Chapter 2

Using Strain Gages

2-1

2. USING STRAIN GAGES

2.1 STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
This chapter concentrates on the issues involved with a multiple channel measurement system, based on a Wheatstone bridge configuration. It is not the purpose of this section to discuss the various types and construction of strain gages, nor to define the proper strain equation for the user's application. This important material is covered extensively in general literature available from strain gage suppliers. The "PRESSURE, STRAIN AND FORCE HANDBOOK", available at no charge from OMEGA, contains a very helpful section on practical strain gage measurements.

2.2 STRAIN
Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length along a given axis of a physical member under stress to the unstressed length. Strain may be expressed as: = L/L where = strain, ( commonly expressed in microstrain) and L = Length.

2.3 STRAIN GAGES

The strain gage is a transducer which converts force, pressure, tension, etc. to an electrical signal and is used for electrical measurement of these mechanical quantities. The underlying principle of the strain gage is that a stressed metallic conductor undergoes a change in electrical resistance directly proportional to a change in length.

2.4 GAGE FACTOR

The Gage Factor is a dimensionless quantity defined as the ratio of the fractional change in resistance to the fractional change in length along the axis of the strain gage. The larger the value, the more sensitive the gage.

2-2 Chapter 2 Using Strain Gages The value for Gage Factor is provided by the strain gage manufacturer, and ranges from 2 to 4.

2.5 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

One of the most accurate approaches to measuring strain gages involves using the Wheatstone bridge configuration, ideally suited to detecting minute changes in resistance. In a bridge measurement system, a precisely regulated voltage (Excitation voltage, VEXC) is applied across the bridge. The voltage across the two center taps is then measured (See Figures 2.1 - 2.3). In a theoretical Wheatstone bridge, all four resistive elements are equivalent or balanced. In a balanced condition the voltage across the center of the bridge will be zero volts. In application, one or more of these resistive elements will be strain gages, the remaining resistive elements required to complete the bridge are supplied by the measuring device such as the 5508BG. As the resistance of the stressed strain gage changes, the voltage across the center taps will also change. This measured change in voltage is proportional to the change in resistance of the strain gage which in turn is proportional to the strain experienced by the strain gage.

2.6 COMPUTING STRAIN

There are numerous equations for determining strain. For proper results, it is crucial that the user select the correct equation for the system configuration being used. Strain is one of the most commonly misunderstood and incorrectly measured properties. The user must understand the application in order to choose the optimum strain gages, select the proper equation, and achieve the correct measurement results. The two most crucial factors that determine the correct strain equation are bridge configuration (Quarter, Half, or Full) and stress type (Bending or Axial).

Chapter 2 Using Strain Gages 2-3 BRIDGE CONFIGURATION Determining proper bridge configuration begins with selecting the correct strain gage for the application. The user should consult the strain gage supplier if there is any uncertainty regarding the choice for the correct gage. A gage which contains one resistive element, or "leg", is a QUARTER BRIDGE (the other three located on the 5508BG), a gage which contains two resistive elements is a HALF BRIDGE (the other two located on the 5508BG), and a gage which contains four resistive elements is a FULL BRIDGE (none located on the 5508BG). For more information, reference Figures 2.1 - 2.3. BENDING vs AXIAL The user must determine whether the strain being measured is of bending or axial type. If in doubt, consult a technical references - again the "PRESSURE, STRAIN and FORCE HANDBOOK" available at no charge from OMEGA contains a very helpful section on practical strain gage measurements. DEFINITION of VARIABLES For the equations listed in Figures 2.1 - 2.3: Gage Factor Poisson's ratio The voltage measured by the 5508BG The voltage supplied by the 5508BG to power the bridges Vr = [(Vmeas/Vexc)strained - (Vmeas/Vexc)unstrained] Rl = Lead resistance Rg = Gage resistance = Strain (multiply by 106 for micro-strain), tensile is (+) and compressive is (-). The following formulas are a sampling of the most commonly used equations, and are not intended to be a complete listing. These equations do not apply to Biaxial or Rosette applications.

GF = = Vmeas = Vexc =

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Chapter 2

Using Strain Gages

Figure 2.1 - QUARTER BRIDGE EQUATION

Figure 2.2 - HALF BRIDGE EQUATIONS

Chapter 2

Using Strain Gages

2-5

FIG. 2.3 - FULL BRIDGE EQUATIONS

2.7 THE CONNECTING WIRES

If long leads are needed to connect the strain gage to the measuring circuit, significant values of resistance can occur in the connecting wires. If a two wire measurement is made, the wiring resistance of both connecting leads is considered to be part of the strain gage resistance in one leg of the bridge for a quarter-bridge configuration. This added resistance has the effect of de-sensitizing the gage. No. 24 wire has a resistance of 2.62 ohms per 100 feet. Since two lengths of wire have to be considered, a 120 ohm bridge is de-sensitized by 4.3% at 100 feet. Also, since copper has a temperature coefficient of 0.00385 ohms per ohm per deg. C, the 100 foot connecting leads change by 0.20 ohms for each 10 deg. C change in ambient temperature. This can obviously cause a measurable error if the temperature of the connecting leads during the strained reading is different from the temperature during the unstrained readings.

2-6 Chapter 2 Using Strain Gages The three wire method (shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2) is the preferred way of connecting the gage in a bridge circuit. NOTE: For detailed wiring information, see Section on Input Connections

2.8 BRIDGE SENSITIVITY

Figures 2.1 - 2.3 also show the relationship between strain and the voltage derived from the bridge. As can be seen, the output of the bridge is directly proportional to the Excitation Voltage applied across the bridge, the gage factor, and the strain. The output of the bridge is not dependent upon the actual bridge resistance values. This expression assumes small changes in resistance (1 to 2% maximum). For larger changes, non-linearities come into play, and other techniques have to be applied.

2.9 BRIDGE EXCITATION VOLTAGE AND BRIDGE POWER VOLTAGE

The Excitation Voltage (VEXC) of a bridge is the voltage applied across the bridges. The actual current supplied to the bridges is drawn from the raw Bridge Power Voltage (Vb). The Excitation Voltage level of the 5508BG is set by an on-board precision voltage reference that provides jumper choices of voltage. The choice of Excitation Voltage can be made by the user as a compromise between increased sensitivity versus increased gage power dissipation. The following chart shows the power dissipation for both 350 and 120 ohm gages for various values of Excitation Voltage.

Excitation Voltage
10 V 5.0 V 2.5 V

Gage Power in Milliwatts 350 ohm

71.4 17.9 4.5

120 ohm
208.3 52.1 13.0

Chapter 2 Using Strain Gages 2-7 As can be seen, lowering of the Excitation Voltage, or increasing the bridge resistance, will lower the power dissipated. Power dissipation, of course, is proportional to the square of the voltage, and inversely proportional to the resistance. The temperature rise of the gage due to self-heating caused by power dissipation is difficult to calculate. This generally can be done empirically by increasing the reference voltage until a noticeable imbalance occurs, causing the unstrained value to drift from zero. Since sensitivity is a function of Excitation Voltage, but not resistance, higher values of gage resistance should be used if self-heating becomes a problem. In general, the user should select the lowest value of Excitation Voltage that, in conjunction with the overall amplifier gains, will provide the required sensitivity.