Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Ciphertext
Apparently random nonsense message
Encryption process
An algorithm - produce a different output depending on the specific key being used at the time. A key a value independent of plaintext, shared by sender and recipient.
3 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 4
X K
Decryption Decryption Algorithm Algorithm
Destination
Key source
Brute-force approach of trying all possible keys Statistical tests: type of plaintext
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques
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Conditionally secure
1. The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of the encrypted information 2. The time required to break the cipher exceeds the useful lifetime of the information
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 13 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 14
2.2 Steganography
Cryptography
crypto graphy : secret writing Conceal the meaning of message
Steganography
stegano graphy : covered writing Conceal the existence of message
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2.2 Steganography
Stegosaur (Roof Lizard)
2.2 Steganography
Dear George, Greetings to all at Oxford. Many thanks for your Letter and for the summer examination package. All Entry Forms and Fees Forms should be ready for final despatch to the syndicate by Friday 20th or at the very latest, Im told, by the 21st. Admin has improved here, though theres room for improvement still; just give us all two or three more years and well really show you! Please dont let these wretched 16 + proposals destroy your basic O and A pattern. Certainly this sort of change, if implemented immediately, would bring chaos. Sincerely yours,
17 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 18
2.2 Steganography
Historical steganographic techniques
Character marking Invisible ink Pin punctures Typewriter correction ribbon
2.2 Steganography
Cryptography
Conceal the meaning of message
Steganography
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2.2 Steganography
General Steganographic Model
Sender Message
Compressing Compressing Encrypting Encrypting
2.2 Steganography
Requirements of a Steganographic System
Imperceptible (image fidelity) Undetectable (Steganalysis) Security Payload
Stegomedia
Extracting Extracting
Message Receiver
Decompressing Decompressing Decrypting Decrypting
Embedding Embedding
Limited Robustness
Stego-key Warden
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques
Stego-key (Blindness)
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2.2 Steganography
Steganalysis
The art of detecting any hidden message on the communication channel. If the existence of the hidden message is revealed, the goal of steganography is defeated. Two types of steganalytic techniques
Visual attack Statistical attack
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 23
2.2 Steganography
Specific Pattern of S-Tools palette in cover-image
Result of the Airfield image embedded in the 8-bit Renoir with S-Tools. (the cover image was reduced from 248 to 32 unique colors)
<Example>
Plain: me e t Cipher: P H H W me P H a f t e r D I WH U t h e WK H t o g a WR J D p a r t y S D U WB
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(Conti.)
If we assign a numerical equivalent to each letter (a=0, b=1, c=2etc), then for each plaintext letter p, substitute the ciphertext letter C : C = E(p) = (p + 3) mod 26 General Caesar algorithm C = E(p) = (p + k) mod 26 where 1 k 25 Decryption algorithm p = D(C) = (C - k) mod 26
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 27
O O H H F F P P V V
N N Y Y G G Q Q W W
A A B B I/J I/J S S X X
R R D D K K T T Z Z
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Homophone
Provide multiple substitutes for a single letter Multiple-letter patterns (e.g., digram frequencies) still survive in the ciphertext
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques
Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time, according to the following rules: 1. Repeating plaintext letter that would fall in the same pair are separated with a filler letter (such as x)
3. Plaintext letters that fall in the same column of the matrix are replaced by the letter beneath, with the top element of the column circularity following the last.
[ mu ]
[ CM ]
M M C C E E L L U U O O H H F F P P V V N N Y Y G G Q Q W W A A B B I/J I/J S S X X R R D D K K T T Z Z
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[ balloon ]
[ ba lx lo on ]
M M C C E E L L U U
O O H H F F P P V V
N N Y Y G G Q Q W W
A A B B I/J I/J S S X X
R R D D K K T T Z Z
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2. Plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the matrix are replaced by the letter to the right in a circular fashion
4. Otherwise, each plaintext letter is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and the column occupied by the other plaintext letter.
[ ar ]
[ RM ]
[ hs ] [ ea ]
[ BP ], [ IM ] ( or [ JM ] )
There are 26*26=676 digrams, so that identification of individual digrams is more difficult. The relative frequencies of individual letters exhibit a much greater range than that of diagrams, making frequency analysis much more difficult. Standard field system by the British Army in WWI Considerable use by the U.S. Army and other allied forces during WWII. However, it still leaves much of the structure of the plaintext language intact.
Fig.2.7 Relative Frequency of Occurrence of Letters.
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 35 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 36
Matrix-vector form
c1 k11 k12 k13 p1 c = k 2 21 k22 k23 p2 c3 k31 k32 k33 p3
C = KP where C and P are column vectors of length 3, representing the plaintext and ciphertext, and K is a 3*3 matrix, representing the encryption key. Operation are performed mod 26.
37 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 38
(Conti.)
The first three letters is pay = (15, 0, 24) t C = KP mod 26 = (375, 819, 486) t mod 26 = (11, 13, 18) t = LNS Ciphertext LNSHDLEWMTRW
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques
As with Playfair, the strength of the Hill cipher is that it completely hides single-letter frequencies. A 3*3 Hill cipher hides not only single-letter but twoletter frequency information. Use a larger matrix hides more frequency information Strong against a ciphertext-only attack Easily broken with a known plaintext attack.
For an m*m Hill cipher, suppose we have m plaintext-ciphertext pairs, each of length m. Pj = ( p1j, p2j, p3j, p4j . . ., pmj ) Cj = ( c1j, c2j, c3j, c4j . . ., cmj ) Cj = KPj for 1 j m and for some unknown key matrix K. Define X = (pij) , Y = (cij). If X has an inverse, K =X-1Y Y = XK
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Vigenere cipher
26 Caesar ciphers are used, with shifts of 0 through 25 Each cipher is denoted by a key letter (from a to z)
Table 2.4 The Modern Vigenere Tablean
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 43 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 44
Not all knowledge of the plaintext structure is lost. Example: Fig. 2.7.
The strength is that there are multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter, one for each unique letter of the keyword.
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 45
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(Conti.)
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Autokey system a keyword is concatenated with the plaintext itself to provide a running key
key: plaintext: d e w e c e p t a r e i v e w e a r e s c o v e r e I d i d s s c o v e r e d s s e a v l f d i a v e y o u r
Ultimate defense - To choose a keyword that is as long as the plaintext and has no statistical relationship to it Vernam cipher: 1918, AT&T engineer, Gilbert Vernam
binary data C i = p i ki pi = ith binary digit of plaintext ki = ith binary digit of key Ci = ith binary digit of ciphertext = exclusive-or (XOR) operation pi = Ci ki
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 50
ciphertext: Z I
C V T W Q N G K Z E I
G A S X S T S L V V W L A
Statistical techniques can be applied to cryptanalysis since the key and the plaintext share the same frequency distribution of letters Example: e enciphered by e can be expeated to occur with a frequency of (0.1275)2=0.0163
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 49
Unbreakable Produce random output that bears no statistical relationship to the plaintext The practical difficult sender and receiver must be in possession of, and protect, the random key.
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(Conti.)
Ciphertext MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 53
This is a much less structured permutation and is much more difficult to cryptanalysis.
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 55 Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 56
Consists of a set of independently rotating cylinders A single cylinder defines a monoalphabetic substitution After each input key is depressed, the cylinder rotates one position, so that the internal connections are shifted accordingly. Thus, a different monoalphabetic substitution cipher is defined.
Edward Heberns Electric Code Machine, 1921 U.S. Patent 1683072.
Ch 2 Conventional Encryption: Classical Techniques 57
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(Conti.)