.2 ft., then Q = 12.1 cu. ft. per sec. that when 5 = 3 ft., and 60. The solution of cubic and quadratic equations.
in opposite directions,
in.

The axes AX and

5F are drawn

assign values to

w^

+ piv +

q =

o,

w^
first

-\-

pw +

q =

o,

i*;^

Let us consider
the equation as g The scales are

the cubic equation w^

+ pw =
nhp,

Writing w^, we have an equation of the form (X).

+ nw" + pw + pi^ + 2 = 0.
=

-\-

q =

O.

X
If

miq,

21

knii
,

m\_iv

-\-

W2

w,

mxm2
;

liP.

niiw

-\- rrii

allow p and q to vary from and k = 10", our scales are

we

10

to

+10, and choose Wi = W2 =

Z

q,

P,

Zi

= low
;

w^
j

starting at

In Fig. 60a, the p- and g-scales are constructed on XX' and A and B respectively. Assigning positive values to w,
o, 0.1, 0.2,
z,
. . . ,

YY'
viz.,

w =

and and mark the points, D', thus found with the corresponding values of w. We draw a smooth curve through these points, getting the curved axis AZ. Then any index line will cut the three scales in values of q, w, and p satisfying the equation, or an index line joining p and q will
10,
Zi

we compute

and

and lay

off

AD

Zi

DD' =

cut the curve in w, a root of the cubic equation.

We
YY'
zv^

note that the line through

In

E (p =
-{-

+ pw

A (q = o) and D' (w = Wo) will cut Wo^) since these values of q, w, and p satisfy the equation q = o. This observation allows us to construct the points of

Art. 6o

THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

III

the curved scale as follows:

OnAB, we

layoff the scale

iv,

Zi

= lo w/(z;+i),

mark

the points with the corresponding value of

vertical

through these points. Let the point D through this point. Then the
(p

and draw the verticals be marked Wo and let DD' be the

line

joining

{q

o)

with

1^0") will cut

DD'

in

a point of

the curve which

value Wq.
the w-scale

must be marked with the Thus the points of the scale

are rapidly constructed.

may
by

Interpolation on be made either along

projection, along
for the cubic
is

the curve or,

Fig.
of

AB.

The complete curve

in

drawn Gob (curve marked "C"). By

it

means

we can
i.

find the positive roots

of the equation.

Example
-\-

Solve the equation

in

id^

w 6 = o. The index line =2 and q = 6 cuts the curve p

2
1.46 (Fig. 606).

joining

w =
Fig. 60a. If p and q lie aw'; the equation becomes

The negative roots of the equation can be gotten by letting w = w' and
finding the positive roots of the resulting equation.

beyond the
w'^
lie
-\-

limits
-^
a-^

10 and +10,
o,

let

w =

^w'
a-

-\-

or w'^

+ p'w' + g' =
equation
w^

o;

choose a so that p' and

/-a
If

a'

within the limits

10 and +10.
the

Example
let

2.

Solve

210

9000
let

=
a

we
and

w =

aw',

we

get w'^

210
a^

9000
a""

Now

10,

w'^ 2.1 w' g = o. The index line joining p = 2.1 and = 9 cuts the curve in w' = 2.42; hence w = 24.2 (Fig. 60b). 2 We may similarly build an alignment chart for the quadratic equaThe method of construction of the curved axis tion w^ + pw -{ q = o.

we have

for this equation differs

from the construction of the curved axis for the

replaces
li^,

cubic only in that

iv^

so that

DD' =

= w^/(w

i)-

Again we note that the points A (q = o), D' (w = must lie on a straight line, since these values of
equation w^

Wo), and E (p = wq) q, w, and p satisfy the

in

+ pw

-\-

o.

We may

use this fact

constructing the
(curve
of the

The complete curve is drawn in Fig. 60b marked "Q"); by means of it we can find the positive roots
points of the curv^e.

equation.

Example
line joining

3.

Solve the equation

q

ic^

5.15

7V

2.42

o.

The

index

p = 5.15 and

2.42 cuts the curve

m w

0.52 and

w =

4.65.

alignment chart for solution of quadratic and cubic equations.

112
Fig. 6o&.

Art. 6o

THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

II3

The complete cubic equation w^ + nw^ formed into the equation w"^ + p'w' + 5'
w'
3 chart.
,

+
=

pw + g = o may be transo by the substitution w =

by means
of

or

we may proceed

to solve

it

directly

an alignment

In the construction of the curved axis

we have
I \

AD=Zi =
and

low
let

and DD' =
the curve
yl (2

= -

"^

\\

(
\

w^

-\- I

w-\-i/

w-\-i/
-\-

In Fig. 60c,

the curve

A Co
I

to the cubic w^

correspond to the quadratic wpw -\- q = o (where w

+
=

pw
o).

q=o

Then

DQ= Thus
tance
plete
off

DCo= we simply

DD' = DCo
-{I

+n

DQ.

starting at Co,

lay

off,

along DD', n times the fixed disthe com-

DQ to arrive at the point Cn of the curve corresponding to cubic equation. We thus rapidly lay
in either direction

from Co

a uniform
get
C_2, C-i,

scale with

interval equal to
Ci, Ci, Cz,
. . .

DQ, and
,

the points
C-z

corresponding
I, is

to

the curves

2,

3,

-I, -2, -3, ....

This

done along the various verticals and for the values of w for which n o was plotted, and the curves for w = 10 For intermediate to w = 10 are drawn. values of n we interpolate between two
curves.
Fig. 606 gives the

complete chart for

the

equation

w^

nw"^

+ pw +
g
lie

o.

Thus

to solve this equation,

we draw

the index line joining

this cuts the w-curve in the required root.

To

find negative roots,

to find the roots

when p and

beyond the

limits

p and g; and 10 and +10, we

g

proceed as in the case of the simple cubic w^ Example 4. Solve the equation ufi -\- w"^
index line joining p

+ pw +

2.1

o.

3.2

o.

The
i

= 2.1 and

= 3.2

cuts the curve w

in

w =
=
If

1.6.
5.

Example
o
(this
let

Solve the equation w^

in

equation occurs

96 w^ 721.879 w 7,826.051 the problem of the equilibrium of arches).

we

7-83

curve
w""

w = aw' = 10 w', the equation becomes w'^ + 9.6 w"^ + 7-22 w' = o and the index line joining p = 7.22 and g = 7. 83 cuts the n = 9.6 in w' = 0.59. Hence w = 5.9.
pw*
q

We

+
-\-

can similarly plot alignment charts for any trinomial equation + g = o and for the fourth degree equation w^ -}- nw"^

pw

o.

114

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap.

(XI)

ADDITIONAL FORMS OF EQUATIONS. METHODS.*

Chart for equation of form
/i(u)
'

COMBINED
This form

6i.
is

fijw)

Mv)

Uw)
parallel to

and
All

a generalization of equation (IX). Consider two intersecting axes and a curved axis CZ (Fig. 6i). Let any transversal cut the

AX

AY
X,

axes in u,

v,

and
y,

iv

respectively,

and draw
z.
:

wD

A Y,

so that

Bv =
iiAv,

AD

x',

and
:

Dw =
z
:

Then

in the similar triangles,

uDw

and

we have

Dw Av = Du
y

An, or
I
:

=XX
if

X,

2/V _
y

_I_

K y X
/4(W),

x'

Now

X
x'

= = =

mifi{u),

m2f2{v),

mxjziw).
ni2fs(w)

mi
this

or
tion

equa-

becomes

Fig. 61.

fM +
'

f4(w)
f2{v)

Mw)
by

Thus, the w-scale

x'

is

a smooth curve through the points determined

= mjsiw) and z = niifsiw) fi{w) and marked with the corresponding values of w. Any index line will cut the scales in values of u, v, w satisfying the equation.
62.

Chart for equation of form /i(u) +/2(r) -fsiw)

/

= f^{q).

We
of

introduce an auxiliary variable

(i)

and write
and and
(2) f,{u)

hiv)

/3(w)

U{q).

Equation

(i)

has the form

(III)

may be

plotted

by the method

Equation (2) has the Art. 32, but the /-scale need not be graduated. form (I) and may be .plotted by the method of Art. 23. The position of
the scales
intersect

The {v, w) and (m, q) index lines must is illustrated in Fig. 62. on the /-axis. In63. Chart for equation of form/i(u) f^{q) +/2(f) 'fsiw) = i. troducing an auxiliary variable /, we write
'

(i)

Mu)

/4(g)

and

(2)

+ Mv) Mw) =
.

I.

Art. 32.

(i) has the form (III) and can be plotted by the method of Equation (2) is a special case of the form (X), where /4(w) = i, and can be plotted by the method of Art. 57. The /-scale is not gradu-

Equation

* These forms, involving three or four variables, occur rarely and are therefore treated very briefly.

in engineering practice,

Art. 65

CHART FOR EQUATION OF FORM

The
position of the scales
is

(Xl)

115

ated.
{v,

illustrated in Fig. 63.

/-axis.

The

{u, g)

and

w) index lines must intersect on the

^Sj^/

Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.

64. ^

Chart for equation of form J, ^

t,

..

fi{u)

77-T + fi{v)

7-7r fz{w)

Introducing

an auxiliary variable
(i)

we

write
/

4t4 = /4(g)
(2)
is

and
(III)

(2)

i
t

+ -l-=-L-.
h{v)

Mw)

Equation
Art. 32.

(i)

has the form

Equation
of Art. 55.

of the
is

and may be plotted by the method of form (IX) and may be plotted by the

method
on the

position of the scales.

/-axis.

The /-scale The (u,

Fig. 64 illustrates the not graduated. and (v, w) index lines must intersect q)

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

65.

Chart for equation of form

,

/i(")
auxiliary variable
/,

J,\

+" j/

we

Mv)

=1.

Introducing an
I.

write
t

Mu) (0 TT^ =
Ma)

and

(2)

Uw) + 4:^7^ = h{v)

ii6

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(i)

Chap. V
of

Equation
Art. 32.

has the form

(2) is

(III)

and can be plotted by the method

Equation

The common
is

a special case of the form charted in Art. 61. The position of the scales /-scale need not be graduated.

illustrated in Fig. 65.

/-axis.

The

{u, g)

and

{v,

w) index lines must intersect

on the
66.

We introduce a new variable

(i)

Chart for equation of form /i(u) /2(q)

/,

+ fAv)

fi{w) =fi{w).

and write
(2)
t -\-

Mu)Uq) =
has the form
(2)

and
(III)

h{v) U{w)

=Mw).

Equation
Art. 32.

(i)

Equation
of Art. 57.
is

has the form (X) and

/-axis

and may be charted by the method of may be charted by the

method

The

of the scales

illustrated in Fig. 63.

need not be graduated. The position The {u, q) and {v, w) index lines

must

intersect

on the

/-axis.

^<>^

Fig. 66.

Fig. 67.

An interesting application of this type is given by D'Ocagne.* He considers Bazin's formulaf for the velocity of flow of water in open channels,

c 's/rs,

where

=
0.552

m + -y=
,

Vr

We

can combine these equations into one equation,

V

87
0.552

Vrs

m
i

or

87

Vs

w_ 0.552
r

Vr

Here
* Traite t

?^ =
We

and

t-^^^in Art. 51.

de Nomographic, p. 233. have charted this formula by means of two charts

Art. 67

CHART FOR EQUATION OF FORM

(XI)

II7

Fig. 66 illustrates the positions of the scales.

scales

By

placing the

on the same

axis,

we

get a very compact chart.

The

m- and ^(v, s) and

index lines must intersect on the ^-axis. 67. Chart for equation of form /i(u) -f-.iq) -\-Mv) -Mw) We introduce an auxiliary variable /, and write fsiw).
(w,
r)

= Mq)

(i) /i()

/2(g)

- = Ma)
t

and

(2) /3(i;)

Mw) + = Mw).
/

Both equations have the form (X) and can be plotted by the method

of

Fig. 67 Art. 57 with a common /-axis, which need not be graduated. The {u, q) and (v, w) index lines illustrates the positions of the scales.

must

intersect

on the

/-axis.

EXERCISES
Construct charts for the following formulas.
limiting values for the variables.
tional exercises will
1.

The numbers in parenthesis suggest These limits may be extended if necessary. Addibe found at the end of this chapter.

V=
ft.

(f

D^

+ d-). Volume
D
is

of a cask or buoy;

is

the diameter of the

ft.

base in

(o to 10),

the diameter of the middle section in

the volume in cu.

(o to 10),

is

the

height in

ft.

(o to 10),

is

ft.

Francis' formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. 2. Q = 3.33 6 [(A/ -|- /f)- /l=]. per sec. over a rectangular, suppressed weir b ft. in width (2 to 15) due to a head of
ft.

ft.

(o to 800).

over the crest (0.5 to

1.5),

considering the velocity head h

ft.

(0 to o.i)

due to the

velocity of approach.
3.

Sp. gr.
is

;.

Here, w

is

the weight in pounds of the solid in air (o to

gr. is

100), w'

the weight in pounds of the solid in water (o to 95), sp.

the specific

gravity (o to 20).
4.

r-.

Gordon
is

formula for columns with ends rounded and maxi-

9000 r-

mum

allowable compression stress of 20,000 pounds per sq.

in
ft.

in.;
(i

is

the length of the

is

column

(10 to 50), r

the radius of gyration in inches

to 12),/

the allowable

stress in
5.

pounds per

sq. in.

(1000 to 20,000).
resistance, R, of a parallel circuit the respec-

"o

d"

+ 5- + -n- Equivalent
which have resistances
gP.

tive branches of

Ri, R2,

and R3 ohms

(i

to 10)

and containing

no

e.m.f.
6.

Vo^

Distance,
=
32.2.

s,

in feet

260

to -{-260) passed over

ro ft.

by a body
to
-f-

projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of

in
t

per sec.

( 260

260)

seconds (o to 17); g
7.

V=

0.6490 ^

^. Volume,
P

F, in cu.

ft.

of

one pound of superheated

steam which has a pressure of

pounds per

sq. in. (50 to 250)

and a temperature of

T degrees

(280 to 650).

Il8

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR CHAPTERS
Construct charts for the following formulas.
III, IV,

Chap.

V.

The numbers
be extended

in parenthesis suggest
if

limiting values for the variables.

1.

These

limits

may

necessary.

y/PrP-i and P" = \^Pi,Pi. First intermediate pressure, P', in pounds and second intermediate pressure, P", in pounds per sq. in. of a three stage air compressor which compresses air from a pressure of Pi pounds per sq. in. (14.4 to 15.2) to a pressure of P2 pounds per sq. in. (500 to 3000).

P'

per sq.

in.,

2.

Wf-.

Moment

about

its axis;

is

of inertia, /, in inch units of a right circular cylinder the total weight in pounds (o to 25,000) and r is the radius in inches

(o to 25).

K-S/^Jl [2
an axis through
is

Radius of gyration, K, of a right circular cylinder about

r

center of gravity and perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder; the radius in inches (o to 25), h is the height in inches (o to 40).
its

4.

C=
361n

T
-p

Capacitance,

C, in microfarads of

two

parallel cylinders

10^

per cm. length; each cylinder r cm. in radius (o.i to 0.25), their centers separated by a distance of d cm. (2.5 to 144), and immersed in a medium of dielectric constant ^ (^ = i
in practical cases).
5.

V=

0.596 -p

0.256.

Volume,
P

V, in cu.

ft.

of one

pound

of superheated
of

steam which has a pressure of

degrees (280 to 650).

pounds per

sq. in. (50 to 250)

and a temperature

6. B.H.P. = 3.33 {A 0.6 VA)Vli[. Boiler horse-power, B.H.P. (o to 500) chimney design for power houses; A is the internal area of chimney in sq. ft. (6 to // is the height of the chimney in ft. (50 to 150).
7.

for
16)^

H.P.

'.

321,000
in. (o.i

Horse-power, H.P., transmitted by a

1
I

solid circular shaft ot

diameter d
of
I

.y

to 6) at n revolutions per min. (50 to 2500) with a fiber stress in shear pounds per sq. in. (o to 50,000). 8. AT = ^ 6c sin A. Area of a triangle, K, with sides b (o to 10) and c (i to 10)

and included angle

9.
</

= 0.013 ^Dlp. Piston-rod diameter,

A
(0 to 90).

d, in

inches

(i

to 6) of a

steam engine;

D is the piston diameter in inches

60),

(12 to 24),

is

the length of the stroke in inches (12 to

in.

is

the

maximum steam
593

pressure in pounds per sq.

(80 to 150).

10.

A =

/y

-7-.

Sectional

area. A, in circular mils, of a copper wire for

annual cost of transmitting energy over a line conducting a constant current of / abamperes (o to 100) will be a minimum; c is the cost of generated energy in dollars per kilowatt hour (0.005 to 0.02), c' is the cost of the bare copper wire in dollars per pound (0.15 to 0.35), h is the number of hours per year that the line is in use (4 X 300 to 24 X 300), p is the annual percentage rate of interest on the capital invested in copper

which the

total

(4 to 6).
11.

^
B

{ai^

-{ b^).

Moment

of inertia, /, of a flat rectangular plate about

an
in

axis perpendicular to its plane

and passing through the center;

ft.

is

the total weight

ft. (2

pounds
12.

(o to 30,000),
.

is

the length in

(5 to 25), b

is

the breadth in

to 10).

Ti

-\-

vfi2 _j_5r2orTi

2B=-=r.
'I

T2

Bending moment,
is

B, in a circular

shaft for which the twisting

moment

is

T,

and

Ti

the twisting

moment which would

give the

same

effect as

B and T

acting together.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
13.

II9
sq. in.

p =

st
.

Allowable internal pressure,

r

p, in

pounds per

on a hollow
5 is

cylinder of inner radius

inches;

is

the thickness of the cylinder in inches,

sq. in. for steel). in

the

working strength of the material (20,000 pounds per

14.

^2

.^i [i

<

(^2

'1)].

Resistance,
ohms

i?2,

ohms
ti

(o to 5)

of a conductor
is

of

/2

C. which has a resistance of Ri

(o to 5) at

C. (20 to 30) and

made

of

a material which has a resistance temperature coefificient of a at ti C. (a = 0.00393 when ti = 20 and may be taken as a constant for copper). Fteley and Stearns' formula for the discharge, 15. Q = 3.31 6/i' + 0.007 6. Q, in cu. ft. per sec. over a suppressed weir b feet in width (5 to 20) due to a head of feet over the crest (o.i to 1.6).

dip in degrees
17.

(l

to 55,000) to a stratum, where A Depth, D, the the horizontal distance and H (100 to 1,000). T = H sin A. Thickness, T, the dip in degrees to 1,000), where A the horizontal distance (lOO to 1,000). to 90), and H 18. tan C = tan A sin B. Projection of dips. C the dip of the projected
16.

D = H tan A.
(i
is

in ft. (i

is

to 89),

is

in

ft.

in ft. (i in

is

ft.

is

angle in degrees (o.i to 89), A is the dip of the bed in degrees of projection in degrees (i to 90).
19.

(i

to 89),

is

the angle

N=
d-

R^KC.

Explosion
R
is

formula.

is

the

number

of

half-pound blocks

of T.N.T. (20 to 10,000),

the radius of rupture in

ft.

(0.5 to 15.0),

is, a.

constant

for the material (o.io to 0.50),

20.

= 8 rb 4 b^.
of

Diameter,
Volume,
the

is

a constant for
d,

tamping (0.1 to 5.0.) of the base of a segment of a sphere of radius

segment of a sphere of radius

and height
21.

segment

h.

V=7rrtf

^
h.

^^'

V, of a

height of segment
22.

T=

COS^a

Nr-- N

IS

number of
is

teeth

(i

to 100) in a spiral gear, a

...
which to

and

is

the angle

(0 to 80) of teeth 14,

with axis,

the

number

of teeth for

select cutter (i2-

No. 8; 14-17, No. 7; 17-21, No. 135, No. 2; 135 up. No. 1).

6; 21-26,

No.

5;

26-35, No. 4; 35-55. No. 3; 55-

INDEX.
Adiabatic expansion formula, 48 chart for, 33, 49 Alignment or nomographic charts
also

Chart, Grasshoff's formula, 51 Hazen-Williams formula, 60

(see

Charts,

alignment

or

nomo-

horsepower of belting, 54 indicated horsepower of a steam engine, 63

graphic)

fundamental principle of, 44 with curved scales, 106 with four or more parallel scales, 55 with parallel or perpendicular index
lines, 87, 91, 97 with three or more concurrent

Lame

formula for thick hollow cylin"run-off," formula, 49

of inertia of cylinder, 100

ders, 92

McMath
moment

scales,

104

multiplication and division, 47 prony brake, 70

resistance of riveted steel plate, 103

with three parallel scales, 45 with two intersecting index lines, 68 with two or more intersecting index
lines, 76 with two parallel scales and one inter-

solution of quadratic
tions, 112
specific

and cubic equaand water

speed

of

turbine

wheel, 75

secting scale, 65

storm water run-off formula, 108

tension in belts, 54

Approximate differentiation, 224 Approximate integration, 224

Area,

tension on bolts, 67 twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft,

by approximate integration rules, 227 by planimeter, 246 Armature or field wmding formula, 90
chart
for,

78

volume volume

of circular cylinder, 49 of sphere, 49

scales, for

90

Charts, hexagonal, 40

Chart with network of

Bazin formula, loi chart for, 102, 116

adiabatic expansion, 33 chimney draft, 38

elastic limit of rivet steel,

34

Center of gravity, by approximate integration rules, 231 Chart, alignment or nomographic, for

equations in three variables, 28 equations

in

two

variables, 20

armature or

adiabatic expansion, 49 field winding, 90 Bazin formula, 102, 116

multiplication and division, 30, 31 solution of cubic equation, 36

temperature difference, 39

Chezy formula

for flow of water,

56

Chezy formula

for flow of water, 58

D'Arcy's formula for flow of steam, 81

deflection of beams, 72, 73, 86

chart for, 58 Chimney draft formula, 37 chart for, 38

Coefficients in trigonometric series evalu-

discharge of gas through an

distributed load on a
focal length of a lens, 106

orifice,

89

wooden beam, 83

ated,

Francis formula for a contracted weir,

109
friction loss in pipes,

94

by six-ordinate scheme, 179 by twelve-ordinate scheme, 181 by twenty-four-ordinate scheme, 185 for even and odd harmonics, 179

Xll

INDEX
Focal length of a lens, chart for, 35, 40, 106
slide rule for, 15

Coefficients in trigonometric series evalu-

ated,
for
for

for

odd harmonics only, i86 odd harmonics up to the fifth, 187 odd harmonics up to the eleventh,

Fourier's series, 170

Francis formula for a contracted weir,

chart
for,

lO

189
for

109

odd harmonics up to the seventeenth,

Friction loss in pipes, 94

191
graphically, 200

chart

for,

94
of trigonometric series, 170

Fundamental

mechanically, 203 numerically, 179, 186, 192, 198 Constants in empirical formulas

deter-

Gauss's interpolation formula, 219 Graphical differentiation, 244

mined by method of averages, 124, 126 method of least squares, 124, 127 method of selected points, 124, 125
Coordinate paper, logarithmic, 22
rectangular, 21

Graphical evaluation of coefficients, 200 Graphical integration, 237 Graphical interpolation, 209 Grasshoff's formula, 50
chart
for,

51

semilogarithmic, 24

Harmonic analyzers, 203 Harmonics of trigonometric

Hazen-Williams formula, 57 chart for, 60 Hexagonal charts, 40 Horsepower of belting, 52

series,

170

D'Arcy's formula for flow of steam, 79

chart for, 81
Deflection of beams, 70, 71, 84

chart for, 72, 73, 86

Diff^erences,

210

Differentiation, approximate, 224

chart for, 54 Hyperbola, 149 Hyperbolic curves, 128, 135, 137, 140

graphical, 244

mechanical, 255 numerical, 234

Differentiator, 255

Index

line,

44

Indicated horsepower of steam engine, 61

Discharge of gas through an

orifice,

89

chart for, 63 Integraph, 252

Integration, approximate, 224

chart for, 89 Distributed load on a wooden beam, 80

chart for, 83

applications

of,

Durand's

rule,

226

Elastic limit of rivet steel, 32

chart for, 34

by by by by by
in, 124,

Durand's
Simpson's

rule,

227 226
233

rectangular rule, 225

rule, 226,

trapezoidal rule, 225

Weddle's

rule,

233

Empirical formulas,

general formula for, 231

125,

determination of constants
173, 174

graphical, 237

mechanical, 246
Integrators, 250

for non-periodic curves, 120

for periodic curves, 170

Interpolation, 209

involving 2 constants, 128 involving 3 constants, 140 involving 4 or more constants, 152

Gauss's formula
graphical, 209
inverse, 219

for,

219

Equations, solutions of
algebraic equations)

{see

Solutions of

Lagrange's formula for, 218 Newton's formula for, 214, 217

Isopleth, 44

Experimental data, 120, 170 Exponential curves, 131, 142, 151, 153, 156

Lagrange's interpolation formula, 2l8

INDEX
Lame
formula for thick hollow cylinders,
Rectangular coordinate paper, 21 Rectangular rule, 225
Resistance of riveted steel plate, loi chart for, 103
Scale,

XIU

chart for, 92 Least Squares, method of, 124, 127 Logarithmic coordinate paper, 22 Logarithmic curve, 151
Logarithrnic scalej
-^

definition of,

equation

of, 2

Maxima and minima by approximate

diffferentiation formulas,

logarithmic, 2

McMath
chart

236 "run-off" formula, 48

49

representation
Scale modulus, 2
Scales,

of, I

for,

Mean

effective pressure

by approximate

network
sliding, 7

of,

20

integration rules, 228

perpendicular, 20
stationary, 5

Mechanical differentiation, 255 Mechanical integration, 246 Moment, by integrator, 250

Moment

of inertia,
rules,

Semilogarithmic coordinate paper, 24 Simpson's rule, 226, 233

by approximate integration by integrator, 250

230

Slide rule,
circular, 16

Moment
chart

of inertia of cylinder, 99

for electrical resistances, 15

for focal length of lens, 15

for,

100

Multiplication
30,

and

division,

charts

for,

Lilly's spiral, 18

31,41,47

logarithmic, 9
log-log, 13

Newton's interpolation formula, 214, 217 Nomographic or alignment charts {^see Alignment or nomographic charts) Numerical evaluation of coefficients, 179,
186, 192, 198

Sexton's omnimetre, 17 Thacher's cylindrical, 18

Solutions of algebraic equations,

Numerical differentiation, 234 Numerical integration, 224 Numerical interpolation, 215

Parabola, 145 Parabolic curves, 128, 135, 140 Periodic phenomena, representation

by by by by on

means of parabola and circle, 26 means of rectangular chart, 35 means of alignment chart, 1 10 method of inverse interpolation, 221
the logarithmic slide rule,
1

Specific speed of turbine

and water wheel,

73 chart
of,

for,

75

Storm water run-off formula, 107

chart for, 108
Straight
line, 122,

170 Planimeter,

125
of,

Amsler polar, 248 compensation, 249 linear, 249 principle of, 246 Polynomial, 159
Pressure and center of pressure, by

Tables, construction

213

Temperature
chart
for,

difference, 37

39
52

Tension
chart
rules,

in belts,
for,

54
bolts,

Tension on
chart
for,

66

approximate integration Prony brake, 69

chart
for,

231

67

Trapezoidal

70

Rates of change, by approximate

entiation formulas, 235

differ-

rule, 225 Trigonometric series, 170 determination of constants in, 173, 174 Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft, 77

chart

for,

78

ZiV
Velocity,

INDEX
by approximate
integration rules,

Volume
chart

of sphere, 50
for,

229

49
233
rules,

Volume, by approximate integration 229 Volume of circular cylinder, 48 chart for. 4Q

rules,

Weddle's
228

rule,

Work, by approximate integration

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

Ml,

II

5i

3 1205 00614 9 89

v(V

Loose Items

THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Santa Barbara

THIS

BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW.

Series

9482

iJC

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY

FACILi'

000 572 232

r7)

337
V.I

HCSB LIBRAR!*

joj -Eg-o nSnojqj |3|n>jBd -IJV ^^ 'uonanjKuco jo pomsm ojcds c jas oi pi^jEd au!puodraJJOD am SuoiE ppj 'sninpoui Am p

am

81101E

ppj 'n^

19-0

joj '

-s

lairas

011 =
ao''

" sn|n^m

e SEq 'n^

= i

'airas

iisiuud aqj o) ,tremud aqx 8 N

siooa sHvafts

saivos

The primary Kale, i = u, has a modulus = l in. To get a scale of any modulus, fold along the corresponding parallel to the primary scale;- . (., for x = c.75 u, fold along the parallel through 0.75. For method of construction see Art. J.
N. B.

^^
I

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FAClLTi

r\f\r\

C-70

ooo

UCSB LIBRAR!*
32.-7

L56
VI

LOGARITHMIC SCALES
N. B.

The primary

scale,

parallel to the

primary

scale;

t. {.,

lolog ti, has a modulus m = lo !n. To get a scale of any modulus, fold along the corresponding For method of construction, see Art. 3. for i = 6 log n, fold along the parallel through 6-6.

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

000 572 232