The Drumbeats of War: Music of the Mexican-American War, 1846-1848

Intro To Historical Research 3300 Section 2 Professor Saxon Harrison King November 11, 2012

This paper will examine U.S. music during the Mexican-American War during the years 1846-1848. It will describe the function that music played during the war, both culturally on the home front, and the martial function on the battlefields. I will be looking at its composers and publishers as well, and deciphering the messages in the music they were publishing. Art, and especially music, offer excellent windows into the souls and sub-consciousness of any culture, but this is particularly true of 19th-century America.1 The ballads and piano battle fantasies were steeped in Romanticism, and were specifically designed to evoke strong emotions, whether pride in country, sadness for the lost ones, or the terror of the battlefield.2 America by this point had developed a sense of nationality for the most part unrivaled in the world, and the music definitely reflected that idealism.3 Robert Johannsen expresses this well in his book, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination, Patriotism was instilled through the keyboard, and great national events were celebrated musically.4 Songs of the war immortalized war heroes and glorified martial actions. Even the religious, poorer socio-economic classes, who typically demonized music as of the devil, approved of martial and patriotic songs.5 Now, while the music did portray positive messages of American nationalism and

idealism, there was a darker side to these Romantic ideals. The music and lyrics also reflected and promoted negative ideals of imperialism and Anglo-Saxon racial superiority. The purpose of this paper will be to look past the immediate Romanticism of the intense patriotism of the music, and dig deep to discover those negative ideals, while at the same time attempting to understand some of these thought patterns in context of cultural psyche. As I have stated above, cultural context is crucial when looking at an eras art forms. The overwhelming patriotism and warlike attitudes that were prevalent in both the music and other forms of entertainment stemmed from many sources. The Mexican War was an extremely

personal war for the American populace, being a war that touched many if not most Americans with its propinquity both geographically and with the wars heavy use of volunteers from many of the states.6 It was a minority of American citizens who did not have either family or close friends involved in the conflict.7 It was the first U.S. conflict to rest on a truly popular base, the first that grasped the interest of the population, and the first people were exposed to on an almost daily basis.8 This war was important in cementing the self-identity of the U.S. The country was still relatively young, and there was conflict between the new ideas and advances in commerce and society, and the old ideals of patriotism and nationalism that the country was founded on, which seemed to be waning.9 The war infused new life and purpose into American chauvinism, reaffirmed American republicanism, and provided an arena for new American heroes to gallop onto the scene.10 It was during this contest that American symbols, such as the flag design we know today and the eagle, were not only reminders of the past, but solidified as true national symbols and lent impetus to the patriotism ofthe soldiers.11 This was the first American war that the soldiers fought underneath the Stars and Stripes, and marched to battle to the tune of the Star-Spangled Banner.12 Foremost among these symbols though, was the song Yankee Doodle. For the American soldiers, it was far and away the most loved melody.13 Its tune was reproduced and refitted to many different songs and forms; marches, songsters, and published sheet music all held renditions of this air. A couple of reasons for its popularity could include the youthful, carefree attitude of the music or it could be that it was another link to the Revolutionary War, which seemed to be a reoccurring theme in the popular culture of the time.14 An interesting note, late in the war when some American soldiers were attending a theater in Mexico City, a call was made

for Yankee Doodle, and the Mexican musicians obliged, and one Mexican audience member after hearing the song remarked, It is no longer a source of surprise to me that we have been so easily conquered.15 The American soldiers held strong emotional ties to their national symbols, showing the wave of patriotism and nostalgia for the American Revolutions ideals that had swept the country in a flood torrent. These ties to the Revolution and its heroes were important for the culture from the perspective that the public and the soldiers believed that the military success in the Mexican War would accomplish forging a link to the founders and fulfill their ideals for the nation.16 So strong was this concept planted in the soldiers psyche, that at the battle of Buena Vista, General Zachary Taylor used George Washingtons birthday to inspire his heavily outnumbered troops to a valorous victory over a Mexican force over five times greater than themselves.17 One can find an excellent example of this spirit in the Rough and Ready Songster. Songsters were small books filled with war songs that soldiers carried with them. The Rough and Ready Songster itself included 142 patriotic and martial songs.18 In this songster, one of the songs, The Americans Battle Prayer, invoked: Oh, Washington, our sainted sire, Pour in our souls thy patriot fire, Against the foul conspiring foe, Arouse each patriot heart below19

The volunteers regarded themselves to be virtual reincarnations of the volunteers who had first stepped up to fight for the country in 1776. In fact, in the music of the war, identification of the boys of 46 with the boys of 76 was forcefully drawn.20 They wanted to prove to themselves and the world that they could step up to the expectations from back home and around the world and carry the flag of democracy to foreign lands.21

Another very important concept to keep in mind when considering the context of the music was the idea of Manifest Destiny. The Mexican War was powered in its core by this idea. One could make the argument that the reason that this is somewhat of a forgotten war in American history is because of the aggressive expansionism that was exhibited by the U.S.22 The patriotism of the Americans was linked hand in hand with Providentially blessed expansion. The expression Manifest Destiny was both a legitimate, if not Romantic ideal, while it also was merely a justification for territorial expansion.23 Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had ordained that Americans were entitled to all of North America, and it provoked the first widespread embrace of the Anglo-Saxon race as prototypical of the U.S. national identity.24 In the very first sermon preached in Mexico to the American troops, the preacher pronounced that God intended the Anglo-Saxon race not only to take possession of all North America but also influence and modify the character of the entire world.25 Referring again to the Rough and Ready Songster, a great example of this expansionist attitude can be found in the song, Empire in the West. There came a voice! it spake of wealth, and of the cheering rays, Of science, and religion pure, which soon will brighter blaze: That voice!-it was the mingled tone of freemen, nobly blest: The founders of that mighty power-the empire of the west.26

This promotion of Anglo-Saxon imperialism led to a degraded view of the Mexicans. One humorist Thomas B. Thorpe proclaimed Mexican soldiers as a mutt of all races where the evil qualities of each[are] alone retained.27 Even a Cincinnati phrenologist affirmed after examining skulls of Mexican soldiers a very coarse organization, rather animal than

intellectual.28 Evidence of these mentalities can be found by examining the cover lithographs of some of the popular pieces of sheet music at the time, such as Santa Annas Retreat from Cerro Gordo, with a lampooning of the Mexican general running from battle losing his hat and wooden leg in his scamper to safety. Interestingly enough though, the Americans held great respect for the Mexican women, and the song The Maid of Monterey became one of the most famous songs of that time period.29 This beautiful song told the tale of a Mexican maid who after the battle of Monterey came to help the wounded and comfort the dying on the American side. Its last verse is very touching. For, tho she loved her nation, and prayed that it might live, yet for the dying foemen she had a tear to give. Then heres to that bright beauty who drove deaths pang away, the meek-eyed Senorita, the maid of Monterey.30

These cultural notes help set the background for the production of the music, but there are several other key aspects to consider when looking at the music. To appraise sheet music of a time period can offer a window into the inner life of an American family much differently than perhaps a newspaper article or a generals journal. Music and song are the life-blood of a culture, and when we access the music it transports us to that place and time for a moment.31 Sheet music was not very cheap to produce until the 1840s, when new technologies in lithography made it more feasible to produce sheet music in large quantities.32 To give a brief definition of sheet music for those not familiar, it can be described as a single sheet of paper printed on one or both sides with musical scores and possibly lyrics.33 By the mid 19th century, it was increasingly common to find sheet music in households, mainly due to increases in income to purchase instruments, leisure time to actually earn and practice instruments, and increased demand for recreational music.34

For the cultivated middle class family, it was a sign of cultural achievement to have instruments, mainly the piano, and to have family members who could play. The piano was the most popular household instrument of the time, with its versatility and value both as a cultural symbol and a source of entertainment.35 A typical evening of family entertainment during the war might include an after dinner concert in the parlor from one of the more musically talented children of the family. They would play the latest quickstep or march fresh off the publishers presses, and transport the family away to the exotic land of Mexico and the heroic deeds of the conquering soldiers. An excellent piece showing this very scene can be found in J.C. Vierecks Parlor Duets, with a cover image of the typical family gathered in the parlor eagerly listening to the daughter and son tickle the ivories. The lithographic illustrations on the covers of the sheet music were also a window to the world of war, often showing intense battle scenes. These images were usually stylized and romanticized to help stir up the proud, patriotic heart of the listener of these often dramatic pieces of music, and the combination of auditory and visual stimulation made a powerful impact. Excellent examples of these action-packed lithographs can be found on such pieces as J.G. Osbourns Buena Vista Grand Triumphal March, with American soldiers firing into the open gate of the Black Castle, General Zachary Taylor signaling the charge, and the Stars and Stripes proudly flying above the fray. Another good sample would be Thomas H. Chambers Palo Alto Grand March, with the dauntless Major Ringgold regally posing on his stallion, with four separate images of cavalry in fierce battle action surrounding his image. Patriotism was running at fever pitch in America during this war, and the music publishers definitely capitalized on the high emotions. The majority of these publishers were from the Northeast; New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore all housed major publishers, though smaller companies were to be

found in cities such as Cincinnati and New Orleans. The market was flooded with music, as almost anyone, it seems, could gain publication in that era of a sellers market for parlor piano music.36 War song after war song was cranked off the publishers presses, often imitating, if not downright copying each others work. The concepts of plagiarism and copyrights were not exactly major issues at that time. A perfect case is found in three different songs with the title Santa Annas March, produced by George Willig of Philadelphia, F.D. Benteen of Baltimore, and W.C. Peters of Baltimore. The tunes had almost note for note the same melody. The consumers must have been fine with these practices, as the virtuosity and ability of the song performers to improvise were valued more than the originality of the song itself.37 Now the music styles that were made were almost homogenously martial, with few exceptions being funeral marches and dirges. Three major styles dominated the market, quicksteps, marches, and piano fantasies. Quicksteps were set at a tempo of a quick 108 steps per minute, and were very popular for the military bands to play.38 Marches were also extremely popular; with their stately pomposo tempos, they were the quintessential military tunes. The funeral tunes were often marches as well, as they well suited the respectful, structured tempo of those occasions. Both the quicksteps and the marches musically were not extremely complicated compositions, mainly using three chords, all in major keys. They often borrowed from Revolutionary War tunes such as Yankee Doodle and Hail, Columbia and revised the music or changed the lyrics to match the current conflict. The tune of Yankee Doodle, as discussed earlier, was hugely popular with the 19th-century American public. It was the most repeatedly played tune on the actual battlefield, the favorite of the army bands. It served as a battle hymn triumphantly celebrating American victories, and was a great concert piece back at the camp. 39 One song in particular to note that carried the Yankee Doodle tune was Uncle Sams Song to

Miss Texas, straight out of the Rough and Ready Songster. It is a good example of what Americans threatened to all who stood in their way, going back to those imperialistic strains. If Mexy, backd by secret foes, Still talks of taken you, gal. Why we can lick em all, you know, An then annex em too, gal.40

These quicksteps and marches were usually first played on the battlefield by either the field musicians or the band of music. The field music consisted of the drummers, fifers and trumpeters that were included in any army unit. The band of music was usually a larger group, sometimes up to 16 brass instrumentalists, and was paid for by a specific regiments officers. Music was extremely important to the soldiers of the Mexican War. It refreshed the weary mens souls, reviving spirits and easing tensions that ran high before battles.41 The U.S. soldiers loved dancing to the Mexican tunes as well. 42 They would attend the local Mexican dances, or fandangos, and show the locals the steps of home.43 The mixing of American and Mexican music can be seen in a couple of other instances. One example would be the American song Green Grow the Lilacs. This was so universally sung by the U.S. troops, the term gringo is thought to originate from this.44 Another great case would be Santa Annas March by William Ratel. On the cover of this song, it explains, This beautiful air was brought on by some Kentucky Volunteers having heard it played by the Mexican bands at Buena Vista while on sentry duty. This song also could be used as an example of the importance of the battle of Buena Vista in the populaces mind as the most dramatic and heroic encounter of the entire war.45 Besides the marches and quicksteps, the third popular music form came in the battle fantasies. These were far and away the most elaborate, original compositions of the war.

Sweeping in both scale and vision, these songs recounted entire battles in their music. Prolific composers, such as Charles Grobe with his song The Battle of Buena Vista, brought the audience of his music right into the battle scenes. The artillery opens fire, played with loud, staccato notes on the piano. The theme switches to a rolling swell as the American forces give a mighty cheer and charge. The theme switches again later in the piece to a slow minor key, honoring the fallen in battle. These songs were almost the epic movie soundtrack predecessors. They were often accompanied with narratives of the action, possibly read aloud as the music played along. Composer Francis Buck wrote arguably his best piece in this form, The Fall of Vera Cruz. Another grandiose piece, it various themes and tempos were exemplary in their intricate descriptions of the emotions of battle. These fantasies were also unique in that they were written only for piano, as opposed to the marches and quicksteps, which were first written for and played by the military brass bands, then arranged for the piano. The Mexican-American War was a war of heroes, as can be well seen through the majority of the song titles published. And rising above them all stood General Zachary Taylor. General Taylor, through his stunning victories at the beginning of the war, sprang into fame as a fabled personage of mythologythe instant creation of a perfect hero.46 His victories were celebrated in countless songs and dedications. In a sample of seventy-one songs from the war, over a quarter of them were dedicated to General Taylor. His death in 1850 was achingly mourned by the nation. The Death of Taylor, by John Ordway laments, Hes breathd his last no more well see His honest and manly form Chant the sad strain with melody And bear the sacred notes along. America has lost a friend, on whom her fondest hopes were cast Oer land and sea the tidings send, Brave Taylors gone! Hes breathd his last.47

The other legendary hero of the war was Major Ringgold, who fell in the battle of Palo Alto early in the war. At least three funeral marches and six compositions honored this man and inspired a nation to avenge his untimely death.48 Music played a huge role in the war effort during this terrible conflict. It was during this time period that America burst into melody.49 The Romantic Movement in the arts, and especially music, found its voice, as the slew of music composers and publishers sought to oblige a public that saw in music a reflection of itself, its values, aspirations, and national character.50 It was a time for the U.S. to fully realize her uniqueness and nationality. It was a time for the American people to come together emotionally and patriotically to celebrate and glorify war and American conquests. It was a time to promote the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon ideals of expansionism and imperialism that Americans held so dear. Music is an excellent gauge of the populaces psyche, both in their response to the war and their emotions that were expressed in the music.51 The drumbeats of the war were used for the first time in a major American conflict to inspire the nation to martial glory, and forever solidified patriotic archetypes that Americans still hold dear to this day.

10

Robert W. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 231.
2

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Lotta Spell, Music In Texas (Austin: n.p., 1936), 24. Johannsen, 16.

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer, "Mexican-American War." American History Through Literature. Vol. 2. Gale Cengage, 2006, http://www.enotes.com/mexican-americanwar-reference/ (accessed November 14, 2012).
8

Johannsen, 16. Johannsen, viii. Ibid. Ibid, 55. Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. Johannsen, 54. Ibid. Ibid. Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. Ibid.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

An American Officer, The Rough and Ready Songster: Embellished with Twenty-Five Splendid Engravings, Illustrative of the American Victories in Mexico (New York: Nafis & Cornish, 1848), 29.
19 20

Ibid, 19. Johannsen, 58.

11

21

Ibid, 57. Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.

22

23

David Pletcher, An Ideal or a Justification? A Conversation With David M. Pletcher Indiana University, KERA, Denton, Texas, United States. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html (Accessed November 14, 2012).
24

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. Johannsen, 50. An American Officer, 51. Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. Johannsen, 22. Spell, 50. John H. Hewitt, The Maid of Monterey. (Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1851).

25

26 27

28

29

30 31

Duke University, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, North Carolina, United States Historic American Sheet Music, n.d., http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm/about/ (Accessed November 14, 2012).
32

Ibid. Lea Worcester, Music from the Attic: Texas History in Sheet Music, (Unpublished), 1. Ibid.

33

34

35

H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988), 79.
36

Ibid. Ibid, 59.

37

38

Elise K. Kirk, Sheet Music Related to the United States War with Mexico (1846-1848) in the Jenkins Garrett Library, University of Texas at Arlington. Notes, Second Series, Vol. 37, No. 1. (N.p.: Music Library Association, 1980), 16.
39

Johannsen, 237.

12

40 41

An American Officer, 54. Johansen, 238.

42

Donald S. Frazier, The United States and Mexico at War: Nineteenth Century Expansionism and Conflict (New York: Macmillian Reference Center, 1998), 298.
43 44 45 46 47

Ibid. Ibid. Johannsen, 234. Ibid, 115.

John P. Ordway, The Death of Taylor Sung by Ossian E. Dodge Esq. Poetry and Music Composed and Respectfully Inscribed to the Family of the Beloved and Lamented President. Arranged for the Piano Forte by W.C. Peters. (Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847).
48 49 50 51

Johannsen, 233. Ibid, 231. Ibid. Ibid, 240.

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Buck, Francis. The Vera Cruz Grand March Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to Maj. Genl. Winfield Scott, Commander of the Forces of the U.S. at the Surrender of the City & Castle of Vera Cruz. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1847. Chambers, Thomas H. Palo Alto Grand March, Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the Memory of Major Ringgold. New York: Wm. Vanderbeck, 1846. Ciofii, F. Texas Annexation March and Quickstep, Composed and Arranged by F. Cioffi (Instructor of the 2nd Dragoons Band) at the Request of General Taylor and Performed with Great Affect on the March of the Regiment through the Principal Towns in Texas. Respectfully Dedicated to the Volunteers of Louisiana. New Orleans: Wm. T. Mayo, n.d. Converse, Charlie C. Cockade City Quickstep. New York: Horace Waters, 1854. Dodworth, Allen. State Fencibles Quickstep. As Played by Dodworths Cornet Band. Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the First Company, N.Y. State Fencbles, Capt: Geo: Lyons. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847. Ehrlich, S. Col Corneys Quickstep. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848. Ehrlich, S. National Greys March, Composed for the Piano Forte and Dedicated to Major Peter Fritz. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848. Ehrlich, S. Promenade Grand March. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848. Fitzgerald, Riter. Major Biddles Grand March. Philadelphia: Edward Walker, 1851. George, Signor G. Lieut. Geo. H. Tompkins Quick Step. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1846. George, Signor G. The Greys Quick Step as Performed by the Greys Band, Composed and Arranged for the Piano Forte and Respectfully Dedicated to Lieut. A. Morris of the Richmond Greys. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847. Getze, J.A. General Winfield Scotts Grand March. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1842. Grafulla, C.S. Captain Shepherds Quickstep. Philadelphia: C.F. Hupfeld & Son, 1850. Grobe, Charles. General Taylors Grand March. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846. Grobe, Charles. Matamoras Waltz Sur une Polka Favorite par Charles Grobe. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846. Grobe, Charles. Old Rough and Ready Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1846.

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Grobe, Charles. The Battles of Palo Alto & Reasca de la Palma. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1846. Grobe, Charles. Veni, Vidi, Vici. The Battle of Buena Vista, a Descriptive Fantasie for the Piano. Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to General Z. Taylor, the Hero who Never Lost a Battle. Opus 101. Baltimore: G. Willig, 1847 Herman, J. Wex. Montezuma Grand March. Baltimore, F.D. Benteen, n.d. Hess, Charles. The Volunteers Return Quickstep. New York: William Hall & Son, 1846. Hewitt, John H. On To The Charge! Inscribed to the Memory of Major Ringgold, Late of the U.S. Light Artillery. Baltimore, F.D. Benteen, 1846. Hewitt, John H. The Maid of Monterey. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1851. Holtzerman, H.J.M. Gen. Scotts Entry into Mexico. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848. Holtzerman, H.J.M. Missouri Volunteers Quick Step. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848. Joseph W. Turner and Edward Davis. The Death of Ringgold, A Quartette, Poetry by Edward Davis, Music Composed by Joseph W. Turner and Respectfully Dedicated to Lieut. Cadwallader Ringgold, U.S. Navy. Boston: H. Prentiss, 1846. Keller, Matthias. Funeral March to the Memory of Major Ringgold. Philadelphia: A. Fiot, 1846. Keller, Matthias. General Taylors Quick Step. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846. Knaebel, S. Rough and Ready Quickstep, Air from Strauss. Boston: Keiths Music Publishing House, 1846. Kurs, A. General Taylors Grand March. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1846. La Hache, Theod. V. General Taylors Victory & Genl. Worths Quick Step. New York: Firth, Hall & Pond, 1846. Lady of South Carolina. The Volunteer March Dedicated to the Palmetto Regiment. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847. Lemon, Wm. J. A Little More Grape Captain Bragg. A National song Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to General Zachary Taylor. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1847. Lucchesi, F. Palo Alto Quick Step. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1846. Martin, J.T. Genl Persifor F. Smith. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1848.

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Martin, J.T. Smiths March. Baltimore: Miller & Beacham, 1848. Morris, George P. The Soldiers Return, A Song for the People. Arrgd. By S.O. Dyer. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1848. Muller, John B. Buena Vista Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847. Muller, J. B. General Hands Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1846 Nathan, E. Buena Vista Grand March. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847. Norton, J.T. Free Soil Quick Step. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848. Ordway, John P. The Death of Taylor, Sung by Ossian E. Dodge Esq. Poetry and Music Composed and Respectfully Inscribed to the Family of the Beloved and Lamented President. Boston: A & J.P. Ordway, 1850. Peters, W.C. General Scotts Artillery March at the Battle of Churubusco as Performed by the Brass Bands. Arranged for the piano forte by W.C. Peters. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847. Peters, W.C. Santa Annas March to Which is Added a Popular Melody Composed on the Battlefield of Buena Vista by an American Officer. Arranged for the Piano Forte and Inscribed to Miss Fitzgerald. Baltimore: W.C. Peters, 1847. Peters, W.C. The Matamoras Grand March as Performed by the Brass Bands. Arranged and Partly Composed for the Piano Forte and Most Respectfully Dedicated to Major Gen. L. Taylor. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters, 1846. Power, Thomas. Tis A Nations Jubilee, A Patriotic Song Written and Dedicated to Gen. Zach. Taylor. Adapted to a Favorite Melody. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848. Prof. James Bellak and John W. Watson. Welcome Home, The Celebrated Song Sung by Miss Fanny Heron & Messrs. Guibilei & Johnston with Great Applause at the Banquet in Honor of the Return of the Pennsylvania Volunteers. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston, 1848. Ratel, William. Santa Annas March as Played by the Bands of the Mexican Army on the Field of Buena Vista, the Night Previous to the Battle. Arranged for Piano Forte. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847. Striby, William. The Battle of Buena Vista, Composed and Arranged for the Piano Forte and Respectfully Dedicated to the Major General Zachary Taylor. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, n.d.

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Sullivan, M. Dix. The Field of Monterey Ballad Affectionately Dedicated to Mrs. Virginia Q.S. (of Virginia). Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1846. Turner, J.W. Fire Fire Away Song of Ringolds Artillerists Dedicated to the Heroes of Reasca de la Palma. Boston: Keiths Music Publishing House, 1846. Underner, C.L. General Townsends Grand Cavalry March Composed & Arranged for the Piano Forte by C.L. Underner and Respectfully Dedicated to Maj. Genl. John F. Townsend, Commanding 4th Div. Cavalry of the State of New York. Boston: Geo. P. Reed, 1846. Unknown Author. Santa Annas March as Heard on the Battlefield of Buena Vista. Unknown Author. Santa Annas Retreat from Cerro Gordo. The Subject Taken from a Celebrated Scotch Melody as Performed by the American Bands of that Occasion. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847. Viereck, J.C. The Parlour Duets For Two Performers On One Piano, Arranged with Fingering by J.C. Viereck in 6 numbers. Philadelphia: J.E. Gould, 1846. Weiland, F. Buena Vista Grand Triumphal March Composed in Honor of Major General Taylors Victory in Mexico. Philadelphia: J.G. Osbourn, 1847. White, Edward L. Grand Triumphal Quick Step Partly Composed & Dedicated to Gen. Zachary Taylor by Edward L. White. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1847. Secondary Sources Duke University, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, North Carolina, United States. Historic American Sheet Music. http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm/about/ (Accessed November 14, 2012). Frazier, Donald S. The United States and Mexico at War: Nineteenth Century Expansionism and Conflict. New York: Macmillian Reference USA, 1998. Hitchcock, H. Wiley. Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988. Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. "Mexican-American War." American History Through Literature. Vol. 2. Gale Cengage 2006. http://www.enotes.com/mexican-american-warreference/ (accessed November 14, 2012). Jenkins, John H. Patriotic Songs & Poems of Early Texas, 1836-1848. Austin: Pemberton Press, 1966.

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Johannsen, Robert W. To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in American Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Kirk, Elise K. Sheet Music Related to the United States War with Mexico (1846-1848) in the Jenkins Garrett Library, University of Texas at Arlington. Notes, Second Series, Vol. 37, No. 1. N.p.: Music Library Association, 1980. Pletcher D. An Ideal or a Justification? A Conversation With David M. Pletcher Indiana University. KERA, Denton, Texas, United States. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html. Spell, Lota. Music in Texas. Austin: N.p., 1936. Worcester, Lea. Music from the Attic: Texas History in Sheet Music. Unpublished.

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