Contents

CUT AND FILL: ......................................................................................................................................... 2 ROCK EXCAVATION ............................................................................................................................... 13 CLEARING AND GRUBBING ................................................................................................................... 16 WASTE MATERIAL ............................................................................................................................. 16 BORROW EXCAVATION ......................................................................................................................... 17 COMPACTION........................................................................................................................................ 18 REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................................ 20

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CUT AND FILL:

The objectives of routine road cuts and fills are: To create space for the road template and driving surface; To balance material between the cut and fill; To remain stable over time; To not be a source of sediment; and To minimize long-term costs.

Landslides and failed road cuts and fills can be a major source of sediment, they can close the road or require major repairs, and they can greatly increase road maintenance costs (Photo 1.1). Vertical cut slopes should not be used unless the cut is in rock or very well cemented soil. Long-term stable cut slopes in most soils and geographic areas are typically made with about a 1:1 or :1 (horizontal: vertical) slope (Photo 1.2). Ideally, both cut and fill slopes should be constructed so that they can be vegetated (Photo 1.3), but cut slopes in dense, sterile soils or rocky material are often difficult to vegetate.

Photo 1.1 Over-steep slopes, wet areas, or existing slide areas can cause instability problems for a road and increase repair and maintenance costs, as well as sediment production.

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Photo 1.2 Construct cut slopes at a 3/4:1 or flatter slope in most soils for long-term stability. In well-cemented soils and rock, a 1/4:1 cut slope will usually be stable.

Photo 1.3 A well-stabilized cut slope, with about a 1:1 slope, that is well covered with vegetation.

Fill slopes should be constructed with a 1 1/2:1 or flatter slope. Over-steep fill slopes (steeper than a 1 :1 slope), commonly formed by side-casting loose fill material, may continue to ravel with time, are difficult to stabilize, and are subject to sliver fill failures (Photo 1.4). A
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rock fill can be stable with a 1 1/3:1 slope. Ideally, fills should be constructed with a 2:1 or flatter slope to promote growth of vegetation and slope stability (Photo 1.5). Terraces or benches are desirable on large fill slopes to break up the flow of surface water. Table1.1 presents a range of commonly used cut and fills slope ratios appropriate for the soil and rock types described. Also Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 show typical cut slope and fill slope design options, respectively, for varying slope and site conditions. Note, however, that local conditions can vary greatly, so determination of stable slopes should be based upon local experience and judgment. Groundwater is the major cause of slope failures.

Photo 1.4 Avoid loose, overstep fill slopes (steeper than 1 1/5:1), particularly along streams and at drainage crossings.

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Photo 1.5 Construct fill slopes with a 1 1/2:1 or flatter slope (to promote vegetation growth) and stabilize the fill slope surface. Use benches (terraces) on large fill slopes to intercept any flow of surface water.

Table 1.1 COMMON STABLE SLOPE RATIOS FOR VARYING SOIL/ROCK CONDITIONS Soil/Rock Condition Most rock Very well cemented soils Most in-place soils Very fractured rock Loose coarse granular soils Heavy clay soils Soft clay rich zones or wet seepage areas Fills of most soils Fills of hard, angular rock Low cuts and fills (<2-3 m. high) Slope Ratio (Hor:Vert) :1 to :1 :1 to :1 :1 to 1:1 1:1 to 1 :1 1 :1 2:1 to 3:1 2:1 to 3:1 1 :1 to 2:1 1 1/3:1 2:1 or flatter (for revegetation)

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Figure 1.1 Cut slope design options.

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Figure 1.2 Fill slope design options

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Figure 1.3 Slope problems and solutions with stabilization measures.

A wide range of slope stabilization measures is available to the engineer to solve slope stability problems and cross an unstable area. In most excavation and embankment work, relatively flat slopes, good compaction, and adding needed drainage will typically eliminate routine instability problems (Photo 1.6). Once a failure has occurred, the most appropriate stabilization measure will depend on site-specific conditions such as the size of the slide, soil type, road use, alignment constraints, and the cause of the failure. Here are a range of

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common slope stabilization options appropriate for low-volume roads, presented roughly from simplest and least expensive, to the most complex and expensive:

Simply remove the slide material. Ramp over or align the road around the slide. Replant the slope and add spot stabilization. Flatten or reconstruct the slope. Raise or lower the road level to buttress the cut or remove weight from the slide, respectively. Relocate the road to a new stable location. Install slope drainage such as deep cut off trenches or dewater with horizontal drains. Design and construct buttresses (Photo 1.7), retaining structures, or rock anchors.

Retaining structures are relatively expensive but necessary in steep areas to gain roadway space or to support the roadbed on a steep slope, rather than make a large cut into the hillside. They can also be used for slope stabilization. Figure 1.4 (a and b) presents information on common types of retaining walls and simple design criteria for rock walls, where the base width is commonly 0.7 times the wall height (Photo 1.8). Figure 1.4c presents common gabion gravity wall designs and basket configurations for varying wall heights. Gabion structures are very commonly used for walls up to 6 meters high, particularly because they use locally available rock and are labour intensive (Photo 1.9).

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Photo 1.6 Simple hand compaction behind a low rock wall. Compaction is important behind any retaining structure or fill. It can be achieved by hand or, preferably, using equipment such as a wacker or small compactor.

Photo 1.7 A drained rock buttress can be used to stabilize a cut slope failure area.

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Figure 1.4 Construction of various types of retaining structures. (Adapted from Gray & Leiser, 1982)

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Figure 1.4 Continued. (Adapted from Gray & Leiser, 1982)

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ROCK EXCAVATION
Reviews standard excavation practices used to construct and modify rock slopes and provides current design and construction guidelines for their use in context sensitive areas. Several of these practices have been used for many years, while others are new techniques or recent modifications of established methods. The most common are blasting (which includes drilling the holes to be filled with explosives), ripping, and breaking. Table 1 provides a brief description of these procedures, along with the advantages and limitations of each. Each procedure is discussed in detail below.

BLASTING Blastingthe controlled use of explosives to excavate rockhas been part of construction engineering for hundreds of years. In any blasting situation, the geologic structure of the rock mass will be the most important consideration. Other considerations include the degree of scarring that would be acceptable (some areas can tolerate more blasting scars than others), cost, and safety (blasting cannot be performed in close proximity to populated areas).

Effect of Geologic Structure on Blasting Procedure The first consideration when designing a blasting operation should be the local geologic conditions. Rock competency and fracture patterns can have a significant impact on the success of a blasting operation.

Discontinuity Sets When discussing blasting, the single most important geologic factor is fracture: the spacing and orientation of any breaks, or discontinuity sets, in the rock. In particular, the orientation of the discontinuity sets with respect to the cut slope angle will influence any slope failures that may occur along the slope face. The modes of failure can be grouped into four primary mechanisms, shown left to right in Figure 1 Planar failure (a), Wedge failure (b), Circular failure (c), and Toppling failure (d).

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Figure 1. Illustration. The four primary mechanisms of slope failure.

Table 1. Description, advantages, and limitations of common excavation practices. PROCEDURE DESCRIPTION Presplit holes are blasted before production blasts. Procedure uses small diameter holes at close spacing and lightly loaded with distributed charges. ADVANTAGES Protects the final cut by producing a fracture plane along the final slope face that fractures from production blasts cannot pass. Can produce steeper cuts with less maintenance issues. Performs well in hard competent rock. LIMITATIONS The small diameter borings limit the blasting depth to 15 m (50 ft). Borehole traces are present for entire length of boring. Does not perform well in highly fractured, weak rock. The small boring diameter limits blasting depth to 15 m (50 ft). Borehole traces are present for much of the boring length. Does not protect the slope from damage caused by production blasting. Does not perform well in highly fractured, weak rock. Radial fractures are more abundant than presplit and smooth blasting. Slope face is more prone to raveling. A catchment area is recommended at slope base. More demanding on the driller. Borehole traces still apparent in hard, competent rock. Can produce extensive damage to slope or inadequate base fracturing if not
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Presplit Blasting

Smooth Blasting

Smooth blast holes are blasted after production blasts. Procedure uses small diameter holes at close spacing and lightly loaded with distributed charges.

Produces a cosmetically appealing, stable perimeter. Can be done on slopes years after initial construction. Drill hole traces are less apparent than presplitting. Performs best is hard, competent rock.

Cushion Blasting

Cushion blasting is done after production blasts. Larger drill holes are used with small diameter, lightly loaded distributed loads. Space around the explosive is filled with crushed rock to cushion the explosive force. Larger diameter drill holes, drilled vertically and used as production blasting (although spaced

Reduces the amount of radial fracturing around the borehole and also reduces borehole traces. The large diameter holes allow blasting depths up to 30 m (100 ft). Produces a ragged final slope face. Performs well in all rock types. If properly designed the final slope face shows minimal signs of blasting. Can be used when sloped

Step Drilling

closer and loaded lighter controlled blasting cannot. to minimize radial Best used in moderately to fractures). Slope face is highly fractured rock. formed along base of blast holes.

Horizontal Drilling

Larger diameter, closely spaced, lightly loaded horizontal borings are used for production style blasting. Used in massive rock to eliminate drill holes or in areas of poor access.

Eliminates bore hole traces when drilled perpendicular to the slope face. Good in massive rock where traces are not acceptable.

Ripping

Uses a tractor with an attached tooth or teeth that is lowered into the rock and dragged to break up material for excavation.

Much cheaper and safer than blasting. Can be done in close proximity to development without disturbance. Is effective on a variety of angled cuts and an excavator can be used after ripping to slope sculpting.

designed properly. Should only be used with experienced driller and blasting engineer. Only applicable for slopes between 0.7:1 and 1:1 (H:V). Does not perform well in hard competent rock. Demanding on the driller and explosives engineer. Can produce extensive radial fractures or inadequate base fracturing if not loaded properly. Requires complicated loading and timing procedures, and special stemming procedures. The tooth of the ripper can leave scars on the rock surface. The tractor cannot be used on steep slopes because of risk of overturning. Ripping is limited to relatively low density rocks.

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CLEARING AND GRUBBING

The clearing and grubbing topics addresses clearing and grubbing, the first of several operations that are required to bring the construction site to subgrade. Clearing and grubbing is the satisfactory removal of materials that cannot be used in the work. These materials include trees, stumps, shrubs, topsoil, buildings, fences, and other obstacles interfering with the work.

Material & Equipment There is no material required for this operation, but the contractor may be required to stockpile topsoil that is stripped from the site for later use. There are various types of equipment used in clearing and grubbing, including chain saws, log skidders, wood chippers and grinders, harvesters, fellers and bunchers, delimbers, bulldozers, scrapers and pans, excavators, and dump trucks.

Construction Methods Clearing and grubbing is usually the first construction operation performed. The process for clearing and grubbing involves cutting and removing trees (clearing) or other obstructions within the project site, removing stumps and brush, and removing topsoil and organic material (grubbing). The work also includes disposal of removed material, salvaging and storing material, stockpiling topsoil, and chipping and stockpiling wood waste material. The demolition of structures, such as buildings, garages, sheds, sign stone, fences, signs, markers, and guide rails, is also performed during this phase. The contract may require that certain items, such as guide rails, signs, and posts, be reserved for PennDOT reuse.

WASTE MATERIAL
This chapter addresses the satisfactory disposal of waste material from earthwork operations.

Material and Equipment Equipment used in the disposal of waste material includes bulldozers, excavators, dump trucks, rollers, compactors, and seeding and mulching equipment.

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Construction Methods The contractor loads waste material from the project into dump trucks or other hauling equipment and hauls the waste to a designated waste area. The material is placed and compacted in the same manner as for embankment construction. Once all material is in the waste area, it is graded for positive drainage. The appropriate seeding formula and mulch is then applied. At on-site waste disposal areas, frequent moisture-density tests are performed to ensure the soils placed meet specification requirements. The contractor may be required to perform other items if required by DEP permits.

BORROW EXCAVATION
This chapter addresses excavation required to supply material needed on a project in addition to the material available from project operations. These excavations are called borrow excavations. Borrow excavation is classified as common, foreign, or selected, depending on where the material is obtained.

Common borrow excavation occurs when extra material, measured before and after excavation, is obtained from a location within the limits of the project or outside of the right of way limits. Foreign borrow excavation occurs when extra material cannot be obtained from within the project limits, must be obtained elsewhere, and cannot be measured before or after excavation. Selected borrow excavation occurs when material for the work is obtained from sources outside the project limits that cannot be measured before or after excavation and is used for specific items of work due to quality or size requirements.

Material & Equipment Equipment typically used to excavate and load material includes bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, scrapers, drag lines, clamshell buckets, and front-end loaders. Dump trucks, scrapers, and off-road trucks are used to transport and dump the excavated material. Rollers and compactors are used to compact the material and to seal the surface of the excavation at the end of the workday. Seeding and mulching equipment is used to see and mulch borrow areas.

Construction Methods All required permits and agreements must be obtained before the work begins. Borrow pits should be identified early enough to allow sufficient time for sampling and laboratory testing.
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Test results must be forwarded to the District soils engineer before the material is incorporated into the project. If more than one type or classification of material is obtained from the same borrow pit, samples must be taken and submitted for each type of material. These separate materials must be removed consecutively rather than concurrently should not be mixed.

When borrow excavation is required, excavation cannot begin until the material and placement sequence has been accepted in writing, and an erosion and sediment control plan has been submitted and accepted by the county conservation district, the Pennsylvania DEP, and by PennDOT. The Department also requires a signed agreement with the property owner.

The inspector should make certain the borrow pit is cleared of vegetation, debris, unsuitable material, topsoil, and overburden before production work begins. The removed topsoil is stockpiled for reuse in restoring the pit.

During excavation, the material is monitored for changes. The District soils engineer must be notified of changes and if previously unsampled material is found during the course of borrow pit excavation (in which case additional sampling and testing is required).

Final cross sections must be taken after the last of the material has been removed from the borrow pit. After completion of the cross sections, the borrow pit should be restored according to the approved restoration plan.

COMPACTION
This chapter addresses compaction methods and equipment, and applies to embankment, benches, and subgrade compaction.

Compaction is the process of making particles of a given material fit together in the smallest possible space. Proper compaction is important because it makes material more stable and increases its supporting or load bearing capacity.

Materials are comprised of different grain sizes and physical compositions; hence, each material has unique compaction characteristics. When a given material is fully compacted,
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the spaces or voids between particles are limited to their smallest possible configuration. The greatest density obtainable through compaction is the maximum density. The moisture content of a given material directly correlates to the materials ability to be compacted to maximum density. The maximum water content needed to achieve maximum density is known as optimum moisture content. Every material has its own optimum moisture content, determined by conducting proctor tests. Too little or too much moisture inhibits adequate compaction.

In general, there are five different methods used to compact materials.

The first method is to allow the material to settle and compact on its own with no mechanical assistance. This method is time consuming and the results are unpredictable; therefore, it is rarely used.

The second method, known as surcharging, involves placing of the excess material to a given height above the plan elevation. This material is kept in place for a certain amount of time. Compaction is obtained by the weight of the excess material, which is removed after the required amount of time.

The third method involves forcing the particles together, much the same as a snowball is formed by squeezing snow in the hands. Most non-vibratory rollers and compactors compact material in a similar manner.

The fourth method of compaction involves applying weight and vibration. This method is used for broken stone or sandy material that is difficult to compact. Generally speaking, these materials are not compacted, they are consolidated. Vibratory rollers and plate tampers achieve compaction through consolidation. The amount of compaction achieved depends upon the amplitude (frequency) of machine vibration, how fast the machine is moved forward and backward, and the weight of the machine.

The fifth compaction method incorporates tampers. Tampers are usually gasoline powered and used in areas that are inaccessible to large rollers. Hand tampers are also used, but are often not as effective as mechanical tampers.

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Material & Equipment Materials used for compaction are those specified for embankment and/or backfill of the various types.

Equipment typically used includes vibratory compactors, vibratory rollers, tandem rollers, three-wheel rollers, rubber tired rollers, sheeps foot rollers, and tampers. Equipment requirements vary by the type of material and its application.

The contractor also needs equipment, including sand cone and nuclear testing equipment, for testing the compaction and moisture of the material used.

Construction Methods Material used for embankment structure backfill or other work is placed in appropriate layers per specifications and standards. Compaction is applied using the appropriate equipment, depending on the material and its application. After compaction, the contractors certified materials technician performs compaction testing using either the sand cone or nuclear procedures. If appropriate (as noted in the contractors approved quality control plan), the visual non-movement under equipment procedure may be used.

Test results are obtained, evaluated, and accepted prior to placing the next layer.

REFERENCE
Document Section 200Earthwork. PennDOT Publication 8. PDF Document. Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills. LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS. PDF Document. Chapter 3 Rock Excavation Methods. PDF Document.

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