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THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CULTURE A BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT U.K. The whole name of the country is The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. -The U.K. is made up THE GREAT BRITAIN and NORTHERN IRELAND. -The GREAT BRITAIN consists of Scotland, Wales and England. -The British Isles include Great Britain and the whole of Ireland that is both Northern Ireland and The Republic of Ireland. -Great Britain is the biggest island of Britain. -There are two small parts of the British Isles which have special political arrangements. These CROWN DEPENDENCIES are the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. Each has complete internal self-government, including its own Parliament and its own tax system both are ruled by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the British government -London is the capital city of U.K. -In the British Isles there are two states. One of these governs most of the islands of Ireland. This state is usually called THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND. It is also called EIRE. -The other state has authority over the rest of the British Isles (the whole of Great Britain, Northern Ireland, and the most of smaller islands). -Wales and Highland Scotland belong to the Celtic race. Celtic languages consist of Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh. England and Lowland Scotland belong to Germanic origin which covers the language developed into the modern English. SOME HISTORICAL NAMES Albion: In rhetorical or poetical contexts it refers to England. It was the original Roman name for Britain. It derives/originates from the Latin word albus, meaning white. The white chalk cliffs around Dover on the south coast are the first part of England to be seen when crossing the sea from the European mainland. Britannia: It is the name given by Romans as well to southern province (present-day England). It also refers to the female embodiment of Britain, always shown wearing a helmet and holding a trident (the symbol of power over the sea). We can see it on the reverse side of British coins. Kilt: A skirt with tartan pattern worn by men and a very well-known symbol of Scottishness. Harp: An emblem of both Wales and Ireland. Bagpipes: These are regarded as distinctively Scottish (though a smaller type is also used in traditional Irish music). Caledonia, Cambria, Hibernia: These are the Roman names for Scotland, Wales and Ireland Erin: It is a poetical name for Ireland. The Emerald Isle is another way of referring to Ireland evoking the green colour of its countryside.

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Anglo: The term Anglo is also commonly used. The Angles were a Germanic tribe who settled in England in the 5th century. The word England derives from their name. Briton: It is a word used in official context and in formal writing to describe citizen of the U.K. Ancient Britons is the name given to the race of people who lived in England before and during the Roman occupation. These are also ancestors of the present day Welsh people. The Union Jack: It is the national flag of the U.K. It is a combination of the cross of St. George, the cross of St. Andrew, and the cross of St. Patrick identifying for nations.

Scotland (St. Andrews cross)

Ireland (St. Patricks cross)

England (St. Georges cross)

U.K (The Union Jack)

OTHER SIGNS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY The prefix Mac or Mc in surnames is always either Scottish or Irish (such as McCartney, MacDonald, McCall). The prefix O is always and distinctly (separately) Irish (such as OHara, OConnor, OHenry) On the other hand, some names such as Davis, Evans, Johns, Morgan, Price, Rees, Williams are Welsh origin. Furthermore, Smith is the most common surname in both England and Scotland. THE TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PEOPLE: The Irish are supposed to be great talker. The Scots have a reputation for being careful with money. The Welsh are well-known for their singing ability. HISTORY PREHISTORY: (CELTS) Two thousand years ago there was an Iron Age Celtic culture throughout the British Isles. It seems that the Celts, who had been arriving from Europe from 8th c. B.C. onwards, intermingled with the peoples who were already there. This period is called Prehistory Celts THE ROMAN PERIOD: (43-410) The Roman province of Britannia covers most of present-day England and Wales. The Romans imposed their own way of life and culture making use of existing Celtic aristocracy to govern and encouraging this ruling this ruling class to adopt Roman dress and the language.

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The Romans never went to Ireland and exerted an influence without actually governing there, over only the southern part of Scotland. It was during this time that a Celtic tribe called Scots migrated from Ireland to Scotland where they became allies of Piots (another Celtic tribe and opponents of the Romans). This division of the Celts into those who experienced Roman rule (the Britons in England and Wales) and those who did not may help to explain the development two distinct branches of the Celtic group of languages. The remarkable thing about Romans is that despite their long occupation of Britain, they left very little behind. Almost the only lasting reminders of their presence are placenames like Chester, Lancaster and Gloucester, which include variants of the Roman word casira meaning a military camp. THE GERMANIC INVASIONS: (410-1066) One reason why Roman Britannia disappeared so quickly is probably that its influence was largely confined to the towns. In the countryside, where the most people lived, farming methods had remained unchanged and Celtic speech continued to be dominant. But, during the 5th c, a number of tribes from the north-western European mainland invaded and settled in large numbers. Two of these tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. These Anglo-Saxons soon had the south-east of the country in their grasp. In the west of the country their advance was temporarily halted by an army of (Celtic) Britons under the command of the legendary King Arthur. Later the Celtic Britons were the either Saxonized or driven westwards, where their culture and language survived in south-west Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. The Anglo-Saxons were usually influential on the countryside rather than the towns and cities as they introduced new farming methods and founded the thousands of selfsufficient villages which formed the basis of the English society for the next thousand or so years. Britain experienced another wave of Germanic invasions in the 8th c. These invaders, known as Vikings, Norseman or Danes, they, by the end of the 10th c. ,were one kingdom with a Germanic culture. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD: (1066-1485) Apart from Western and Northern Islands the country was invaded by Normans (in 1066) and it was under the control of Scandinavian kings. As compared to Germanic invasions, the Norman was a small one, therefore, there was no such thing as a Norman village or a Norman area of settlement. Instead, the Norman soldiers who had been part of the invading army were given the ownership of land and of the people on it. A strict feudal system was imposed. Great nobles, or barons were directly responsible to the king, lesser lords, each owning a village, were directly responsible to a baron. Under them were the peasants, tied by a strict system of mutual duties and obligations to the local lord, and forbidden to travel without his permission. The peasants were the English speaking Normans. This was the beginning of the English class system. The cultural story of this period is different. 250 years after the Norman Conquest, it was a Germanic language (Middle English) and not the Norman (French) language which had become the dominant one in all classes of society in England. Furthermore, it was the AngloSaxon concept of common law, and not Roman law, which formed the basis of the legal system. It was this period that Parliament began its gradual evolution into democratic body which it is today. The word parliament which comes from the French word parler (to

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speak), was first used in England in the 13th c. to describe an assembly of nobles called together by the king. In 1295, the Model Parliament set the pattern for the future by including elected representatives from urban and rural areas. THE 16TH CENTURY: The power of the English monarch increased in this period. The strength of the great barons had been greatly weakened by the Wars of the Roses; Black Death contributed to the reduction of their power. It killed about a third of the population in its first outbreak in England in the middle of the 14th c. The parliament was traditionally split into two houses. The House of Lords consisted of the feudal aristocracy and the leaders of the Church; The House of Commons consisted of representatives from the towns and the less important land owners in rural areas. Henry VIII wanted a divorce which the Pope would not give him. Also, making himself head of the Church of England, independent, of Rome, all church lands came under his control and him a large new source of income. It was therefore patriotism as much as religious conviction that had caused Protestantism to become the majority religion in England by the end of the century. It took a form known as Anglicanism, which was not so different from Catholicism in its organization and ritual. But in the lowlands of Scotland it took a more idealistic ritual and celebration, became the dominant religion. It is from this date that the stereotype of the dour, thrifty Scott developed. However, the Scottish highlands remained Catholic and so further widened the gulf between the two parts of the nation. Ireland also remained Catholic. There, Protestantism was identified with the English, who at that time were making further attempts to control the whole of the country. THE 17TH CENTURY: At the beginning of the century some people tried to kill the king because he was not Catholic enough. By the end of the century, another king had been killed, partly because he seemed too Catholic, and yet another had been forced into exile for the same reason. The conflict led to the Civil War, which ended with complete victory for the parliamentary forces. The king (Charles) was captured and became the first monarch in Europe to be executed after a formal trial for crimes against his people. The leader of the parliamentary army, Oliver Cromwell, became Lord Protector of a republic with a military government which, after he had brutally crushed resistance in Ireland, effectively encompassed the whole of the British Isles. THE 18TH CENTURY: Within Parliament the divisions of the previous century though far or less bitter than before, were echoed in the formation of two vaguely opposed loose collections of allies. One group, the Whigs, were the political descendants of the parliamentarians. They supported the Protestant values of hard work and thrift were sympathetic to Dissenters and believed in government by monarch and aristocracy together. The other group, the Tories, had a great respect for the idea of the monarchy and the importance of the Anglican Church (and sometimes even a little sympathy for Catholics and the Stuarts). The two terms, Whig and Tory, had infact first been used in the late 1760s and allegiance to one side or the other was more often the result of family or religion loyalty than of political beliefs. This could be said, however, to be the beginning of the party system in Britain.

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THE 19TH CENTURY: In the 1840s, the potato crop failed two years in a row and there was a terrible famine, millions of peasants, those with Irish Gaelic language and customs, either died or emigrated. By the end of the century almost the whole of the remaining population were using English as their first language. There were great changes in social structure. Most people now lived in towns and cities because of the industry. As people established a set of values which emphasised hardworking, thrift, religious observance, family life and extreme respectability in sexual matters which we call now Victorian. THE 20TH CENTURY: By the beginning of this century, Britain was no longer the worlds richest country. Perhaps this caused Victorian confidence in gradual reform to weaken. Whatever the reason, the first twenty years of the century were a period of extremism in Britain. The miserable people and the suffer on the one hand, and women demanding the right to vote on the other were prepared both to damage property and to die for their beliefs; the problem of Ulster in the north of Ireland led to a situation in which some sections of the army appeared ready to disobey the government. INRODUCING THE BRITISH There are detached and semi-detached houses in England. Each house has two small rooms upstairs and two rooms downstairs. There is no bathroom and the toilet is in the backyard. English people like gardening. Houses have got back garden and front garden. In England there are Council Houses built by local government authorities. These houses are built for employees, poor people and immigrants. They usually are built in the outside of the country. In England beside the central government there are local government authorities knows as councils. The central government has given local councils - powers. The system of local government is very similar to the system of national government. There are elected representatives, called councillors like MPs. They meet in the Town Hall or County Hall which is similar to Parliament to make policy. Local councils traditionally manage nearly all public services. They are allowed to collect one kind of tax based on property. All other taxes are collected by central government. In the suburbs of cities and outskirts of towns, there are semi-detached houses. The semi-detached house is one of the most characteristics houses of Britain. Inside and out of each house are the same. Suburban means on the edge of the city. Suburban people work in towns. They are called conservative, conventional, narrow-minded, unintellectual, and snobbish people. But infact a lot of people who belong to different classes prefer living in any part of Britain. People from every trade, business and profession as well as better-off working people live in suburban areas. City: The city is the business and commercial centre of London and includes the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange, the central Law Courts, and St. Pauls Cathedral. The leading citizen of the City is the Lord Mayor of London (many of the institutions in which are known as city) (Britain 147)

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Sir: A sir belongs to the lowest rank of nobility. He inherited his title from his father and will pass it on to his son. If he has no son, the title passes to the nearest male relative. Knight: They also have the title sir but it does not pass to their sons. Knights do not belong to the nobility. They receive their title as a reward for their services to the nation. Politicians, musicians, sportsmen, writers, scientists have been knighted. Lady: The wife of a baronet or a knight is called lady. Dame: If a woman is awarded for services to the nation, she is given this title. Establishment: The powerful organizations and people who are said to contro public life and support the established order of society not so much politically as in the way of life, the attitude to the arts, etc. The establishments influence is indirect and is no threat to democracy. Places where working mothers can leave their children: Crches: organized by employers age of child 0 to 5 years Day Nurseries: run by Welfare Department 0 to 5 years Nursery School: run by Education Department 3 to 5 years Nursery Schools only took after children from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Crches and Day Nurseries remain open as long as mothers are at work. In some districts mother organise day nurseries of their own. There also child minders, who look after children for a fee. EEC: European Economic Community (also called Common Market) Generation Gap: a lack of sympathy and understanding between generations Sheffield: a city in Yorkshire for its stainless steel THE MIXTURE WHICH IS BRITISH Great Britain consists of Scotland, England and Wales. Great Britain and Northern Ireland are named United Kingdom at the United Nations. The British Isles include Great Britain and the whole Ireland (Northern Ireland the Republic of Eire) People who live in mainland are called British. Foreigners usually call all British people English but the Scots, the Irish and the Welsh do not consider themselves to be English. Northern Ireland is not dependent. It is dependent to England. Capital city of Ireland is Belfast. Capital city of Wales is Cardiff. Capital city of Scotland is Edinburgh. London is the capital city of the whole mainland.

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THE ENGLISH: After the Norman Conquest in 1066 many races began to come to England and they have been mixed up. They are not only Scots, Irishmen, Welsh, but also Jews, Russians, Germans people from almost every country in Europe as well as many West Indians, Indians, and people from the Commonwealth. London is a melting-pot. People from all over Britain and from all over the world migrate to London. Every year, the influence of London is increasing. In order to stop the spread of London, new towns are being built outside London. London firms are encouraged to move to a new or to open new branches there. As a result of this policy, in recent years, the population of London has dropped. Many of the old cottages in the southern countries of Hampshire, Kent, and Sussex have been turned into homes or weekend houses for rich Londoners. Some people from these countries travel to work in London. Because of this, their accent are rarely spoken. But there is a strong and most unusual accent in the East End of London, the home of the cockneys. The cockney is more than an accent; it can be called language, because it includes many words and expressions that are not used in any other part of the country. THE WELSH: They came to the island before Anglo-Saxons. Before the English conquered Wales in the 13th c. the different Welsh tribes were continually fighting one another. The conquest united them. Today, they have Welsh Nationalist Party (Plaid Cymru) and the party wants that the Welsh have their own parliament instead of electing members to represent them in the U.K. parliament in Westminster. Since 1959 there has been a Secretary of State for Wales. There have been Welsh ministers in the Cabinet. Lloyd George, one of the most famous PMs of this century, is a Welshman. In the 1955 Cardiff became the capital city of Wales. The Welsh are dependent on England economically. They need to English money; because of this they can not found their own parliament. Welsh can not earn their life by using their language, culture, so day by day their language has been lost its effect. Only 1% people speak their language. Welsh is an ancient Celtic language. In 1535, Welsh was forbidden as an official language, but in 1965 it was given equality with English for all official use in Wales. Rugby is the national sport of the Welsh. It emerged as a game among the coal miners. The Welsh are very musical, and many of their singers have become world famous. They have a national festival called Eisteddfod. Every year in this festival, national costumes are worn and some competitions are held in Welsh music, singing, and art. Wales is divided geographically into the industrial south, the central plateaux and lakes, and mountainous north of the farmers and tourists. About half the population is crowded into the south, where the coal mines are. Welsh are famous for the quality of their coal. The coal mining industry was nationalized in 1947. After the second half of the 20th c. the coal mining has been totally closed down. But in South Wales, coal mines are still active and they have been modernised. North Wales is mountainous and has beautiful scenery. It is the famous touristic place. The sheep farmers of north and central Wales still carry on. The nickname of Welsh is shepperd. Welsh language is spoken widely in this area. In the central Wales there are some natural resources. Water has high quality in this part.

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Welsh are emotional, cheerful people. They are proud of their past. They are friendly but suspicious of foreigners, particularly the English. THE SCOTS: They are from Celt origin. The Scots have their own system of law, their church. They run their own education, housing, and agriculture. They are friendly. They have very strong accent and they are fond of their culture. They are very keen on kilt and bagpipes. They have an international festival, Edinburgh. They are good warriors in World War I; the Germans called them the Women from Hell because of their kilts. They are merciless. They are thrifty people. The Scots are famous for their whisky, beautiful scenery, mineral water, and salmon. They are very good at fishing, hunting. The upper land of Scotland is suitable for hunting and tourism. Scotland is famous for its wool and Glasgow is famous for its shipbuilding. They have their own ship companies. The Lowlands are densely populated and heavily industrialised. Cotton, iron, steel, and coal are Scotlands chief industries. The Highland farmers keep a few sheep and cows. They grow oats and potatoes. THE IRISH: The Ireland is the first colony of England. Irish people can be divided into two religious groups: Catholics and Protestants. Religious intolerance between these two sects caused terrorism to emerge in Ireland. In the 16th and 17th century when under Tudor monarchs and later Oliver Cromwell, English and Scottish Protestants were sent to Ulster in order to control Catholics. On July 12th in 1969, the violence broke out in Northern Ireland. Every year Protestants celebrate this day: they also celebrate the Battle of the Boyne, in which William III and the Ulster Protestants defeat James II and Irish Catholics in 1960. At the end of the 8th century, Protestants formed Orange Society. Its aim was to make sure that Protestants never lost control in Ulster. Orangemen have always been militant, wrecked Lloyd Georges for a unified Ireland in 1921. Ulster Loyalists forced the British government to partition Ireland. After a war, the Irish were given their independence. In 1922, the Catholic South became an independent republic (EIRE). But the Protestant North remained as a part of the U.K. In Northern Ireland, Catholics became minority. Few of them moved to the south. Protestants have been getting the best jobs and the best houses. Some bosses have not employed Catholics and voting system has also been unjust. Protestants have their own streets, schools, ghettos. Northern Ireland sends 12 representatives to the Parliament in Westminster. It also had a parliament called Stormant. It was controlled by one party Ulster Unionists since it was founded in 1922. Ulster Unionists had complete control of the police, Royal Ulster Constabulary. Extremist organizations from both communities began to commit acts of terrorism. One of these is IRA. The aim of IRA has always been the unification of Ireland. It has fought not only against the British but also against Irish Republic. Poor Catholics of Belfast and Londonderry supported IRA. In 1970, the IRA was split into two rival groups: The Official IRA which supported a kid of political solution, and the Provisional IRA. The object of these two groups was the breakdown of society, the removal of the British Army, the starting a civil war between Catholics and Protestants and the destruction of Stormant.

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In August 1971, the Stormant PM Brian Faulkner introduced internment. It means arresting people suspected of being enemies of the state and keeping them locked up without trial. Interment was an attempt by Stormant to control terrorism but because of it the bomb attacks became more frequent and more violent. Internment caused the Civil Right marchers to break out. On January 30 th 1972 called Bloody Sunday paratroopers were sent to stop a Civil Right march. After Bloody Sunday the Catholic Irish lost all confidence in the British government. A week later, the IRA avenged Bloody Sunday by blowing a building in the headquarters of paratroopers. The British government took over full control of Northern Ireland to stop all the violence. Stormant was suspended, at first for one year and the PM and the cabinet resigned. William Whitelaw was sent to Belfast as Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. In 1973, representatives of the British and Irish governments and more moderate Protestant and Catholic leaders met in England. They decided to set up a power-sharing government of Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland but the extremists on both sides did not accept this. In 1974, the Loyalists Workers Council called a general strike and this was the end of the power-sharing government and the British government began to rule Northern Ireland again. At the beginning of 1980s IRA gunmen were still killing Ulster Protestants and a few British soldiers. IMMIGRANTS: In the second half of the 19th c. and at the beginning of the 20th c. many people from colonies were brought to England in order to build up the country such as underground system. Because of cultural, economical situations, people have been immigrating to England. They were cheap labours. They work in London under very hard conditions. At the beginning, people were brought by force, then the people from colonies such as New Zelland, Australia, countries from Asia to Africa continued to migrate to England because of better jobs and better life conditions. And this caused London to be melting-pot. Board: a group of officials who make decisions. Convention: large meeting of people to discuss important problems. Landlord/lady: the owner of a house with rooms let. Partition: division into two or several parts. Recession: period when trade is bad, factories have to close down, and unemployment climbs. Tory: a member of the Conservative party. T-shirt: a shirt in the shape of a T with short sleeves and no collar To have time for: to have no confidence in to disapprove of DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNMENT THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION: It is a constitutional monarch, one who (king or queen) can rule with the support of Parliament. It is also a Parliamentary democracy. William and Mary became the first constitutional monarchs of Britain.

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Before is Norman Conquest in 1066, Anglo-Saxon kings consulted the Great Council before taking important decisions. Between 1066 and 1215, king ruled alone. In 1215, nobles forced King John to accept Magna Carta, a document which the king agreed to follow certain rules of government. There is no written constitution. Some of them are written down in laws agreed by Parliament, some of them have been spoken then written down, some of them have never been written down. There have been written no violent change in constitution. THE GOVERNMENT: The party which gets the most votes in a general election forms the government. The leader of this party becomes the Prime Minister. Members of Parliament are known as ministers. Most of them from the House of Commons, all ministers come from the rank of Parliament. Prime Minister (PM) usually takes political decisions with the agreement of their Cabinet. The Cabinet meetings are held at the houses of prime ministers at the number 10 Downing Street, which is very near the House of Parliament in Westminster. Britain has two party system of government, since most people vote either Labour or Conservative. THE LABOUR PARTY It was formed at the beginning of the 20th c. The left wing of the Party was in control of the Labour Executive, the most powerful Labour body outside Parliament. According to them, the party leader should be elected by a special electoral college instead of by the parliamentary members. Labour Party has always sympathy for working class. Labours are against NATO and EEC (EU) because they are western organization. They are protesting USA and any product from western. They are not very keen on traditions, religion, and culture as Conservatives are. They would like to see most of British industry nationalized. They would increase taxation of people with high incomes. Their leader is Tony Benn. The right wing of the party wants a combination of free enterprise and nationalization, with worker participation in industry. They are not against EEC, NATO, and USA. Welfare and unemployment are important to their program. In 1981, a small group of right wingers left the Labour Party and formed a new Social Democratic Party. They were joined by a left wing Conservative MPs. According to the Labours, west indicates capitalism, privatization, free market but east indicates nationalization, socialism, not open market economy, not democracy, the power of working class. Because Wales is the region of industry, some of the leaders are chosen from this particular region. THE TYPICAL CONSERVATIVES They are very keen on religion, traditions in terms of wearing. They do not grow long hair and beard. They are Protestant and come from Anglo-Saxon origin. They are proud of their history. They are in favour of NATO, EEC. They are against nationalization and immigration from other countries. Most of the leaders are from the upper-class people. Their leader is, John Major, is not from upper-class. Because of this he is objected.

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LOCAL GOVERNMENT: The County Council is the most important unit of local government. It traditionally manages nearly all public services. If someone would like to build a house, open shopping centre, factory, he/she has to get the permission from the County Council. It is responsible for local roads, transportation, the police, the fire service, education (employ teachers and build schools), and welfare, providing houses and salaries for poor people. Each county is divided into districts. If a particular region consists of 60,000 or 100,000 people, it is called district. The District Councils are responsible for housing, building, and renting of council houses, cleaning the district, inspecting the food shops and employing dustmen. County and District Councils are run by part-time unpaid councillors who are elected in the same way as MPs. The councillors appoint from among themselves the committees who run the different department and they appoint paid full-time officials. These officials are nonpolitical like the civil servants. The head of the each county council and district council is appointed every year by the councillors. There is a party on the basis of the government but it has to behave equally. Not only local government but also civil servants cannot be understood which party they belong. Every government should give budget to local governments. They get a grant from the treasury. Grant is given by government to be spent on something useful to the community. Local councils are allowed to collect one kind of tax called rates. This is a tax based on property. It is paid by all houses and landowners. Its amount varies according to the size and location of the property. Bills: No bill which a minister prepares can become law until it is passed by an Act of Parliament. All important bills are presented first to the House of Commons. Here they are explained and debated. If they receive a majority vote they go to the House of Lords. The Lords only have power to delay a bill. They can throw it out once, but if presented a second time, they must pass it. Finally, the bill are taken by the prime minister to the Queen, who always signs them. The Queen is a constitutional monarch, that is to say she governs through Parliament. She acts on the advice of her prime minister and does not make any major political decisions.

Parliament: Parliament is only responsible for making law. The Head of the Parliament The Speaker (left) opposition benches . (right) government benches PM Government Ministers Shadow Cabinet 11

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CABINET: It is the committee of leading Ministers chosen by PM. There are usually twenty ministers in the Cabinet. The power of the Cabinet is controlled by Parliament. They meet at number 10 Downing Streets, which is very near the House of Parliament in Westminster. Shadow Cabinet: It is organised by the main opposition party. They are controlling the actual cabinet. House of Commons: It is the main law-making body. They elect the Head of Parliament. If a major bill is defeated there the government usually resigns and there is a new election. In any case, elections must be held at least every five years. They are known as MPs. House of Lords: They are known as peers. They are not elected. They are appointed. They receive their titles as a reward for service. Speaker: The head of the Parliament is called the Speaker (Madam Speaker/Mister Speaker). He sits in the middle of the house with the long wig on. He is elected by the House of Commons. Although he belongs to a party, he has to give up all his job to keep order. The speaker controls discussion in the House and decides which MP is going to speak next. Backbenchers: Bench means seat and the backbenchers in the House of Commons are the ordinary members of Parliament who sit on the seats behind the front benches. In the House, the government seats are on one side of the Speaker and the opposition seats are on the other side. The two front benches are occupied by government ministers and their opposite numbers on the other side (The Shadow Cabinet of the opposition). The Civil Service: Civil servants are non-political professional servants of the State. They run the various government departments, advise ministers and carry out their policies. MARGARET THATCHER: She became Europes first PM in 1979. She is called Iron Lady. For the supporter Iron Lady means courageous, honest, hard-working, intelligent, and determined, but for the opponents it means obstinate, unfeeling, self-willed. Maggie is used by anti-Thatcher groups, people who do not like her. The most important ministers and departments of the civil service are in Whitehall. Whitehall is often used to refer to the government or the civil service.

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