MANUAL ON

SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE

TREATMENT
(SECOND EDITION)
Preporcci Ill}:
THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
(;ollsUluleci hlj:
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH
AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINf:ERING ORGANISATION
MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
NEW DELHI
DECEMBER, 1993
PPHEE 08
10,000-1994 (DSK-IV)
Pdce: (Inland) Rs. 210.00 (Foreign) 24.49 or $ 75 60 Cents.
PRINTED BY THE MANAGER, GOVT. OF INDIA PRESS, NASIK422 006
AND PUBLISHED BY THE CONTROLLER OF PUBLICATIONS, DELHI110 054
1995
FOREWORD
>'1;\\
mtt fcl-q;m
1-11TII "Vlirr
MINISTER OF
URBAN DEVELOPMENT
GOVT. OF INDIA
New Delhi, December 1993
Safe water supply and hygienic sanitati-on facilities are the two
basic essential amenities the community needs on a top priority for
healthy living. While provision of safe drinking water takes precedence
in the order of provision of basic amenities to community, the
importance of hygienic sanitation facilities through low cost on-site
sanitation, conventional sewerage and sewage treatment can no
longer be allowed to lag behind, as about 80% of water used by the
community comes out of houses in the form of waste water which
unless properly collected, conveyed, treated and safely disposed of
may eventually pollute our precious water resources and cause
environmental degradation.
As of now about 45% of urban population has been provided
with reasonable hygienic sanitation facilities in our country and as
such there is still much to accomplish so as to reach 100% coverage.
While it is necessary to adopt conventional sewerage and treatment
methods in our metro and mega cities. it is economical to go in for low
cost option wherever feasible particularly in small and medium towns.
Yet another important area which needs the urgent attention of our
Public Health and Environmental Engineers is possibility of re-use and
recycling of waste water after necessary treatment for various
beneficial uses so as to reduce the ever increasing demand for
fresh water.
It is hoped the revised Manual on Sewerage and Sewage
Treatment brought out by the Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation of this Ministry will meet the professional
needs of the practising Engineers dealing with sanitation sector in the
country for achieving the goal of "sanitation for all" within a
reasonable time frame.
.f.. ~ _
(SHEILA KAUL)
PREFACE
The first Manual on Sewemge and Sewage Treatment was published by the erstvvhile Ministry
of Works & Housing (presently Ministry at Urban Development) on the basis of recommendations of
an Expelt committee in 1977. The said Manual has been in use widely by field Engineers who are
engaged in t h ~ : fie!d of sewerage and sewage treatment However, over a period of time there has
been an advancemEJOt in the technolo9Y and as such the need for revIsing and updating the said
rmmual has been keenly telt for quite some time. The conference on Mid-Decade Review of Water
Docade Programme held in October. 1985 recommended the setting up of Expert Committee for
underlaklnu thiS task. Aecordmgly the Ministry of Urban Development, Govt of India constituted an
EXpHrt Committee in Decomber, 1985 with the following composition:-
I.
"
c
3.
4.
5.
G.
7
Shri, V,Venu9opalan
Adviser(PHEE)
Central PubliC Health &
E,rlvironrnental EnqineHring
Organisation,
MinIstry of Urban Development
Nlrman Bllav8n, New DeihL
Shri.KR, SU!U5U,
Acting DirectOf <
Nationa! Environmental Engg.
Reset'.uch Institute,
Nehru Marg, Nagpur-20.
DirectOl
All India Institute of HY91ene
& Public Heallh or his
representative,
Chlttaranjan Avenue, Calcutta.
CI1Iet Enqlneer (Urna,,).
Mahalashtra Watel Supply &
Sewerage Board,
CID.CO Bhavan.
South Vv'ing, 2nd Floor,
New Bombay 14.
Chief Enqll18er (Ulban Services)
Tamil Nadu Water Supply &
Drainage Board. TWAD Buildlnq,
Chepallk. Madras.
D,melur (Enqu),
Madrds Metropolitan Walel
SlIprly & Seweralle Board.
PlimplIl(l Station Road.
Madras.
Chief Ennineer,
Local S(;H Gov!. and
Urban DevelopmHnt Deptt.
Gov!. of West Benqil!.
NO.1, Garlstlll Place,
Caic!Jttd- 1
Chairman
Meml)er
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
(v)
8.
9.
10.
11,
12.
13.
Dr. R. Pitchai,
Prof. & Director,
Centre for Environmental Studies,
Anna University, Madras.
Shri M.R. Parthasarathy,
Dy. Adviser (PHE)
C.PH.EEO,
Ministry of Urban Development,
Nlrman Bhavan, New DeihL
Celief Engineer,
Gl'larat Water Supply & Sewerage
Board,
Near Mayur Hotel, Sector-16,
Gandhinagar -382016.
Director or his representative
Central Ganga Authority,
MinIstry of Environment &
Forests.
New DeihL
Chairman or his representative
Central Board for Preventation
and Control of Water Pollution,
Nehru Place,
New Delhi.
Dr. H.C. Arora,
Deputy Adviser (Trg.)
CPHEEO.
MInIstry of Urban Development,
Nirman Bhavan,
New DeihL
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member-Secretary
Smce some of the members of the Expert Committee including the then Chairman had retired,
it became necessary to reconstitute the said Expert Committee in March, 1990 with the followmg
composition:-
1.
2.
3.
Adviser (PHEE).
Ministry of Urban Development
CPHEEO. New Deihl.
ShrL S.S. Patwardhan
Member Secretary,
Maharashtra Water Supply & Sewerage
Board, Bombay.
Shr!. S.K. Neogi,
ChIef Engineer,
Govt. of West Bengal,
MunIcipal Engg. Deptt.
Calcutta.
Chairman
(SrLP.S.Rajvanshy, had taken over the charge of the
Post of Adviser since November, 1990)
Member
Member
(vi)
4. SllIl. J.D. Seth. Member
Cillet Engineer,
GUlarat Water Supply and
Sewerage Board,
Gandhinaqar, Gujarat.
5. Sh! i, L,Panneerselvam, MBmber
Deputy Director,
Ganga Project Directorate,
New Delhi.
6. Dr. K.R.Ranganathan, Member
Member Secretary,
Contral Pollution Control Board,
New Delhi.
7. Shrl. AKAwasthi, Member
Deputy Director,
Indian Standards Institute,
New Deihl.
S. DLS.R. Shukla, Member
Dy. Adviser (PHE),
CPHEEO.,
Ministry of Urban Devfllopment
New Deihl.
9. Shri. R.Sethuraman, Member
Asstt. Adviser(PHE),
Ministry of Urban Development
CPHEEO
10. Shri. V.B. Rama Prasad, Member Secretary
Dy, Adviser (PHE)
Ministry of Urban Development,
C.PH.EEO.
11- Dr. S.D. Badrinath Member
Ass!. Director,
NEERI, Nagpur.
12. Dr. D. M, Mohan, Member
Director (Project),
HMWSS Board,
Hyderabad,
13. Dr. I.C.Agarwal, Member
Professor of Environmental Engg.
Moti/al Engineering College,
Allahabad,
14. Dr. R.Guruswamy, Member
Professor,
Anna University,
Madras.
(vii)
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Shri. S.Deivamanl,
Rtd. Engineering Director,
Madras Metro Water Supply &
80werage Board, Madras.
Shri. S.Shankarappa,
Chief Engineer,
Municipal Corporation of
Greater Bombay, Bombay.
Shn. M.R.Parthasarathy,
Rtd. Dy.Adviser (PHE),
Ministry of Urban Development
C.P.H.E.E.O., Bangalore.
Shri D'Cruz,
Rtd. Engineer.inChief,
Delhi Water Supply & Sewerage
Disposal Undertaking, Delhi.
Shri. S.D.Mundra,
Director,
GeoMillers & Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Shri. S.J. Arceivala,
Managing Director,
Mis. Associate Industnal
Consultants (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
Bombay.
Dr. R. H. Siddiqi.
Professor,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh.
Shri. S.l.Abhyankar,
Hony. Technical Adviser,
Indian Pump & Pump Mfg. Assocn.,
Bombay.
Member
Mc:rnber
Mnmber
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
The originally constituted Expert committee met 5 times and the reconstituted Committee held
16 meetings in all, to discuss and finalise the draft Manual. Later, in October, 1992 the Ministry had
constituted a three members Editorial Committee consisting of the following members for editing and
finalising the said draft document:
1. J.D'Cruz,
Consultant,
WAPCOS.
2. Dr. I.C.Agarwal,
Head of the Dptt. of Civil Engineering,
MNREC. Allahabad.
3. Dr. D.M. Mohan,
Director (Projects)
HMWSS Board, Hyderabad (A.
The said Editorial committee met :l times to complete the task assigned to it. In all there, are
26 chapters in the Manual covering various important aspects such as Planning, Legal. Financial and
Administrative aspects, Deslgn and Construction of Sewers, Sewage Treatment Plants, Sludge
TlHalmeni and Disposal, Tertiary Treatment of SewaiJ" for Reuse, Effluent Disposal and it's Utilisation,
OnMSite Sanitation. Corrosion Prevention and ifs control, Operation and Maintenance of Sewerage
SyslEml as well as Trl".ltment Plants etc, It IS pertinent to mention that several modifications have been
suggested in various chapters mentioned above. For instance, since conventional sewerage is very
expensive it has to be confined to Class1 cities and capitals of States/UTs, Even in such cities,
sewerage has to be confined to core areas only and the fringe areas have to be provided with less
"'"""c,,,o on"site sanitatfon systems. SimIlarly, takinq into account the hydraulics and other relevant
tactors, the design of sewers has been modified 10 make it economicaL In so far as treatment of
sewage is concerned, AnBerobic method such as USAB technology has been intfoduced since it is less
rmerfJY intensive and economical in operation and marntenanC8. Similarly, duckweed ponds have been
sugfJ8sted tor treating sewage in an economical way with impressive cash returns. Adequate emphasis
has bt::en given to reuse and recyc!inj of sewane effluent after tertiary treatment. kr::cpinn In view the
ever increasing demand for fresh water for VArious beneficial LJSC:$. Operation and Maintenanco of
Systems and S(;W8g0 Treatment Plants is oftc::n neglectnd due to inadequate funds and lack
of trained technical rnanpowec Thel'eforo, these aspects have been given due emphasis and
discussed in detaiL Later, in November, 1992 the; draft Manual was circulated to various State Public
Health Engineennq Deptts, and Water Supply and Sewerage Boards with a view to hAve their valuable
sUfwestions on the same before it's 'finahsation and printing. Finally the contents uf the Mapual were
thoroughly discussed in greater detail, topic by topic at a special conference of Chief
incharge of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector held at Thlluvananthapuram (Kerala) on 24th
and 25th September, 1993 organrsed by the Ministry of Urban Development and Kmala Water
Authority.
The sard Conference was well attended and valuable suggestions that e<nerqed rfurll19 the
discussions hd.ve been incorporated to the extent possible to make this MamJR! useful from 1he
practiSIng Enorneer's point at VIew, There are no two opinions that the saId Manual will be a boon to
the field EnqineE!fs in the country.
The Expert Committee thAnks the MinistlY of Urban Development, GovL of India for
al! h:'icilities. The initiative taken and sincBfe efforts made by Shri.V.Venugopa!an. the then
Adviser(PHEE) In gettlllg the onginal Expert Cornrni1tee constituted is gratofully acknowledged, The
Committee expresses its appreciation to Shll.V.B. Rama Prasad, Dy,Adviser (PHEl and Member
Secretary for his untiring efforts in making possible the completion of lhe manual in it's finest fonn
despite his arduous normal duties. Special mention is made of the services of ShrLR.Sethurarnan.
Dy,Arlviser(Trg,) and Shr!. M,Sankaranarayanan, Ass!. Adviser(PHE) who unstilltingly devoted theIr time
In all phases of this work. The valuable contllbution of Dr's.R. Shulka, Dy,Advlser (PH E),
Shr!.B.B,iJppal, Ass!. Adviser (PHE) and ShrLSukanta Kar, Scientific Officer in CPHEEO are qratefully
acknowledqed. The committee thanks Dr.D.M, Mohan, Presently DireLtor (PrOloctS), Hyderabad
MetH)politan Water Supply and SewerElge Board tor letting the tinal draft computerised. Thanks are
also due to the Govt of Kerala and Kera!a Water Authority for hosting the aforesaid conference.
Last but not the least, the committee deSires to record their deep appreciation of the services
rendered by different Officers and statt members of the PHE and Accounts Section of the Ministry and
the Secretanat of CPHEEO.
(ix)
PSRAJVANSHY
ADVISER (PHEE)
CPHEEO
CONTENTS
1 PLANNING 1
1.1 OBJECTIVE 1
1.2 NEED FOR PLANNING 1
1.3 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 1
1.3.1 Engineering Considerations 1
1.3.2 Environmental Considerations 2
1.3.3 Process Considerations 3
1.3.4 Cost Considerations 5
1,4
DESIGN PERIOD 5
1.5 POPULATION FORECAST 5
1.5.1 General Considerations 5
1.5.2 Final Forecast 8
1.6 ESTIMATION OF WASTE WATER FLOW 8
1.S.1 Sources of Waste Water 8
1.6.2 Per Capita Waste water Flow 8
1.7 SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS 8
1.7.1 Effect of Industrial Waste
9
1.8 SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION 9
1.8.1 Basic Information
9
1.8.1.1 Physical Aspects 9
1.8.1.2 Developmental Aspects
9
1.8.1.3 Fiscal Aspects
10
1.8.1.4 Other Aspects
10
1.8.2 Project Surveys
11
1.8.2.1 Preliminary Project Surveys
11
1.8.2.2 Detailed Project Surveys
11
1.S.2.3 Construction Surveys
11
1.9
1.9.1
1.9.1.1
1.9.2
1.9.3
1.9.3.1
1.9.3.2
1.9.3.3
1.9.3.4
1.9.3.5
1.9.3.6
1.9.4
1.9.4.1
1.9.4.2
1.9.4.3
1.9.4.4
1.9.4.5
2
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.1.1
2.2.1.2
2.2.2
2.2.3
PROJECT REPORT
General
Project Reports
Identification Report
Prefeasibility Report
Executive Summary
Introduction
II
Project Area and The Need for The Project
Long Term Plan for Wastewater Disposal
Proposed Waste Water Project
Conclusions and Recommendations
Feasibility Report
Contents
Background
The Proposed Project
Institutional and Financial Aspects
Conclusions and Recommendations
MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATION, LEGAL AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS
MANAGEMENT
Government of India (G.O.l) Level
State Government Level
Local Body Level
COMMON ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT
General Administration
Supervisory Staff
Operating Staff
Personnel Administration
Inventory Control
12
12
12
12
14
14
14
15
Ii
18
20
21
22
22
22
25
25
27
27
27
27
27
27
29
28
29
30
30
III
2.2.4 Financial Control 31
2.2.4.1 Accounting 31
2.2.4.2 Budgeting 31
2.2.5 Public Relations 31
2.3 OTHER ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT 32
2.3.1 Inservice Training 32
2.3.2 Long Term Planning 33
2.4 LEGAL ASPECTS 33
2.4.1 Municipal Bylaws 33
2.4.2 Prevention of Pollution 34
2.5 FINANCIAL ASPECTS 34
2.5.1 General 34
2.5.2 Scope 35
2.5.3 Sources for Raising Capital 35
2.5.4 Financial Appraisal 35
2.5.5 Statutory Water and Sanitation Boards 36
3 DESIGN OF SEWERS 37
3.1 INTRODUCTION 37
3.2 ESTIMATION OF SANITARY SEWAGE 37
3.2.1 Design Period 37
3.2.2 Population Forecast 38
3.2.3 Tributary Area 39
3.2.4 Percapita Sewage Flow 39
3.2.5 Flow Assumptions 39
3.2.6 Storm Runoff 40
3.2.7 Ground Water Infiltration 40
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.1.1
3.3.1.2
3.3.1.3
3.3.1.4
3.3.1.5
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.2.1
3.4.2.2
3.4.2.3
3.4.2.4
3.4.2.5
3.4.2.6
3.4.2.7
3.4.3
3.4.3.1
3.4.3.2
3.4.4
3.4.4.1
3.4.4.2
3.4.4.3
3.4.4.4
3.4.4.5
3.4.4.6
3.4.4.7
3.4.4.8
ESTIMATION OF STORM RUNOFF
Rational Method
Runoff - Rainfall Intensity Relationship
Storm Frequency
Intensity of Precipitation
Time of Concentration
Coefficient of Runoff
HYDRAULICS OF SEWERS
Type of Flow
Flow - Friction Formulae
Mannings Formula
Darcy Weisbach Formula
Formula
Friction Coefficients
Modified Hazen-Williams Formula
Depth of Flow
Formula for Self Cleansing Velocity
Velocities
Velocity At Minimum Flow
Erosion and Maximum Velocity
Sewer Transitions
Non Uniform Flow
Specific Energy
Hydraulic Jump
Back Water Curves
Sewer Transitions
Bends
Junction
IV
Vertical Drops and Other Energy Dissipators
40
41
41
41
41
43
43
45
45
46
46
46
48
48
49
49
52
52
53
53
53
53
54
54
55
55
58
57
57
V
3.4.5 Inverted Syphon 57
3.4.5.1 Hydraulic Calculations
61
3.4.S.2 Velocity 61
3.4.5.3 Size and Arrangement of Pipes 61
3.4.5.4 Inlet and Outlet Chambers
61
3.4.5.5 General Requirements
61
3.4.6 Relief Sewers
63
3.4.7 Force Mains
63
3.4.8 Sulphide Generation
63
3.5 DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEMS
64
3.5.1 Introduction
64
3.5.2 A vailable Head
64
3.5.3 Layout of Systems
64
3.5.3.1 Plans
65
3.5.4 Design Approach
66
3.5.4.1 Design Steps
66
3.6
SMALL BORE SEWER SYSTEMS
66
3.6.1 System Description
66
3.6.2 Components of System
70
3.6.3 Suitability of the System
70
3.6.4 Design Criteria
70
3.6.5 Appurtenances
70
3.6.6 Disposal of Effluent
71
3.6.7 Limitations
71
3.7 SHALLOW SEWERS
71
3.7.1 System Description
71
3.7.2
Components of the System
71
3.7.3 Applicability
72
3.7.4 Limitations
72
VI
3.8 NON CIRCULAR SEWERS 72
4 SEWER APPURTENANCES 74
4.1 INTRODUCTION 74
4.2 MANHOLES 74
4.2.1 Ordinary Manholes 74
4.2.1.1 Spacing 74
4.2.1.2 Constructional Details 74
4.2.1.3 Covers and Frames 78
4.2.2 Types of Manholes 73
4.2.2.1 Straight - Through Manholes 78
4.2.2.2 Junction Manholes 79
4.2.2.3 Side Entrance Man Holes 79
4.2.2.4 Drop Manholes 79
4.2.2.5 Scraper (service) Type Manhole 81
4.2.2.6 Flushing Manholes 81
4.3 INVERTED SIPHONS 82
4.4 HOUSE SEWER CONNECTIONS 82
4.5 STORM WATER INLETS
8:;
4.5.1 Curb Inlets 83
4.5.2 Gutter Inlets 83
4.5.3 Combination Inlets
83
4.6 CATCH BASINS
83
4.7 REGULATOR OR OVERFLOW DEVICE 84
4.7.1 Side Flow Weir
84
4.7.2 Leaping Weir
84
4.7.3 Float Actuated Gates and Valves
34
4.8 FLAP GATES AND FLOOD GATES
84
4.9 MEASURING DEVICES
85
4.10 SEWER VENTILATORS
85
VII
5 MATERIALS FOR SEWER CONSTRUCTION
87
5.1 INTRODUCTION
87
5.2 TYPES OF MATERIAL 87
5.2.1 Brick
87
5.2.2 Concrete 87
5.2.2.1 Precast Concrete
88
5.2.2.2 CastMln...$itu Reinforced Concrete 88
5.2.3 Stoneware or Vitrified Clay 88
5.2.4 Asbestos Cement 88
5.2.5 Iron and Steel 89
5.2.5.1 Cast Iron 89
5.2.5.2 Steel 89
5.2.5.3 Ductile Iron Pipes 89
5.2.6 Plastic Pipes 90
5.2.6.1 General 90
5.2.6.2 PVC Pipes 90
5.2.6.3 High Density Polyethylene (HOPE) Pipes 90
5.2.7 Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Pipes 90
5.2.7.1 Fibre Glass Reinforced Plastic Pipes (FRP) 91
5.2.8 Pitch Fibre Pipes 91
5.3 JOINTING IN SEWER PIPES 91
6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED SEWERS 92
6.1 INTRODUCTION 92
6.2 TYPE OF LOADS 92
6.3 LOADS ON CONDUITS DUE TO BACKFILL 93
6.3.1 Types of Installation or Construction Conditions 93
6.3.2 Loads for Different Conditions 95
6.3.2.1 Embankment or Projecting Conduit Condition 95
6.3.2.2 Trench Condition 104
6.3.2.3 Tunnel Condition 107
6.3.2.4 Effect of Submergence 111
2-51 CPHEEO/ND/94
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.3.1
6.5.3.2
6.5.4
6.5.4.1
6.5.4.2
6.5.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
7
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.1.1
7.1.1.2
7.1.1.3
7.1.1.4
7.1.1.5
7.1.1.6
7.1.2
7.1.2.1
7.1.2.2
VIII
LOAD ON CONDUIT DUE TO SUPER IMPOSED LOADS
Concentrated Load
Distributed Load
Conduits Under Railway Track
SUPPORTING STRENGTH OF RIGID CONDUIT
Laboratory Test Strength
Field Supporting Strength
Supporting Strength in Trench COIlditions
Classes of Bedding
Load Factors
Supporting Strength in Embankment Conditions
Classes of Bedding
Load Factors
Conduits Under Simultaneous Internal Pressure and External Loading
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS IN STRUCTURAL OESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Trench
Dimensions
Excavation
Shoring
Underground Services
Dewatering
Foundation and Bedding
Tunnelling
Shafts
Methods of Tunnelling
111
113
113
115
115
116
116
116
116
118
118
120
120
122
123
123
124
126
126
126
126
126
126
127
127
127
127
128
128
IX
7.1.3
Laying of Pipe Sewers
129
7.1.3.1 Stoneware Pipes
129
7.1.3.2
RC,C. Pipes
129
7.1.3.3
Concrete Sections
129
7.1.3.4
Construction of Brick Sewers
130
7.1.3.5
Cast Iron Pipes
130
7.1.4
Jointing of Sewers
130
7.1.4.1
Stoneware Pipes
130
7.1.4.2
Concrete Pipes
130
7.1.4.3 C.!. Pipes
131
7.1.5
Hydraulic Testing of Pipe Sewers
131
7.1.5.1
Water Test
131
7.1.5.2
Air Testing
132
7.1.6
Check for Obstruction
132
7.1.7
Construction of Manholes
132
7.1.8
Sewer Connections
133
7.1.9
Backfilling of the Trenches
133
7.1.10
Removal of Sheeting
133
8
MAINTENANCE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
134
8.1
INTRODUCTION
134
8.2
ryPES OF MAINTENANCE
134
8.3
NECESSITY OF MAINTENANCE
134
8.4
ORGANISATION FOR MAINTENANCE
134
8.5
PROVISIONS IN DESIGN
135
8.6
HOUSE CONNECTIONS
135
8.7
PLANNING FOR MAINTENANCE
135
8.8
8.8.1
8.8.2
8.8.3
8.8.4
8.8.5
8.8.6
8.8.7
8.8.8
8.8.8.1
8.8.8.2
8.8.8.3
8.8.9
8.8.10
8.8.11
8.9
8.9.1
8.10
8.10.1
8.10.2
8.10.3
8.10.4
8.10.5
8.11
8.11.1
8.11.2
8.11.2.1
X
SEWER CLEANING EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
Portable Pump Set
Manila Rope and Cloth Ball
Sectional Sewer Rods
Sewer Cleaning Bucket Machin<l
Dredger (Clam-shell)
Roding Machine with Flexible Sewer Rods
Scraper
Hydraulically Propelled Devices
Flush Bags
Sewer Balls
Sewer Scooters
Velocity Cleaners (Jetting Machines)
Suction Units (Gully Emptier)
Pneumatic Plugs
HAZARDS
Gases In Sewerage System
PRECAUTIONS
Traffic Control
Manhole Safety
Infection
Precautions of Pumping Stations
Precautions Against Electrical Shocks
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Gas Masks
Breathing Apparatus
Air Hose Respirator
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