96BI9di01l119 uzrU, o 39!

CRANFIELD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1
Ph. D. THESIS

Session

1988-89

SALIM ABID TABASSUM

SOLAR REFRIGERATION Of Technical Options Evaluation Design Of A Solar-Generator-Adsorber A Novel Adsorption Refrigerator

and For

(Volume

SUPERVISOR

PROF. BRIAN NORTON

SEPTEMBER 1989

for the is submitted This thesis degree of DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY

ABSTRACT

Various refrigerator

technical have store

Expanded

options

for

developing Their suitability

solar for

operated being used Health

been discussed. for the conditions

as a vaccine
Organization

specified

by the (EPI)
4have

World

Programme

on Immunization

been

evaluated.

A model have

to

predict developed It was

the and

performance used to identify it and

of

a photovoltaic factors which more hours which the

refrigerator influence competitive are would long. run It its in has

been

performance. areas been the where proposed day,

concluded is

that high

can sunshine

be

insolation that

ice-lined economical

refrigerators, and eliminate

during

may be more

need

for

a battery

storage.

The option evacuated concluded re-design proposed programmes coordinated burner well of prove

of

operating heat the the

an 'Electrolux' pipe collectors was not

absorption has been

refrigerator assessed. without However, a it It

with was major was

tube that of that may effort, the to

operation commercially

possible models. with to

available of the is EPI

coordination be useful. biogas It

other build, fuel

development with the this

proposed Biogas

plants.

can then

modified This may

kerosene

fueled option.

absorption

refrigerators.

be a cheaper

Characterization experimental properties of rig

of

various

adsorption for the

pairs

has been done using The influence of an of

the

developed

purpose.

various

adsorption

pairs

on the

performance

adsorption

ii

refrigeration generation bivariant only

cycle temperature absorption of the

has in

been

studied.

It

was observed cycle

that (or

the a was

an adsorption for

refrigeration operating

system), refrigerant.

a specified

regime,

a function

A relationship temperature this cannot for

between specified it

the

refrigerant operating

properties conditions that below

and

the

generating Using methanol WHO/EPI

was developed. ammonia 1200C and for

relationship be

was at

established temperatures

generated

specified

operating

conditions,

if

the

condenser

was air-cooled.

A novel activated differential carbon by

idea

of

direct bed is

absorption put forward

of

solar to

radiation

into

the

carbon

combat the of SGA,

temperature between the

of 214C, in metal the top the

a conventional The idea

design

and the

container. of

was practically

implemented glass sheet. practical idea had

replacing

the metal metal but

box by transparent and glass proved

The seal difficulties potential. is

between in that

container the of to tests the

imposed that the

design

A new tubular bring

design

SGA is

proposed of

finally

which carbon

hoped to

improvement

the

performance

activated

adsorption

refrigerators.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would my

like

to express without this

my very whose

deep gratitude warm and

to Prof

Brian

Norton, the

supervisor, of

enthusiastic

support

completion

work might

not

otherwise,

have been reached.

I would always

also there

like

to

thank in

all

SME staff moment of

and other need.

friends

who were

to help

every

My thanks technical

go help

as

well

for

the during

test the

area

staff

who afforded work.

me much

and advice

experimental

This

work could

not

have even

started wife

without

the

enormous

support thanks
me, my

and sacrifices
go to both financial my wife finacially

of my parents,
who, despite and her

and children.
health, during the was last

My special
able to support

ill

morally, was terminated.

8 months

after

assistance

I am indebted
able work. towards to I

to the

Overseas
for over prove future

Development
two to for years, be a

Administration
to carry out the

who

were

sponsor hope this

me, would a better

research

significant Pakistan.

contribution

building

my country,

Over

and above all, ability

I am grateful to bring this

to Almighty work to

Allah

for

bestowing

upon me the

a logical

conclusion.

iv

OF CONTENTS SUMMARY

CHAPTER VOLUME I 1 2 3 4 Introduction Refrigeration: Solar Energy

TITLE

PAGE

1-1 An Overview Collection and Its 4-1 Options Study of 6-1 5-1 2-1 3-1

Adsorption Application Solar

of Vapours on Solids to Refrigeration Practical Detailed

5 6

Refrigeration:

Solar Refrigeration: Options Selected

VOLUME II 7 8 Characterization Design and Testing Generator Adsorber Conclusions APPENDICES of Adsorption of a Novel (SGA) Pairs Solar 8-1 9-1 A-1 7-1

and Recommendations

J -7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I

ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SUMMARYOF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME I VOLUME I LIST OF FIGURES VOLUME I LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER ONE 1.1 1.2
1.3

i iii iv v viii xiii 1-1 1-2 (EPI): 1-2

1-4

Introduction Objectives Expanded Programme on Immunization aims and hurdles

Structure of the report

REFERENCES CHAPTER TWO 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.2.1 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2 2.3.3. 2.3.4 2.3.5 Refrigeration: An Overview

1-7 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-10 2-12 2-13 2-20 2-23 2-26 2-31 2-35 3-1 3-2 3-4 3-7 3-7 3-10 3-14 3-18 3-20 3-20 3-23 3-25 3-26 3-34

The process of refrigeration the Carnot refrigerator An ideal cycle: Practical techniques refrigeration Open cycle evaporation Vapour-compression cycle Actual vapour-compression cycle Vapour sorption cycle Continuous vapour sorption cycle The platen-Munters refrigerator Intermittent vapour sorption cycle Thermoelectric refrigeration Steam jet refrigeration REFERENCES Solar Energy Collection

CHAPTER THREE 3.1 3.3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2. 3.3 3.3.1 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4

Solar Energy Available energy solar The flat-plate collector solar-energy Construction of the collector Collector performance (ETC) Evacuated-tube collector Evacuated tude heat pipe collectors Photovoltaic cells Properties of semiconductors Principle conversion of photovoltaic Structure cells of solar EXpected efficiencies of solor cells REFERENCES

(ETHPC)

vi

CHAPTER FOUR

Adsorption Application

of Vapours on Solids to Refrigeration

and Its 4-1 4-2 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-6 4-12 4-14 4-16 4-20 4-23 4-24 4-28 4-30 4-30

4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.4.1 4.5.4.2 4.5.5 4.5.5.1 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3

Adsorption process Classification of adsorption Distinction between adsorption and absorption from gaseous phase Adsorption Physical adsorption of gases Adsorption equilibrium theories Adsorption equilibrium and models The Langmuir equation theory of adsorption Potential The BET equation theory Dubinin's Limitation equation of Dubinin-Radushkevich () Determination coefficient of affinity Closure Implications Thermodynamic performance of an adsorption

refrigerator
Heat of vaporization and heat Coefficient of performance Shortcomings of the analysis REFERENCES Solar Refrigeration : Practical of adsorption

4-33
4-35 4-36 4-38 4-39 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-6 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-11 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-15

CHAPTER FIVE 5.1 5.1.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2 5.3.1.3 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.3.1 5.4

Options

Introduction The WHO Expanded on Immunization Selection criterion constraints and operating Minimum criterion for feasibility Solar refrigeration Solar-photovoltaic systems refrigeration Photovoltaic-vapour refrigeration compression Photovoltaic-thermoelectric refrigeration Photovoltaic-vapour refrigeration absorption Solar-thermal systems refrigeration Solar-thermal-vapour refrigerators compression Solar-thermal-continuous vapour absorption refrigerator Solar-thermal-intermittent vapour sorption Initial screening of sorption An up-to-date survey of Solar REFERNCES

systems

5-17
pairs refigerators 5-18 5-25 5-55

vii

CHAPTER SIX

Solar Refrigeration Options Seltected

: Detailed

study

of 6-1 6-1a 6-2 6-2 6-3 6-6 6-6 6-7 6-7 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-10 of

PART I 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.1.1 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.3 6.3.1.3 6.3.1.4 6.3.1.5 6.3.1.6 6.3.2

Photovoltaic refrigerators The purpose of this capter Cooling of the refrigerator capacity heat gains Enviromental load of vaccines Cooling load due to intermittent door Cooling load of ice packs Cooling Cooling load of other drugs Total cooling capacity (PV) vapour-compression Photovoltaic refrigerator System performance Performance array of a photovoltaic temperature Detemination of operating

opening

batteries Performance of lead-acid Energy efficiency of an inverter Performance motor of an ac induction Performance of a vapour compression refrigerator Construction and resolution of the model Discussion of results

the array

6-15
6-17 6-18 6-19 6-19 6-22 6-26

6.3.3
PART II 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 PART III 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.3.1 6.5.3.2 6.5.3.3 6.6

Conclusions
'Electrolux' Solar refrigerators 'Electrolux' Solar-thermal refrigerator Electrolux Analysis of the standard refrigerator Electrolux Analysis refrigerator of modified Modified with system for optimum operation input solar Conclusion Solar intermittent vapour sorption refrigerators Solar-thermal intermittent sorption solid refrigerator Suitability for a refrigerant criterion Evaluation of refrigerants Evaluation pairs of sorbent Calcium chloride/methanol Calcium chloride/ammonia Activated carbon and zeolite-13X The final conclusion REFERENCES

6-37
6-38a 6-39 6-43 6-47 6-49 6-50

6-51a 6-52 6-52 6-56 6-63 6-63 6-65 6-68 6-73 6-78

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

VOLUME I

FIGURE 2.1 Carnot refrigerator: b) thermodynamic diagram Performance curves

CAPTION a) system layout cycle represented on a T-s

PAGE

2-3 of a Carnot refrigerator 2-5

2.2 2.3

Vapour compression refrigerator: a) basic components b) thermodynamic cycle represented a T-s diagram Actual a) T-s cycle vapour compression b)p-h diagram diagram represented on

on 2-8

2.4

2-11

2.5

Continuous refrigerator: vapour sorption a) major parts b) thermodynamic cycle represented on a T-s diagram A reversible refrigerator Schematic refrigerator Schematic refrigerator equivalent of a sorption

2-14

2.6

2-16 representation of an aqua-ammonia 2-19 representation of Platen-Munters 2-21

2.7

2.8

2.9

Working principle of intermittent sorption refrigerator a) generation process b) refrigeration process a) A thermoelectric element elements of a thermoelectric Typical performance curves thermoelectric module a) Working b) pressure pump principle variations of of b) essential refrigerator a commercial

2-24

2.10

2-28

2.11

2-29

2.12

a vapour ejector pump taking the place inside 2-32 of a closed (a) cycle 2-34 air mass 0 3-5

2.13

A schematic representation vapour ejector refrigerator Solar spectral energy (b) air mass 1 Construction solar energy features collector

3.1

distribution

3.2

of

a typical

flat

plate 3-8

3.3

Graphical representation of Hottel-Whillier-Bliss formulation

3-11

ix

3.4

Improvement in collector efficiency increasing number of covers Efficiency curves plate collectors Evacuated tube for different types

by 3-13 of flat 3-15 3-16

3.5

3.6 3.7

collectors tube heat pipe collector

A THERMOMAX evacuated

tube
3.8 Mechanism electricity of conversion of solar energy into

3-19
3-22 types principal (b) extrinsic 3-24 employed in 3-27

3.9

Energy band diagrams for three (a) intrinsic of semiconductors (c) degenerate Types of potential solar cells Optical different energy

3.10

barriers

3.11

coefficient curves for absorption used in solar cells semiconductors conversion efficiency with band gap and

3-31

3.12

Variation of theoretical homojunction of an ideal temperature operating Brunauer's Adsorption classification isobars

3-33 of isotherms 4-8 4-9

4.1 4.2 4.3

of ammonia on charcoal

Isosteric data of representation of adsorption fig 4.2 (a) linear and scale for temperature (b) logrithmic pressure pressure and inverse temperature scales Polanyi's equipotential surfaces in adsorption

4-11

4.4

space
4.5 Characteristic curve of SO2 adsorption on silica

4-17

gel
4.6 Rand's straight classification of line D-R plot refrigeration diagram for building deviations from

4-19
4-26 cycle represented on a 4-34 a solar refrigeration 5-8 a photovoltaic vapour 5-10

4.7

Adsorption Clapeyron Options system

5.1

5.2

Essential components of compression refrigerator

5.3

A schematic representation of refrigerator vapour compression

a solar-thermal 5-14

5.4

Variation COP of a Rankine engine in overall driven vapour compression refrigerator with temperatures changing condenser and boiler Solar COP of IVSR system for various pairs using a double glazed selective flat plate collector
Proposed design of a solar refrigerator

5-16

5.5

sorption surface 5-23

patented

5.6

in 5.7

the

name of

Bremser sketch of the absorption

by Trombe &

5-26

A diagramatic
refrigerator

designed

and

tested

Foex 5.8 A schematic of water representation having a combined refrigerator collector/generator/absorber Schematic diagram of a refrigerator ammonia

5-29

5-31 proposed by

5.9

Oniga
5.10 A line diagram University of refrigerator tested at Florida

5-33
5-35 system Ontario tested at 5-37 refrigeration 5-42

5.11

A line diagram of the University of Western

5.12

A village size solar operated built plant at AIT Bangkok A schematic components absorption Technical by Kaptau Photograph

5.13

diagram showing the different of calcium chloride ammonia designed at The refrigerator University of Denmark and manufactured A/S, Denmark of extruded aluminium absorber tube

5-45 5-46

5.14 5.15

Photograph refrigerator of the commercial showing the air-cooled condenser for the absorber at the top of the collector Calcium chloride refrigerator ammonia absorption by Comesse Soudure S. A., France manufactured Schematic Photograph Heat gains
cubic box

5-46

5.16

5-48 5-51 5-54

5.17 5.18 6.1

drawing

of

the

experimental refrigerator for

icemaker by BLM

of adsorption through

insulation

a 30 litre
6-5

xi

6.2

Block diagram showing components and their in a photovoltaic efficiencies refrigerator Specification panel Typical showing relation sheet for a typical silicon solar

6-11

6.3

6-13 of a PV-array maximum-power-point battery voltage

6.4

I-V characteristics the variation of to the constant

in 6-14

6.5

Graph between the array efficiency and insolation for various ambient temperatures in array Graph showing the variation to a change in ambient corresponding insolations for various temperature temperature

6-28

6.6

6-29

6.7

COP of PV-refrigerator Variation in overall with the change in ambient temperature at various

insolations
6.8 Graph of array area against ambient insolation conditions under various Variation hours for Battery varying Battery
varying 6.12 Photograph

6-30
temperature 6-32

6.9

in array different capacity conditions capacity

conditions showing

area with insolation for

change in sunshine condition refrigerator for

6-33

6.10

a 100 watt

6-35 for a 110 watt

the

6.11

refrigerator

for
6-36

Electrolux

absorption

refrigerator tube heat 6.13

working with pipe collectors

Thermomax evacuated 6-41 water-ammonia the mixture states absorption

Enthalpy-pressure mixture showing in goes through

diagram for the different an Electrolux

refrigerator
6.14 A modified Servel brand absorption refrigerator: the generator collector replaced with a solar A sorption Clapeyron refrigeration diagram cycle represented on a

6-43
6-50A

6.15

6-53 of generation an adsorption 6-57 of generation an adsorption 6-58

6.16

Graph showing the variation temperature of methanol in cycle refrigeration Graph showing the variation temperature of ammonia in cycle refrigeration

6.17

xii

6.18

Clapeyron diagram chloride/ammonia

for

the

pair

calcium 6-67

6.19

COP of various in an adsorption pairs intermittent cycle over a range of generation (water-cooled temperatures condenser) COP of various in adsorption pairs intermittent cycle over a range of (air-cooled temperatures condenser) an generation

6-70

6.20

6-71

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

VOLUME I

TABLE 3.1 3.2

CAPTION Characteristics of the sun irradiance

PAGE 3-3

Photon energy and solar spectral bands in different spectral Solar spectral power and usable six common solar cells Affinity coefficient gases on activated

3-28 energy for 3-30 and 4-31 5-4

3.3

4.1

for some vapours carbon

5.1 5.2 Sorption pair for use in intermittent refrigerators vapour sorption Physical and thermodynamic of common refrigyrants Minimum generation refrigerants properties

5-19

5.3

5-21 of various 6-60 properties 6-62 6-76

6.1

temperature

6.2

Comparison of some physical of methanol and ammonia Physical properties of

6.3

some sorbents

NOMENCLATURE

A AC AMx Cx d x Gr g he hr I kx L m mp Nu p Ps Pr Q q qst Ra Re T t tx U V v W x

area collector air mass x heat capacity of material x area

m2 m2

specific diameter emittance Grashof

Jkg'1K'1 m

of material/surface number constant heat heat monthly transfer transfer irradiation of material

gravitational convective radiative average thermal length concentration

mS'2 coefficient coefficient Wm-2K-1 Wm'2K'1 Jm'2 x Wm-1K-1 m

conductivity

of refrigerant amount of refrigerant

kgkg'1 kgS'1

maximum adsorbable Nusselt pressure saturation Prandtl energy enrgy heat number of vapours pressure number per per of unit unit

-2 Nm of vapours Nm-2

time time per unit area

w Wm-2 kJkg'1

adsorption number number

Raleigh Reynold

temperature time thickness overall velocity specific adsorption ratio volume space to liquid in a mixture of heat component transfer x coefficient

K S m Wm-2K-1 mS'1 m3kg'1 m3

of vapours

GREEK

absorptance, volumetric 6 efficiency slope wavelength Al V absolute kinematic density

thermal coefficient

diffusivity of expansion

m2S-1 K-1

degrees micron viscosity viscosity of material x kgm-1S-1 m2S-1 kgm-3 WM-2K-4

Stefan-Boltmann transmittance

constant

SUBSCRIPTS

a b c e eff
g

ambient, battery charcoal, evaporator effective

generator

air

condenser,

collector

i m sky t vc

inverter methanol, sky top vapour compression cycle maximum

1-1

CHAPTER

ONE

Introduction

1-2

1.1 Objectives

The current solar forward energy

study for

evaluates the

the

technical storage most

options of

for

utilizing and puts Local The

refrigerated for the the most

vaccines option.

design

proposals is given live be from term

appropriate in

manufacturing vaccines that during contain

importance thus it is

selection.

organisms, maintained the 'cold

of utmost

importance temperatures place of

these their

should transit The this.

at the

prescribed to the

manufacturer chain'

ultimate

application. which ensures

describes

the

infrastructure

1.2 Expanded

Programme on Immunization

(EPI):

aims and hurdles

Effectiveness of the

of the World (EPI) routine

cold

chain

is

the

key to

the

ultimate

success on the

Health which

Organization's aims at of all achieving, children

'Expanded by the

Programme year 1990,

Immunization' effective against

immunization major tetanus diseases: and EPI is in

and expectant measles, [1,2]. whooping The

mothers cough, greatest where 80% or

the

six

diphtheria, tuberculosis in the

poliomyelitis, difficulty of the faced population satisfactory grid. is

by the lives road The

developing often not source firewood. to of transfer entry to

countries unconnected

rural links

areas and

by rail a parts national of

even

served in

by these

electricity world logistics

major

energy dung and/or EPI the is port

the

generally problem

animal of the

The

most

dominant the in

successfully the vaccinators

heat-sensitive such remote

vaccines rural health

from

centres.

1-3

The

cold

chain many of

is the are

specific major common. levels The

to the

country

in which

it

operates. to by

However, the the

involved, major the

from difficulties

the manufacturer being i. e a rural faced

vaccinator, EPI are The gas of of oil at

the

last

level

of

cold to

chain electricity

health and

clinic. bottled prices limits available are

traditional are now

alternatives becoming fuels less

- kerosene as the

practical

escalating affordable are fuel a

makes these the developing the

more expensive Even if units falls

and beyond kerosene which short run of

nations.

supplies on this providing with

readily,

refrigeration performance [3].

unreliable

and their vaccine of of store

refrigerated is the with out in the level

Another

major kerosene

problem

kerosene affect

purity. the

Contaminated burner. There

can seriously hazards instance, pipe,

efficiency kerosene in the [4], pipe

are as well.

other For

associated as pointed or a break

fueled

refrigerators oil

contaminated

can block fire

the

supply the is

can be a potential glass acting

hazard,

wicks not

need constant too strong.

cleaning

and the

as a windsheild

Solar-operated The household electricity the market

refrigeration vapour generated for quite on the

provides

an answer

to

these

problems. solar

compression through some time. maintenance the

refrigerator photovoltaic high initial

powered panels

by the

has been on recurrent batteries

But

cost, of storage

expenditure and the control acceptance. reliable (i. e. need

and replacement photovoltaic prohibitive 'low' for chain) a is

for

high have

technology been

cells to

and associated widespread rugged and

equipment In this

their

report

a low cost, suitable cold

technology, rural

refrigeration the lowest level

system in

health It is

clinic based

the

proposed.

1-4

on an adsorption the adsorbent

refrigeration and methanol as the (SGA) directly

cycle

employing

activated A novel in

carbon for

as a

refrigerant. is proposed activated

design the

solar-generator-adsorber radiation is absorbed

which

solar

by the

carbon

bed.

1.3 Structure

of

this

thesis

This

thesis

has been written

with

the

intention;

a)

specific refrigeration

to

describe

the

up-to-date

research

of

solar

b)

to of

serve solar

as a comprehensive refrigeration, and organizations for

guide its alike.

on the

technology

and art for

prospective

users,

individuals

c)

to

identify

the

areas

for for

further the future

development researchers.

and putting

forward

some proposals

The report

has been

divided with

into

nine of

chapters; references

each at the

one fully end of

comprehensive each one.

and equipped

a list

Chapters energy

two and three harnessing of

present

the

review

of

refrigeration In chapter

and solar four with process the a is has

techniques adsorption application and yet not

respectively. process to have

fundamentals specific quite view

been discussed The

to its

refrigeration. understood.

complicated

completely

An attempt

1-5

been made adsorption adsorption equations performance employed to

to at

present, solid

in

a simple

manner,

the

basic

theory

of

gas the of

surfaces. have developed

Various been to

models

representing A set

equilibrium has of been

assessed ascertain

and compared. the and

thermodynamic subsequently pairs.

adsorption

refrigeration of

cycle various

compare the

performance

adsorption

Various been assess initial their prototypes chapter.

alternative discussed the in

techniques chapter

to build five.

solar

refrigerator has been devised storage.

has to

A criterion _for proposals An

feasibility three

of an optionalternative

vaccine have

After for of the

survey further

been chosen survey the end of

detailed

evaluation. units

up-to-date at

and commercial

has been presented

Chapter options.

six It

deals is

with

the

further into three

evaluation parts.

of Part

the

three

selected with For the the model size of for

subdivided vapour

one deals units. mathematical the

photovoltaic assessment of

compression system a detailed

refrigeration but simple

the

has been developed. photovoltaic the given data. array

The

model

enables of

one to work out battery basis storage

and the

capacity capacity

system

refrigeration

on the

of monthly

averaged

weather

In

part

two

of

the

sixth

chapter

the by the collectors

option heat

of operating collected

an

'Electrolux'

absorption tube

refrigerator heat pipe

through

Thermomax evacuated Intermittent solid

has been evaluated. is the subject of the

sorption

refrigeration

1-6

third

part

of

the

chapter

six. for the

Using

the

basic

thermodynamics

of

adsorption, developed provided the solar

a new relation in a basis operated pairs terms of

generation

temperature This

has been relation for and

various

cycle the

temperatures. suitability of

to ascertain adsorption were evaluated

a refrigerant absorption

refrigerators. and activated

Various carbon

adsorption was found

and methanol

to be the

most suitable.

Chapter results

seven of the of

narrates adsorption the with the results those results

the pair

design,

construction, rig. out. The

operation

and

characterization

The detailed results have

assessment

has been carried from other sources.

been compared forward results when

Arguments

have been put out of the

differed.

The anomalies

arisen

have been explained.

Chapter novel activated adsorber results The

eight idea of

of

the

report the

deals solar

with

the

implementation directly

of by

the the

absorbing bed.

radiation of a solar results that the and

carbon

A new design and

collector/generator/ reported idea here. The

(SGA) has been tested provided a qualitative the SGA was not

the

evidence

was practical. were

design

of

satisfactory

alternatives

proposed.

The final whole

chapter

of in

the

thesis, report

i. e. chapter and takes forward SGA

nine,

summarizes out chapter of

the it.

work described for an future elaborate

this

inferences in for this

Proposals include methanol

work has been put design refrigerator. of a novel

which carbon

activated

adsorption

1-7

REFERENCES

World

Health

Organization, WHO chronicle, 33,

'Expanded Geneva,

programme 1979.

on

immunization',

United immunization

Nations by 1990',

Children's Assignment

Fund, Children,

'Universal 69/72,1985.

child

World vaccine 1985'

Health storage

Organization, and icepack

'Solar

powered

refrigeration summary,

for June

freezing,

status

WHO document

EPI/CCIS/85.4,1985

Perkins, developing

F. T.,

'The

need

for

stable

vaccines on

in

the

countries', of & 29

Proceedings, Measles, september

Symposium

Stability

and Effectiveness vaccines, Sciences 28

Poliomyelitis, 1976, Yugoslav

and Pertussis Academy of

and Arts,

Zagreb,

1976.

2-1

CHAPTER

TWO

Refrigeration

: An

Overview

2-2

2.1

The

process

of

refrigeration

Refrigeration of a space A or

is

the an

thermodynamic article is achieves cooled temperature space to

process reduced this and the by

by which and

the

temperature below at the

maintained heat it

ambient. temperature rejected

refrigerator from the

absorbing

a lower it is

transforming surroundings.

so that

at

a higher

A variety to cater these

of for

techniques a wide range

have

been devised

to produce Though they

refrigeration differ, all a they the to the

of applications. heat from the called process at a cooled

techniques or is in to

extract subcooled the

space by evaporating Where to enable

saturated differ refrigerant surroundings.

liquid

a refrigerant. employed higher

thermodynamic that heat

reject

temperature

2.2

An ideal

cycle:

the

Carnot

refrigerator

An

ideal

reversible Carnot cycle,

thermodynamic which Figure 2.1b consists 2.1a

refrigeration

cycle

is

the

reversed isentropic components, (i. e., in an

of two isothermal a layout processes trace net of on out

and two system a T-s an area This its This from a low and

processes. and fig

shows the cycle

represents diagram. sense

Temperature-entropy) anti-clockwise is a cycle The which cycle

The processes

indicating external

a negative work as a to a a

work.

means it completion. vapour pressure is

requires

to be done for refrigerant.

uses a wet vapour isentropically (state 1) in

compressed and

compressor higher

temperature

pressure

2-3

REJECTED TO 23 SURROUNDINGS 31
EXPANDER

CONDENSER J2
) W34(+ve /W12 (-ve)

COMPRESSOR

41

HEAT LEAKAGE THROUGH INSULATION

041

IN EVAPORATOR SPACE COLD

(a)

TEMPERATURE T2
w

TEMPERATURE CE Ti

a.

W IENTROPY (b)
Fig 2.1 Carnot refrigerator:
b) thermodynamic cycle

a) system layout
represented on a T-s diagram

2-4

temperature is condensed

(state at

2). a

It

is

passed pressure

through

a condenser

in

which is to

it

constant in

to state which (state 1.

3. The fluid is 4), coupled and is

then the

expanded compressor, evaporated

isentropically to at its

an expander, pressure to state

original pressure

finally

constant

Coefficient effectiveness

of

performance defined

(COP) as

of

a refrigerator

indicates

its

and is

refrigerating effect COP = --------------------energy input

Q41 - ----w

Ti - ------T2 - T, a Carnot evident in heat

Figure typical that

2.2

shows

the

variation and greatly T2. It

of COP of is clearly

refrigerator from heat the

with figure

values

of T1

the COP reduces Taking

with

the situation

increase where

rejection is at the

temperature. ambient Carnot

a practical of

rejection is at -10C,

temperature COP will

40C and and heat In an actual size of

extraction refrigerator, components,

be 5.26. and finite

due to process COP is much less

irreversibilities than the ideal

Carnot

COP.

Due to is not

incorporation practical.

of

impossibly

idealized

processes,

this

cycle

However,

(i)

It

sets

the

upper

performance

bounds for

a practical

refrigerator.

(ii)

It

provides systems.

basis

for

rating

the

performance

of

practical

2-5

28 26 24 22
20 z

18 0 16
II 0

14
z w

12
w

0 10 8 6 4 2
50 60 70 80 90 40 20 30 TEMPERATURE, (C) T2 HEAT REJECTION
Fig 2.2 Performance curves of a Carnot refrigerator

2-6

2.3

Practical

refrigeration

techniques

An ideal not

refrigerating practically.

cycle

has just Working

been

described of

above which compression are

is and

possible

limitations transfer

expansion in

devices

and the

rates

of heat the

which of

expected

practical which

devices

restrict

selection in

thermodynamic refrigerators. practically turns figure the 2.1,

processes For

can be used practically no expansion due

working is possible

instance heat

or compression to friction.

without reversible into

transfer

This

fact

isentropic

processes

1-2 and 3-4, Therefore, the

shown in

irreversible cycle will

polytropic will try

processes. to duplicate the that

where a practical reversed Carnot its

refrigeration cycle, it

ideal

have to

employ below

practical of the

processes ideal cycle.

reducing

performance

considerably

The different into practice

refrigeration are discussed

techniques in the next

which sections.

has

so

far

been put

2.3.1

Open cycle

evaporation

The under from

underlying ambient its

principle conditions,

is extracts

that its

the

refrigerant, latent heat

by evaporating of vaporization is

surroundings; The centuries

consequently old in technique unglazed

the of

surrounding producing porous scale

temperature chilled in drinking suitable

reduced. water climates, wicks onto by

storing relies the

them on this

pots, cabinets

principle.

Small with

fitted tank

with had

side

walls food

and equipped cool.

a water

storage

been used to keep

2-7

Being

an open cycle

process But

this

needs

a cheap and readily conditions impose is the

available greatest limit of

refrigerant limitation refrigeration

e. g. water. of all. produced

climatic

Wet-bulb by evaporation

temperature of water.

the

2.3.2

Vapour-compression

cycle

A standard practical figure 2.1,

vapour-compression version following of the

cycle reversed

is Carnot

shown in fig cycle.

2.3.

This it

is with

Comparing

differences

can be spotted:

(i)

process in

3-4

does

not

take

place

a) isentropically

and b)

an expander,

(ii) vapour

state line,

1 is and

moved from

wet

region

to

the

saturated

(iii)

state

2 lies

in

the

superheated

region.

All

these

changes inherent Let

have in

been the the

forced devices

upon by the which

practical carry out

working these

limitations processes.

us consider

modifications

one by one.

Energy take

is

consumed overcoming isentropically work would be in

friction, an expander. dissipated throttling

thus

the

process

3-4 much

cannot of the

place

Furthermore,

expansion these

by mechanical expansion

friction. would not

Under result

circumstances,

a simple

2-8

REJECTED TO 23 SURROUNDINGS

CONDENSER

2 /W12 (-ve)
COMPRESSOR

THROTTLING VALVE

4 HEATLEAKAGE THROUGH INSULATIO

(241

IN EVAPORATOR COLDSPACE

(a)

W cx

cx W W I-

ENTROPY
(b)
Fig 2.3 Vapour compression refrigerator: a) basic components b) thermodynamic cycle represented on a T-s diagram

2-9

in

a significant it would Thus,

reduction introduce the

in

the

performance

of

the

real

cycle, of but is

though the plant.

a worthwhile process process It is

mechanical 3-4 is not

simplification isentropic place

expansion expansion 2.3a).

a constant throttling on the takes T-s place

enthalpy valve

taking represented that

in a simple line

(see fig

by a broken no work

diagram through

(i. e fig this

2.3b)indicating

transfer

process.

The reason two-fold. difficult state 1 in

for Firstly, to the

moving

state

point

1 nature

onto of

the cooling

saturation load, 4-1 it to

line will cease

is be at

due to varied arrange wet for the

evaporation fig

process 2.1b.

region will tend

as shown in of the

Secondly passing oil.

any liquid into This the is or

refrigerant, compressor undesirable

which would if

be part

wet vapour, lubricating

to wash away the is type. might process. slightly of

the

compressor rotary where it

a conventional the a film is oil

reciprocating would

positive-displacement to the evaporator the a heat saturated

Moreover form It

be carried surface to the

on the

tube

imparing transfer compressor.

transfer or

usual,

therefore, vapour into

superheated

The state

shift point

in

the

position the

of

state

2 is

a consequence line.

of moving

the

1 onto

saturated

vapour

2-10

2.3.2.1

Actual

vapour-compression

cycle

In

an

actual

vapour 2.4a) are

compression for listed

system,

the

processes The

are further factors which

modified force

(see fig

practical below.

reasons.

these

changes

a) The pressure components

drop

occuring state points

in

the

pipe-work

and other

move the

1 and 2 to

1' and 2'.

b) To

maintain limits, (process

the

physical most of the be

size heat

of

condenser transfered by virtue therefore to within shifts the

within in of possible a few state the an

reasonable condenser appreciable to subcool of 3 into

2-3)

must

rejected It is

temperature the liquid

difference. after

condensation

degrees point

surrounding the liquid

temperature. region to state

This 3'.

c) As

precaution vapours For region this

against are reason 1'.

ingesting always the state

liquid superheated 1 is

into in in

the the the

compressor, evaporator. superheated

sketched

as state

Pressure-enthalpy displaying (i. e. 1-2-3-4-1) the

(p-h)

diagram

is

another cycles. actual

more Both

convenient the

way of standard

thermodynamic and cycles the

(i. e. on p-h

1'-2'-3'-Z'-1') diagram in fig

vapour-compression 2. ub.

have been sketched

2-11

Cf.
W lLJ I--

ENTROPY (a)

SUBCOOLING
DROP PRESSURE

3'
W

2'

V) W 0.

4' PRESSURE DROP

POLYTROPIC COMPRESSION SUPERHEATING ENTHALPY (b)

Fig

2.4 Actual a) T-s

vapour compression cycle diagram b)p-h diagram

represented

on

2-12

The p-h 1'-2' COP of region is

diagram greater actual

of

fig

2.14b clearly the

indicates process

that 1-2.

compression This it lowers is in

work the the

than

work done in

the

vapour-compression

cycle.

In general

of 3-5.

2.3.3

Vapour

sorption

cycle

Certain solids.

liquids

and

gases

can be dissolved dissolved the

into is a

certain strong Large and

liquids function quantities on

and of of

The amount of and can of This be the

vapours of

temperature vapours heating sorbent. refrigerator.

pressure dissolved 'mixture'

'mixture'. temperature can basis be of

at-low the forms

subsequent from the

vapours the

removed a vapour

principle

sorption

This

process

of further

dissolution into

of vapours

into

liquids

and solids absorption and

is

catagorized and

two broader of kind species physical to

catagories by

namely; liquids bondage the

adsorption. involves of is very the

Absorption some two

vapours of

solids the

generally molecules adsorption energy is

chemical in

between

involved

process. which the

Whereas binding

a purely

phenomenon the forces of

in

much similar

cohesion.

In

vapour in with

compression a

cycle, and

discussed the

above, of

the

vapours

are is the if

compressed comparable cycle. the

compressor, the the other

work transfer

compression in

energy

processes reduced, or

The compression is dissolved

work in

can be considerably a suitable liquid

however, solid

vapour

before

2-13

compression. heating way. This the

After solution

compression and then is

the

vapour

can

be driven in the

off

by

throttled in

and evaporated refrigerator.

usual

principle

employed

a sorption

Vapour the

sorption

cycles cycles

are further and the

divided

into cycles.

two catagories;

i. e.

continuous

intermittent

2.3.3.1

Continuous

vapour

sorption

cycle

A continuous shown the in fig

vapour 2.5a. of three The

sorption Comparison a vapour

cycle of

refrigerator fig 2.3a and fig

is

diagramatically 2.5a reveals has that been and a high a low The two a

compressor by pump. side, side gradients valves

compression i. e. general a generator an two

refrigerator

replaced solution pressure pressure pressure expansion

components; system in of include the

a generator, is and partitioned

an absorber into and

comprising which

a condenser, and

evaporator sides are

an absorber. through

between and

balanced

a solution

pump.

Refering throttling conventional refrigerant absorbed) place process the then at

to

fig

2.5b,

the and

processes evaporation After

of condensation (i. e. 4-1) to is This take state

(i. e. 2-3), place 1, in the (or takes The by is a

(i. e. 3-4),

components. vapour in is fed into

evaporation where it

an absorber called

dissolved process

another

liquid

absorbent. above ambient therefore

a low pressure of solution is

and a little exothermic Qs, to and the

temperature. is This accompanied solution

rejection pumped t

of heat, the

surroundings. by a

required

pressure,

solution

pump, to

2-14

EXTERNAL HEAT O9 ao 3 CONDENSER THROTTLE VVALVE

RBER\I

GENERATOR

00 P
WUOP

4 HEATLEAKAGE "xx THROUGH INSULATION VNwv

De

QS

THIS PART REPLACES THE OF COMPRESSOR THE REFRIGERATO CONVENTIONAL (a)

W W F-

ENTROPY (b)
Fig 2.5 Continuous refrigerator: vapour sorption a) major parts b) thermodynamic cycle represented on a T-s diagram

2-15

generator temperature appreciably removes desorption. then fed

which

is

maintained of Thus from pressure the a

at

a temperature in received The

Tg. an in process vapour

At

higher is

solubility reduced. the vapour The high into weak via a

refrigerant heat, Qg,

absorbent a generator is at state while called

the

solution. high

temperature complete to The an the

2 is the

condenser is

to returned valve.

main

cycle, after analysis

remaining its cycle pressure can

solution a throttle

absorber

reducing of the

thermodynamic

be performed

as follows.

The energy levels:

is

transferred

in

the

form

of heat

at three is

temperature during heat is heat to above in fig

1) ambient and the

temperature absorption,

Ta at

which

heat

rejected

condensation absorbed is the at

2) temperature and 3) the The small

Te at which

evaporator, generator.

temperature amount of

Tg at which energy to supplied the

supplied solution

to the

pump can be transfers.

neglected This whole

when picture

compared is

mentioned 2.6 by

energy the

represented refrigerator a quantity

combination engine.

of a reversible The heat rejects engine heat of the

carnot receives at heat Ta

and a of heat a

reversible

heat

Qg at a temperature quantity

Tg and

while is

producing

of work Wg. The efficiency

engine

Wg/Qg = (Tg - Ta)/Tg

The refrigerator heat at Ta while of

receives absorbing the

a quantity a quantity is

of

heat

Qe

at

Te and rejects of

of work We. The coefficient given by

performance

refrigerator

2-16

Tg Og

HEAT ENGINE

W9 (+ve) TQ

We (-ve REFRIGERATOR

Oe Te

Fig

2.6 A reversible

equivalent

of

a sorption

refrigerator

2-17

= Te/(Ta -Qe/We

- Te)

The work produced by the refrigerator

by the so

engine that with of

is

made equal combination

to

the is to

work absorbed to an the is

the

equivalent zero. Thus

absorption coefficient defined

refrigerator of performance will be

pump work equal absorption

refrigerator,

which

by Qe/Qg,

COP = Te(T9

Ta)/T9(Ta -

Te) -

Under limiting With one. unity.

the

ideal

assumptions of

of

reversible for it the

processes an absorption gives a

this

gives

the

coefficient operating practical

performance

refrigerator. of more than less than

normal But in

temperatures situations

value is

coefficient

always

The most

widely

used The being this

absorption later the pair. pair is

pairs used

are mainly

ammonia-water in airconditioning

and

lithium plants cannot

bromide-water. because, water

refrigerant, The is one the

sub-zero major evaporation evaporation heat supplied

temperatures drawback of of to in water water, the the of

be produced ammonia-water generation hand, On the and

using

using during

the the

absorption of ammonia.

The undesired amount of to the of

on one generator. condenser Two main in the

represents other hand is

a wasted the

presence

any their

water

vapours

evaporator

detrimental to vapours

optimum of

performance. water vapours

effects concentrated

attributable ammonia

presence

can

be summarized

as below:

2-18

(i) will

Partial

pressure

of

ammonia raising

vapours the

inside

the pressure the

condenser of the

be slightly and

lowered

working

refrigerant temperature.

subsequently

raising

generation

ii) these the

If will

the

condensed keep

water

vapours in is to too there low.

reach

the

evaporator if the

on accumulating temperature refrigerator

and may freeze This will bring

evaporation of the

working

a halt.

This vapours sorption

necessitates desorbed

the from

removal the rich

of water solution water

vapours in the of be fact

from generator the

the of

ammonia a vapour ammonia cooling in two

refrigerator. being the pure less

The

content will This

generated by

vapours, before different

superheated, vapours. the desired

condensed is

ammonia

utilized

ways to achieve

results.

a) An open heat between cold process the rich the

exchanger stream rich the

called of solution

an 'analyzer' from the vapours generator the

is

introduced and This

hot of

vapours from water the

generator

stream

absorber.

condenses solution

undesired reducing

and pre-heats input, and/or

thus

b) The generated using an external or anhydrous

vapours supply a

are of

passed cold

through water. This

a heat This is

exchanger called can give a

'rectifier' almost

'dehydrator'.

arrangement

ammonia.

2-19

RECTIFIER

CONDENSER

l ANALYZER

VAPOURS

GENERATOR
w w u w
E---J

---

-O

If,
LO Z

Y
LLJ

crN

3 J

EXPANSION VALVE

z a

1 ABSORBER EVAPORATOR

PUMP

Fig

2.7

Schematic refrigerator

representation

of

an aqua-ammonia

2-20

Studying we find cooled strong ammonia. transfer solution. in fig

the that

heat the

transfer hot weak

operations solution into the the

at from

different the

levels

carefully needs to be the

generator At the

down before solution

entering in it

absorber. is to to

same time to

formed

absorber sense from

be heated a heat to

generate to rich shown

Therefore the The 2.7. rejected system

makes heat

introduce solution these

exchanger the is

weak all

pre-heat

incorporating

modifications

The

process and

of

water

vapour its

rectification Alternative and

brings

complexity systems thiocyanate with

to

the

system as

reduces and tested

efficiency. nitrate this

ammonia has been

refrigerant and

lithium to

sodium

proposed

overcome

barrier.

2.3.3.2

The Platen-Munters

refrigerator

The evaporation its the into

of

the by

refrigerant passing it if

is

achieved

generally

by reducing device. is with But fed the

pressure same effect an inert

through the is law

an expansion liquid not of in

can be produced atmosphere, to

refrigerant saturated partial an inert

which Dalton's

refrigerant. exposure will lower of its

According small partial

pressures, atmosphere

amount

of refrigerant and will

pressure

evaporate.

This

principle

was used by known as the it of

von Platen 'Electrolux'

and

Munters

[1], after

in

what is the firm the The

now generally who first essential

refrigerator, A schematic is

developed features

commercially. this refrigerator

diagram in

showing fig 2.8.

shown

2-21

WATERSEPARATOR b
"" "

"

,.,

CONDENSER

FREEZER EVAPORATOR

PRE-COOLER GAS HEAT GAST . EXCHANGER CABI T EVAPORATOR ABSORBE HEATING PIPE BUBBLE PUMP TUBE

t
ABSORBER VESSEL

LIQUIDI LIQUID HEAT

EXCHANGER WEAK alRION STRONG saunON HEATING ELEMENT TUBE

BOILER GENERATOR

Fig 2.8 Schematic representation

of Platen-Munters

refrigerator

2-22

inert circuit

gas

is

hydrogen

which pressure

is

concentrated is is to

in

the in

parts the

of

the

where ammonia The total Thus the currents no moving

be low i. e. effectively can

evaporator throughout by

and absorber. the circuit.

pressure circulation set up in

uniform be

of fluid by density

accomplished This is

convection there quiet is

gradients.

means that both very

parts

the

refrigerator

and hence

and reliable.

The layout requirements. to the

of

such a system For instance of the is

is the

complex inert

due to

special

operational

gas hydrogen The relative for with the

must be confined placement vapour of the

correct and the

areas

circuit. important circulation the are

absorber able

generator the required

pump to be heat input. by

to produce of these for [2].

minimum tolerances tilt and +

Because Electrolux input

constraints product

operational

quoted

their

+ 30 on the

10% on the

power

Hydrogen proportion This cold

gas of

present the cooling of

in

the

evaporator by

tend the

to

absorb of the

fair

produced

evaporation down to

ammonia. absorber from the

mixture

hydrogen into rises

and ammonia flows the weak solution the

where ammonia is generator streams, hydrogen exchanger. effective coefficient

absorbed

coming

and hydrogen the cold

up towards of the in hydrogen

evaporator. ammonia pass

The two gas and the a not hot heat very

mixture towards transfer

and

rising Heat thus of

evaporator, this gas heat the

through is A 20-25%

exchanger

affecting performance

the

cop of

refrigerator. is

typical [2].

as quoted

by Electrolux

2-23

2.3_.3.3__ Intermittent

vapour

sorption

cycle

In

continuous

vapour absorption, in take are

sorption

cycle

all

the

four

main processes take if if all place some the

i. e. generation, at of four the the the same time processes

condensation The system in out turn; in

and evaporation can be simplified

parallel. place

to be more specific Figure 2.9

processes principle.

carried

two phases.

illustrates

In

fig is

2.9a being off to

vessel heated. and are the

'A' The

contains vapours

the at into

sorbent high the first

and vapour

'mixture'

which are latent cyclic

temperature vessel 'B'

and pressure after the loosing complete processes

driven heat

condensed This

ambient. in which

is

the

phase of condensation

operation place.

generation

and the

have taken

Figure Vessel cooled.

2.9b 'A'

represent which,

the

second less is

phase of

of this the

cyclic

operation. vapours of it is

now, contains pressure to sorb

dissolved

The vapour is ready force the

lowered, more

as a result

and the vapour 'B' to to take

weak mixture pressure evaporate dissolve. place in will

vapours. refrigerant in vessel

The lowered in 'A' is vessel

the cold

condensed 'mixture' of

which

now ready which cycle.

Thus the this

processes phase,

evaporation the

and sorption, refrigeration

second

complete

The fact different

that times

generation can lead

and

sorption

processes This

are

taking

place there

at is

to big

advantages.

means that

2-24

VAPOURS

RICH

MIXTURE

-13-

REFRIGERANT

PROCESS GENERATION (a)

VAPOURS

WEAK -

A-

MIXTURE

REFRIGERANT

COOL PROCESS REFRIGERATION

(b)
Fig 2.9 Working principle refrigerator of intermittent sorption b) refrigeration a) generation process process

2-25

no need to transport process following to another

the

weak

'mixture' for sorption

created

during It

generation gives the

vessel

operation.

advantages:

a) the system

circulation more reliable

pump is in the

no longer absence of

needed,

rendering parts,

the

any moving

b) as the
powered

pump

is
by

dispensed
thermal input.

with

'.

the

system

can be

wholly

c) generation vessel, and

and sorption

can be

accomplished

in

the

same

d) solids

can be employed

as sorbent

materials.

practical

intermittent consist of

operation three a

vapour

sorption components;

refrigerator namely, an

will a

normally

generation-cum-sorption Though additional

vessel, components

condenser,

and

evaporator. systems.

my be required

on specific

2-26

2.3.4

Thermoelectric

refrigeration

The

thermoelectric that produced at the of

effect on making in different effect:

was first a closed circuit

observed loop of

by two the Later,

Seebeck dissimilar two in

in

1822.

It an were

was noticed emf was

metals, junctions 1834,

the

when

maintained observed junction be varied. Kelvin or

temperatures. on passing metals hot out by or the cold effect

Peltier through a can of heat

inverse two It

an electric temperature depending in of

current the

dissimilar can pointed be

junction direction relates

on the 1851. to it. It the

current. absorbed gradient takes

a third a single

rejected it and

conductor flowing (i. through

temperature This . effect in

along place in

the to

current the Joule

addition cooling

e P=I2R) Kelvin

heating effect and is

However

thermoelectric compared considered with in

materials of study Peltier of the

the and

second will

order not be

those further

Seebeck,

subject.

At the

turn

of

the

century use of

Altenkirch these

[3]

gave for

the

first

serious He made of

consideration the effort to to be

to the identify

effects the

refrigeration. characteristics

and quantify for of these

essential

materials practical

suitable

thermoelectric thermoelectric

cooling. effects The

For many years was restricted reason for this

applications

to temperature restricted effect in

measurements application metals. The devices is However, advent later into

by thermocouples. the this of revived comparitively effect transistor the intrest is

small quite in in materials

thermoelectric pronounced in other The the

semiconductors. semiconductor research

1949 the

and subject. led to

activities

semiconductor

2-27

development sufficient

of

materials to

in realise

which the

thermoelectric of

effects a useful

were of device.

magnitude

fabrication

Principles in electrons

of

solid-state is responsible cooling

physics for

have shown that the transport of flowing

energy thermal across i. e.

level

change in a

energy

thermoelectric of two

operation. thermoelectric electron in

Electrons

a junction with energy of heat. Figure

dissimilar available results of

materials, levels, evolution

materials an

different

energy the

must undergo or absorption which element. will

change which The direction 2.10a shows

either flow

current such a

determines

occur. Two

thermoelectric n which and in

dissimilar coefficient Seebeck

semiconductor and an excess coefficient hot and

materials, of electrons deficient

has a negative p which has are

Seebeck a

positive

and is cold

electrons,

linked

as shown giving can be connected suitable for a

junctions. fig

A number of 2.10b,

such elements

together, particular

as shown in application.

to produce

a system

The performance additional effect inevitable different commercial under These but normal are, with in the [4]

of

an ideal which

thermoelectric are always present: the two the

circuit 1)

is the

limited Joule and, which of such range

by two heating 2) are the at

effects which heat

occur

throughout

materials two junctions performance for in the

conduction Fig

between 2.11

temperatures. module.

shows the of

a typical modules of 0.15. units falls. at

The coefficient conditions less in that efficient size the

performance be vapour of

operating general, decrease suggested

would than the system

compression the latter efficiencies

cop

Goldsmith

showed equal

2-28

rni

irr

(a)

).C. CURRENT

HEAT SINK
(b)

COOLING SURFACE

Fig

2.10

a) A thermoelectric a thermoelectric

element refrigerator

b) essential

elements

of

2-29

Performance Characteristics Module 801-2003 Thermoelectric Cambion Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts,

USA

24

22

.I

I
a

IQ
v W U

30
1.

lac
25

Cd

1'

20

H 20

1
U'
r-

30,
40

I5 0 0

7c
0

0
.

'or

1 50" -4

I0
5

45 30
K

/I

X.

60i,
e5678 CURRENT (amps)

"w

n,

Fig

2.11

Typical performance curves thermoelectric module

of

a commercial

2-30

cooling

loads

of units

10

watts became

whereas economical

ASHRAE [5] as the

quotes refrigeration

that

vapour capacity

compression increased

above 60 to 90 watts.

There its

are low

certain

advantages in of a

of

thermoelectric application refrigerant, this has been

cooling areas. and

which Because of the

outweigh of its

performance lack thus

specialist vaporizing life of

ruggedness, parts and

absence in

moving military

longer

applied

applications,

cooling

medical

instruments,

electronic

equipment

and cold

junctions,

and for

humidity

control

in

instruments.

There

are

various

ways

in

which

the

temperature

and capacity the

of

thermoelectric voltage these to units the is

refrigerator unit its

can be controlled. capacity controlled can be varied.

By varying The

applied in

temperature methods:

generally

by three

different

1-

the

capacity

of

the to

refrigerator control

is the a variable

varied

through

a feedback A wheatstone in one arm

control bridge which a

circuit circuit presets

temperature. resistor The other in the

incorporates the cabinet

temperature. temperature is

arm contains cabinet. Any

thermistor in

which the

sense the bridge

imbalance the input

output the

used to reduce

or augment

power

by modulating

current.

2-

the the

hot

and cold

junctions is

swop their This

role fact (or

if

the is

polarity utilized the

of to

power supply the

reversed.

control when the

temperature temperature

by heating goes

cooling) (or

cabinet the set

inside

below

above)

2-31

value. a mean.

Thus the

cabinet

temperature

remains

oscilating

about

3-

simplest supply to

of

all the into linked can

controls unit. the hot be

is This cabinet and

the is

on-off

switching

of

the

power is the

inefficient during off

because period The

heat

conducted thermally operation example,

through

cold out by of

junctions. a water simple

switching for

carried

bellows,

using

change of

volume

on freezing.

2.3.5

Steam jet

refrigeration

Water latent

is

a safe heat in

refrigerant of vaporization.

abundantly Yet it

available is quite

and

has

high for is its in

unsuitable for this

application high the is specific process about

vapour volume

compression at the

plants.

The reason pressures at 7C the specific

low evaporation For instance

encountered vapour is

of

refrigeration. bar and the flow

pressure about 129

0.01

corresponding rates are use of

volume for ejector an

m3/kg.

Such high This

volume

not

suitable

reciprocating in place of

compressors. a usual illustrated

has led The

to the working High to

steam jet of

compressor. in fig

principle pressure form of from

ejector expanded jet

pump is through at a low speed The the is The

2.12a. nozzle, converging water

steam is a

convergent-divergent pressure, steam combined divergent reached. into entrains stream part Such a the the from of

high-speed

part vapours

ejector the is

pump. The high vacuum then chamber. in

the mixing the nozzle has no

chamber until the

diffused exhaust

required but

pressure

pump

moving

parts

is

in-efficient.

2-32

PRESSURE LOW VAPOURS

11 3456

2 ZONE MIXING

INTERMEDIATE URE STEAM DIFFUSER

HIGH PRESSURE STEAM MOTIVE cal

EXPANSION OF STEAM MOTIVE

w N In w 0..

1345 POSITION ALONG THEEJECTOR-PUMP

(b)
Fig 2.12 a) Working b) pressure principle variations of a vapour ejector pump taking the place inside

pump

2-33

whole in

process

occuring

inside plane.

an ejector

pump

is

shown in fig

2.12b

a pressure-distance

vapour in fig

compression 2.13. in where High

refrigeration pressure expanding water with the the the reached. vapours steam steam, in

system

using

an ejector 70-700 kPag part

pump is [6], of is the are steam, is the

shown

typically the

generated venturi, entrained consisting then

a boiler the

converging in boiler. motive of the lost condenser a feed of the

evaporated from the

evaporator

and mixed now of

The mixed water venturi in the and pump.

both

refrigerant divergent

and part

vapours, until evaporator rest The of

diffused pressure by is a plants fed

through is

condenser is made up

The refrigerant bleed from the by

a controlled back cooling about 0.35 to

the

condensate demands larger

the load [6].

boiler and the

system for

high is

coefficient

performance

The ejector refrigerant. for similar as the other to

pump was But there refrigerants. the

initially is

designed that [7] using

to the

utilize principle a closed

water cannot cycle

as the be used plant,

no reason Martynowsky fig 2.13,

built

one shown in

a halogenated refrigerants

hydrocarbon give the

refrigerant. like lower higher flow

These evaporation velocities temperatures

alternative pressures in are

advantages producing the losses.

and low specific chamber

volumes

the mixing also

and reducing

Sub-zero

achievable.

These refrigerator small feed pump for

units the

require boiler

only system.

the

heat

input

to operate

and a

2-34

BOILER :

-o-

/HEAT INPUT

EJECTOR PUMP

FEED PUMP

-O-o -p r

EVAPORATOR

BLEED VALVE HEAT GAINED FROM CABINET

/CONDENSER

HEATREJECTED TO ATMOSPHERE

BOILING LIQUID
-_c =o c

----

uauio

VAPOUR

., F

7]

Fig

2.13

A schematic representation ejector refrigerator

of

a closed

cycle

vapour

2-35

REFERENCES

von

Platen,

B. C. system August

and

Munters,

C. G.

Platen-Munters Patent no.

refrigerating 57398,18th

AB Absorptionskylapparat

1922.

Private

communication,

Electrolux,

Luton,

U. K.

Altenkirch,

E.,

Physikalische

Zeitschrift,

12,920,1911.

Goldsmith, London,

H. J., 1964.

'Thermoelectric

Refrigeration',

Heywood,

ASHRAE Heating, 1972.

Handbook

of

Fundamentals, and

American

Society Engineers,

of

Refrigeration

Air-conditioning

Macinteri, Engineering',

H. J.,

and

Hutchinson, and Sons, 1950

F. W.,

'Refrigeration

John Wiley

Martynowskey, Refrigeration

W.,

'Use

of vol

waste 62,

heat no 3,

for

refrigeration',

Engineering,

p 51,1954.

3-1

CHAPTER

THREE

Solar

Energy

Collection

3 -2

3.1

Solar

Energy

The earth
sun in

is
an

a planet
oval

of

1.27
at each of about

x 107 m
an average

radius
distance is

revolving
of

around
1.5 of to

its
m

orbit,

x 1011 intensely spin ,

completing hot gases,

one with

rotation a diameter earth,

year. 1.39 its body;

The

sun

a sphere appears four takes

x 109m which axis the for by 3.1 every equator each

to

an observer it and a does polar huge not

on the rotate

weeks. about It fusion the

However, 27 days radiates reactions important

as a solid take of about energy its the

regions amount place in of

30 days generated Table

rotation.

continuous summarizes

taking

core. sun.

characteristics

The amount of this constant received propagation the solar [4,5] sun, Go. It on of above a is

energy the unit of the

reaching

the energy

earth from

is the to

defined sun, the

by the per unit

solar time, of from of data value from are

amount of area radiation,

perpendicular at the

direction

earth's

mean distance accepted value

earth's is

atmosphere. [1].

The currently Recent satellite

constant

1367 Wm-2 that the

and rocket

has confirmed It is

previously that [6]. of

used 1353 Wm-2 [2,3,77 the discrepancy confirms that arose there

was low. instrument daily over and the

generally

believed errors

calibration monthly 11-year are of

The data not by to

variations sunspot prime cycle

more than about the

+0.25% and changes 1%. None of of these energy

of

variations systems.

importance

design

solar

3 -3

TABLE 3.1 Characteristics of the sun (adapted from ref [6))

4.5 x 109 years Present age 10 x 109 y ears Life expectancy 1.496 x 101 m from earth Mean distance (photosphere) 1.39 x 109 m Diameter (from earth) 9.6 x 10-3 radians Angular diameter variation +1.7% 1.11 x 1027 m3 Volume (photosphere) 1.987 x 1030 kg Mass Composition 73.46% Hydrogen 24.85% Helium 0.77% Oxygen 0.29% Carbon 0.16% Iron 0.12% Neon Nitrogen, magnesium, silicon, etc. sulphur, <o. Density 14.1 kg M-3 Mean 3 1600 kgm centre Solar radiation 3.83 x 1026 W Entire sun 7 Wm'2 6.3 3x 10 Per unit surface area 1367 Wm-2 At air mass zero Temperature 15,000,000 K Centre 6050 K (photosphere) Surface 4300 - 50,000 K Chromosphere 800,000 - 3,000,000 Corona Rotation 26.8 days Solar equator 28.3 days 300 latitude 600 latitude 30.8 days 31.8 days 750 latitude 11H- He+ 2 e+ 2+ Energy source -> 4.1 x 109 kgs-1 Rate of mass loss -------------------------------------------------------------

3-4

Figure of the

3.1a sun.

(adapted It

from

[7])

shows a graph the of tabulated the sun's

of

spectral values energy of

irradiance spectral

can be noted in in (7] the that visible noting

from 45%

distribution wavelengths micron). constant and the constant Also

comes to us at 0.3 and 0.7 solar

spectrum is that than

(i. e. a little 0.3 (IR) less

between more than

worth

1% of

has wavelengths rest is 54% is associated in

shorter the with

micron region. than

(i. e UV and X-rays) 96% of 2.5 the solar

infrared wavelengths

micron.

3.1.1

Available

solar

energy

The

solar

radiation attenuation ensues the the

while and because earth's

passing

through

the

earth's

atmosphere of like certain H20, C02, and of

undergoes wavelengths 03,

modification. of the presence

Absorption of gases the

and 02 in in radiation degree of

atmosphere. a portion of

Owing to the

scattering beam

reflection solar the

atmosphere is diffused.

collimated which

The principal is the the

factor

determines which is is the

attenuation when directly in

distance This the at

through distance sea level, a particular angle

radiation when the as 'air changes zenith doubled, [7)) of

travels sun is mass' as

atmosphere. and, at

minimum defined location

overhead mass rotates is

1. The air the earth of sight air

traversed diurnally.

When the traveled

between

the

and line

60 the equal

distance

by the

beam is from Parts clearly

i. e. the solar

mass is spectrum

to 2. Figure 'air

3.1b

(adapted

shows the the

under

mass 1' condition. gases are

spectrum in this

absorbed diagram.

by the

atmospheric

identified

3-5

2.4Ei 2.0E 1.6

E

1.20.4

X30.8
~ w v0

0.2

0.6

1.0

1.4

1.8

2.2

2.6

WAVELENGTH( m)

(a)

E
N

=- 2.0
03

1.5 w Li
co

H2O 7O2IH2O H2O

Absorption due to atmospheric constituents as indicated

1.0
J cr

H2O H2O H2O C02 H0 0.2 0.6 1.0 1.4 (b)

Fig 3.1 Solar spectral energy distribution (b) air mass 1 (a) air mass 0

0.5
w a.

CO 2.6 3.0

1.8

2.2

( WAVELENGTH m)

3-6

The amount of solar location variations the Sun. is

energy In

available general

for

collection are diurnal its

at

a particular and seasonal

variable.

there both

due to earth's This the is further

rotation

about

axis

and around location, and the

complicated of the

by geographical device Methods are

latitude, prevailing to calculate

orientation

collection

atmospheric the

and ground insolation

conditions. falling

available Detailed available by

amount of different

on a surface. procedures measured is

information in [2], [8].

about

calculation are the also world.

Insolation services

levels around

and recorded

meteorological

further is

limitation imposed

on by the at which next the

the type the

maximum and design collected of the

amount of the

of

useful

energy device This is

collected and the the

collection is used.

temperature of the to

energy chapter

subject

sections refrigeration

where some chosen are discussed.

devices

relevant

applications

3-7

3.2

The flat-plate

solar-energy

collector

A typical the plate)

flat-plate over which

collector the is

consists solar

of

a large falls

plane and is

area

(i. e.

insolation from fluid. the the

absorbed. a the

The energy gaseous absorbing from placed Heat material the the or

so collected liquid is

removed

plate

by circulating of heat is the it with

heat-transfer higher of than the

As the ambient Thermal heat

temperature there are

plate front

losses usually rear. some to

and rear the from plate the

plate. the

insulation from

behind losses which

to reduce front convective but plate. is

losses

are reduced heat losses to

by covering and is the

reduces sun rays

transparent

incident

opaque

longwave

thermal

radiation

emitted

by the

3.2.1

Construction

of the

collector

A typical components absorber made from boxed thicker is at

flat-plate are: plate, thin lined the an

collector insulated

is

shown

in

fig the The

3.2.

The main an

box which cover planks

provides

structure, box is

and transparent sheet with bottom metal a than or thin blanket the

sheets.

usually The is

of wood e. g. plywood. material which

of insulating

sides.

The

absorber

plate metal

is with

usually channels are

constructed for the formed pipes to by

from flow

a of

high

thermal

conductivity fluid. plate are These

heat-transfer part of the

channels

either

as integral the plate.

or constructed connected at

by attaching the top

These channels manifolds. The

and bottom

header

3-8

c. i
0 0

a) a)

0 a) 41 0. 41 c0 -4 w 1-4 co u a 4

', 0
m a> 4) c0 a) w

4) 4) U) 0 c
v_
J0

N
M H

to

3-9

manifolds channels. the header.

are generally This ensures

of

larger

cross-section flow enters painted from

than the

the

riser into the

a steady

balanced fluid usually

channels through

The

heat-transfer surface is

and leaves or coated

headers. the

The plate

to maximize the after are paint are

absorption

of solar Matt

insolation black

and in paints are

some cases generally primer. the

to minimize employed

infrared preparing normally after

emissions. the

surface

with type

an appropriate which and on the avoid

The

primers of the

self-etching repeated

peeling Some

expansions plated coatings, surface.

contractions. surface come in the of

coatings plate

electrochemically special are glued selective to the

the of

and some film,

which

form

a thin

The is

transparent the most used to the

covers material

can be either for outer

glass covers

or plastic because of

sheet. its

Glass

superior low

resistance iron content

environment. 3-6

The glass mm thick.

sheets

used are usually of glazing of the

and about In

The surface transmittance sheets This are

can be is as from

smooth around

or patterned. 0.9 at normal under

any case the Plastic cover. glass

covers

incidence. the glass

used normally the plastic

a second the rays

cover

protects

environment. and thus from purpose films of

Furthermore saves the

does not which is

transmit sensitive

ultraviolet to these

plastic,

radiations, for this

deteriorating. are acrylic-

The plastic

materials

used generally polymers and

or fibreglass-reinforced flouride.

stretched

polyvinyl

3-10

3.2.2

Collector

performance

The thermal ratio falling performing of the of the on

efficiency useful the a heat

of heat

a flat-plate extracted area. on the rises This

collector to can the

is total

described solar be

as the

insolation by

aperture balance plate at higher of resulted

usually

evaluated temperature the

collector-plate. the heat losses

As the to the

collector Thus,

ambient is

increase. less.

operating this energy into model

temperatures, balance

efficiency

A development has

by a number of

authors (HWB)

[9,10,11] formulation. concerning and the surface, of

the involves

Hottel-Whillier-Bliss a number of across between the the simplifications collector-plate and the

Though this the temperature boundary

distribution conditions accurate elaborate the thermal

coupled it

water of the have

tube

can give

a fairly More

comparison analyses temperature capacitance of surfaces

performance also been along system

different which tube, effect

designs. take into

presented the water

account of the

variations of [12-16]. the

variation of radiation

and the

properties

Figure curve.

3.3 X-axis

is

general a general to

representation parameter the solar in

of the

a HWB characteristic shape of ratio of the the

gives

temperature curve

difference

insolation. equation

Mathematically

can be represented

by the

following

h-

(za)eff

U1(Ti-Ta)/I -

The intercept collector. It

of is

the clearly

equation evident

gives from

the the

optical figure

efficiency that the

of efficiency

the

3-11

c 0 4.4 43 co L 0 w -H ao

31
C) 4) 43 0

F-` i

x
4.

0 a 0
4.3

cd C) a t0

a cd M M 00

(L) A3N3101. xO1031103 43

3-12

of This

the is

collector because as the

decreases the

as the

temperature

difference losses from

increases. the plate

convective

and radiative There higher

increase which

temperature

increases. at

are number of temperatures

ways in and the

these

losses of the

can be reduced collector

efficiency

can be improved.

For

instance,

a)

by

increasing losses enhances

the from the

number the

of

transparent plate at be of a

covers

the

radiation This

collector

can be reduced. higher loss of the operating optical number

performance there will effect

temperatures efficiency. of glass operating (the data

although Fig 3.4

shows the

increasing improves covers is from

covers.

The collector as the has

performance number of been spacing:

at higher increased [17]; the solar

temperatures for this are:

figure inter-plate

adapted 9.5

parameters absorptance

mm, absorber

and infrared

emittance=0.95).

b) by coatings a very (e. g. very

using

a selective special of in

absorber radiation radiation the

coating

on the that the

plate. they

These absorb

have the high

property in

percentage but

solar

spectrum is

85%-95%) low

infrared while is

band their the

emittance of

(e. g. 0.9-0.15). impinging losses from on it

Thus, the are plate

most the

solar

radiation radiation result is

absorbed,

longwave The

reduced of the

to a minimum level. collector.

a higher

performance

3-13

N O a) L 4) N0 V

Cl

O
.

L]

- "

+I

0 [

O DB
7~

. .

S$SN30 (L) A3N3101443 1101031100

3-1

c) by evacuating or putting in and

the some

space

between

the

plate

and glass can reduce

covers the its

honeycomb losses

structure thereby

convective performance.

conductive

improving

Fig

3.5

shows
above

a
to

qualitative
enhance

comparison
the

of

different
of a

measures
flat-plate

described

performance

collector.

3.3

Evacuated-tube

collector

(ETC)

This

can

be

described different

as a cluster performance

of many flat-plate enhancing features

collectors described and narrow enclosed glass in

incorporating earlier. plate, an

The absorber or a concentric

surface tube, glass and stagnation from the

in with

this a

case can be a long selective coating,

evacuated the of

tubular convection

envelope. conduction temperature absorber of heat

The evacuated losses; thus

envelope the at

reduces limit which Different in

increasing temperature

achievable losses for

(i. e the equal the to

heat

are from

the

heat are

gains). employed

methods

removal

absorber

different

designs.

Fig

3.6a

shows was with a

Corning

Glass

Company's glass to tube

collector; holding

the a

evacuated flat-plate tube was Fig

envelope absorber, attached 3.6b

102 mm pyrex

a selective which another the

coating,

which fluid

a U-shaped

through

heat-transfer variation

was circulated. by Owens Illinois

illustrates

produced

3-15

ID 6
N

V! a
N N 0

m L.
0
U N
'-1

0 U

0 N
O

N co G].

ID

CO
. -4

a-.

0 V) a) a c a, a, w
v
i

"E

o_

U U C +1 U 4r 4-.

IR 0

00
N 0 0 C. -

0 40

9$0 (%) kDN3I0IJ33

No0

801031100

3-16

Glass to metal seal Fluid

Selectivesurface Entire spaceevacuated

Selectivecoating

Vacuum

Return tube

Feedtube

evacuatedtube a) CorningGlassCompany's

Outlet A -r--Inlet

Selectivecoating

Vacuum

Retur flow

Feed tube

b) OwensIllinois Company's evacuatedtube

Fig

3.6

Evacuated

tube

collectors

3-17

Company. outercover mm. inner

This tube most fluid tube. and the is two

design was tube

had

three

concentric and the pipe after

glass overall through circulating coating

tubes. length is

The 1067 the

53 mm diameter was the and had a

delivery returned selective with

which

heat-transfer the middle

entered This tube

through on its outer space

surface between

hermetically was evacuated.

sealed

the

outer

cover.

The

The two commercial basic configurations

designs

discussed used for and

above are evacuated

representative tubes, i. e.

of

two the

metal-in-glass respectively. connected heat-transfer all connected in

arrangement In case of the series fluid to one fluid. of

all-glass type the

configuration collectors for are the

metal-in-glass a

making through or two the

serpentine-passage The all-glass carry the

ETC module.

ETCs are streams of is The for

manifolds, drawback

which in

heat-transfer that ETCs the are failure high in

The major one ETC

these module but is are

arrangements inoperative. not used

makes the collectors 150C.

whole

performance excess of

temperatures selective elastomeric incorporate overheating. in [18]

The limit

imposed

upon by the of must of

coating, seals. the

differential Thus the provision

thermal system to review

expansion

and degradation ETCs

designs

involving the of

circumvent of the status

possibility

An extensive

ETCs may be found

and [191.

3-18

3.3.1

Evacuated

tube

heat

pipe

collectors

(ETHPC)

This class

is by

a variation the way the

of

metal-in-glass is in the through of this removed direct

ETCs and from contact

differ the with plate. the from

from

the Instead

main of

heat getting

heat-transfer pipe transfer passed. is used it to

fluid to

plate the

a heat and is

transfer

collected which the

heat

plate fluid

a manifold advantages

heat-transfer are:

The main

arrangement

a)

inherent

frost capacity

protection

b) low heat c) high

heat-transfer effect

rates protects against undesired cooling of

d) thermal diode heating media failure e) inoperative of

one tube

does

not

make

the

whole

module

Fig limited

3.7

shows [20,21]. coating

a In

typical this

ETHPC module design the collector to a

manufactured plate heat-pipe. contact variations have is

by Thermomax coated with a

selective of the

and is transfers manifold.

spot-welded the heat

The condenser to the fluid

heat in

pipe the

by direct are other

flowing

There A behind few the

of ETHPCs a

commercially concentrating of USA and to

available. reflector Sanyo the of

designs heat pipe

incorporated Electric from

(e. g General heat it to the

Japan).

Others

transfered clamping

the

condenser

manifold A detailed which A.

by directly analysis would

manifold order to This

(e. g. Fournelle). identify is the

of ETHPC was done in enhance their

parameters in appendix

performance.

presented

3-19

EVACUATED HEAT-PIPE SOLAR COLLECTOR

(1)

Condenser

(2) (3)
(4) (5)

Frost Protection Ring Retaining Cap

Heat Pipe Absorber Plate

(6) (7) (8)

Absorber Suppcut Getter Bottom Support

A -A
lain

All dimensions in millimetres

Fig

3.7 A THERMOMAX evacuated

tube

heat

pipe

collector

tube

3-20

3.4

Photovoltaic

cells

The photovoltaic 1839. He

phenomenon that if that of in the

was

first

observed could allowed be to

by

Bacquerel from on it.

in an He

observed cell further

more e. m. f. light is in

generated fall

electrolytic discovered on the

increase the

the

output This case of to

of cell was

was dependent in an this The

wavelength system

light. the

observed Later

all-solid-state material silicon an energy

1876 for

selenium. a solar

was used with solar cell

cuprous

oxide in 1941

develop their

cell.

was reported began in

but

widespread

use as

source

1958 in spacecrafts.

By early interest volume that for

1970s silicon in their

cells

with

improved

efficiency By the application end

reawakened of 1970s,

the the

terrestrial produced use. for

application. terrestrial

of cells space

had outstripped

3.4.1

Properties

of

semiconductors

Semiconductors metals shell seven and

according insulators. insulators electrons. contain

to

their

electrical have free

properties electrons packed being in outer the in

lie their shell middle in their

between outer with of two

Metals

whereas or eight can

have a closely Semiconductors, three, four or five

extremes, shell.

electrons

outer

3-21

Most

of the

semiconductors level. states of This At upto

have

a crystalline

structure,

at least, state all

at microscopic the available

low temperatures a certain spin level is ( energy according

and equilibrium level to Fermi are

occupied

by two

electrons principle).

opposite energy energy

Pauli level. level in the

exclusion Electrons is raised.

known as the if their some band) band)

may jump to higher After completely the next in this

levels

energy levels would would

electron filled band band valence

migration (valance

originally and some in Vacant of the

be vacant

higher the

(conduction

be occupied.

states positive

band can be regarded known as a hole. of

as a physical The electrons

particle in

charge

commonly

conduction

band have an to current the sum of in the

abundance flow. the The

vacant

energy flow

states

and thus as

can contribute being band in fig due to and 3.8.

current of

can be regarded in the conduction illustrated

motion band.

electrons

holes

valance

This

phenomenon is

Semiconductors

are

clssif

ied

into

three

catagories

Intrinsic produced band gap.

semiconductor purely as a

in result

which of

the

electron-hole excitation

pairs across

are the

thermal

Extrinsic present in

semiconductors the (these holes

in

which

additional due to

electrons ionized

are donor or in

conduction are are called

band

imperfections which ionized materials). additional

n-type in the

materials), valance are

present

band due to

acceptor

imperfections

(these

known as p-type

3-22

BAND CONDUCTION EXCITED Ec STATE hv, E

VALVE CHECK ELECTF TRANS RT

BANDGAP(Eg)

HOLE

Ev

VALANCEBAND

Fig

3.8

Mechanism

of

conversion

of

solar

energy

into

electricity

3-23

Degenerate (or bottom ( or with

semiconductor

is

the

one are

in present

which that

so many donor states with at the

acceptor) of states holes)

imperfections band top of are

conduction at the

almost

occupied band are the

electrons occupied (or

valance lies

totally

and Fermi

level

within

conduction

valance)

band.

The energy

band diagrams

for

these

cases

are

shown in fig

3.9.

3.4.2

Principle

of

photovoltaic

conversion

The rays energy

process from is

of the

photovoltaic solar

conversion

involves

absorption of the

of

light

spectrum. and the

A certain remainder light can to excite

fraction

incident into the the

reflected

transmitted be absorbed electrons Since

semiconductor. semiconductor valance are by

The transmitted using its

within from the

energy

occupied two bands likely than the

bands to

unoccupied

conduction band, absorption up the the

bands. is light,

separated

by forbidden of photons,

particularly is greater

when the energy

energy

making

of forbidden

band gap,

Eg, of

semiconductor.

The

solar-thermal between

conversion absorber

process, and ambient,

conversion

limited utilizes
process

by the total
due to to the

temperature spectrum
the

difference
irradiation. electronical irradiation radiation.

of

Photovoltaic transitions and thus is

quantum of

involved affected

is by

sensitive spectral

spectrum of

distribution

solar

3-2

BAND CONDUCTION E

CONDUCTION BAND Ec -----Ef --. -Ed

Ef

---

Ev

VALANCEBAND

Ev

VALANCEBAND

(a)

(b)

Ec

BAND CONDUCTION

Ef

-- - -Ea Ev VALANCEBAND ----

(c)

Fig

3.9

Energy band diagrams (a) intrinsic

for

three principal (b) extrinsic

types

of

semiconductors (c) degenerate

3-25

3.4.3

Structure

of

solar

cells

Regions increased

of

semiconductors number of

doped in n-type

with the

donor conduction

impurities band Those at

have an normal with

electrons known as

temperatures acceptors by forming

and are

material.

doped

are known as p-type. a junction between

The most common solar n-type and p-type regions.

cells

are made

There cells.

are

three

common

construction

features

in

present

day solar

a) An

optical pairs

absorber i. e. the

which

converts

photons

to

electron-hole

semiconductor;

b) an internal charges before

potential they

energy

barrier and

which

separates

these

can recombine;

c) contacts connection

at with

the

ends

of load.

the

semiconductor

to

make

an external

These are four

not

necessarily

separated

physically barriers

within employed

the

cell.

The

most common type

potential

energy

are;

Homojunctios material

: p/n

junctions

within process.

the

same

semiconductor

produced

by doping

Hetroface window

structures layer of

: a larger

similar

to

homojunctions semiconductor losses.

but

with

band-gap

material

adedto reduce

surface

recombination

3 -26

Heterojunctions different

p/n

junctions materials.

constructed

from

two

semiconductor

Schottky junction

barriers between

: a metal

the

barrier

is

constructed

from

and a semiconductor.

Fig have

3.10

illustrates structure. layer of,

each In

type the

and one can see readily homojunctions material the through

that light

cells falls

layered

case of n-type

on to a thin grid. frontwall thin For

usually, two light smaller light is falls

a contact are shown: on to backwall grid have on on two the a

heterojunctions mode where the

possible through

configuration a contact

grid and

layer

of where band-gap

the the

band-gap incident

material through barrier light

configuration the larger

a contact can again can fall

material.

Schottaky Incident

possible

configurations. metal film

semi-transparent through the

(i. e

frontwall

illumination mode).

mode) or

semiconductor

(i. e backwall

illumination

3.4.4

Expected

efficiencies

of

solar

cells

Table of

3.2

gives

the It

photon can

energy be is

levels

in the in

different table the far The that

spectral

bands

solar

spectrum. solar

seen from available 1.15 very for

significant region, energy

amount of i. e. available solar cell.

irradiance greater spectral is one of

infrared photon

wavelength in this

than

micron.

band is the

low and cannot their lower

be used by a efficiency.

This

reasons

3-27

rl _i

O +1 Y

ab sc Y .+ CE O7 N.

. v
M M 4 Ri

C
Y E 1. .r 4 fr C O M -u p C 0 V N

V) a) U
L cd 0
al

0 4 0o u N

sM u4 UE
r"N k. I 47

a r+ M J) L

19
V

C O
.r -J m

G"C

0 0 M
Y

a) A 0 -4

sC CE O V .y 4 Ir

U C 0 1 0 w

a s 0) a)

IJ\/w

'

u I! S C a

c
V L u

a)
c0

ILI

iI
Y CO M

U to W
0 L RI

./'J
; ac

4) 0
44

4) C a) CL
0 m a) a E" 0

GO

C a

V u 41 V

-1
Y

"+d

u
Y

v I.. II W x

C O w Y

u C 0 x a c

Lt.

bO +I

., r

3-28

TABLE 3.2 Photon irradiance energy and solar spectral in different bands spectral

-------------Wavelength (micr on)

-- -- ----

----------Energy (eV)

-- ---------Solar

---- ---- ----------irradiance spectral (Wm-2) AMO AM1 252.4 84.1 60.2

1.15 1.00

1.15 1.00 - 0.90

0.00 1.09 1.25

1.08 1.24 1.38

317.7 95.1 82.9

0.90
0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20

- 0.80
0.70 - 0.60 0.50 - 0.40 0.30 - 0.20 0.00 -

1.39 1.56 1.79 2.08 2.50 3.12 4.15 6.23 -

1.55
1.78 2.07 2.49 3.11 4.14 6.22

99.3
123.7 151.5 177.0 187.7 101.7 16.3 0.1

83.5
80.5 132.5 143.0 151.0 79.1 3.7 0.0

Total

1353.0

1070.0

3-29

Different absorption sun would

materials coefficients. be Neville from gaps six

used in

solar

cells spectral

have different energy

band gaps and from different power Data the the

Thus the in

available by

utilized [22]

different the

proportions theoretical

materials. available for band

computed

maximum cells.

commonly used semiconductors absorption coefficients

as solar was

and

picked

from

available of complete

literature. absorption 3.3

The calculations of the lists . photons his

were based on the having greater

assumption than the

energy

band gap Eg. Table

results.

Interaction absorption dependent wavelength. of absorption that

of

radiation

with

semiconductors

is

characterized is

by

coefficient. and Fig thus 3.11

The phenomenon of absorption the shows, coefficient for different photon of absorption materials, energy. scale) much would for It is

wavelength with the

vary the evident

variation from the (i. e. This thickness are usually cells can

coefficient slopes

with

diagram direct implies to absorb

(on logrithmic are materials energy. thick

some materials than others.

band gap that the

materials) different same

higher require silicon

different cells silicon

Crystalline whereas

between

50 and 100 micron thickness

amorphous

be made with

below

1 micron

[231"

The inefficiency such as reflection resistances, comes from

of

solar

cells

can be attributed losses, etc. nonideal But the

to

many junctions,

factors cell

and transmission efficiency,

collection the of conversion

major

limitation is a

photovoltaic the material

conversion itself. of solar

efficiency Fig cells 3.12

which shows

characteristic achievable

maximum from

efficiencies

produced

3-30

O000N OOO

lcm

CO Ln

0 In OOON C'

t(fl CC O%

0 O Ln %o

N1

Lt

(1)c
U
O

O000 O0000 OOOOMN OOOO OOOO OOOOM 0000=ZO

m
NM

Co c; Co M(O fV

u1

CO Ln

z
E

I
M Lc1 r' Co O' 'O N00000 LA Ot N %0 1M

MI I

Ln

OOOOM OOOO OOOO OOO OO0.? t-

LA ti fV

NN %0 N^O

CO

Co %0

Co O'

m O'

ti %D !:

`' m NO

ti

ll

N U 3 E >1 U)

H 0

0 cc

OO0 000

00 O'

MNNN M %0

CO

lA LA

OOO
OO0 OOO OOO

lD

O
LA %9 %Z U1

JO
0N%, Lf tO' O NO1 CO O ?O -:r M NO 00 l O' LA ". M to G ".

-0
C O' Ca' Ln O 0% Co a0

m-I
CU

iE i ca
io E ia

-zr
a0 %O

NIM I I0 10 I 'O IO oIa. OIM I O I

OIO

u)
O
r-1

ri

L ca

OO0 OOONM OOO 00 OO %D %9 n'1 lc0 N O' '.O r!l Co Ln O' LA :'N ti

O M y 0 CE (tl O
U

OOO O' O %0 O O CYN 00 r: M CO CO "-' a0 O' O

f" o0 %0 0 CO

IZ 1 1 . H 1O 1E

OO OO OOa OO 0MM O 0 00 ON 0 '0 LA

N mIO
NN

E-

(1) x 3 -H O V) a

OOMO 0 L-t %0 cO Co Ln Cr) In t 0M r4 .? N Cr) 0 N -' O

ca a.
U

_ E 4 0 Z d

1? Ln CD c %D

0 O' NNUO LA O' Co I` '0 19 00

,OI I0 .-IN O '. I

1 NIN M ""

N a

I
'

In I
0

0 V)
1E 16 C 1 1 f/2 IO 1Z 6

-00M0NM u1 N L rCO lG CO cO MJ ILA u1 I O C-

"U1

0% e

%D IA OO

OS ti "I OI
OO O

I-

rU1

O' N OD

M! O O%

M-N N

l l00

l. lOO

M O

S0O C

CO D Ln

MN

Ft n1 00 C1
. -i >61 rl

'-

OOOOOOOOO

mIQ) a C) 10 ICe IC6N

. -4 a% ON

111111111111 1? m a% 0% CO O% lO% %0 a% 111 O% m MN

HIvm I

g1

OOOOOOOOO

1 z. oa

9.4+

3-31

105 CuInSe Cu2S

a rE u v

Ge

Si CdTe

10, CdS

W ULL
W

103

GaAs

0 I a 0
Q

Gap

102

10 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 PHOTON ENERGY(eV )

Fig

3.11

Optical coefficient absorption used in solar semiconductors

curves cells

for

different

3-32

different account

materials. the above on the band different gap

These mentioned operating varies as

theoretical factors. temperature the operating conditions,

efficiencies The and efficiency energy

do not

take

into

shows band

a great The Thus, would

dependence optimum under show

gap.

temperature different

changes. materials

environmental performance.

an optimum

The actual lower than

efficiencies the for theoretical some cell

of

commercially efficiencies.

produced Efficiencies, are considered below;

solar

cells in

are the for

cited

literature, photovoltaic

types,

which are listed

economical

power production,

single

crystalline Si

Si

0.12-0.15 0.10-0.12

poly-crystalline single thin thin crystalline film film

GaAs 0.16-0.20 0.08-0.10 0.08-0.10 0.06-0.08

CdS-Cu2S CdS-CuInSe2 Si

amorphous

Subject

of

solar In aspects at the

cells the

is

too

vast

and diversified essential However, are provided and

to

be covered

in and

a few pages. technical references who wish

previous have

few sections

theoretical bibliographical for the

been discussed. the chapter

end

of

readers of the

to obtain

a deeper

understanding

knowledge

subject.

3-33

Iw u w

w L w w

0.2

0.6

1.0

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.6

3.0

ENERGY BANDGAP (eV)

Fig

3.12

Variation conversion of theoretical efficiency of an ideal homojunction temperature with band gap and operating

3-34

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3-38

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Solar

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technology, Englewood

applications, USA, 1982.

Prentice-Hall,

Fahrenbruch, Cells,

A. L.

and

Bube, Inc.,

R. H.,

Fundamentals

of Solar

Academic

Press,

N. Y.,

USA, 1983.

Hu,

C.

and

White,

R. M.,

Solar

Cells N. Y.,

from

basics

to

advanced

systems,

McGraw Hill,

USA, 1983

Merrigan, technology

J. A.,

Sunlight

to

Electricity MIT

: Press,

photovoltaic Cambridge,

and business USA, 1982.

prospects,

Massachussets,

Bloss,

W.H., of

'Photovoltaic Solar Energy

energy Converters D. Reidel

converters', : thermal Publishing collectors

in

Performance and

photovoltaic 1983.

cells,

Company,

Holland,

Open University, University Press,

Solar Milton

Cell, Keynes,

unit

TS251 (10 and 11),

Open

UK, 1973 and later.

3-39

Twidell, F. N. Spon

J.

and Weir, London,

T., UK,

Renewable 1986.

Energy

Resources,

E.

&

Ltd,

Loferski, Energy

J. J.,

'Photovoltaic Handbook, Marcel

Materials' editors: Dekker Inc.

chapter Dickenson, N. Y.,

18 in Solar W. C. and

Technology

Cheremisinoff,

P. N.,

USA, 1980.

10

Proceedings at 18 months

of IEEE Photovoltaic intervals.

Specialists

Conferences

held

11

Takakaski, North Oxford

K. and Konagai, Academic

M.,

Amorphous Ltd.,

Silicon

Solar

Cells,

Publishers

London,

UK, 1986.

12

NASA, report

Space

Photovoltaic

Research proceedings Centre,

and of a

Technology conference Ohio,

1988, held at

no NASA CP-3030, Research

NASA Lewis 19-21,1988.

Cleveland,

USA, April

4-1

CHAPTER

FOUR

Adsorption of Application and its

Vapours to

on Solids Refrigeration

4 -2

4.1

Adsorption

process

-.

When tWo-)materialn, composition phase. interface adsorption. of

areiin3contact; is the with different

hthere2isianiinterfacialeregion; from that of of the a bulk

}the of either at the

which in

The increase as

concentration its bulk

substance is

compared

concentration

known as

4.1.1

Classification

of

adsorption

The process phases acting four

of

adsorption the

is

classified

usually and (ii)

according the of type phases i. e.

to of in

(i)

the

constituting at that surface.

interface, on

forces contact

Depending processes

the

type

types

of adsorption

can be considered,

a) liquid/gas c) solid/liquid

b) solid/gas d) liquid/liquid

Kiselev

[1],

Everett on into

[2], the

and Barrer basis of

131 have classified molecular For interaction detailed

the

process at the the

qualitatively, interface, subject

specific is referred

or non-specific. to Oscik [4].

study

of

reader

This

study

is

concerned in

with this

the

adsorption termed is

of

a gaseous

phase on to and the

a solid. gas, both

The solid in bulk

case is phase,

as the

adsorbent, adsorbate.

and adsorbed

called

the

4 -3

4.1.2

Distinction

between

adsorption

and absorption

Adsorption surfaces formed that

is and,

a in walls

phenomenon

which

takes at It

place the is the

at

the

external surface

case of a porous of the pores

solid,

internal

by the does not of do of place

as well. in

a surface chemical if

phenomenon or lattice of the

involve the not solid. remain

any

changes Absorption

structure adsorbate structure can take process, sorption. according considered

occures but

the molecules into

on the In

surface both

penetrate..

the

solid.

some cases The the

adsorption term

and absorption for the latter is

simultaneously. of in this

general

irrespective The solid to some

mechanism, case [6], is the

(given termed

by McBain as sorbent molecules

[5]),

while, may be

definitions adsorbed

adsorbed

as a separate

phase.

4.2

Adsorption

from

the

gaseous

phase

The

process into

of

adsorption two catagories,

of

gases namely,

by

solids

can

be

broadly

classified

(i)

physical in

or van der Waals adsorption; which the chemical nature of the adsorbed are molecules held weak by the forces; which and are gases

remains surface which act,

unchanged. molecules are for same in

The adsorbate of the solid

molecules by relatively forces of

nature in

as the condensation of

of attraction vapours,

example, for ideal the

responsible from the

deviations

the

behaviour

of real

gas behaviour.

4 -4

(ii)

chemisorption;
wherein and the outer a chemical reaction takes is place formed or of sharing between between adsorbate the gas at case and the are

adsorbent solid orbit.

surface.

A bond

molecules Therefore than

by exchanging forces

electrons in this

attraction

much stronger

physical

adsorption.

4.3

Physical

adsorption

of

gases

Physical porous other.

adsorption, solids and refrigerants

is

the

mechanism

by

which interact

most of with

the each

of interest

herein

As forces

explained acting

above, in forces

there physical of

are

no special are van

adsorption identical Waals different known to

forces. to forces (i.

The the e.

adsorption the operate forces

intermolecular dispersion-repulsion), phases by [7-10).

cohesion, which

der in are

material be produced Debye's effect.

These

electrostatic i. e., Keesom's effect,

three

effects (polarization)

orientation

effect,

induction

and London's

dispersion

The orientation interaction magnitude temperature. of molecules of of of The

effect those the induction the

contributes molecules effect effect proximity which is is

significantly have inversely caused a

towards permanent proportional by induced

the dipole;

mutual the to the

polarization it is

in

of

permanent

dipole;

independent

temperature.

4-5

These which putting

effects do not

are

also

observed permanent

during dipoles.

the

interaction effect is its

of

molecules by

possess

The

explained existance to

forward, [11-13],

and the

subsequently concept of

proving quadrupole. will interaction energy of

experimentally concept

According induce of this effect the

the in

a molecule

with

permanent and the

quadrupole resulting The London's Waals

a dipole the effect

a neighbouring produces is, major without van

molecule der Waals and towards moment.

attraction. thus van the der

interaction is the

however, contributor electric

small

dispersion forces between

molecules

London's If that

dispersion is without

effect

arises

from

fluctuating dipole, such mean value. of the

dipole this

moments. only means a

an atom its

a measurable is zero. about with

permanent However, that time a

mean dipole dipole result round in one of

an atom This

may have fluctuation density

fluctuating being of the

moment variation the nucleus.

distribution dipole, orientation electric come are close

electrons

Such is

fluctuating as its

whose in field. to to one each

orientation the opposite

direction gives

as probable to

direction, with

rise

a fluctuating dipoles and they

When two another other.

molecules their total dispersion

fluctuating decreases is also

energy effect

attracted of

This

independent

temperature.

comprehensive

review

of

adsorption is,

fundamentals instead, referred (15],

is

beyond the to earlier [16] and

scope of this discussions Bikerman [17]

study. by

The reader [14],

Ruthven

Gregg and Sing references

Cookson these

and the

extensive

cited

within

works.

4 -6

4.4

Adsorption

equilibrium

The 'time molecule This time

of in

adsorption' adsorbed for

is state

defined remains

as the attached

period to of for
is in

during an adsorption different activated

the

which site.

varies

physical solids.
time [191, nature of and of

adsorption For instance

adsorption is determined

gases and carbon

from of the

vapours
at room to

on various
temperature 10-2 site,

porous
the

range properties surface,

10-12

seconds the

by the and its

adsorption

molecule

temperature a longer number equal.

of the or shorter

surface period

and kinetic an

energy

of is

the molecule. established adsorbed

After

equilibrium and leaving

when the state are

of This

molecules is

entering

the

known as adsorption

equilibrium.

Adsorption

equilibrium

is

specifiedfbyiithree'properties;

(i) (ii)

amount pressure

of

adsorbate p of bulk

in, phase gas or vapour, and

(iii)

the

temperature

T of the

adsorbent-adsorbate

complex.

If the

the

temperature is

is

maintained

constant

during relation as the

adsorption between adsorption

and only equilibrium isotherm,

pressure

varied,

the resulting is known

pressure

and amount adsorbed equation is

whose general

Lf(p)7T

4.1

4+-7

Isotherms adsorbents. according examples type II of

can

have 4.1

many shapes shows the

indicating five of basic

different types [8]. their

structures of isotherms

of

Figure to the

classification and of the

Brunauer of used in

The diagram structure for

shows each or

materials Most

description adsorbents

as well. type

refrigeration

show I

isotherms.

When the adsorption

pressure isobar

is is

kept

constant which

and is

the

temperature

is

varied

an

obtained

represented

graphically

as in

fig

4.2

and mathematically

by the relation

m=

[g(T)l

4.2

The data
adsorption

used in

constructing
of

the fig
ammonia

4.2

is

from

[18]

and represent

equilibrium

on charcoal.

A third
equilibrium constant

type

of representation,
pressure is of

called

isostere,
at different The

is

obtained
temperatures

when
for for an

determined the

concentration

adsorbate.

equation

isostere

is

P=

[h(T)]m

4+ .3

Figure

4.3a

is

an isosteric fig

representation 4.2.

of

the

same data

which

has been used to construct

4-8

cn
W W OC

Co
a0 0> CO MMM-? 00 aO ? NN ? M

0
. -1

O tio C
. -1 G 1 L 0 cu U UX

92

d
C) m " O

" Co C"N
4.3 -. 0 N L. O c0 m CO U -0 Z

9. m cu Vp 0) x
. -1 i> NM

cyv

a) -4

X W

CO CU. ^ 0C>+ -1 UO +-1 .sU L + O 43 cd G1 UO . -1

ON

cli O c to > O " +1 O 0 +1 0) UEL

92 Co L Z

4.3

!C

tio

L.

(D -I 00 0
to

Cu U Co +i U + vI +-f O C
OC

U +i L L

"-1 CO 0 U Cu U C 0 L
U

a>

U +1 COOON
O. i

-f

cu

Ox
>"-4

4-. C
0

Co . -1 O tu Co
tO(D

0 03 (4. 0
C 0 4)
'4

OOO 1O CC +4 C .-4 cd CO L. 0 >. 0.0 G) E 4) 41 +) .0

A 93 020 O (d a) CC 0 C) '-40)0 aN0 -4+f L. -f ECL. to

4wx23

> 02

0cm

O C i

0 CN +i rE+i 010

G) C )
N

C 912 1

mr -4 4

+)

ca U
V1

a N
0 -1
N V!

C m
Co

'i c . E-4

to

T1 C 4
m +i

0)

L. 0 rl
U4

-4

c Q)

. -4 0C >+ 91 d0

0) U
d

O +I

O
41

4)
41 " V

4)

.CO

c> Co
p4

4+

.i -1

"O +-1 CU

CO

v,
U

co

A
CIL .

m 4.3 C) L .N U) O L. O Co

a
L

Co "-1 3 al C) vO
F1 E-' a L.

4.3 WC

a) F

CO L <O . -4 L , -1 CO 4) OO E U) U>Z.

41 G1 a

AC

in
.i

O L. o7 LdO
d 4a L. "-1 4.0 m 3O

a w

O to OY E + . -I Ua >s L
aUU

e
02 L7 O> L.

. O EV

o0Z0
a6
dO

o o -4 c

. -1 N

0 to V 0 c0 v] C) > 4) 07 (0 L. . -1 CO L 74 .G CI G +) (O L > CO aULO U) .1 , OU LCO

4.3 '
92

c in. CO.? O L. .Cu EO 42 C E 91

OvLO

+-1 . 430'I

C -1 W L. N LC al OV Co a CI a .CUOC 42 O 'O >W U) NUL.

O. O c0 O U) a C o9 >

1Q +-1 41 44 4) C) +1 09 c0 +i U

>s +1

o]
L u) ca C. CO

c
.4

Co

eo

0) 4

0 mq
U

U c0 U +-1 C 0-4 + 7 4 . -i 1 O CO N 0 ai a3 0 6-

L 4) W U) N c0 OUH LL U) LWU U) OZOaL U) O

U 4) CLUa

>

:0

0 43 .07 aOLWE LCOa

4) W L. c0 .4 +-1

E7 U) OON+.

OE
3 O

+3

to OC Co E+1 CO U. ] ....

U) Co c

to

>s a L. a) .C > 43 +1 .C3

L. N R) 0 0 +i . ' 4)

c0 .CO L.

(o0La C)

44 O 01 O 4) t.

Co >

CHL Co HONL.
H > 93 vE

o"a

42 Co

"'

tu +3 .N
4)

H-40
"i

O mH .C to

0 " +'1 Na 4) W 743 CO CN

Co UN

a"

d0 Ls.

Z.

on 4> 0 U CI C .4
CO v

0 +i O .4 U) 7 c0 4)
+1 . -1 O

Ho
Q.

Cu O top CE 02 LOL N0 4) H0.000

c0 xN0

.C v1
U) L.

+1

OCC aa).

41

C c0 C' U G> .C H> ...

c0

>s HC H H4) .....

c0 E+)

aOOO C04) da ....... ..

.....

w G

''

1A

N CL CL

N CL Q.

N 0.

V)

WW W
+ E-+ H

r'

WW
H H

WW
H H

l W
> H

r'

WW

>

4-9

175
933k Pa 150

53.3kP

U. 125 i
or0

13.3kPa

100 U0 75
a.
C3
W

5.4kPa

0
O

so

25
J

250

300

450

TEMPERATURE (K)

Fig

4.2

Adsorption

isobars

of

ammonia

on charcoal

[18]

4-10

Isosteres fixed slowly

resemble concentration then rapidly

the of the

vapour

pressure the

curves

of

liquids. rises are at

For first

adsorbate temperature.

pressure the curves

with

Thus

concave

with

respect

to pressure

axis.

The resemblance than superficial. represents bulk

of Like

isosteres the vapour

with

vapour

pressure curves

curves each point

is

more

pressure of

on the

isostere and

a unique pressure at

set

adsorbent-adsorbate both are in equilibrium.

temperature

adsorbate

which

Clausius-Clapeyron different involved phases in the

equation and transition allows from

governs one

the

equilibrium the

between heat

to calculate

amount the

one phase to another,

d(lnp)/d(1/T)

= -q/R

where

is

the which

change in is

enthalpy

of

the

system invariant.

during

the

phase-change

assumed to be temperature

It

is

customary of

to plot pressure This

isosteres against

as

shown the

in

fig

4.3b; of line as the

i. e. the absolute plot slope of of

logarithm temperature. isosteric

reciprocal a straight

representation type of plot left is

produces

data.

This represent

more meaningful side

each isostere equation 4.4.

the heat

hand

of Clausius-Clapeyron calculated.

Thus the

of adsorption

can be readily

Adsorption equilibrium.

isotherm Adsorption

is

the refrigeration

usual

way cycle

of

representing involves isosteric

the

4-11

MM

EE U o

Li L^

m E u 0

c3 E .. r

50
w

25

250

300

350

400

450

TEMPERATURE (K)

3.0 V)
w cr

2.0 U0
r--

=
I--

1.0

Cfl7
On
.JVL

2.2
Fig 4.3 Isosteric (a) linear
(b)

2.6

3.0

3.4

3.8

4.2
4.2

RECIPROCAL ABSOLUTE TEMP (ox 103)

data of fig of adsorption representation scale for temperature and pressure
pressure and inverse temperature logrithmic scales

4-12

heating evaporation refrigeration Besides, with simpler

and

cooling processes. cycle,

and Thus isosteric equilibrium

constant for

pressure the analysis

condensation of is adsorption

and

representation can be established

more more

suited.

isosteric apparatus.

accurately

4.5

Adsorption

equilibrium

theories

and models

Review this

of adsorption In order

equilibrium to predict

theories the
an accurate

and models

is

relevant

to

study.

performance
description

of a refrigerator
of equilibrium

working states

on adsorption must be provided.

process

The the

adsorbents, adsorption energy),

on the sites are

basis (i. e.

of

distribution points into

of

potential to

energy maxima

at of

corresponding three types.

potential

catagorized

(i)

Homogeneous

This

catagory

tfsolids

have

same

potential

energy

at

all

adsorption

sites.

(ii)

Heterogeneous

If

the

potential

energy

varies

from

site

to

site

these

are

termed

as heterogeneous

adsorbents.

u-i3

(iii)

Homotattic

If

the

variation
and energy

of potential
districts can or

energy
patterns

from
of

site
sites surface

to site
having then

forms
same the

a pattern potential solid is

be identified

on the

termed

as homotattic

adsorbent.

Most carbons, Thus

adsorbents zeolites, section

used

in

refrigeration etc. the gases ) are

processes heterogeneous and models vapours on

(e. g. in

activated nature. the

silica-gel, will cover of

this

theories and

describing heterogeneous

adsorption surfaces.

equilibrium

The from

complete physical

theoretical properties Many models used for in

calculation of have adsorbent been put But

of

the and

adsorption adsorbate so far.

equilibrium, only, is very very

difficult. extensively equilibrium because

forward the

Some are of

industry. systems used in

calculation models models is

adsorption

particular constants for

by these these

semiempirical, determined

the

are system.

experimentally

individual

solid/gas

equilibrium

Adsorption of on

equilibrium Although

is,

most frequently, when assessing

represented a refrigeration is more

in

the

shape based

an isotherm. this

system

phenomenon isosteric discussed adsorption to an in

representation the next

informative. are equations equilibrium, system, can

Thus the models representing which easily is the

few sections But isosteric refrigeration

isotherm. adsorption isotherm

more relevant

be deduced from

these

equations.

4-14

4.5.1

The Langmuir

equation

During

second world which isotherm later But basis is all or the fit of

war Langmuir led to the

put

forward

his of the

kinetic first

theory equation

of of

adsorption adsorption proposed range. as the

derivation theoretically. data either concept

developed the these

Many other better or

equations a wide equation of these

experimental equations

over

use the Langmuir for derivation

the same.

theoretical

equations

The theoretical is the dynamic

principle concept

of Langmuir's of are which equilibrium, equal are:

molecular-kinetic in which He the

derivation rates of other

adsorption simplified

and desorption assumptions,

[8,20,21].

made three

a) Adsorption adsorbent free and of

takes thus the

the

place

in

a monolayer

on the

surface only

of

the molecules adsorbent.

surface it is

can be adsorbed If a
reflected

on the an

surface
area

molecule

strikes

occupied

of

elastically.

b) The and so is equal

surface the

of the

adsorbent

is

energetically molecule to

homogeneous be adsorbed

probability the

of a striking surface.

throughout

c) the

Adsorbate-adsorbate probability not depend of an on

interaction adsorbed whether

is molecule the

negligible to leave

and the

as such surface are

does

neighbouring

sites

occupied

or vacant.

4-15

The

final

form

of

the

Langmuir

equation

is;

v=

vm[bp/(1+bp)]

4. b

where

v is

the

volume the b surface is

adsorbed is the

at

pressure with a

p and complete

vm is

the

volume of

adsorbed molecules

when

covered adsorption

monolayer For detailed

and

coefficient.

derivation Langmuir statistical

of

the

equation was later as well.

readers

are referred from

to

[8,20,21].

The and

equation principles

derived

thermodynamical

Although cannot

Langmuir's interpret remains principles.

equation, every for

due to its kind of

over-simplified experimental the adsorption

assumptions data yet its on

significance dynamical

expressing

equilibrium

4-16

4.5.2

Potential

theory

of

adsorption

This put of

theory forward potential

was developed his kinetic is

by theory.

Polanyi

at

the

same time which a solid forces into to that the

when Langmuir the basis the

The basic the surface by

idea of

forms

theory of the

that

at

adsorbent of the of attraction

molecules acting space. monolayer forces potential. the surface from

gas are compressed to is a certain

the

surface idea

distance opposite

surrounding Langmuir's of the

This

completely Polanyi of the [221 the

adsorption. of attraction He defined

characterized

field by

adsorbent

surface

adsorption

adsorption in point.

potential transferring Fig 4.4

as the work done by the molecules gives a the from potential from

adsorption to of the

forces given

gaseous

phase

diagramatic lines the of

representation equipotential increases by the until equation

potential

theory decreases zero.

showing as distance

whose magnitude it falls to

surface is given

The adsorption

E=

RT ln(pg/p)

4.5

where R is p is the real the

the

gas constant of the

for

the

vapour,

T is the for

the

temperature pressure behaviour

and of of

pressure

vapour T.

and ps is To account

saturation non ideal

vapour vapours

at temperature pressures

are sometimes

replaced

by fugacities.

The

fundamental that

postulate the adsorption

of Polanyi's potential

potential is

theory

is of

the the

assumption
temperature:

independent

4-17

VAPOURS SURFACE vat?

ADSORPTION SPACE
/

...

ADSORBENT

Fig

4.4 Polanyi's

equipotential

surfaces

in adsorption

space

4-18

[ac/aT]W

=0

4.6

This pair for

gives

unique

characteristic potential fig 4.5).

curve in

to an adsorbent-adsorbate of the amount adsorbed

expressing all

adsorption (see

terms

temperatures

Thus the isotherm.

potential Instead

theory the

does

not

yield

definite is developed

adsorption from the

characteristic isotherms

curve at

experimental are determined

isotherm from it.

and then

different

temperatures

4-19

bo
V

,a

0 a)

O
M

10

Jy

w x: CD
W

Y+ *0
y

Co CY-

w 0 C,

w
U .. a N U 11 U co

OD . -1 Gc.

T-

(P1) 1VI1N310dNOI1d80SOV

4-20

4.5.3

The BET equation

Brunauer, monolayer

Emmett and Teller adsorption

[8,23]

extended adsorption.

the

Langmuir's

idea

of

to multilayer

They assumed that

a)

the

adsorption the adsorbent the

forces, surface

arising and of

as the

a result adsorbed

of

interaction act are

between only

molecules, which

within

first

layer

adsorbed

molecules

in

direct to

contact the

with

the

adsorbent

surface

(this theory

is - see

contrary above) .

assumption

made in the

potential

b) the by the these

adsorbed forces layers

layers

beyond

the first and as

one are not such the the

affected in

of adsorption possess the

molecules state.

properties

as in

liquid

As

a result and

of layers If

the

assumption is be

(b) constant further

the

heat

of

adsorption to that the latent

for heat saturation

the of

second

beyond it can

and

equal

evaporation.

assumed

under

pressure adsorbed for the instant form

of on

a given the by

vapour

an infinite it is

number not limited

of

layers structurally,

can

be as in

surface its

(i. e. if

micropores)

the BET equation

can be written

v viii
where of x is

Cx (1-x)(1-x+cx)
the relative V the pressure, volume of the Ca constant related

u. 7

to

the

heat and

adsorption,

gaseous

substance

adsorbed,

4-21

Vm is

the

volume

of

gaseous

substance

needed to form

a monolayer.

The

quantity the as

Vm is

the

same which of monolayer pressure one

appeared has been

in

the

Langmuir in

equation.

However, sense, occupied unoccupied. nature equation, compensate adsorption equation of

concept

treated the

a statistical sites are

under by more This actual

a certain than happens adsorption

some of

adsorption the others

molecule, of the

whereas

remain

because

energetically the is development assumed and The to the

heterogeneous of the BET

surfaces. interaction of first from

In

adsorbate-adsorbate for is 4.7 the used is effects for the

sufficiently mean heat 'C' of in

heterogeniety layer the [23].

constant

determined

relation

C=

exp[(gst-hfg)/RT]

4.8

where qst and hfg is

is

the

heat

of adsorption heat

for

the

first of the

molecular adsorbate.

layer

the

latent

of condensation

Equation

4.7

can

be written

in

its

linear

form

as

C_1 X1 ______ _ ___ + ----- x V(i-X) VmC VmC which

i. e. line

4.9

is

a straight

line

when plotted
From the slope

in

so called
intercept

'BET coordinates'
of the of straight the BET 0.05

x and x/[V(1-x)]. values is and of

and

C and Vm are over

calculated. the is range true generally of for

The applicability relative pressures

equation to 0.35

limited the The

from

equation adsorbents

non-porous used for

and macroporous cycles

adsorbents.

refrigeration

4-22

are

microporous

and as well.

heterogeneous The other on the in concept of

energetically, limitation of infinite of the number structure

and

quite

often 4.7 is

structurally that layers of the it is which pores

equation of

based fails is

adsorption the size

case

microporous scale.

where

often

on molecular

To cover equation they before expression

this for

type

of

adsorbents, adsorption

the on

authors

[8,231

derived

another Here

multilayer

the walls n layers opposite

of micropores.

assumed that they is meet

maximum number of the layers on the

are formed wall.

on the wall The derived

Cx[1-xn(n+1)+nxn+1] 4.10

-- = --------------------(1-x)[1+x(C-1)-Cxn+1] Vm
Despite isotherm from the the fact that it limits of to equation lacks of n 4.10 universal range is of taken the gives a better It over

fit still which

to

the

data, same

application. pressure as constant same dimensions activated

suffers it that structure The is all

applicable. the which other because pores is

The value are not assumed true about for

indicate and

be of

many adsorbents equation concepts 4.7

(e. g. apply in to its

carbon). 4.10

criticism of the

equation formulation.

as well

same basic

used

4-23

4.5.4

Dubinin's

theory

Polanyi's isotherms expression this

theory for for (for

has been very physical its

successful but did

in

representing not provide

adsorption analytical solved equation, [26-29] that the of

adsorption determination.

Dubinin analysis First of they the vapours if we of

and co-workers Dubinin's

problem

a comprehensive to range curves [24,25]). of of values different

readers over a

are referred wide

discovered amount on

adsorbed, the by same type a

characteristic adsorbing constant of

surface the

are

affine potential

i. e.

multiply to for the The

certain volume we

adsorption

corresponding curve to

a chosen

adsorption the

space W on the adsorption potential curve as the to a

characteristic corresponding of another affinity standard

one vapour same value multiplication

obtain on the

of W

characteristic was with termed respect

vapour. coefficient vapour

constant determined taken as

whose value which is

can be

generally

benzene.

The

function

(RTln(ps/p),

which

was

defined

to

be

adsorption by Dubinin

potential [30] as 'a

by Polanyi,

was interpreted

thermodynamically

decrease state

in is

the

free

adsorption of

energy

if

the which

adopted is, at at

standard temperature pressure differential Dubinin empirical

the

state

a normal with in its free '

liquid, saturated energy

T, in ps.,

equilibrium This work decrease

vapour represents

molar the

of adsorption. amount

represented equation;

adsorption

by

the

following

u-24

W= Wo exp[-B/2(Tln(p3/p))2l

4.11

where

W is

the at the

volume

of

liquid

like

adsorbate, p. only, B

present is a the is

in

the

micropores, representing coefficient adsorption pressure of

a temperature structure the the at of

T and pressure the adsorbent

constant affinity the total vapour

is Wo

describing space in

particular

adsorbate, and ps T. is the

adsorbent, temperature

saturation

adsorbate

4.5.4.1

Limitations

of Dubinin-Radushkevich

equation

Equation equation.. temperature

4.11 This

is is

known generally applicable the at

as the temperature pressure

Dubinin-Radushkevich well of 0.4 below of the

(D-R) critical

and below

relative

the

adsorbate.

Taking in

logarithms

on both form

sides

of D-R equation,

it

can be presented

a linearized

lnW = lnWo -"B/2(Tln(ps/p)]2

4.12

By

plotting get 2 B/

lnW a straight and

against line.

the The

square slope gives

of of the

the this value line

function line of

Tln(ps/p) represents

we the

should value volume have

the

intercept from this

total

micropore however, these C. Fig

Wo. Deviations frequently into , been

straight Rand type of [31] A, these

behaviour, classified

observed. types namely

has type

deviations 4.6

three general

B and type

shows the

representation

deviations.

-25

In

case of

type

A deviation Thus in the

(see fig

k. 6a)

the of

D-R

curve

shows two pressure Toda and diffusion that occures their for

linear data others effect data that will

portions. result

extrapolation value

low relative volume.

an erroneous this

of micropore to

[32] but did

have attributed Rand [31] cover (i. e. contests the point

deviation their point the

an activated on the of basis slope

not

where dioxide

change

system

carbon

adsorbed

on polyfurfuryl carbons

alcohol show type

carbons). A deviations.

Zeolites

and many other

ultramicroporous

Type B deviation the whole range

(see of the

fig4.6a) function of type

is

such that

the

plot

is

curved

over can

Tln(ps/p). CO2 of and

Thus no extrapolation N20 on activated Marsh of

sensibly [33], for

be made. Adsorption example, that this show this type of

carbons

deviation. is a result

and Rand [33] a distribution type. (For

suggested of

deviation tends referred

adsorption

potential readers

which are

towards to [33]

a log-normal and [34]).

specific

examples

Type C

deviation

is

difficult

to explain observed [33]. the on for

and complex nitrogen in

to linearize. adsorbed at low There bimodal for this

These deviations on certain of two

have been carbons

and argon fig 11.6b upwards.

activated the function

As shown plot the

values are

Tln(ps/p) points adsorption very clear.

deviates curve The

inflexion of is not

indicating reasons

distribution distribution

potential.

4-26

3.0 2.6 2.2 0 r 1.8 1.4 1.0

106 E2 x

2.
2. 0 U3 0
J

2. 2 ..

2. 1. 20 40
E2 x 106

60

Fig

4.6

Rand's

classification line straight

of deviations D-R plot

from

4-27

Dubinin equation

and

Astakhov

[35]

presented this is

a more generalized in many

form cases.

of D-R The

which

overcame (D-A)

problem

Dubinin-Astakhov

equation

W= Wo exp[-(D/

E)n]

4.13

where Wo is in

n is the

a total

constant micropore energy

unique

to the of

adsorbent-adsorbate the adsorbent. by [35] D is

system the

and

volume

change

Gibbs

free

on adsorption,

defined

D=

= RT1n(ps/p) -1G

4.14

E is energy

specific of

to the

adsorbent of the

and is

defined vapour,

as the usually

characteristic benzene.

adsorption

reference

When B (the

n=2,

equation

4.11

and 4.13 constant)

are

identical

and the related by

quantities

so called

structural

and E are

E=0.01915(1/B)1/2

(kJ/mole)

4.15

By introducing D-R equation corrected

a variable and many

exponent of the

n they deviations value

added flexibility pointed of n. out

into

the

above were

by selecting

an appropriate

At

low

coverage postulates to predict range

and at are the of

pressures not verified

near

to and

the thus

saturation the these [35]

pressure, D-A equation regions. is The

Polanyi's fails

equilibrium by

correctly the

in

suggested

application

authors

between

4-28

relative [36]

equilibrium have proposed

pressures a two-term

of

10-6 and 0.1. equation as

Dubinin alternative

and Stoeckli to D-A

equation. solids, activation, is modified

They have shown that especially activated

adsorption carbons with

equilibrium high burn-off

of microporous and extreme which [36].

can be very form of

precisely

represented they

by the

equation, in ref

D-A equation,

have proposed

From the cycle

point

of

view

of

analyzing quite the

an adsorption as the operational

refrigeration regions domain . of

D-A

equation normally

seems fall

appropriate cycle's

Inadequacy

outside

4.5.4.2

Determination

of

affinity

coefficient()

The value almost

of

affinity

coefficient of nature the respect of

is

independent of of a

of the

temperature adsorbent. vapour

and It on a

independent therefore with

porosity

characterizes given adsorbent

adsorbability to a standard

given

vapour.

Theoretical on the case of dependent coefficient nature

calculation of forces

of

affinity cause the

coefficient adsorption

is

generally

based In the

which

of molecules. interaction is

non-polar on the

adsorbates polarizability

adsorptive of of

strongly affinity

(P) in terms

molecules polarizability

and the [37].

can be expressed

P =4.16 Pref

4-29

More

precisely,

the

affinity [30], in

coefficient terms

can

be

expressed, n

as

suggested

by Dubinin

of molecular
surface

parachor,

nP

y=

tension

==

11ref ref molecules P

where

M= P=

molecular density of

weight liquid moment in

4.17

Polar

adsorbate

possess

a permanent may play In

dipole role

and

as

such electrostatic the there total will adsorptive

interactions interactions. from in

greater

determining is nonpolar If the

case the

adsorbent dipole

be contribution is polar

dipole-induced there will

forces. an

adsorbent contribution

nature forces.

be

additional

due to

ion-dipole

Dipole moment. the that dipole

energy Therefore

is

usually

evaluated

in forces

terms

of

square

of

dipole

when electrostatic the also affinity be

predominantly (which terms of

determine represent square of

adsorptive interaction)

interaction may [371.

coefficient in

expressed

moment (p2)

2 is =24.18 ref

Reucroft good affinity agreement polar

and co-workers between for

[37]

concluded

that and

equation theoretical

4.16

gives

a of

agreement coefficient is

experimental polar

values alike of or

and nonpolar reference that

adsorbates also 4.18

and the a similar any other between for

better

when the

compound is equation give of worse affinity

nature.

They also involving and

concluded dipole

equations theoretical

moments values

agreements coefficient

experimental

4-30

polar

adsorbates. depend

In their explicitly of

words, on

'although the dipole

the

affinity

coefficient there is an from 4.1 ref

does not implicit

moment,

dependence on the

affinity of of affinity

coefficient adsorbate coefficient

calculated molecule'. derived Table from

polarizations gives

"polarity" values

experimental Z17].

[29,45,46,

4.5.5

Closure

To summarize

it

may concluded

that:

(i)

it

is

possible from the

to deduce experimental

the

adsorption of another

equilibrium for the

of same

one vapour
adsorbent;

data

(ii) insight always

whereas into

the the

equilibrium expected of

so deduced behaviour of

would the

provide there

a good would

pair,

be an element

uncertainty;

and thus

(iii)

for

reliable of pair is an

adsorption experimental

equilibrium investigation

data, of

the each

undertaking individual

inevitable.

4.5.5.1

Implications

Ab

initio

theoretical carbon associated or

design mineral

using

(for

example), is

locally

sourced currently of those

activated without

chabasite

impossible

experimental

evaluation/characterization

4-31

TABLE 4.1

Affinity

for coefficient on activated

some vapours carbon

and

gases

VAPOUR/GAS Benzene Propane n-Butane Methanol Methyl chloride

AFFINITY 1.00

COEFFICIENT

REFERENCE 29 29,45 29,45 29 29

0.78,0.715 0.90,1.065 0.40 0.56

Methyl
Ethyl Ethyl Carbon Ammonia

bromide
chloride ether disulphide

0.57,0.565
0.76 1.09 0.70 0.28

29,45
29 29 29 29

Nitrogen Krypton
Ethanol Tetrafluorpethylene

0.33 0.37
0.61 0.59

46 47
29 47

4-32

materials. chapter undertake local

The procedure seven. such The cost tests

that of

should establishing

be

adopted and running

is a

described facility barrier

in to

presents of

a significant such units.

economic

to the

design

and manufacture

u-33

4.6 Thermodynamic

performance

of

an adsorption

refrigerator

The adsorption on a Clapeyron cycle. For clarity

refrigeration diagram. Fig

cycle 4.7 is

is a

best

understood

when sketched of the

general line

representation and low

refrigerant are

saturation shown. It is

and high

concentration

isosteres

assumed that:

a)

the

latent heat

heat of

of vaporization adsorption can

of be

the

refrigerant by

and the

isosteric

evaluated

Clausius-Clapeyron

equation.

b) isosteres accurately coordinates

in by

the the

range D-A

of

interest which

can is

be

represented in the

equation

linear

lnP v l/T.

The

operating

conditions Teo

are

described

in

terms Tc, and which

of

evaporation and maximum

temperature, generation temperatures operate. the

condensation Tg. pressure The

temperature, evaporation within

temperature set the

condensation the cycle will

limits

Thus the

two isobars

at Pe and P. can be drawn representing conditions are respectively. located in the When the diagram the

evaporation

and condensation concentration

low and high whole cycle

isosteres

is

fixed.

The state adsorption cycle.

1 in

the

cycle

is

fixed

by the the

evaporation

isobar

and the in the by the high the

temperature Thus the

representing passing The low

maximum concentration this point is is fixed

isostere

through

concentration

isostere.

concentration

4-3u

-J`frl

a
r

. -.

W Lx

Lx W 0 W LL

O ---4
J V
-J. "

O Lx

w Lx
W

vj

dye ' I aI I

U7 W

I
----------_-

3nSS38ddO 901

4-35

condensation state points, defined and the

isobar the are

and

the

maximum

generation isostere. fixed.

temperature. The two other The temperature desorption mixture

Thus state T2 begins

3 locates 2 and 4, by the state

low concentration then 2 is gives automatically the the

state 4

temperature temperature

at which of the

at which

evaporation

starts.

Now further

that

the and

cycle

limits

are the

completely performance of the

defined, in

we terms

can of

proceed pressure,

evaluate and concentration

temperature

mixture.

4.6.1

Heat of

vaporization

and heat

of

adsorption

The Clausius-Clapeyron

equation

for

phase

equilibrium

is:

d(lnp)/dT

= -Q/RT2

4.19

Integrating states a and

equation b we get

4.19

along

the

equilibrium

line

between

two

(Rln(pb/pa))/(1/Tb-1/Ta)

4.20

If the

the

states

a and b corresponds then hfg. Thus, Q will

to evaporation represent the

and condensation latent heat

of of

refrigerant

vaporization,

hfg

(Rln(pc/pe))/(1/Tc-1/Te) =

4.21

4-36

and if isosteric

the

integration heat the of

is

processed qst.

along

an isostere

then

Q will

be

adsorption,

Therefore

integrating gives,

equation

4.19 along

low and high

concentration

isosteres

(9st)low
and

(R1n(Pc/Pe))/(l/T3-1/T4) =

4.22

(Qst)high

(Rln(pc/pe))/(1/T2-1/T1) 2

4.23

4.6.2

Coefficient

of

performance

Coefficient the ratio of that. which

of

performance the cooling section

for effect a

a refrigeration produced simple

cycle to the

is

defined supplied

by to be

heat

achieve derived

In will

this

mathematical the performance 4.7

model will of is different

enable

us to compare According 1-2 is of

refrigerant-adsorbent during which process the 2-3.

pairs. The

to fig

heat

supplied during and heat

process

an isosteric the mixture heat. of

process

temperature is raised

and pressure by absorbing by

adsorbent

refrigerant

sensible

The amount of

Q1-2 can thus

be evaluated

Q1-2 = (CA+mhCR)(T2-Tl)

4.24

The desorption of the mixture,

process

2-3

is

an

isobaric decreases Thus during heat

process. from this

The temperature mh to ml due to the total The 2 and 3 presented

whose concentration from T2 to Tg. of sensible

desorption, heat

rises

process of

supplied

consists changing rigorous

and heat

desorption. states is

continuously require

equilibrium analysis

conditions of this

between process

a more

than

4-37

here.

However of

the

use of average should of

values give

of

refrigerant accurate Thus,

concentration enough for

and heat comparing

desorption

estimates pairs.

the

performance

different

Q2-3 = ICA+CR((mh+ml)/2)](T3-T2)+(mh-ml)L((9st)h+(9st)1)/2l .... 4.25

So the

total

heat

supplied

to the

mixture

is,

Qs 2 Q1-2+Q2-3

4.26

The

cooling during at

effect the the

is process start

produced 2-3.

by

evaporation is It at

of the

refrigerant condensation down of the the is

desorbed temperature to

Refrigerant period.

of

evaporation before by it

has to cool Thus part in

evaporation effect

temperature produced temperature. equation,

can evaporate. is available lost

cooling refrigerant given

evaporation net

reducing effect

Hence the

cooling

by the

Qc = (mh-ml)[hfg-CR(Tc-Te)]

4.27

Therefore,

COP = QC/Qs

4.28

Equations

4.24,4.25

and 4.27 hand. This

require

the

value by 4.5.4.

of

concentration the

m D-A

to be known before equation which

can be achieved in section

utilizing

has been discussed

4-38

4.6.3

Shortcomings

of

the

analysis

Equations thermodynamic Though compare These solid-gas accuracy input the of data. it

4.19-4.28 performance has the stem. been

form of in

good

'tool'

for

comparing

the pairs.

different subsequent pairs, nature is not

adsorbent-refrigerant chapters it of has to inherent forces understood. the accuracy evaluate

used of from which can

and

performance mainly interface, result For

various the

drawbacks. at the The of the

adsorption

completely than

no longer the model

be better requires the

instance,

information pair which, a high the if

concerning deduced degree model. of

adsorption (see thus

equilibrium section inducing

of 1.5.4.2), errors in

theoretically uncertainty,

may possess the output from

Whereas of

the

model

using

equations

4.19-4.28

provides

a good rating (see in

relative 1.6.2) terms.

performance, its output

due to analytical should be regarded

simplifications as optimistic

section absolute

4-39

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R. M.,

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4-4o

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4-41

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Young,

D. M. and Crowell, London,

A. D., 1962.

Physical

Adsorption

of Gases,

Butterworths,

21

Langmuir, glass, Society,

I., mica vol

'Adsorption and platinum', 40, p 1361,1918.

of

gases

on of

plane

surfaces

of

Journal

American

Chemical

22

Polanyi,

M.,

Verh.

deut.

phys.

Ges.,

vol

18, p 55,1916.

23

Brunauer, gases Chemical in

S.,

Emmett,

P. H.

and Teller,

E.,

'Adsorption of

of

multimolecular Society, vol 60,

layers', p 309,1938.

Journal

American

4-42

24

Dubinin,

M. M.,

'Adsorption Science, vol

in micropores', 23,

Journal

of Colloid

and Interface

pp 487-499,1967.

25

Dubinin, and

M. M.,

'The for

potential adsorbents

theory with 60,

of

adsorption

of

gases

vapours

energetically

nonuniform

surfaces',

Chem.

Revs,

vol

p 235,1960.

26

Dubinin,

M. M.

and dela',

Chmutov,

K.,

'Fiziko-khimicheskie Khim. Zashch.,

osnovy Moscow,

protivogazovovo 1939.

Voy. Akad.

27

Zaverina, p 151,1939.

E. D. and

Dubinin,

M. M.,

Zhur.

fiz.

khim.,

vol

13,

28

Dubinin, 54,

M. M. and Timofev,

D. P.,

Dokl.

Akad.

nauk.

SSSR, vol

p 705,1946.

29

Dubinin,

M. M. and Timofev,

D. P.,

Zhur.

fiz.

khim.,

vol

22,

P 133,1948.

30

Dubinin, activated volume York,

M. M.,

'Porous

structure in

and adsorption and Marcel Physics Dekker

properties

of

carbons', 2, Ed: Walker,

Chemistry P. L. Jr.,

of Carbon, Inc., New

pp 51-120,1966.

31

Rand,

B.,

'On

the Equation

empirical of vol

nature adsorption', 56, no 2,

of Journal

the of

Dubinin-Radushkevich Colloid 1976. and Interface

Science,

pp 337-346,

4-43

32

Toda, 'Fine

Y.,

Hatami,

M., of

Toyoda, carbinized

S.,

Yoshida, coal',

Y.

and Honda, vol

H., 8,

structure

Carbon,

pp 565-571,1970.

33

Marsh, materials', carbon

H.

and

Rand,

B., of

'Microporosity 3rd conference of

in on

carbonaceous industrial Industry,

Proceedings and graphite,

London,

Society

Chemical

pp 172-183,1970.

34

Rubber, of the

U.,

Stoeckli,

F. and Houriet, equation systems in

J. P., for

'A generalization the filling activated vol 67, of

Dubinin-Radushkevich micropore of

heterogeneous carbons', no 2,

strongly Science,

Journal

Colloid

and Interface

pp 195-203,1978.

35

Dubinin, p 69,1970.

M. M. and Astakhov,

V. A.,

Adv.

Chem. Series,

vol

102,

36

Dubinin, heterogeneous adsorbents', 75,

M. M.

and

Stoeckli,

H. F.,

'Homogeneous in

and

micropore Journal of

structures Colloid

carbonaceous Science, vol

and Interface

no 1, pp 34-42,1980.

37

Reucroft, properties Chemistry,

P. J., of vol

Simpson, activated 76, no 23,

W. H. carbon',

and

Jonas,

L. A., of

'Sorption Physical

The Journal

pp 3526-3531,1971.

4-4q

38

Current

research

(see

chapter

7)

39

Goldmann, 1928

F. and Polanyi,

M.,

Z. phys.

Chem.,

vol

132,

p 321,

40

Tchernev, zeolites', Editors:

D. I.,

'Solar

energy

application

of Properties,

natural Use, N. Y.

in Natural Sand, L. B.

Zeolites:

Occurrence, F. A.,

and Mumpton,

Pergamon Press,

USA, pp 479-485,1977.

41

Fowler,

R. H.

and Cambridge

Guggenheim, University

E. A., Press,

'Statistical Cambridge, 1939.

Thermodynamics',

42

Reyerson, Chemistry,

L. H. vol

and 39,

Cameron,

A. E.,

Journal

of

Physical

p 181,1935.

43

Lambart, vol A122,

B. and

Clark,

A. M.,

Proceedings

of

Royal

Society,

p 497,1929.

44

Coolidge, charcoal',

A. S., Journal

'The of

adsorption American

of Chemical

water

vapour vol

by 49,

Society,

PP 708-721,1927.

45

Dubinin, nauk.

M. M., SSSR, otd.

Zaverina, khim.

E. D. and Timofev, nauk., p 670,1957.

D. P.,

Izv.

Akad.

46

Dubinin, otd. khim.

M. M. and Zhukovskaya, nauk., p 535,1958.

E. G.,

Izv.

Akad.

nauk.

SSSR,

4-45

47

Dubinin,

M. M.,

Zhur.

fiz.

khim.,

vol

39,

p 1305,1965.

5-1

CHAPTER

FIVE

Solar

Refrigeration

: Practical

Options

5-2

5.1
In

Introduction
the previous and and the their into chapters production performance the to options possible produce will different of cold (i. methods e. for solar energy have This these been

collection discussed looks can

refrigeration) considered.

limitations ways in an

chapter processes

generally be

which

both

integrated The application first step and in

autonomous specifically storage. be such to

solar-operated with Therefore understand store. a view the the

refrigerator. to their

be evaluated for vaccine will of

as a system this

logical

direction constraints

requirements

operational

a vaccine

5.1.1

The WHO Expanded

Programme

on Immunization

After

the

success programme in with the

of

World

Health of

Organization successful the Fund (EPI). death and

(WHO)

smallpox

eradication campaigns collaboration their reducing, disease tetanus, very high

and a record developed Nations on the

mass-immunization organization (UNICEF) This in

countries, Children's Immunization incidence of

United

launched aimed at of

Expanded in due to

Programme children, six causes:

occurence tuberculosis, aims to In cover

measles, cough. potential

poliomyelitis, The campaign population.

diphtheria percentage the

and whooping of the

developing of the

countries, country, live in

programme remote,

must reach

most geographical around 80% of

areas the

however the least

as frequently rural areas.

population

developed

The infrastructure the place of

for production

the to

distribution the utility

and storage point,

of

vaccines

from health

i. e. a primary

5-3

centre, reproduced

is

often from at with the

referred [1], different last

to enlists

as

'the the of the a

cold

chain'.

Table and This

5.1,

temperature cold primary of litre. to freeze chain.

storage study centre. is A

requl-rements concerned

levels level, serving capacity is

i. e.

health 100,000 In

representative require vaccine in a vaccine storage from

clinic storage the

a population of 15

people addition

will to ice

refrigerator at 22C.

expected

3 kg

of

24 hours

water

5.2

Selection

criterion

and operating

constraints

The health parts a

envisaged clinic of the

application level which

of would,

solar in

refrigerator general, be for

is

at a primary in remote of here These

located the is

developing system the

countries. in preference features

A criterion, to others, of

selection

particular suggests

developed

which are:

desirable

such a refrigerator.

a)

Manufacturing

The

most

preferable with material

thing the should

would local be also

be

that

the and locally.

units skills.

are The

manufacturable construction

technology available

b) Maintenance The units for should material be repairable or technical at local help maintenance to arrive centre from without

waiting country.

a developed

5-4

TABLE 5.1

Level

Temperature Deg. C

Population

Type needed

of

Gross

storage

volume

of

storage
+8 +8 to to

served
Up to

equipment
Refrigerators Cold

needed*
300 litres/

NATIONAL

0 to 0 to

OR
REGIONAL STORES (4 months stock)

8 million
Over, 8 million -20 -20 Up to room 0.75 164 0.41

million
m3/ million litres/

-15 -15

Freezers Cold Cold

30 million
Over room boxes

million
m3/

30 million

million
30 litres/ million

TRANSPORT 0 to +8 No limits TO REGION (Quarterly deliveries to all regions simultaneously) TRANSPORT

TO LOCAL

(0

to

+8

No limits

Cold

boxes

12 litres/ hundred thousand

STORES

(Monthly

deliveries

to

all

stores

simultaneo

usly)
Up to 15 million Refrigerator icepack with freezing 1.50 litres/ ten thousand

LOCAL STORES INC. HEALTH CENTRES (6 weeks 0 to +8 stoc) )

Based on the

following

assumed targets;

1-3.5% 2-2.6% 3-3.5% 4-every

population children expectant new born

growth enter

rate (age group 5-6 years) tetanus toxide

school

mothers baby is

receiv

2nd doze of is

(i. e. 3.5%) effected

immunized

5-100% immunization

5-5

c)

Ruggedness

The units strain backs. of

should

be quite

robust transport

and

rugged

so as to withstand e. g. on horse or

the camel to B)

traditional the

methods, should

The body of

refrigerator

be corrosion in

resistant appendix

DIN 8985

(as per WHO specification

E3/RF5 contained

d) Service Ideally special life usual speaking, attention. (e. g. fifteen daily upkeep. once installed These should years) without the units to should complete not demand any useful the

be able

their

any rigorous

service

except

The operating from the [2]

constraints

for

photovoltaic refrigeration (see appendix

refrigerators systems B) are:

as derived as laid down in

and for

solar-thermal E3/RF5

WHO specification

i)

The

internal ambient the

temperature temperatures range This

of

the

refrigerator, 32C and 43C, packed be

under shall with

continuous not exceed

of 22C,

of 0C to

8C when fully shall

vaccine when the freezing

vials. ice

temperature

range water solid.

maintained in the

packs

containing and frozen

at 22C are

placed

compartment

ii)

The design

of the operation the

system in

shall the

permit absence

a minimum of of in solar (i)

three

days continuous During be met. this time

energy.

conditions

prescribed

above must

5-6

The first store will

thing

which two,

comes

to

light temperature

is

that and

the a

required low

vaccine

have

a high

temperature, to as of

compartments. the the freezer varied

The low temperature which will be used for at world,

compartment freezing the health difficult

can be referred icepacks. centres to. specify a 30 litre enough to life

Because throughout

requirements parts size is freeze of /the of

primary it is

different suitable refrigerator vaccines, drugs

a single capacity preserve saving

refrigerator. considered icepacks to and to

Nevertheless, be flexible

hold

some additional

as well.

5.2.1

Minimum criterion

for

feasibility

Most

developing

countries equipment, capability. It

already even is where

have the

established local industry

markets lack basis this

for the that

refrigeration manufacturing the basic

therefore skills

assumed on this are available in

maintenance not

and repair widespread.

field,

though

perhaps

very

Thus it

is

proposed the of

that

if

a solar

refrigerator

is equipment if the are option.

manufacturable without conditions fulfilled, the in then

by assembling involvement clause the

conventional specialized

mass produced skills in and that section

c and d

of

the is

criterion considered

5.2

proposed

system

as a feasible

5-7

5.3

Solar

refrigeration

Figure the solar

and not

5.1 solar

illustrates collection

the

different

options

or methods into there

at

to integrate one autarkic

and refrigeration Each of

have level.

systems listed
least few will

refrigerator.
most at methods

the

options
at next option

are

practicable
scale, principles, if

been In of

tried the

laboratory the

commercial and

paragraphs

advantages

drawbacks

each

be discussed.

There which first which

are can

two very

distinct

routes,

as the solar or

identifiable heat energy of the into

in sun into electrical to route

fig ice.

5.1, The

be followed the be

to convert of directly Alternatively energy to run is

involves can then

conversion used,

energy power could the be

indirectly, the into second thermal unit.

refrigeration followed can then where

devices. solar

converted

energy

which

be utilized

a refrigeration

5.3.1

Solar-photovoltaic

refrigeration

systems

First

we

consider cells space of

the can

options be used.

where As the they are

the

electrical

output panels

from are

photovoltaic widely used in

photovoltaic in commercial high to panel 'cheap' (3].

applications cells is

production. technology. the basic

Manufacturing Initial refrigeration in costs cost a developing about of capital

these cost

involve very high

silicon-chip compared photovoltaic utilizing 1984 prices) of

system

cost.

A complete (i. e. Egypt)

assembled local High labour capital process

country per

$8.0

peak watt

(at

photovoltaic

panels

and low efficiency

conversion

5-8

SOLAR ENERGY

Basic Energy Conversion

THERMAL

PHOTOVOLTAIC

Energy ConversionSystem

solar-energy collector

photovoltaic cell

Form of ConvertedEnergy

heat

electricity

Energy Conversion Subsystem

boiler

heat engine d.c./a. c. invertor

Refrigeration System

vapour

.vapour

jet

vapour thermoelectric compression

Fig

5.1

Options

for

building

a solar

refrigeration

system

5-9

(0.1-0.15 conventional refrigerators, coupled to

at 25C [47), sources which photovoltaic

have been of electricity. cheap panels it

prohibitive If the

in

competing

with

the

commercially

available can be option.

are

because

of mass production, in a feasible

may result

5.3.1.1

Photovoltaic-vapour

compression

refrigeration

One

way of " producing panels refrigeration marketed for is

cold

from

d. c.

electricity compression

generated refrigerator power

by on are

photovoltaic it. Small

to run units

a vapour which

require caravans

a 12 V d. c. [4,51.

already household

use in is

boats designed

and

The

normal This 5.2

refrigerator

to run through overall

on 110/or

240 V a. c. Figure of

can be powered gives a general

by a 12 V d. c. appreciation in

source of the

an inverter. arrangement

different

components

involved

such a system.

This

option

has a big 'off-the-shelf' reducing

attraction items

that

the

solar in

operated mass

unit

can be This

made from would of the help

already the be in

production.

the

cost

of

new system. the the

A major

disadvantage

system,

however, at of

would present, this and

photocells developing

whose production countries are which very

cannot are the

be undertaken, ultimate piece time of of target

application. these are

But photocells not likely to fail

rugged the life

equipment the

during

equipment.

Thus it of the

is

considered is

worth

looking in the

in next

detail. chapter

An elaborate where this

analysis system is

option with

presented options

compared

other

as well.

5-10

crcc Oj

tr w N Z w 0 O u
DC O N N W ix

L. 0 ,. 3
c. a) m c. w a) 0 in a) c. a 6 0 U G. 0 0. CO v ca 4) 0 0 0 CL a. 0

cr. O FO

a O u

cc
W

hw W

>-

Li
OQ > OQ O R ix cr.

cc

CC

0 Icc

0 a e 0

4)

N AO Gc.

5-11

5.3.1.2

Photovoltaic-thermoelectric

refrigeration

thermoelectric

refrigerator by the

can photovoltaic

be

powered panels.

directly As mentioned

with in

the the is

electricity previous inherently input would periods of the the an into require of

produced chapter inefficient. 'cold' is

process

of

thermoelectric of conversion operation a battery problem in

cooling of electrical of the

The efficiency only 0.1. storage The of

continuous energy in

unit the

a massive

bank for the cold

zero

or low insolation. operation only) zero is unit the

The major (i. e., heat leak

design during through

intermittent hours unit

which into

produce the [5].

sunshine Peltier

cabinet

under

insolation

conditions

The capital is five

cost

is that

ten of

times,

and

the

storage

battery

requirement system initial this [6]. cost system

times, with

a photovoltaic-vapour of 0.015 [5],

compression a high

Hence and with cannot

overall the above

efficiency mentioned

technical

limitations,

be regarded

feasible.

5.3.1.3

Photovoltaic-vapour

absorption

refrigeration

This could

option be

would

be feasible to the the

if

the

mass

produced

refrigerators in the

coupled chapter are to in

photovoltaic

arrays. available (typical

As mentioned domestic COP of and

previous refrigerators Their

commercially inefficient cooling

absorption 0.2-0.25). thus large

inherently change in

response

load

is could systems

slow

fluctuations to vapour

the

internal

temperature these

be expected. would require

Compared a four

compression

systems

5-12

times this

larger

panel

area times

and initial

four

times capital

bigger cost.

battery

storage.

All

means a four

Therefore cost this

on the option

basis is not

of

performance

limitations

and higher

capital

considered

feasible.

5.3.2

Solar-thermal

refrigeration

systems

Vapour vapour driven

compression, sorption by the

continuous

vapour are the

absorption, three systems from the

and intermittent which sun. can be

refrigerators thermal

energy systems are

derived vapour One

Among the

commercially vapour intermittent appeared reliable being in

available

compression brand of have simple it in

and continuous solar very operated recently and of

absorption vapour the

refrigerators. sorption

refrigerator very

market. the absence other

But being of moving

construction potential

due to competitive

parts,

has the

with

mass produced

systems.

Vapour

compression a heat

and continuous storage or these

vapour

absorption

systems during

would

need either insolation balance sunset). have the period for the of the

to keep them running would the have period a cold of. sorption remain Therefore hours working a

no and low which (i. e. could after would the cold longer store

periods, heat

storage

gains other that

during

inactivity

On the benefit no/low

hand intermittent these would

refrigerators during smaller

insolation of effective

hours. insolation

period

would

be required.

5-13

5.3.2.1

Solar-thermal-vapour

compression

refrigerators

An

arrangement

of

solar-thermal

conversion into of

device one system the system,

and a vapour is shown in

compression fig 5.3.

refrigerator(VCR) are three a from

combined main components

There collector,

i. e. a solar The thermal run the heat cycle. power by the

energy energy engine

heat solar

engine collector

and a refrigerator. is used to

available which

produce of the

a mechanical refrigerator

power working is fed cooling

on a Rankine that is mechanical produced

The compressor through

a mechanical

coupling

and so the

refrigerator.

For

low

temperature Rankine engine

systems, seems to

employing be the

flat-plate

collectors,

an

organic

most suitable

(i. e. R11, R22, characteristics to each other. operating This combined of some in

R113 and R114 as the of heat The engine

working

fluid).

The performance are opposed at

and solar of whereas

energy

collector

efficiency

heat the of perform

engine collector's the at two

improves

high

temperatures opposing machine prototypes references

efficiency components

declines. renders the Use are

requirement unable and [7-10). to their

higher

efficiency.

performance

characteristics

reported

Solar-operated major factors due

heat which to

engines are not

are

still

at to

development them are need for the

stages. lubrication

The

favourable friction, cost and

problems reciprocating Typical

excessive high overall

balancing efforts values

the [11]. [10]

masses, of

maintenance of

variation

coefficient

performance

5-14

L. 0 .3
c. CD m c, a, I. 0 U) a) C. Cl. S 0 u 0 a

6 L a) 43 0 0 m

0 c 0 ca
al L.

a) d7

Ow a) c 0 4) e d
U 03

-IC
M LA "-1

bO

5-15

shown in fig with boiler

5.4 outlet is

indicate

the

expected The

trend high of

of

improved

performance to condenser and

temperature. due to

sensitivity both heat

temperature refrigerator

dependence on the

engine

performance

condenser

temperature.

However [12])

because the

of

low component scale of

efficiencies the considered feasible.

(i. e less application

than

0.1

due to heat the

small

a solar study a small

operated concerning power

engine-driven application in

VCR is of Rankine

not

A detailed at such

cycle

engine

level

can be found

[12].

5.3.2.2

Solar-thermal-continuous

vapour

absorption

refrigerator

Continuous values pump serious high the after totally less in

vapour than

absorption unity. is on

refrigerators

(CVAR) generally thermally pump. if This the

have COP solution a

CVAR can be driven replaced the by a bubble

the

circuit

imposes the

limitation

pressure unit

difference built

between on this

low and is

sides.

A successful design commercial

domestic (usually

principle refrigerator are

Platen-Munters its first thermal

known as Electrolux These refrigerators available.

developers).

both

power driven

and are widely

Due to quiet range without energy

the and

absence reliable.

of

any moving Although

parts, the

these

refrigerators these for machines their from

are is in

very the

COP of

of 0.2-0.25 any collector

but

these

can

perform The easily a

well thermal to

lifetime a solar of an The

special

attention.

energy the

can be transfered through

generator

Electrolux

refrigerator

'simple'

heat

exchanger.

5-16

e_
d T i O

Cl LA

co O 00 c. w O [. O

N
r

:.

a 6 0 V R. O a ca

uC "

a)

ui cr~ CSC W W ~=
J 0 "f=0C: Oa W[ - a
fa

D
c L. a) a ++ c-4
cc A a, *v 0 L.

. -4 a> 0-0
L. C aa) >U 0

00

CC tii +-1

bO

C%

O ca +i XG V 4)
co w +4 >S

t[1

00

4-1 w
0 ao
C=

.tOT 96

'C 1VO

(11Y 33NYW80d83dd0 1N3IJ1dd303 3AO)

5-17

theory

of

operating since

the

unit

on solar

power

is

long

been

proven

practicable

1958 [13,14].

On

the

basis

of could

our

feasibility

criterion, a detailed

a solar-Electrolux analysis of this

refrigerator option is

be feasible out in the

and thus next chapter.

carried

5.3.2.3

Solar-thermal-intermittent

vapour

sorption

systems

The process catagories, of the

of vapour

sorption

can be classified and adsorption.

generally The detailed

into

two

i. e. absorption subject in can be in

discussion absorption of the

found chemistry adsorption

in

chapter and no

4. In

general structure

results sorbent remains

a change during

lattice such

whereas a physical

change

happens

and it

phenomenon.

An

intermittent in very

vapour construction. reliable. of is energy very previous part

sorption It

refrigerator(IVSR) incorporate below

is

very

rugged parts a

and simple and thus cyclic

does not

any moving 0.6.

The COP is and well the

generally intermittent to

The sun is of these

source

operation solar as

refrigerators discussed the of in

suited

their acts

operation. sorber

As

the

chapter of the

generator cycle. as This a

during

refrigeration using

opens up the solar

possibility by short option. it the

generator/sorber the solar has a lot

vessel insolation of

collector In

absorbing

directly. to

solar-thermal-IVSR

potential

be a preferred

5-18

5.3.2.3.1

Initial

screening

of

sorption

pairs

There

is

variety

of

sorption scale. units

pairs Some of built

which

has

been

proved in

successful commercial are three

at a laboratory and types prototype of

them has been employed so far.

successfully pairs:

There

sorbent-refrigerant

the acid). from

sorbent

is

fully

miscible

liquid

(e. g. in the

water

in

sulphuric can vary

Concentration 0 to 1 and vapour

of refrigerant pressure is-a is

sorbent

dependent

on temperature

and concentration,

i. e. it

bivariant

system.

the

sorbent in

is

partially ms is

soluble

solid

(e. g. at

sodium

hydroxide T. If bivariant, monovariant temperature. the

water).

maximum solubility is less is than greater ms than only

temperature system it is is

concentration but if

the

concentration the vapour

ms then depends

i. e.

pressure

on the

the which

sorbent adsorbs

is

an the

unsoluble refrigerant. pressure the is

solid The

(e. g.

activated is

carbon) usually

system on the

bivariant

and vapour of

dependent

temperature

and concentration

'mixture'.

Table which

5.2

enlists

some 37 of all in the

three

types

of

those

sorption

pairs

has been cited

literature.

5-19

TABLE 5.2 Sorption for pairs intermittent vapour sorption REFRIGERANTS water water methanol ammonia ammonia methylamine methylamine R-22 R-22 R-22 R-21 R-21 methylamine ethylamine water water water methanol methanol ammonia methylamine ammonia ammonia methanol ammonia ammonia water methanol ammonia ammonia methylamine use refrigerators REFERENCES 22,28 23 23 24,31951 25 25 25 26 27 27,28,51 27 28 28 28 29,35,51 22,28 28 30,31,51 31 32

in TYPE NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

SORBENTS sulphuric acid ethyleneglycol ethyleneglycol water water + lithium water water + lithium DEG DMF DMETEG DMF DMETEG water water

bromide bromide

[ m E''

.' a'

lithium brimide sodium hydroxide hydroxide potassium & zinc bromides lithium lithium thiocyanate thiocyanate lithium thiocyanate lithium sodium thiocyanate lithium nitrate lithium bromide water + lithium nitrate Ammonium thiocyanate sodium sulphide chloride calcium chloride calcium chloride strontium lithium chloride

33
34,51 34,28 28 36 28 37 38,39 40,41,18 42 43

0 a

r,

32
33 34

water
methanol methanol

zeolite-13X
zeolite-13X activated carbon

44,45,46
47 48

35
36 37

ammonia
freons freons

activated

carbons

49
50 51

5A zeolite-13X, carbons activated

DEC = diethylene glycol DMF = dimethyl formamide DMETEG = dimethyl ether of tetraethylene

glycol

5-20

Due to capacity capacity level. a pair

the

intermittent of will the system

operation becomes to

of very reach the

the

refrigerator

the Higher

thermal thermal

important. the operating factors

mean more time this will

temperature while choosing

Thus for

be one of

deciding

use in

a solar-thermal-IVSR.

A corollary which have

of

low thermal latent =

mass requirement heat mass of x evaporation specific

is

to

use refrigerants their total for a

higher capacity

to reduce heat) of heats heat of option sorption the a

(thermal mass specific book

required property are of

cooling would with 5.3

capacity. that materials

But an exploration higher having of the of specific high a latent few other the

data

reveal the for This of

generally evaporation

associated (see table

comparison leaves sorbent us with and that

more

common the

refrigerants). thermal capacity

of reducing equipment.

First sorbent. sorbents than 0.92 during tend to

we

consider

the

ways of reducing look into the

the

thermal

capacity of applicable

of

Again would liquid zeolite the

a careful reveal that

properties have lower

solid (e. g. for

sorbents

specific

heats or that water, vapours reaches

the of

sorbents with 4.18

compare 0.7 Further

of activated it for

carbon

water). liquid the

was observed instance

generation along

process with the

absorbents,

evaporate be removed This

refrigerant. refrigerant energy

The absorbent before it

have to the All

from

desorbed wasted that

condenser. this

means

and additional

equipment.

evidence

suggests

solid

sorbents

are favourable.

5-21

TABLE 5.3

Physical

properties and thermodynamic of common refrigerants

REFRIGERANT

DENSITY kg/m3

SPECIFIC HEAT
kJ/kg-K

LATENT HEAT
kJ/kg

VAPOUR PRESSURE bars

-10C 500C

Methanol Water Sulpher dioxide

792 917

2.53 4.187

1200 2500

0.0226 0.0029

0.533 0.123

1923 607
1311

1.36 4.72
0.974

388 1298
156.3

1.023 2.91
2.19

5.827 20.33
12.19

Ammonia
Freon-12

Freon-21
Freon-22

1366
1194

1.062
1.36

240
213.2

0.454
3.54

4.43
19.42

Ethanol
Ethylamine Methylamine

789
689 699

2.45
2.68 3.34

842+
622 827

0.0076
0.296 0.96

0.296
3.43 7.8

Density Specific Latent

at 25C heat heat at at 25C -100C

+ at

normal

boiling

point

5-22

For

reducing

the which

thermal

capacity

of sorption heat

equipment

one But

has to there steel; factor system at

use metals is the not three a

have low specific choice between used

and low density. aluminium Another metal (e. g. be with used

greater

copper,

and mild important is the

most commonly the total

materials. the

which pressure. 20 bars sheets (or overall

affects

mass of

For higher at 50C) of metals. is the

working equipment

pressures has to pair

ammonia condensing from working help thicker

fabricated a lower will of the

Thus a sorption perhaps

pressure the

vacuum)

more desirable. thermal

This

reducing

mass and hence the

capacity

equipment.

Sorbents will sorbent

with to

larger generate

sorption

capacity

and lower per overall unit size

heat

of

sorption of the

tend

more refrigerant help reduce the

weight of the

and therefore

plant.

Lastly, important. system. equipment. which operated the is

the As Which The

thermodynamic the in lower turn

COP COP will

of

the

sorption a higher larger of heat

pair input

is to

very the

demand a

would

require would In be in reference

solar higher

collection capital of cost solar that liquid fig 5.5, liquid

implication again. solid

terms [15]

undesirable liquid and

a comparison concluded than shown over the in

absorption had from

refrigerators better [16-18], sorbents

solid

absorbents The results

performed [15] of and solid

absorbents. indicate sorbents. the

superior

performance

the

5-23

0-25

020

W U

015

im
W

UC)

FW

U- 0.10 w

0 Li
Q J O (/)

0.05

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

(*C) TEMPERATURE COLLECTOR

Fig 5.5 Solar COP of IVSR system a double glazed selective for various sorption flat plate surface using pairs collector

5-24

Summarizing

the

discussion

so

far

it

can be concluded

that

(1) (2)

solid

sorbents

are better with

than larger

liquid

sorbents. capacity is

a solid preferable. (3) thermodynamic high. (4) the specific

sorbent

sorption

cycle

COP of

the

sorption

pair

should

be

refrigerants heat, and high

with heat

low low condensation pressure, are preferable. of vaporization

From the calcium Whereas latent excluded be these

list

of

sorption and

pairs zeolite

cited

in

table the of

5.2

activated

carbon, sorbents.

chloride water, heat from of

emerge as all preferred

suitable which

ammonia and methanol, evaporation, are

possess

high is

refrigerants. temperatures

Water

further

investigation is

as sub-zero

cannot of

achieved pairs

when water will be carried

a refrigerant. out in the next

Detailed chapter.

assessment

5-25

5.4

An up-to-date

survey

of

solar

refrigerators

In

United April

States 1933. and

of America It

an application for

for

a patent Operated

was filed Refrigerating

on

10th

was a design

a 'Solar

System' is

the patentee fig 5.6. generator, refrigerator. and the to the rich The

was A. T. Bremser working were principle

[52].

The designed and the

plant

shown in the

components, a classic

except

similar The

to heater

those was a

in

Platen-Munters' collector was heated to (1)

solar-energy through it

ammonia mixture of

while

passing This

temperature chamber the

vaporization.

heated the

mixture ammonia by were

was fed bubbles

a boiler lift the

indicated

by number 2, where through the tube,

would into the to

solution (4).

indicated from (4)

number 3, fed fed (6). into back The

generator (5).

The ammonia vapours from (4)

condenser the solar

The weak solution and remaining was has identical

was the a the

partly absorber classic unit was

collector circuit No evidence

went to to that

remaining unit.

Platen-Munters' ever constructed.

been found

In on

a first the

detailed subject

study,

at

the

University energy a for air

of Florida conditioning

in

1936, and

of utilizing Green ratio was [53], of placed

solar used

refrigeration, (concentration, a pipe clocks produced cooling proposed. which

cylindro-parabolic water which flowed

reflector through alarm

11 to at the provide its

1) to heat focal collector heating or an

line.

Two weight track during the

driven sun.

were used to keep was used to

The steam For summer was

winter. type

a steam jet

refrigerator

'Electrolux'

unit

5-26

x O H d
O a 6

N Lt u t. N y E a) L. 44 O

C)

a) a)

0 a) a) ca 0 co a 0 C tkO 0, a) 10 v a) co 0 a 0 L. a

bO

5-27

It

was

in

1954 reported

that a

two

Russian

researchers, attempt

Kirpichev of

and vapour were

Baum [54], compression driven large

successful by solar fed Very from high and

to run a set The placed refrigerators at the

refrigerator engines mirror. heat

energy. a boiler cost of

by steam parabolic of for

focus the

of

equipment collection in this

and

low

efficiency factors

engines

of solar

has been the direction.

discouraging

any further

developments

In

1957

Williams

and

others cycle.

[55,56]

used

the

principle consisting used with mirror.

of of

an a

intermittent

refrigeration

A simple

apparatus was

generator-absorber generator-absorber mirror shell. stiffened presented paraboloid at

and a condenser-evaporator, placed from with by at a the focus of

the The

a parabolic

was constructed This at an was lined the area rim of

1.27 mm polystyrene-moulded aluminized mylar The sun. polyester 106.7 Focal cm

parabolic film and

metal m2

tubing. to the

aperture of the

0.773

length

was 45.7

cm. The cooling

space of

0.064

m3 was maintained

19.14C below

ambient.

In

the

two

publications of,

cited

they

have discussed The

the

desirable with

characteristics aqua-ammonia with R12

refrigerants ether pairs constant

and absorbents. of tetraethylene had while been the

systems glycol

and dimethyl as absorption

(DMETEG) Evaporator

compared. solution

temperature final varied. reported overall

had been kept temperature two systems

concentration, had been

generation The

and the of ratio

condensing

temperature

aqua-ammonia of 0.32 as 0.14 for

and DMETEG-R12 had been respectively. and 0.08 The for

to have a cooling solar

and 0.26

COP was reported

aqua-ammonia

5-28

DMETEG-R12. The reason been the large low thermal

for

lower

performance of the

of

DMETEG-R12 pair R12 also

had

conductivity

solution.

needed

quantity

of DMETEGwhich

was to be heated

and cooled.

As stated solar Foex

by Swartman et

al

[57]

' the system They Ets

first

major

project by a

on an all Trombe and commercial France

absorption [58] of

refrigeration in 1957'. by

was undertaken claimed Mengin, design. that

France

refrigerator was a modified

manufactured version

Pierre

Montargis,

of Trombe and Foex's

As shown in absorber, higher was

fig

5.7

the

apparatus

consisted

of

a cold

reservoir

or

A, containing than the at absorber, the

the

ammonia solution, pipe, of the the C,

a generator, connecting the

D, placed two which reflector. in that

and a line upto into heat

placed

focal

a cylindro-parabolic generation generator temperature and

Ammonia solution pipe; solution gravity. and was

was heated off the

ammonia was driven returned Ammonia was collected Evaporator via

weak absorber

ammonia under G, cold J, in

exchanger, condensed

B, to the in

subsequently inside coil, I, reserve

a cooling H, in

coil, the

a collection was wrapped was

vessel, around

chamber. which period.

a container, during

ammonia from

the

evaporated

refrigeration

The of the 9.0

cylindro-parabolic the prototype Trombe

reflector ice.

measured By reducing to ice.

1.5 m2. Daily the thermal heat

production inertia of from

was 6 kg of and

system

Foex were able one kg of

reduce

absorbed,

MJ to 3.6

MJ, to produce

5-29

U: --

: __

JD i
ict

"=-

iC

a
A

A B C D E F G H I J K

ammonia reservoir liquid heat exchanger tube placed at the focus heating the cylindro-parabolic collector boiler condenser water tank for the condensate coil cooling vessel ammonia collection coil evaporator ice container cold chamber

of

Fig

5.7 A diagramatic refrigerator sketch of the absorption by Trombe & Foex [571 designed and tested

5-30

At

University

of type) [13,14]. which

Florida, refrigerator

in

1958,

an

Electrolux to heat use solar through reflector to the collector oil

Servel energy a heat was solar was the was from the

(Platen-Munters for generation in

was modified received

The generator oil for from hot of

exchanger flowing. collector also

hot

a cylindero-parabolic oil was also unit. A flat connected plat the the

A storage for night in

tank

running the

the

connected

circuit

which

preheated of

entering

cylindero-parabolic heated solar and maintained collectors. It

collector. at worked

The generator 1800C by the successfully

refrigerator hot oil

circulating for several

weeks.

Chinnappa success different generator, separately collector. 106.7 cork pipes collector water

(59],

at Colombo in Sri

Lanka,

designed

and operated The design

with was namely

an intermittent from those

aqua-ammonia mentioned condenser so far and

refrigerator. as the evaporator four

components were not into of

absorber, (fig 5.8).

present the solar cm by by

The

generator cm

was combined copper glass cork sheet covers

The collector black.

was a 0.76 There

152.4

cm, painted strips of

were three with

supported Six

and the 6.35 sheet, cm

back was insulated diameter, welded

board.

steel to the were

to headers The absorber

and soldered and condenser

made the fluid

generator.

cooled.

Working

was aqua-ammonia

solution.

The results form. indicated the

were tabulated results flat could be being plate

and not

some very

were

presented

in

graphical they with low as

Despite that

spectacular, collector

nevertheless incorporated as

solar-energy to produce

generator

used

temperatures

5-31

L. 0 co c. mrn L, u 4-I

co L. "1 O C to OA E R1
LL O

L+ O co +) L 4-. 00 O L CO ON 4-) aD cd -4 cO 4) O to

ov a) 3G a)

CDb L. G) ac a) L,

UO c) +l cc 6 O 0

bO C U +1 d1 >

co

h0 rx.

--J "J

;IE. /J

{
1" N

5-32

-12
area

C.
was

Ice

at

a rate

of

one kg a day per

0.7

m2 of

solar

collecting

produced.

Oniga

[60]

in

his

paper

described His design

an

" all-solar" some very

aqua-ammonia interesting Fig two 5.9

intermittent features gives joined a

refrigerator. which resulted of into the

included refrigeration

24 hour apparatus. valve. was

ability. had

schematic a

The condenser The first placed out part inside into the a

parts to

through the The

non-return second part this also

was air-cooled the refrigerating

50 C while chamber. concentrated Evaporator the

end

of

opened placed at

container

for chamber.

ammonia was maintained

inside

refrigerating bar

a pressure it

of 3.6 a

and ammonia from The

container

evaporated was a down At this rich It

into

through continuously of 3.0 and the bar.

throttle-valve. by the

evaporated in the

ammonia at

absorbed pressure gradually point

weak solution sun set from the 8.0

absorber cooled 3.0 bar.

When the

generator bar to

pressure

dropped

valves transfered that of

between to the the 0.58.

generator generator unit The

and absorber for another of not

opened and the generation 194 W per progressed

solution

period. day with beyond

was claimed ratio

had a capacity proposal did

a cooling the prototype

stage.

de Sa [61] unit. vessel It

built consisted

a small

and very

simple

aqua-ammonia together

refrigerating by a pipe. reflector One acted

of ' two the focus

vessels of

linked

placed

at at

a 1.37 m parabolic one was or a

as a generator-absorber. The condenser of was

The other water-cooled

condenser/evaporator. Evaporation were

air-cooled.

temperatures

10 C were achieved

and sub-zero

temperatures

5-33

___-_ r-===__-_ .....

1 iI yI
I

I I

II
I

0 u co 00 "i 0

II I

:: P

10 N 93 0

a 0
a 0 43 a) m

1.4

c. a a) L. co 4. 0

m ca u 4) ca a> U N ON LA to [s.

5-34

possible
critical

if

the

absorber
of

was

constantly
process.

shook.
It

This

indicates
that

the
two

importance

absorption

was claimed

kg of

53 % concentrated

solution

generated

0.25

kg of

ammonia.

Fig

5.10

shows a schematic and tested also serves

drawing

of

compact

solar

refrigerator solar Area energy of the

developed collector collector to a

by Farber as steel iron an

[60,61]. ammonia pipes sheet of

The flat-plate generator. 25 mm diameter at top

was 1.5 m2.12

were soldered and bottom to

20 gauge galvanized of into 63.5 a

and welded

two headers was placed styrofoam Condenser, construction. evaporator through collector's a

mm and 32 mm diameter box at of its galvanized

respectively. iron sheet with all were

The assembly with a" 25 mm of glass. type The box

insulation evaporator

back and covered absorber and from detailed is were

a sheet shell water

and

and tube cooled. from a cold

Condenser absorbed pump. design A heat more

absorber a solution

coming of in

discussion available

solar

energy

and construction

[61].

It

worked

on a continuous ice

cycle the

and day.

was

designed

to

produce

the was

maximum amount of about -6.7 42,200 24 C, proving diffused refrigeration without solution 65 C C. On a

during

The generation varied

temperature -9.5

and evaporation sunny solar day the

temperature unit

between to ice,

C and

was reported 19 kg of

have collected from water at days the solar work

kJ of with the

energy

and produced

an over-all ability radiation. system

COP of 0.1. of flat-plate Despite kg of of

The system solar being ice per a

worked

on cloudy to absorb

collectors very the

solar

successful unit cannot

( 12.5

m2 ) two

electricity pumps.

because

the

electrically

operated

5-35

uo

319

a)
rl

tS1
L

rl 0 L.

N C d

0oN
Q

a CL

4.3 co a) d1 a)

CL d.

0 4.3 L
L C) L 4.4 0 c0 L bO cd -4 V C) C 14 a) bO

c. L++ 0
N r-

ON L.

46 Lo "-o .+ "- ac 0=
L

V EL v-u vO4 m

O U; bO t.

c 3

5-36

An aqua-ammonia in the University

intermittent of

refrigeration Ontario energy absorber. mm feeder Thin

unit (64,651

was built in 1967. in of

and tested The design which 12.7 were mm

Western solar and the to a 51

featured combined steel header the

a 1. k m2 flat-plate the generator

collector It at consisted

pipes at

connected the top

the bottom sheet

and 152 mm to a was

(see fig whole cover

5.11).

copper into

was soldered

tubes

and the glass 152 mm in jacket

assembly on top.

was placed

a wooden box with section

two-layered a vessel by

The condenser-evaporator mm in height. with solution It

diameter of

and 559

was surrounded water for were

a steel the

508 mm in 58% relatively to

diameter 70%

stagnant

cooling tested.

condenser. were -12

concentrations evaporator the

Tests

successful, due to poor was

temperatures evaporation an improved

were as low as rate design of

C, the

but

absorption, low

ammonia in for the

evaporator

demanding

absorber.

In

another

study, was

on the used

same unit The

described results system instead

above,

ammonia-sodium in the

thiocyanate publications thiocyanate solar-COP was 0.07 did not for

[66,677. that as

reported was better of

indicated was used

COP of absorbent system

when sodium Maximum

water.

ammonia-water respectively. a rectifying could result

and ammonia-sodium with the

thiocyanate

and 0.26 require This

The system column in lower as

Sodium thiocyanate absorbent cost. had low

volatility.

manufacturing

Muradov built an

and Shadiev improved It was

[68,69,70] intermittent of

through

their

continuous chloride-ammonia and

research solar of a

sodium construction

refrigerator.

welded

consisted

5-37

-OFF VALVES

e
5 FYPJG RECTA 9 PRESSURE GAUGE--% D -OFF VALVE 7 VAPOUR RETURN LINE DURING REFRIGERATION

6 CONDENSEREVAPORATOR C ON-OF F VALVE

a LINE ING

2 UPPER HEADER

NDENSATE10 DRAIN UNE

COLLECTOR TUBES -

4 EXTERNAL RETURN LINE LOWER HEADER

Fig

5.11

A line University

diagram

of the

system Ontario

tested [64-67]

at

of Western

5-38

generator, solar hot energy box.

condenser collector unit

freezing of

and of

evaporator. 2 m2 of area in

Generator enclosed into

was a flat-plate a double and

in It

glazed results

The
that

was tested
temperatures the

summer
were

1970

the
the

indicated within that the sturdy half

attained period.

evaporator

an hour ice

refrigeration It function was

was reported the was study that

2 kg of system and

was produced. successful not need to

concluded as an ice

from maker,

was did

reliable,

constant

attention.

Eggers-Lura refrigeration absorption design kg of for ice

et al cycle. intermittent

[72]

in After

this

paper

discussed the theory

the

solid

absorption of solid Then a of 500

discussing

a survey

refrigeration plant with

systems

was presented. capacity

a refrigeration per

a production

day was described.

The pair.

plant The

worked solar

with

calcium

chloride-ammonia which of was

as

the

absorption as the was 40 0C.

energy

collector, had an area

also

acting condenser of

absorber-cum-generator, cooled in a water basin whose

156 m2. The

to area

keep the was the

condensing large

temperature for natural

The evaporator, heat transfer, at of

kept ice

convection were the achieve to cool to complete

was placed the design

into stage.

generator.

Two problems conductivity to

encountered temperature sufficient absorber the at

Due to low thermal had to it be

the

generator rates.

elevated difficult

generation

Secondly

was found heat transfer,

a good rate, of absorption

by convection within

process

12 hours.

5-39

An

ordinary

household et al energy through

Electrolux [7U

absorption

refrigerator energy.

was

modified concentrating which while

by Khalil solar passing of the

to work on solar collector

A line-focus up glycerin heat to the The Solar

was used to heat exchanger a transfered of driven the area

heat at an

generator circulation energy sufficient no other

refrigerator by

temperature

120 0C. pump.

was attained

electrically

collector gold for

area was 0.5 24 is hours provided.

m2 whereas

needed to produce is very brief and

was 2 m2. The paper

information

Giri capacity

and Barve

[75]

designed cycle unit

and unit.

tested The of a

3.5

kW

refrigeration used was a

continuous The an

absorption a generator,

pair

water-ammonia. condenser, flat-plate

consisted and solar hot water temperature the

an absorber, Eighteen total

evaporator

rectifying collectors,

column. of at

double-glazed The

energy

area of

36 m2, were used. 93 C to tank give

was produced of 85 C. energy plant.

a temperature water

a generation in

A hot

storage and the

was introduced for

between

solar of the

collectors

generator

continuous

operation

The the

condenser, heat from tower. m3 and

the the

absorber cooling

and the water

rectifier circuit

were water was built removed to store

cooled through

and a

cooling was 16 5 oC in

The cold the plant

chamber,

specially

potatoes, of

was designed

to maintain

a temperature

there.

Three the

pumps were used in solar energy collector

the

system: circuit;

one to another

circulate to

hot

water

in

circulate

cooling

5-40

water to the

from

the

cooling

tower

and the with

third

to pump the circulation

rich in

solution the cold

generator. these

Together

an air

fan

chamber,

consumed an electric

power of 886 W.

The plant the cold

was tested chamber from 35 to 40 C. efficiency

in

April

and May 1977. 5 C when the that

It

took

2 hours

to

cool was of

26 C to It was of

ambient with solar

temperature insolation

between

reported the system

778 W/m2 the

was 0.28.

Prigmore vapour Solar

and

Barber air Lab'. equipment The

[8]

described conditioning

a solar unit collectors

operated installed of capacity 58

Rankine in m2

cycle

compression Research

a ! Mobile area and on

Flat-plat of 10.6 engine at

refrigeration a trailer.

kW cooling fluid

was installed and refrigeration

Rankine Water to in run the

was R-113 the solar

circuit to heat 29C

used R-12. up R-113

101C from a high

collectors and cooling 12

was used water at

speed turbine A

circulated produced the

condenser. at into the

conventional

piston The of 11%

compressor overall for the

a COP of 7.4 plant, taking and 40% for

7C evaporator account solar an

temperature. efficiency

COP of Rankine

engine

collector,

was 0.2.

Alloush operated

and Gosney [30] continuous and it did

reported

the

successful

operation working with

of

a solar methanol in of the the been than

absorption zinc not bromide. require the

refrigerator It

and lithium sense strong achieved the that

was completely power. the

autonomous Circulation generator had

any auxilary absorber and the

solution through

between gravity

by placing

absorber to the

1.2 m higher absober

generator.

The week solution

was fed

by a bubble

5-41

pump. This
system condensing That in turn

imposed
was and called

serious
kept

limitation
under

on the

working
by

pressure
reducing

of

the
the

which

designed to

limits 20 and of both

absorbing for the

temperatures water cooling

25C the

respectively. components.

The

refrigerator

worked

well of

at 90C

low and

generator evaporation very

temperatures proceeded good it

e. g. at

at -7C

generation with design areas pump

temperature COP of water is

a cycle required where a

0.4.

Despite circulation

the which the

performance unsuitable of the

the for bubble the at

rendered

water

scarce.

For

optimum between to

operation the

receiver whose

was height In a of

introduced was varied

absorber the required

and head

generator the

achieve under would even stop

generator.

practical this flexibility

plant,

varying the

operating performance This

conditions, of is the bubble

absence

affect it

pump seriously limitation.

and may

functioning.

a very

serious

At Asian

Institute

of

Technology

in

Thailand is

a continued going

research

on The

water-ammonia ultimate operated 25 m2 that make about describe aim of

absorption the

refrigeration

on [24,76-80]. develop area below

team lead

by R. H. B. Exell with food

was to

a solar of 20 to 10C, or

village-size can provide

refrigerator 0.5 per m3 of day.

a collecting cooled

storage

100 kg of

ice

The reports the final

and papers design.

cited

above

the

progression

to reach

The latest shown fig 12 solar

plant, 5.12. collectors It

which

had

been

tested

and area of

reported

in

[79],

is of

had a solar of 2.1

collector

25 m2 consisting were placed in

m2 each.

The collectors

5-42

PLAN VIEW

0I234 Scale (metres )

Ferrocement Tonk Containing Condenser

Ammonia Receiver Ice box Containing Evaporator `Water Purging `\Walter Trap

Liquid Seal s. Solar Collector

`-, Vapour Line

Purging Line - Purging Line

Absorption Line --

Distributor _

r
Position for auxiliary mirrors. Solar collectors -_I Ground level Absorption i

SIDE VIEW

Firrocernent tank Liquid Mal

Purging line

contak*q -, r

condenser . -+ R+cciwr

Vopur distributor

;"-'

Ice

0I23 Scale (metres )

Water purging trap

Fig

5.12

A village built

size

solar

operated [791

refrigeration

plant

at AIT Bangkok

5-43

two rows. total stagnant solution coil

The concentration was 338

of litres.

the

strong The

solution

was was

46%

and its in brine a

volume water which

condenser coil

enclosed in a

tank. acted cans.

The evaporator as heat transfer

was immersed

medium between of the plant cold

the

evaporator

and the

ice

The operation the

was intermittent; at night.

generated

ammonia during

day and produced

The plant back facilitate morning. ice poor but it of

worked the

automatically had

except to be

that

the in put the

insulation the back plant

at evening early

the to next

collectors during the

lowered and of

cooling Although could transfer

absorption capacity 31 kg.

designed only

was 100 kg of out were

produce between

The reason

pointed freezing which

heat

evaporating

ammonia and design

water. had room

Despite for

this

discrepancy development.

this

was a successful

further

Energy their in

Concepts intermittent

Company [81] solar

has completed

a development cycle

program

on

ammonia absorption conventional acted

(ISAAC), icemaker pair and the had 7

1988.

ISAAC utilized (which

water-ammonia and absorber

solar

collector

as generator type. It

as well) to are produce

been designed kg of in ice per

as non-tracking square meter of

has been claimed area. 100 kg The units ice (1988 per

collector and $5700,

produced

three

sizes, prices

i. e. 25,50, are $3500,

day and their

respective

and $8000

prices).

A lot in

of work solar

had been reported refrigeration

regarding cycles,

the

use e. g.

of

metal

halides chloride/ [38,39],

absorption [15,18,40,41,72],

calcium

ammonia

calcium

chloride/methanol

5-44

strontium Denmark, worcing calcium academic Kaptan

chloride/ammonia Worsoe-Schmidt on solid chloride research absorption and ammonia. into the and

[41,42].

At the

Technical [16,17,82-86]

University had reaction

of been of the

co-workers refrigeration They

utilizing in

the

had succeeded product making .A block

converting danish

a commercial product for

company milk

A/S market

ice,

chilling

and as an ice

pack freezer/refrigerator[85].

The

basic

components in fig

of 5.13. of and

the

plant

are

shown tubes

in

schematic specially acted

representation prepared both circuit. cooling surrounded compartment as porous the

The collector calcium the

contained collector the

granules

chloride. absorber in a tank parts; of for

The

generator

refrigeration water. The

The condenser cabinet

was a placed of for packs. two

of

stagnant

consisted jacket ice

a 40 litres vaccines

compartment and a9 litres

by a water for freezing

storage

The

combined

generator/absober as a shown in selective

tubes fig 5.14.

were

made

from fin

extruded to

aluminium the outer

profiles tube tube had with

The flat and absorbed

attached solar

surface fins

energy. away the cooled cooled

The inner heat of

6 longitudinal This tubes at

helped

to

carry an air The air

absorption. with the

was achieved

by connecting R-114.

condenser condenser fig the 5.15.

and filling the top of

them with the collector by the

was placed A thermostatic cooling

as could solar heat

be seen in controlled

valve

operated

automatic

of absorber.

5-45

Fig

5.13

diagram showing the different A schematic components refrigerator ammonia absorption chloride of calcium University designed at The Technical of Denmark and by Kaptan ApS, Denmark [83] manufactured

5-46

Fig

5.14

Photograph

of extruded

aluminium

absorber

tube

t<

Mrs ' ,, ,, "2Mii

..... ^ 'r

, .

s ''z

Fig

5.15

Photograph refrigerator of the commercial at the condenser for the absorber cooled

showing the air top of the collector

5-I7

The COP of overall 0.28 the the

the

refrigerating which

cycle

was

found collector is the

to be 0.34

and the of

COP was 0.096 [84]. internal The major

gave an average of the design

efficiency inability is control

drawback

temperature ambient

as the conditions.

evaporation

process

dependent

on

night

time

Another

refrigerator

using Soudure

the

same pair

is

manufactured from the

by a French University basis of so as

company Comesse Nancy. to

S. A. under has of

a licence

The refrigerator building varied to be units There

been designed of

on a modular sizes of

facilitate

plants the than type the

various

and capacities. the unit and was vapour are shown

The price claimed

according cheaper [871. are

and capacity photovoltaic of the

powered the the unit device:

compression in fig 5.16.

Different three

components of

main parts

1)

The Collector-absorber-generator: and 2 meter were long placed fixed in

it

consisted

of

steel

tubes

of

60 mm diameter upto 50 bars;

designed at

to withstand the west focal

a pressure axis of The and the

they

cylindero-parabolic tubes covered radiation were filled with a

collector with calcium

an east

orientation. and ammonia reduced m2.

chloride surface.

granules Single

selective Aperture

glazing was 0.6

losses.

area

of

one collector

2) tube

The

condenser: to

it give

was an air a

cooled

type

consisting of

of

a finned

designed ambient.

condensation

temperature

100C maximum

above

5-48

CYLINDERO_PARABOLICCOLLECTOR

c
Fig 5.16 Calcium chloride ammonia absorption refrigerator by Comesse Soudure S. A., France [87] manufactured

5-49

3) The evaporator: for to the particular the

it

consisted

of It

steel

tubes

of diameter in stuff.

suitable box

application. vaccines

was enclosed perishable

an insulated

preserve

and other

The

refrigerators a) area, perishable being the

are ice b)

produced production; maintain stuff.

to

perform 10kg

either per

of

the with +8C

two 4.8 of a

functions: m2 aperture about utectic storage. 30 kg

about a temperature

24 hours -3 and

between was

The by the

latter evaporator

achieved which acted

through as a cold

mixture

cooled

The

test

results reduced in 16 hours of the

conducted the

at

Madagascar of 75

Island litres

showed that of water was at

the 18C The

refrigerator to 8C

temperature ambient

when the storage

temperature mixture to improve

28C.

temperature -320C from

cold

utectic a need

fluctuated the heat

between transfer

and -29C. the walls of

This the

indicate cold

storage.

This

is

again

a story institution.

of

successful The basic

liaison research

between into the

the

industry of at

and the the

an academic unit had

design [88,89]

been

conducted

by Flechon

and co-workers

Laboratoire France.

de Physique

de Depots

Metalliques,

University

of Nancy,

Solar zeolite

operated had

refrigeration attracted many

units

based on

adsorption Many prototypes A small zeolite

of water

by

researchers. [44-46,90,91]. [91]

had been commercial water pair.

developed refrigerator

and

reported

produced

by Tchernev

utilized

5-50

It

had

a solar (zeosarb The in and on a

collector 5.0 ice A)

area

0.74

m2, kg of

contained ice for It after

36 kg of a user slowly

natural day was

zeolite (20MJm-2). contained the day

and made 6.8 was

sunny as it

produced

inaccessable system. box though of ice

the melted

hermetically an day

sealed insulated

during

cooled

113 dm3. formation

The did

refrigerator not occur .

worked

a cloudy

as well,

The refrigerator regulation receive ceased

was not

suitable

for

producing these

ice.

The temperature it these did units not was

was not any about

possible.

Due to

limitations of

popular four years

acceptance. ago [92].

The production

Activated activity quite

carbon for some the time.

and methanol development Many of

adsorption a solar

pair

had been the refrigerator

focus

of for

operated

theoretical

[19,21,94-96]

and experimental [97] area reported a

[20,97,98] successful contained the were: plant

have been published. ice maker which had

Pons and Guilleminot a solar collector A sketch

6 m2 which of

130 kg of is shown

activated in fig

carbon. 5.17.

The main parts

of

the

ice

maker

1) Four contained The front (maxorb). carbon the

solar

energy of

collectors, activated

in carbon was

the

shape of

a metal

box,

which sheet.

a bed of the

and were made of with from the

copper

collectors to enhance

furnished transfer of

a selective the front

coating into the

Fins,

the

heat

bed,

were attached of methanol

on the vapours to

inside through create

front.

To facilitate carbon at the bed,

transport bottom

the

activated space

a false

was introduced

a vapour

rear

, ____

: IN$IAATION

II:

COLLECTORS

, . .,. ,i 4 COL. EGZ'f CF AREA62

Fig

5.17

Schematic

drawing

of

the

experimental

icemaker

[971

5-52

of

the

box.

The box was placed

in

an

insulated

casing

covered

with

single

glazing.

2) Two air communicating from copper

cooled with

condensers two of with the

were part four solar

of

the

ice

maker circuit

each

collectors. fins

These were made and designed to

tubes at

rectangular

aluminium ambient

condense

methanol

5C above the

temperature.

3) The evaporator had enough volume day. from The the methanol water to

was to

designed contain all the

and shaped the

to produce

ice

blocks. during

It the heat

methanol boiled the

desorbed and ice

inside be frozen.

evaporator morning

absorbed

Every

was removed.

The results discussed showed that 107C the contact granules. and

from in

the [981.

tests The front

on data of 92C. the

the

experimental for the

ice collector its high

maker were number 3 maximum of value of

presented the This front

when the adsorbent

collector indicate wall

reached the

was at

resistance The maximum

between ambient

and the on the

activated test an bit

carbon

temperature was

day was 23C air higher. being cooled The too

condenser 15C

temperature temperature was

recorded

380C. was

For a due

condenser explanation close

difference convection

given

improper

to fins

(3 mm apart).

The average percent recorded across and

efficiency the

of

the

collectors

was reported on the day of of

to the

be 30 to 40 test was

maximum insolation Wm 2. wall This was

as 870 the front

means the 261 2. Wm

maximum rate The

heat

transfer

temperature

difference

5-53

between gave

the

wall of

and the

adsorbent heat

at

that

instance

was 15C which

a value

17.4 Wm-2K-1 for

transfer.

The reported encouraging. are

tests But in

were

conducted climates

in

an ambient ambient

of

230C and looked of 400C the would

tropical

temperatures and consequently

common. In would affect

such a situation take the place

condensation

desorption seriously

at much higher of the ice

temperatures maker.

which

performance

A commercial pair similar Fig Due 5.18 to

refrigerator

based

on

the

activated

carbon It

methanol was very in the [97]. plant. out of

had been manufactured in design to the

by a french experimental parts

company BLM [99]. ice maker

discussed of it

shows the take over

essential of the

and general

layout

company by new management

is

production

now [100].

5-54

y_

Aa

.. " ,

Fig

5.18

Photograph

of

adsorption

refrigerator

by BLM [99]

5-55

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37

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38

Offenhartz, 'A heat cooling methanol vol 102,

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calcium Energy

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39

Ravelet,

R.,

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749-760,1981.

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44

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K.,

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K.

and

Kume,

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pp 527-531,1983.

45

Meunier, M. H., the

F.,

Mischler, use of to

B.,

Guilleminot,

J. J.

and Simonot, cycle for

'On the

a zeolite

13X-H20 intermittent of buildings',

application

solar

climatization Atlanta,

SUN II,

Proceedings

ISES conference,

USA, pp 739-743,1979.

46

Tchernev, Proceedings Italy,

D. I., 5th

'The

use of

zeolites Conference

for

solar

cooling', Naples,

International

on Zeolites,

pp 788-794,1980.

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47

Aittomaki, heat pump',

A.

and Harkonen,

M.,

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Activities

on Heat Pumps, Graz,

pp 421-434,1986.

48

Pons, activated 85,

M. and Grenier, carbon-methanol of

Ph.,

'Solar

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Proceedings

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49

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Green,

W. P.,

'The

Utilization in

of

Solar

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54

Kirpichev, (in Russian),

M. V. and Baum, V. A., Perivoda, vol 43,

'Exploitation p 54,1954.

of

sun's

rays',

55

Williams, systems 1957. with

D. A. solar

et

al,

'Intermittent

absorption ASME Paper

cooling

regeneration',

no 57-A-260,

56

Williams, regeneration', November

D. A.

et

al,

'Cooling

systems

based pp

on

solar

Refrigeration

Engineering,

33-37,64-66,

1958.

57

Swartman, Paper

R. K.,

'Survey

of

solar-powered

refrigeration',

ASME

no 73-WA/SOL-6,1973.

58

Trombe, solar

T. and

Foex, Solar

M.,

'The production vol

of

cold

by means of

radiation',

Energy,

1, no 1, pp 51-52,1957.

59

Chinnappa, refrigerator Energy, vol

J. C. V., operated 6, no 4,

'Performance by a

of

an

intermittent Solar

flat-Plate

collector',

pp 143-150,1962.

60

Oniga, reflectors', Nations

T.,

'Absorption New Sources

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with

fixed of

conoidal the United

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Conference,

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6, pp 41-50,1961.

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V. G., Solar

'Experiments Energy, vol

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solar no 3,

energy

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at

pp 83-90,1964.

62

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E. A.,

'Design system',

and performance Proceedings

of

compact

solar

ISES conference,

Melbourn,

Paper no 6/58,1970.

63

Farber, generator

E. A. and of

Moore,

G. L.,

'Combining system',

the

collector

and no

a solar

refrigeration

ASME Paper

67-WA/Sol-4,1967.

64

Alward, Refrigerator', Ontario,

R.,

'Solar M. E. Sc. 1967.

Powered Thesis,

Intermittent The University

Absorption of Western

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65

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Proceedings no 6/114,1970.

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Melbourne,

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66

Swartman, refrigeration Paper

R. K.

and

Ha, using

V.,

'Performance

of

solar ASME

system

ammonia-sodium

thiocyanate',

no 72-WA/Sol-3,1972.

67

Swartman,

R. K.,

Swaminathan, and

C.

and

Ha,

V.,

'Comparison as

of the

ammonia-water refrigerant-absorbent Energy,

ammonia-sodium in a solar

thiocyanate system',

refrigeration

Solar

17, pp 123-127,1975.

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68

Muradov, the

D.

and of All

Shadiev, an

0.,

'Experimental solar

investigation refrigerator',

of

operation

intermittent Conference VNIIT, on the

Proceedings Energy ( in

Union ),

Utilization

of Solar

Russian

Moscow,

1969.

69

Muradov, refrigerator Science

D.

and with

Shadiev, solid izd.

0.,

'Intermittent Problems Tashkent, of

solar Natural 1969.

absorbent',

(in

Russian),

TashGU i BGPI,

70

Muradov, refrigerator',

D. and Shadiev,

0.,

'Testing vol 7,

of no 3,

a solar

adsorption

Geliotekhnika,

PP 33-35,1971.

71

Sargent, an

S. L.

and Beckman,

W.A.,

'Theoretical intermittent

performance absorption

of

ammonia-sodium cycle',

thiocyanate Solar Energy,

refrigeration

12, pp 137-146,1968.

72

Eggers-Lura, Schmidt, solid P.,

A.,

Nielson,

P. B.,

Stubkier,

P. by

and

Worsoe-

'Solar-powered systems',

refrigeration Proc. International Dahran,

intermittent Conference Arabia, vol on 2,

absorption

Heliotechnique pp 83-104,1975.

and Development,

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73

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A.,

'Solar 1979.

Energy

in

Developing

Countries',

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74

Khalil, energy

K. H. et al, for cooling',

'Factors Proc.

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the

use

of

solar on 2,

Conference Arabia, vol

Heliotechnique

and Development',

Saudi

1975.

75

Giri, system

N. K. for

and Barve, cold India, storage vol 3,

K. M.,

'Solar

ammonia-water Proc.

absorption

application',

ISES Congress

New Delhi,

pp 1183-1187,1978.

76

Exell, powered

R. H. B. refrigerator India,

et

al, for vol.

'Experiments remote 3,1978, areas',

on

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prototype

solar

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78

Exell,

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Research Bangkok,

Institute

79

Exell, presented

R. H. B., at

'A village Workshop

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solar of

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'paper New Delhi,

on Physics

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1986.

80

Exell, cooling

R. H. B., for

Bhattacharya,

S. C. and Upadhyaya, applications using Workshop

Y. R.,

'Solar

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solid on

desiccant Physics of

and adsorbents', Solar Energy,

presented India,

at 1986.

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D. C. Erickson, Madison,

President, 1988.

Energy

Company, Annapolis,

USA, April,

82

Worsoe-Schmidt, refrigeration Refrigeration, vol

P., system',

'A

solar-powered International

solid-absorption Journal of

2, no 2, pp 75-84,1979.

83

Clausen,

N.

and

Worsoe-Schmidt, Solid-absorption no F77-01, The

P.,

Indoor

Testing

of

Solar-powered Freezer, Denmark, Report 1983.

Refrigerator/ Technical

Ice-pack University of

84

Worsoe-Schmidt, countries Journal using of Ambient

P., a

'Solar

refrigeration cycle', no 3,

for

developing International

solid-absorption Energy, vol 4,

PP 115-124,1983.

85

Worsoe-Schmidt, based National Society on a Solar of India,

P.,

'Solar

refrigeration cycle', 1984

at

the

village

level at the

solid-absorption Energy Convention 1985.

paper of the

presented Solar

Energy

Bhopal,

86

Worsoe-Schmidt, solid-absorption Council Paris, of France,

P.,

'Some results

from

the

development presented

of

a at

refrigeration European 1985. Community

system', Absorption

paper

Heat Pump Congress,

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87

Sales

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Comesse Soudure

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Flechon, 'Refrigeration d'un

J.,

Machizaud, solaire reel',

F., par

Benhammon, K. and Godmel, photothermic: premiers vol

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resultats 13, no 3,

appareil

Journal

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PP 197-216,1984

89

Flechon, 'Capteur Journal

J.,

Kotowski,

A.,

Machizaud, absorbante vol en

F. and Deczynski, forme de jalousie',

M.,

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a surface

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13, no 3, pp 245-257,1984.

90

Ulku,

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Heat Recovery

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6, no 4, pp 277-284,1986.

91

Ragot, sanitary

Ph.,

Berger,

M., vaccine

Lebuhotel,

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J. M.,

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conservation Montreal,

INTERSOL 85, 1985.

Proceedings

ISES congress,

Canada,

92

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D. I., in

'Solar Natural

energy Zeolites: F. A.,

application Occurance,

of Properties,

natural Use, UK,

L. B. and Mumpton,

Pergamon Press,

Oxford,

pp 479-485,1978.

93

Personal Manager, May, 1988.

communication The Zeopower

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Mr.

Peter

Downing,

the

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Company, Natick,

Massachusetts,

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Passos,

E.,

Meunier, improvement cycle

F. of using

and Gianola, an

J. C.,

'Thermodynamic solar-powered

performance refrigeration activated 3,

intermittent adsorption of

methanol vol

on 6, no

carbon',

Journal

of Heat Recovery

Systems,

pp 259-264,1986.

95

Pons,

M.

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Grenier,

Ph., from to

'A phenomenological experimental activated and carbon

adsorption theoretical + methanol

equilibrium considerations pair',

law extracted applied vol 24,

the

Carbon,

no 5 pp 615-625,1986.

96

Guilleminot, mass reactor: International transfer

J. J., in

Meunier,

F.

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J.,

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Heat and Mass Transfer,

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97

Pons, solar Solar

M. and Guilleminot, powered, Energy solid

J. J., adsorption vol

'Design ice

of maker',

an

experimental of

ASME Journal

Engineering,

108,

pp 332-337,1986.

98

Pons,

M. and Grenier, ice

Ph.,

'Experimental activated Solar carbon Energy

data methanol

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powered pair',

maker using of

adsorption vol 109,

ASME Journal

Engineering,

PP 303-310,1987.

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99

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100

Personal March

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Prof

F.

Meunier,

France,

1989.

6-1

CHAPTER

SIX

Solar

Refrigeration

: Detailed

Study

of

Selected

Options

6-la

PART I

Photovoltaic

refrigerators

6-2

6.1

The

purpose

of

this

chapter

In

the

previous store be one.

chapter were

three

feasible In this

options chapter

for

a solar their choose plant load, to

operated

vaccine limitations desirable the

selected.

performance the most of be the

evaluated For this

and compared purpose the

so as to of the

size

and area will

solar

collector, and of

for

prescribed first step

cooling is

determined cooling load

compared. the vaccine

So the storage

determine

cabinet.

6.2

Cooling

capacity

of

the

refrigerator

The cooling to be

capacity

of

the

unit

was calculated is the area the

assuming

the- cabinet shape for shape to The cabinet cavity is a a

cubical. cabinet, offers

Although a the be a cube, least double

a cuboid being surface walled

most practical practical volume. box

storage sphere, is

closest per unit

assumed to with a typical

metallic of 30 litres as defined cabinet load will of

and the is

filled for

insulation. rural here is

A cabinet health that clinic the prescribed

volume in section

recommended 5.1.1. The

assumption drugs Further which (i) (ii) in

store vaccines

some life-saving and ice-packs. the calculations

addition parametric

to the

assumption

were made to

simplify

were:

All

the

six

walls cabinet

of

the walls

cabinet had

had the the

same thickness heat transfer

the All characteristics Internal Ambient

same

(iii) (iv)

temperature temperature

of

the

cabinet

was uniform

at 0C

was 32C and 43C (night

& day)

6-3

(v) (vi)

Heat

transfer

resistance at the

through inner

metal surface

cases

was neglected

Radiation

exchange

was neglected

6.2.1

Environmental

heat

gains

Heat

transfer

to

the

cabinet

takes convection,

place

through

all

the

three

mechanisms and external

i. e. conduction, surfaces hi at k. and these ho, are

and radiation. by

The internal heat both transfer convection thermal

characterized

coefficients and radiation conductivity

respectively, and the

representing insulation

surfaces

by its

The heat internal varying internal

transfer surfaces area.

which is

takes conducted conduction

place across area

from the is

the

external

to through

the a of

insulation as the

Thus the

taken

mean

and external

areas.

Therefore,

Internal External

surface surface

area, area, area,

Ai Ao Am

=6x =6x

L2 (L+2t)2

Mean conduction

x (L+t)2 =6

It

is

very

fair

to assume that Thus the

the

cabinet is

is

always

placed

at

some gains two

sheltered through horizontal convection

place. natural faces to air

system

analyzed are four

assuming vertical

heat and for

convection. of the cabinet.

There

Simplified are

correlations used. These are;

natural

given

by McAdam [1]

6-4

(a)

for

vertical for for

plates 109 <Ra> 1013 104 <Ra> 109 plates with lower he = 1.31 he = 1.42 surface (AT)1/3 (AT/L)0.25

(b)

for

horizontal for for

cold (AT)1/3 (AT/L)0.25

2x107 <Ra> 3x1010 105 <Ra> 2x107 plates with upper

he = 1.52 he = 1.32 surface

(c)

for

horizontal for 3x105 the at

cold (AT/ 00.25 and air but temperatures. at the outer

<Ra> 3x1010 between surface

he = 0.59 the surface

where

AT is

difference the inner

The radiation surface in black

was neglected it

was simply

calculated As the the

assuming

to be a grey difference less by than

body enclosed between the

environment. surface and

temperature was

cabinet heat

ambient

50C the

radiative

transfer

coefficient

was approximated

h= r

dE 1T v

The

overall

heat by the

transfer equation

across

the

cabinet

walls

was

then

calculated

Qenv 2 UA(To - Ti) and UA = [(1/hiAi) (t/kAm) + + (1/hoAo)]-1

computer gains

program at different

listed

in ambient

appendix

C was used to calculate and for capacity conductivity 6.1. of It is different

the

heat

temperatures for ( form the a 30 litre thermal in fig

insulation with closed is

thicknesses. cell

The

result foam

cabinet 0.022 evident beyond

polyurethane in

Wm-1K-1) from the

presented that

graphical

graph

by increasing

thickness

insulation

6-5

G-5

24 22 20 18 16 14

(/)

Z_
Q

w
12

10

w
Z8 0
6 Z w

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

INSULATIONTHICKNESS (m)
Fig 6.1 Heat gains through insulation for a 30 litre cubic box

6-6

70mm the not

corresponding

change in

the

amount of temperature

heat of from

transfered 40C and with the

is an

substantial. thickness W.

Thus under of 7.0

ambient mm the

Insulation would

heat

gained

environment

be 3.3

6.2.2

Cooling

load

of

vaccines

primary

health This gives litre would the

centre a daily of

holds

a six

weeks'

stock

of a six

15 litres

of

vaccine. week)

consumption The clinic the 30C daily and heat

(assuming actual

day working of vaccine it is to the as

of 0.417

vaccines. from of of

pattern

administration assumed be heated that upto

vary

to clinic. stock is

As an average consumed is

quarter

allowed in

ambient the

then

replaced of

refrigerator. equal load to water of the

Taking

specific kJ/kg be

and density respectively,

vaccines the

i. e 4.18

and 1 kg/l

cooling

vaccines

would

Qvac-

4.18 = 0.2

x 0.417 W

x 0.25

x (40 - 0) x 1000 / 24 / 3600

6.2.3

Cooling

load

due to

intermittent

door

opening

Whenever inside quantify it that air

the is the

door

of

a refrigerator with by the of the

is warm

opened

some

of

the air.

cold To

replaced imposed pattern is

and humid outside is again the b) the difficult worst working

load on the door

warm air

because scenario day is the cold

depends a) the

use.

Considering half is an hour 3/4

opened every refrigerator

6 hours

long

c) the

empty and d) half

6-7

is

replaced warm

by warm saturated air is cooled

air

every half

time

the

door the

is

opened and load

e) the would

to 00C in

an hour,

cooling

be calculated

as follows.

Volume of

air

inside

the

refrigerator air air of water at

Volume of warm saturated Moisture Latent contents heat of of

saturated

= = = = 400C =

0.75 x 30 22.5 1 0.5 x 22.5 11.25 1 0.012 g 1-1

condensation

= 2250 Jg to water be the

Neglecting load due to

the the

heat

contents

of

air air

compared would

cooling

ingressed

warm moist

Qair

= 11.25

x 0.042

(2250 + 4.18 x

x 40)

x2/

3600

= 6.4 W

6.2.4

Cooling

load

of

ice

packs

For for

the

case of ice

a typical

health per

centre day.

considered

there

is

a need

3 kg of to

to be produced This ice ice is

As per WHO's specifications, from at water 32C in at 32C.

referred Thus to the

above,

to be

produced

produce

3 kg of

from

3 kg of water be

24 hours

required

cooling

capacity

would

Qice

=3x

(4.18

x 32 + 333)

x 1000 /24

/ 3600

= 16.21 W

6-8

6.2.5

Cooling

load

of

other

drugs

Out of to

total

capacity (to litres 5.25 case'

of 30 litres, leave would litres that of of

20% (i. e. 6 litres) manoeuvre by 3 kg for stock the of

is stored

assumed items) Thus

be unoccupied 3.75

some room to be occupied would of

and about the drugs.

ice

packs.

remaining The 'worst The

be available a whole are

storage of to further due to

of other is

new drugs, have

considered. properties cool of

contents to that

drugs water the

assumed and are load

thermal

equivalent 2 hours, 40C would

assumed to 5.25 litres

down in drugs at

therefore be

cooling

Qdrugs=

5.25

x 4.18

x 40 x 1000 / 24 / 3600

10.2 W

6.2.6

Total

cooling

capacity

The total a typical loads

cooling primary

capacity health in the

of centre

the

30 litre

refrigerator sum of above. all

suitable the

for

would 6.2.1

be the

cooling

considered under

sections

to 6.2.5

The calculations conditions of a 38.5

show that the Watts. capacity 85 watt

assumed practices have

and environmental capacity

refrigerator For of calculation

would

to have a cooling in the next which

purposes will

sections, is

cooling

100 Watts freezing

be considered

assumed to have a

icepack

load.

6-9

6.3

Photovoltaic

(PV)

vapour-compression

refrigerator

The five, (iii)

components are a (i) lead a

of PV refrigerator, photovoltaic battery in array, storage, theory,

as described (ii) and (iv) a normal with without circuit a

earlier dc-to-ac a vapour

in

chapter

inverter, compression

acid Although,

refrigerator. incorporating directly battery, following

household

refrigerator, can be to a the

a dc motor by a

or coupled PV array in the

a dc-to-ac a parallel is

inverter, connection for

energized its

inclusion

necessitated

reasons.

(1)

The starting than reasons the of

current normal economy, load. system

of a motor-compressor operational are always current. selected

assembly PV-arrays, to

is for

higher the normal of a

meet the start

operational compression

The extra is

power required by the

at the

provided

battery.

(2)

Due to fluctuations changes. fluctuations requires power The battery in a stabilized input through

in

insolation, like

the

output

of to

the

PV-array

acts the

as a reservoir Thus the can

dampen these which constant

output.

refrigerator, receive a

power supply, the battery.

(3)

The battery insolation insolation

stores periods periods

the

extra

energy

available running

during during

the the

high low

to keep the and after

system

the

sunset.

6-10

6.3.1

System

performance

The

overall in

system the

response

is

a collective

behaviour the required of

of

individual size of the

components system of for

system.

Thus to determine requirement, component is

a particular

a knowledge necessary.

the

performance

each individual

system

Fig

6.2

shows a of the

block

diagram are

of

the also

system shown

components. in the

The average diagram. The

values notations

efficiencies the analysis

used in

are

defined

below:

'lc %= '21 q? m

Efficiency Efficiency

of PV array of of of the the the battery inverter motor of the

= =

Efficiency Efficiency

COPvc =

Thermodynamic vapour

efficiency

compression

refrigerator

The overall compression

efficiency refrigerator,

or coefficient denoted

of

performance is

of then

a PV-vapour given by

by COPoverall,

COPoverall

1c4x

?1 ? mxCOPvc

6.3.1.1

Performance

of

a photovoltaic

array

Performance

of

a photovoltaic

array

is

described I-V fig

in

the

shape of It

of a

current-voltage(I-V) typical commercial

characteristic PV array are

curve. shown in

characteristics 6.3 [2].

can be

6-11

(-tl

INSOLATION 40PHOTOVOLTAIC =01

PANEL

o 'IOW/m2

IA"''
BATTERY %=0.8

INVERTER I =0"B4

I"A"'? -Nbl
MOTOR Nm 0-57

I"A""'? " "b";

'fr, 9

EVAPORATOR

CONDENSER

EXPANSION VALVE

Fig

6.2

Block diagram showing components in a photovoltaic refrigerator

and their

efficiencies

6-12

observed insolation temperature

that

I-V (see of the

characteristics the array left (see hand the

vary side right

in set

response of curves) set

to

changes and operating

in

hand side

of

curves).

The curves proportional array

in

fig to

6.3 the

show that

the

output

of the

array

is

directly of a PV to is

insolation with

intensity

i. e the

efficiency

does not in

vary

change in temperature the

insolation the output cited of

levels. power of in fig the array

In response the 6.3 at array

changes affected. with the

operating

The peak power of increase degree in

PV array temperature

decreases the rate

operating

of 0.4% per

celsius.

Each I-V the

curve of

has array

a maximum-power voltage

point

(see is

fig

6.4) It is

at which is

the

product that

and current

maximized.

clearly

evident but would

operation the

at the maximum-power-point load to operate at different

advantageous voltages. at a In fixed

require a

practice operating directly

vapour

compression and fairly by the

refrigerator power. cannot

work Thus always a

voltage powered

steady PV-array

refrigerator work at the

maximum-power-point.

In

fig

6.4

battery curve.

voltage

is voltage at

superimposed is chosen solar times cause

on such time)

the that on

I-V the a

characteristic array clear is not operates day clear, less,

The battery

at maximum-power-point clearness chosen not far index battery less, in

noon (in At other would

(i. e. the but

> 0.7). voltage the

or when sky the array to

deliver This

than the

maximum

possible

power. (i. e. a

observation

means that

case under

consideration

6-13

(-'3
Moc iccd Characteristics

Peak power (Pp) Voltage at peak power (Vpp) Current at peak power (IPp) Short-circuit Current (Ise)

SX"100 SX"110 SX"120 36 32 40 17 17.25 17.5 1.9 2.2 22 2.1 2.35 22.25 2.3 2.5 225

SX"110 Performance at Various Light

Intensities, T.
26 24 22 20 is
i z W 16 14

25*C

sx"o Tsmp rstu Parfoneanca Various at

at AMI (IkWlm2) 26 24 22 20

I 80%
3

Open-circuit voltage

(Voc)
NOTES. 1. hnels (tkWnn2) at 25'C are measured under full sun illumination Minimum performance IS 2 watts less than tall temperature :3C peak. The ruling sp. ClhCation is peak walls. For a more detailed Measurements bulletin. explanation, sw our Electrical Mormancn 2. Electriui Voltage dincrestift by ecreases abo" cnwacbnstua vary with temperature.

Is ,e

12 v 10

2 i0

0e 06
25'C
251C

06 06 04 02
t2 16 20 M VOLTAGE 24 29 04e 12 16 20 M VOLTAGE 24

Current Pat)
POS (pack)

inonase$ by dsenaaas by
11 by Eacraaws by

25uu'Gam2
o axrc

below
below above

04 02 048

N tM tMnlnS1ll, aiMO NOTE: TMw eurm of the ps(ovm. nt: I of typical pw4 we npnwnbtiw t such 48 OuoMs, Cabling, etc. Thee curt" we intended for reference onot, puipms. tiny WAItInfl CuroM tot the SX"100 and $*"120 5. neb we awww N from Solves Marketing.

Mechanical

Specifications

ReUcWty and Environmental Sp. dfications

These panels are subjected to Intensive quality control during manufacture and rigorous testing before shipment. They are designed to most or exceed the following tests with no performance degradation: " Repetitive cycling between - 401C and 1001C. " Prolonged exposure to 90-95% humidity at 70'C. " Wind loading of over 160 m. p.h. All SX Series panels are covered by the standard Solarex 5 year limited warranty.

Weight: 17.5 lbs (7.9 kq) Dimensions17 6'x12'x21"

^ui (a" Scm) x (106 7cm) x (S 4cm)

I 42'

0_tioa= and Acc.

Jwrctlen So.

od. s

Cross Section of Panel Adjacent r, I.

Ito" J 4. Fnnw -

. I
panel

Backplates - Anodized aluminum backplate protects the Backplates are available panel In harsh environments. either mounted inside the panel frame at the factory or as to be mounted onto the panels during field components assembly.

Diodes - Incline blocking diode prevents reverse current flow from the panel to the battery during darkness. Bypass diode is available for high voltage systems to provide alternate current path protection. For multiple panel arrays and large power regulation, con. tact Solarei Marketing.

16.4 OW4

haeew aatty4p

_1_'I
'ti. MtI" a LI^ "I ` Mwnikp Wa_ LDckwasM,

Optional)
fuMal $WvcIwo p$ long Specifications are subject to c wq. odhoul not". 6024.1 1W

Fig

6.3

Specification

sheet

for

a typical

silicon

solar

panel

[2]

6-14

INSOLATION
'MAX

CONSTANT VOLTAGE LOAD

MAXIMUM-POWER POINT 0-75, MAX

L L
(_i

0-401MAX

1 1 1 071MAX

Voltage

Fig

6.4

Typical variation constant

I-V characteristics of of maximum-power-point battery voltage

a PV-array showing the in relation to the

6-15

vapour battery)

compression the

refrigerator that the

powered PV array

by

PV-array always

through at

a the

assumption would

operates

maximum-power-point

be justified.

Thus for

the

purpose

of

this

analysis of the

the array

efficiency temperature

of

the

PV array and can plate

can be treated be represented, array,

as a function for by this

only

particular

[21,

but,

typical

flat

silicon

fqc

'lc,

x (1-0.004(T-TST)) ST

6.1

where'Ylx TST array.

is ST

efficiency at 25C)

of

the

PV array the

at a standard

temperature, of the

(usually

and T is

operating

temperature

6.3.1.2

Determination

of operating

temperature

of

the

array

Monocrystalline on the top

silicon

PV arrays surfaces on this the the the array thermal

have a protective which glass (except analysis are layer for of exposed is

coating to the

of

glass

and bottom Insolation by

ambient through which surface, is

environment. it and absorbed

transmitted portion its the

a small the

reflected). at of its

Thus for with

array,

boundary

environment, is assumed:

can be assigned

properties

glass.

The following

Reflectance Emittance inclination of

of

the

array

surface surface

= 0.1 = 0.9 = 300 with vertical

the of

array array

the

6-16

The efficiency reflective structural photons will

of losses

silicon

PV arrays

is

of

the

order

of cells

0.1,

owing and

to

and to inactive located. than silicon will In

areas the

between

where of and by

members are have energy less

solar

spectrum

26 percent silicon) be absorbed

1.1 eV (the surface.

band gap for The rest to will

be reflected part will area of

from

silicon, remaining of sheet total for

which

be converted rejected

electricity If

and the 20 percent balance

appear is

as heat

to atmosphere. then the

considered silicon

as inactive array will

energy

a typical

be as follows:

total energy energy energy total net

insolation reflected reaching reflected unused energy

falling from silicon from the

on the glass

array surface

surface

=I = 0.1xI (1-0.2)xO. = 9xI

surface silicon surface

= 0.26x0.8x0.9xI = 0.29xI

energy for

available to electricity

convertion

= 0.71xI

This

means

that heat

with

increasing as than the

level well. ambient

of The

insolation heat

there transfer

will is

be only Thus

increasing possible despite levels insolation

dissipation higher

through the (see array section level.

array

temperature. of the

efficiency 6.3.1.1) it

being has an

independent indirect

insolation on the

dependency

This the

rise heat

of transfer

array rate

temperature from the

reaches array

a dynamic the

equilibrium energy rejected

when by

equals

6-17

it.

The

heat It is is

transfer

mechanism that all

involved the over

are

convection of both area.

and faces

radiation. of the array

assumed further equal and uniform

temperature the surface

The radiative following

heat

transfer which

from

the

array sides.

is

estimated

by the

equation

applies

to both

Qr = A. 6. E. (Ts

T) -

6.2

Natural For 131, the to

convection lower face

heat of the

transfer the array transfer

from

the

array

surface used, is given

is

assumed. by Ozisik

the relation coefficient

evaluate

heat

Nu = 0.56(Gr

Pr cos8)1/4

6.3

For

the

upper

surface

of

the

array

the

relation

used,

given

by Wong

[4],

is

Nu = 0.8(Gr

Pr cos9)1/4

[cos0/(1+(1+1/Pr0.5)2)]1/4

6.4

These PV

relations

are

used to of

calculate the final

the

operating

temperature in

of

array

and forms

part

model

discussed

section

6.3.1.6.1

6.3.1.3

Performance

of

lead-acid

batteries

Lead acid are

batteries, suitable

due for

to

their this

widespread Energy

global is

availability, chemically

considered

system.

stored

6-18

in

a lead-acid the of pure

battery, lead lead,

on passing sulphate lead battery dioxide, is on

charging the

current battery

through electrodes acid.

it, into

by a

converting mixture is

and sulphuric while

The reaction used.

reversed

when the

discharged

being

The lead-acid and forklift

batteries trucks)

used in

electric

vehicles batteries

(i. e. milk which upto the can last 50% of

floats upto their

are heavy duty cycles type of is

1500 deep discharge-charge capacity). These Therefore this

(i. e. discharged chosen for

proposed have [5].

system. shown a

batteries,

as a part cycle

a photovoltaic of about

system, 80 percent

discharge-charge

efficiency

6.3.1.3

Energy

efficiency

of

an inverter

An

inverter to

is ac

an

electronic This

device dc-to-ac incorporates are

which

converts is

the necessary to into

dc

electricity as the a normal

electricity. refrigerator

conversion

household

an ac-motor substituted markets available for

drive the in at `J

compressor.

Brushless produced for

dc-motors special these of the

being

refrigerators boats, competitive

recreational are not

use or

caravans prices.

etc,

but Most

widely marketed

PV refrigerators

employ

12 V

dc-motors for

but

the

bulk

of Thus

the to

household cover is the

refrigerators more general as part

are case of

produced of the

115/240

V ac use.

an ac-powered circuit.

refrigerator

an inverter

considered

6-19

The performance of the

of an inverter inverters be about

depends

on its

size. by the

The efficiency system under

stand-alone will

required

consideration

84% [6].

6.3.1.4

Performance

of an ac induction

motor

The

small to

capacity operate employ possible

compressors from

used in

domestic power

refrigerators supplies.

are Domestic

designed refrigerators makes it motors, of such

single-phase tube

a capillary

as the torque very of a

expansion induction efficient.

device. motors.

This Such

to use low starting their small which size, forms by

due to a

are not part Adell value

Efficiency sealed to 57% Thus

motor, unit was

hermetically

compressor this figure

measured

[71 to be equal in this analysis.

was used as an average

6.3.1.5

Performance

of

a vapour

compression

refrigerator

The aim of components refrigerator required. the basis It

developing of is

this

model compression

was to be able unit; a but

to

size

different

a PV vapour one of

vapour accurate of

compression method was as As by the

them.

Thus a simple

was decided out

to use Carnot the the actual

coefficient COP of the

performance

to work by

refrigerator.

described relation

Gosney [8]

two performances

can be related

COPvc = RxZisenxCOPcarnot

6.5

6-20

where Carnot

is

the

efficiency of

of

the

refrigeration calculated

cycle using

related

to the

coefficient and and for

performance

refrigerant

evaporation for low

condensation high

temperatures

(Te and Tc respectively) An given in for approximate by Linge [9]

temperatures value of R for

respectively. ammonia is well

expression (which is

the

applicable range
expansion

to R-12 and R-22 as of

valve

[8])

evaporation saturated

temperature
liquid at

-50
is

to

40C.

The expression

R=1-

(te

te)/265 -

6.6

If

the

condensed

refrigerant

is

subcooled

to

tu then

R is

multiplied

by a factor

1+

(t0

tu)/250 -

6.7

Lisen in the

is

the

isentropic 0.5 to 0.8.

efficiency Due their account to

of the

the

compressor size of

which the is of

is

often

range in

small

compressors low and it isentropic by [7]).

used needs

refrigerators into

mechanical as well. to be

efficiency value is

to be taken of it

Thus the 0.9 [7])

efficiency mutiplying The equation

compression with the

(taken

modified

mechanical as

efficiency

(taken

to be 0.8

6.5

can be written

COPvc = 0.72xRxCOPcarnot

6.8

Values the

of

COP predicted values

by equation by

6.8

were for

compared their

to those

from The

actual

published

Danfoss

compressors.

6-21

predicted within

values 10% of the

were actual

slightly values.

higher

and

the

disagreement

was

6-22

6.3.1.6

Construction

and

resolution

of

the

model

The set constitute determine refrigerator

of

equations the the basis

6.1

to for

6.8, the which

developed numerical could

in

the

previous

sections, was used to of the

model which affect the

parameters

size

and the PV array.

There

are

six frig (c)

input (in the the

variables watts),

to the (b) the

model, ice

(a)

the

refrigeration load, gice of Tat the the (e) (in PV the

capacity, watts), array, I,

pack freezing on the

monthly-average monthly-average hours of the (monthly

insolation ambient average),

plane

(d)

temperature, n, (f) and

number of operating

sunshine voltage

nominal

compressor-motor

assembly.

The final
battery without

output
storage solar

of

the

model
for

is

the
three

size
days

of
of

the

PV array

and the
operation

required input.

continuous

Some result.

intermediate These involve its

calculations the

are necessary of the array

to

reach surface

the

final

determination and

(operating) the PV

temperature, refrigeration

efficiency,

overall

COP of

system.

Strictly and motors variations

speaking are being

the

efficiencies under average purpose

of batteries, operating over the the

dc-to-ac conditions. operating

inverters But the regime

variable small, the

varying values of sizing

have been used for

system.

6-23

The plane this

product of array

of will is to

array give subtracted

efficiency the amount from the

and of the

the

total

insolation electricity. available the ambient,

on the When for as

generated net energy to

amount

conversion heat, is

electricity,

energy

rejected

obtained

Qre j=

(0.71

-71c) xI

6.9

This

rejected

heat gradient by

is

dissipated convection of

to

the

ambient

through 6.2

a to and

temperature 6.4 give

and radiation. heat transfer by

Equations radiation

the

coefficient

convection.

guess

is

made of from

the

array 6.1.

surface Heat

temperature transfered is then

and its from The

efficiency the surface, is If

determined through compared the

equation and heat

convection with the

radiation, found

found

amount 6.9. required

rejected the of until

by applying is greater

equation than is the the

difference a is the

between new value

two values the surface two

accuracy procedure match array to

temperature values of

assumed. rejected value is of

The heat the

repeated required

the

accuracy. is

When a satisfactory obtained its efficiency

surface

temperature equation 6.1.

determined

by applying

COP of & 6.8 inverter,

the which

refrigerator is the of then

is multiplied and

determined, by the the

next,

by using of

equations the motor, the

6.6 the

efficiencies to the

battery performance,

PV-array of

evaluate

overall

coefficient

COPoverail,

PV refrigerator.

6-24

Dividing COPoverall information the array,

the gives

required the with

refrigeration required the array power

capacity rating of the

gfrig

by

the This of

PV array. the

along

efficiency

determines during

area

sufficient to relation

to power the

refrigerator

the

day,

according

Aarray

= 9frig/COPoverall/I

6.10

Battery-storage

is

required

to fulfil

two duties;

(a)

provide of

a three-days sun or under

autonomy very

to the

system

in

the and

absence

low insolation

conditions,

(b)

to meet the

daily

load

after

sunset.

The refrigeration load the of gice (in

capacity Watts) during for the

of the

gfrig

(in

Watts) If this

involves load is

a cooling taken then off the

ice-packs.

refrigerator storage of this

low or no

insolation to

periods a great will extent. be

battery basis three

requirement assumption of the the

can be reduced total energy, will be

On the in

which

drained

days out

batteries,

Edrain,

(9frig 3day =

- gice)ICOPbatx24X3

(in

Wh)

6.11

Where COPbat = COPvcx%mxfli" Assuming is of V volt nominal output then the

further drained

that

the

battery will be

system

capacity

6-25

Cdrain,

= Edrain, 3day

3day/V

(in

Ah)

6.12

The

charging

current

will

be much higher demand the other would

for

a deeply

discharged the

battery. size current, exist which of is this of

The higher the battery an optimum would be array.

current On

inevitably reducing Thus

increase the there

hand for

charging would capacity

capacity balance decided a

has to be increased. the array of area

between on the duty

and battery For the

grounds battery simple its be

economics. in

purpose 6.3.1.3

analysis

heavy

mentioned it full is

section

considered. would capacity

To keep the model be drained of the to 50% of battery

assumed

that

the total

battery storage

capacity.

Thus the

will

Cstore,

Cdrain, 3day

3day/(1

0.5) -

(in

Ah)

6.13

The

amount of hours. then

daily If for of

energy we

required a the

after minimum battery through will

sunset

will

vary of

with effective It

the

sunshine sunshine

assume

of n hours will this be

(24 - n) hours 9f rig (in of Watts) the

be drained. period.

has

to meet a load daily drained

Thus the

capacity

batteries

Cdrain,

daily

gfrig/COPbatx(24

- n)/V

(in

Ah)

6.14

Again the will

the

50 storage

percent capacity

rule

applies the

for

maximum drain to

and therefore daily drain

total be

batteries

meet the

Cstore,

daily

Cdrain,

daily/

"-0.5)

(in

Ah)

6.15

6-26

The PV array up the

should

meet the drained

daily battery

load

of

9f rig

(in

Watts)

and top that the

overnight drain is

capacity drain during array

(assuming 3 days of size

overnight insolation equation load.

greater

than as well.

the

no or low by

conditions) 6.10 needs

Thus the to

determined

modification area is

include

the

additional

top-up

This

additional

Aarray,

add

Cdrain,

dailyxV/(Ixlxn)

6.16

If of the

the no-

daily or

drain

is

less

than then

the

energy add

drain will

during

three

days by

low-insolation equation

the Aarray,

be determined

following

Aarray,

Cdrain, add

3day"'

(Ix

xn)

6.17

Thus the will be

total

array

area

required

to meet the

total

system

demand

Aarray,

total

Aarray

+ Aarray,

add

6.18

6.3.2

Discussion

of

results

the

wind from array

effects the

were not the

considered model would Thus the of for

while predict

calculating a higher of model in the

the

heat

transfer of the

array,

estimate the array be

temperature. the

efficiency this variation

ascertained pessimistic

through in absolute

application Curves

would

terms.

PV-array

6-27

efficiency ambient

were plotted temperatures in

against fig 6.5. and the

the

solar

insolation between

for the

various efficiency expression

The relation

and insolation

was linear

two were related

by the

'1c'

1cref+0.001(Iref-I)

6.19

'c, where Iref" the

ref

is

the

array 6.19 is

efficiency based

at a reference on the as relative that

insolation, thus

As the accuracy

relation of the

difference of the

result

would

be same

reference

figures.

The

relation

between turned out

operating to be linear

temperature (see fig 6.6).

and

the

ambient the

temperature PV-array temperature, 6.5 confirmed

Consequently on the

efficiency, would that

which decline it

had a linear linearly with

dependency the rising

operating Fig

insolation.

was true.

In

fig

6.7 is

the

overall

coefficient against the clear

of ambient from

performance temperature the graph and the that

of for

the

total

system

plotted It

various COP was in 100 the WM -2

insolations. highly insolation increase the

was evidently to the ambient effect

the

sensitive

temperature

variation per.

had a minimal in insolation). temperature ambient

(i. e. 0.074% decrease in array ambient

Increase of the

temperature its

increase efficiency.

operating higher which

and decrease result in

Likewise pressures

temperatures reduce the

higher

condensation

subsequently

COP of

the

refrigerator.

6-28

W F- Z W< 20W I -a) 4) c0 d a e a) 4) 42 a) 6

N

in

wt

0 LO

0 0 +1 4.3
0

gLL. Z

co

00

Z O Z

u c) ti-1 O 4r w a) Co

? 0

L. t. m

c) n)

S N

a) 12 a Co c. lO 00 9.

Oa 2

O'

t0 C1

Of

NO O,

Of

CO co

t0 co

0a

NO co

00 ON1,

(%) k N3I0I333 J1V2Nv

6-29

00 o0 E

0 0

0 0
Co

z 0 cn z

Co

bO c v O y

Co

[ 0

M)%. _O W Mm
MWc,

a' a L.

9.03

0
m
4.1 Co

W Co
NI 90

NWC +1 O 2O Q
N

No (n L. r: L. vl

41 Cli

Co +-1 >

+1 O 9. trr

N> OO 4)
to 4.3 Co

00 N C C1 O +) m O 43 .CW a++ Co .92

'.D

%0 OG +i 94

o0O

o0

O0o

(0o) 32iniv 3dI31 AV88V

6-30

0.30

0.28

(L) 0.26 O

w U
Q

0.24
0.22

Of O 0.20 LL
Q1 0 E-

0.18

0.16

Z W 0.14 U
LL0.12

O
U 0.10

0.08

LI. 15 20

I, 25

1 30 35 40 45

TEMPERATURE(C) AMBIENT
Fig 6.7 Variation change in COP of PV-refrigerator in overall ambient temperature at various with the insolations

6-31

As the

overall

COP is of

a product

of component if both

efficiencies, the array

it efficiency of it.

can be and This cooling

made independent the could media COP of the

ambient

effects can be the

refrigerator through which cost.

made

independent

be achieved (e. g. water) the

use of

a constant

temperature to the

would Thus it

add more complexity can be said solution in the in

system that

and

add towards is of

conclusion the

there

no straightforward the overall COP to

and the

simple changes

to reduce ambient

sensitivity

temperature.

The

array

area

required depend array

to

energize on In

a its fig

PV-vapour size, 6.8 the

compression insolation array the of of area ambient average array

refrigerator conditions required temperature sunshine. with the for

would and the

primarily

efficiency. refrigerator insolations

a 100 watt at various

was plotted and decrease While for in 7

against hours size effect it

There

was an exponential in insolation.

the

the of

increase was quite of

the

ambient at

temperature higher sunshine

pronouced it. A

at low insolations, trend fig

diminished for

values hours,

similar

was observed 6.9.

varying

as could

be seen in

The battery hours linearly depicted Fig 6.11 and with

capacity the the

(storage) ambient increase

showed its

dependence The

on the

sunshine

temperature. in the a number of proposed refrigerator

requirement hours. watt

diminished The trend is

sunshine 100 of heat

by fig was and

6.10 drawn so

for for the

vaccine

store.

110 W which

had lesser by 10

insulation

environmental

gains

increased

6-32

6-3z

(Wm"2) INSOLATION
34 E 32 30 ry O 28 26 W

AVERAGEMONTHLY SUNSHINE HOURS =

100

0
Ll-

24
22
20 18

200

0 r

16 14

012
LL10

300

400

LL'
6

500 600 700

4 2
0 L rtiiIri1 20 15

25

30

35

40

45

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE(C)
Fig 6.8 Graph of array area against ambient insolation conditions various temperature

6-33

33 -

50
N

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE = 40C

E 45

Of

40
35

30

25 O O
20

NM-2)

100

U15

10

*4 0,4*Iftw

200
300 400 500 600 700

Q
r5 Q

56789

MONTHLY AVERAGE SUNSHINE HOURS

Fig 6.9 Variation in for different array, area insolation with change condition in sunshine hours

6-34

watts. that

When the the required hours not

figures battery upto six it.

6.10

and capacity

6.11

were

compared, with

it the in

was observed increase the sunshine in

decreased further

sunshine hour had

hours

but

increase

affected

The observation recalling required would the

made in purpose (a)

the of

previous the

paragraph

can be

explained The storage sunset, sunshine

by was which hours, ice in was

battery energy in

storage. after

to meet decrease the for

the the

daily

demand the the

with

increase to run of

number of refrigerator, With at than

and (b) packs,

energy

required the gains sunshine six or of

without the (b), the increase which

3 days in heat of the for

absence the hours,

sunshine. duty more of

environmental independent daily highlighted heat gains.

battery was

diminishing This also

demand the

more

hours

sunshine. the

importance

insulation

to reduce

environmental

6-35

0 0

61 vi

O Oi

In 0 Cd W z V) Z
oN

U e

j._ W OMN mQ QW

0 rW

0 1

a. m
W oJ

fZ 0 in

0 cri

0 .r

COO 8N3NCN

t0

<D

*NO2

(ud) UOA. Vd301U332IM 001 dOd JlLI3Vdd0 A 3llV8

6-36

CD

u, of

a,

0 o0

0 .i 43 .4
0 t)

a v) O W Z N Z
U 0 W Z WD QW

: ft

c, C13 0 4,

oW O

c, 0 4) ca L. a) bo c. a. a, c. 4) 0 rea L. 0 o, 4) u M a cd u a) 41 43 ca ao

0 LO
CW H

0 14-

0 M

O N

0 r-

oJ to S Z 0 .n

Ln
0 cri

u .r eo w 0 .r
I. I. I -1-1 I. I. I. I

.I.

.I.

0 MNf

gN(NNN888fN8

(Liv) 1lllOVdV3 A 311V8

6-37

6.3.3

Conclusions

The major

conclusion

drawn from

the

analysis

were as follows:

(a)

A smaller
for where the

PV-array
refrigeration average

and

battery
system to

storage
be was operated high

would
in and

be required
the the areas average

the

insolation

sunshine tropics).

hours

were

long

(e. g.

near

the

equator

or

in

(b)

Increased size of

thickness the

of

insulation and the initial

would battery capital

reduce storage and running

the

required would

PV-array lower the

which costs.

subsequently

(c)

The size more

of

the

array solar

could cell

be reduced (which overall

further would be of

by employing expensive). system can

efficient its

Although only

impact

on the after

price

the

be appreciated

an economic

analysis.

(d)

The capital 2-3

battery

storage cost Alternative the

represent and incurs methods cost of

about a recurring of energy

15% of

the

initial every a cold more

expenditure storage (e. g. it

years.

storage. ) may reduce competitive.

the

system,

making

This fulfil which

has so far its

been the EPI

only

system Its

which overall

is

being

used by WHO to is the very low

requirements. size PV-arrays

performance is true of

means large

but

same

thermal

6-38

refrigeration produced electronic the total

systems. equipment. regulation cost But

It silicon

uses

established are

technologies

and mass The to Many (e. g

arrays

inherently inverters in the

expensive. add further system. devices

devices

and dc-to-ac unreliability of at high for these

and introduce

researchers [7]). Cooling

have reported of these energy the size capital

failure

electronic

devices

ambient fans

temperatures which storage

involve

additional increase the initial

consumption of the array

cooling

subsequently and increase

and the costs.

battery

and running

There over in

has been the past

a considerable few years.

reduction the

in

the

price of

of

these

units

For example

price

a PV refrigerator units can be a period way of where of high

1985 was more than for years. about

4500 [10]

and now in

1989 these of

purchased of four

3000 [11] remains

i. e. a reduction a major into is

33% over in

But there of these

hinderance world

the

proliferation these are

systems

third the

countries

most needed. for the units.

The hinderance production of

requirement and electronic

technology and regulation

PV-arrays

control

Summarizing, acceptable technology always term find on to it

it

can be technical the difficult third

concluded grounds, world to accept

that, it countries. a product

though, lacks ground These which

this for

system transfer

is of

countries would

would

mean a. long need to of be

foreign

currency which skills can

drain. be and

'Thus

alternative with available

systems the in kind the

developed technological countries.

manufactured materials

basic

developing

6-38a

PART II

Solar

'Electrolux'

refrigerator

6-39

6.4

Solar-thermal

'Electrolux'

refrigerator

Both

the

standard are in stores In this mass

'Electrolux' produced. 5. these the It

refrigerators is an attractive to mass technical

and

flat option,

plate

solar

collectors out earlier

as pointed operated cheap) option

chapter from section

manufacture (and

solar therefore of this

vaccine products. will

produced feasibility

be studied.

complete

analytical refrigerator [11]. is by major

analysis is possible

of

a diffusion though which quite will

type

'Electrolux' and out in

absorption involved this section

complicated be carried available

The aim of the to determine the thermal design using

analysis whether energy

a commercially collected This

unit

can be driven without simpler any

by a solar

collector by a water

changes. pressure

can be ascertained diagram for the

approach

enthalpy

ammonia pair.

There

are

two

distinct the latter is

cycles

working cycle the

in

the

diffusion the

absorption

refrigerator; cycle. The

ammonia-water is limited to the the the the and of to

and

ammonia-hydrogen parts.

evaporator operation of

and absorber of the

Our analysis It will, its

related

solar quality ambient working

refrigerator. available,

therefore, temperature,

involve and

thermal

energy

i. e. will

temperature.

These parameters of generator, of

affect, and

directly, condenser

and performance the circuit

absorber, evaporator. with the

consequently

performance will

The analysis help of

ammonia-water (logP-h)

be performed developed by

pressure-enthalpy

diagram

6-40

Backstrom variation logarithm solution on the

[13] of

for

such of for are

a liquid

system. (h)

It and

is of

a diagram vapours of

describing (h")

the

enthalpy

against (k") and drawn

of pressure W. diagram. There

various lines of

concentrations constant

vapours

temperature

as well

In

previous

investigation was tubular

(14,10], run by

here the

at Cranfield, heat energy 6.12). water

a standard collected The results inside even under systems in the the an by

Electrolux

refrigerator

Thermomax evacuated were reported as

collectors although a sub-zero

(see

fig

encouraging attained

the

evaporator ambient in the

box never temperature above

temperature and is modified analyzed

of 300C. The standard investigation

used next

mentioned

section.

6-41

6-42

6.4.1.

Analysis

of

the

standard

Electrolux

refrigerator

The

standard

refrigerator

(i.

e.

as of

supplied 35% and was

by

the

manufacturer) pressure analysis of of

had 25 the

a strong bars. system

solution

concentration quoted with the a help

a hydrogen 0.23. The

The manufacturer is performed

COP of

a logP-h

diagram.

Allowing

a 100C temperature an ambient analysis

difference temperature

at of

the 43C

absorber

and condenser by WHO on the

and assuming [151) logP-h the

(as specified the points

can be started fig 6.13.

by marking

diagram

as shown in

A concentration state

of

35% and a temperature A on the diagram. against

of

530C gives The partial this point

the

absorber of 3.5 1

marked by point the absorber

pressure which must of is be

ammonia in bars.

can be read of to

The partial than

pressure this [16] mixture pure

ammonia in allow

the

evaporator rate to the of

bar higher of the give

a reasonable evaporator at

circulation Thus will

ammonia-hydrogen point the E on the

from

absorber. 4.5 bars

ammonia line temperature

a pressure in the

maximum evaporation

evaporator.

The

evaporator

in

the

Electrolux

refrigerator It

is is

an

integerated tube in

evaporator-cum-heat which flowing hydrogen tube, the the cold towards -weak in the

exchanger is

(gas-to-gas). with

a double

hydrogen the

enriched

evaporating the the annulus, absorber, is

ammonia, and in the the

while warm centre

absorber flows

through from

ammoniaevaporator. streams

towards hot and

This of

way the

heat As

exchanged concentration

between of

cold

hydrogen.

the

6-43'

SI71

xr,`
#M %,
xrrr `..
N if

y0,

to

0 .o
a

:::
'3

LfN: I ::: i:
of i s, o^ o i. a 4Ia

6-44

ammonia in evaporator, continuously. temperature

hydrogen the Under at the

gas

increases

as

the

mixture along

flows it

along

the

temperature the of assumed

distribution conditions will

varies

maximum

evaporation

exit

evaporator

be 1C.

The

total of

pressure ammonia the line

of is

system 580C. will this total

is

25 bars, Therefore

at which under Point G,

the

saturation ambient pure 35%

pressure temperature ammonia

43C

condenser

perform state. pressure This

properly. The of is point 25 bars, the

C on the marked by

represent and the

concentration generation no generation

gives

the

minimum which

temperature is possible

of

135C.

temperature will

below not work.

and so the

refrigerator

At this

point

it is

is

clear not

that

the for

refrigerator solar energy

with

the

standard as cannot it be

specifications

suitable

operation

demands a generator achieved modification considering capacity configuration and with simple so the the will as

temperature flat to plate lower

of more than collectors. its generation the

130C which Hence the

system

needs Before

temperature. expected ratio in

required bubble be,

modifications, pump circulation

cooling standard

however,

calculated.

The maximum generator model was 186C. line and

temperature H on line solution defines is

measured the gives

[14,10] of

on the total

standard pressure of the

The point

intersection

186C temperature The of weak

a 13% concentration and the solution D in fig at

weak solution. temperature to the

concentration the marked state of

absorption the 6.13 entry which

53C then This

absorber.

state

by point

6-u5

corresponds

to a partial

pressure

of

0.7

bar.

The

flow of

of weak solution ammonia is given

from

the

generator

to

the

absorber

per,

kilogram

by 1131

Y=

(1 - kr)/(kr

kW) -

(1 - 0.35)/(0.35 =

0.13) -

= 2.95 kg/kg of NH3

The corresponding kg per

amount of

rich

solution Thus the

will bubble 3.95

be (Y + 1) i. e 3.95 pump in rich the standard per

kg of ammonia generated. will at the

refrigerator kg of

most circulate

kg of

solution

ammonia generated.

Finally enthalpy the point

a calculation of vapours

of

refrigeration from the

effect evaporator to kg of

can is point

be

made. The by fig is the by

emerging side

determined E (see

B on the Thus the

vapour

corresponding effect between per

6.13). equal to

refrigeration difference the

ammonia generated of

enthalpy circulation

points

B and C. Because effect is

hydrogen

useful

refrigeration

reduced

[13]

Qgas = ------

(1 - vrg)(28.7
17(vrg -

+ 9xvwg)
-_---vwg) xtT kJ/kg NH3

6.19

The ammonia vapours the the evaporator evaporator pressure

have to

diffuse Thus the saturated be reduced

through

hydrogen

atmosphere mixture

in in

and absorber. is never should

ammonia-hydrogen with in to ammonia the the rich

and as such its gas to the mixture. partial

partial Similarly

ammonia cannot

be washed out

mixture

6-46

pressure pressure

of

weak

solution

in

the

absorber

and

so

the

partial

of ammonia in

the weak gas mixture

should

be increased.

After partial
of rich

consultation pressure
and weak

with

Green

[16]

the

value

for

the

difference

in

was assumed as 0.2

ammonia-hydrogen gas

bar.

Thus the
are

partial

pressures

mixture

Prg

= 4.7

0.2

4.5 =

bar

pwg = 0.7

+ 0.2

= 0.9

bar

The corresponding

volumetric

concentrations

are

vrg

= Prg/P

4.5/25 =

= 0.18

vwg = PWg/P = 0.9/25

= 0.036

Thus the temperature

cooling

lost

due across

to the

gas

circulation of

with 10C is

an assumed

difference,

two streams,

Qgas = (1 - 0.18)x(28.7
= 97.2 kJ/kg NH3

+ 9x0.036)/17/(0.18

0.036)x10 -

Thus the

net

refrigeration

effect

will

be

Qref

= hev - hcon - Qgas = 1270 - 270 - 97.2 = 902.8 kJ/kg NH3

6-47

6.4.2

Analysis

of modified

Electrolux

refrigerator

In

the

research

previously of

conducted the system

at

Cranfield to

[14,10]

the

concentration bars in order

and pressure to heat a lower pipe

was changed temperature. in of the the

55% and 18

the

generator used

The Thermomax research could a

evacuated deliver total

tube heat at

collector temperature across

maximum difference

140C [141. heat

Allowing

temperature of

exchanger

and the could be

thermosyphon 125C.

15C the maximum generation

temperature

Assuming will will

the

43C ambient This bar of under of 53C

conditions that the

the

pressure

in

the

absorber pressure 20C. At

be 9 bars. be 10.2

implies which 18

maximum to

evaporation of at

correspond ammonia

a temperature will condense hence of the a

maximum pressure implies temperature rise that

bars

115C. This

an ambient the operating at the

of 113C, and pressure maximum weak solution

condensation will of

refrigerator temperature be about 36%.

to 22 bars.

Therefore of

generation will

125C the

concentration

The duty

of

the

bubble

pump can now be calculated

Y=

(1

0.55)/(0.55 -

- 0.36)

= 2.37

kg/kg

of

NH3

or 3.37 lower

kg of

strong

solution was lower doing

per in

kg a

of

ammonia

desorbed.

This but

is is

than

what it with the

standard temperature.

configuration

compatable

operating

6-48

The partial the absorber pressure evaporator -35C the along third reduce at the of

pressure will

of

ammonia in 0.7 weak

the

weak solution indicate

at the that gas the

entry partial

to

be around the

bars

which

ammonia in will start the

ammonia-hydrogen This gives a minimum

entering

the of

be 0.9 of

bars.

temperature

evaporation

gradually the

increasing temperature of This

to 20C at distribution more than seriously a

exit the of its

from

evaporator. to

Assuming the is

evaporator the

be linear, length

temperature above 0C.

evaporator

will

capacity.

As the

cabinet

temperature temperature

is

to be maintained not 4.3 bars. as at be

below

80C the The

highest partial at the the 0.42 The

evaporation pressure evaporator

should 00C is

above The partial bars. below after

0C.

of ammonia at exit was

pressure

calculated evaporates of effect that

10.2 or

This 0C

means that is only

amount of ammonia which (i. e. effective 4.3/10.2 = 0.42)

available

condensation. as

refrigeration

can thus

be calculated

hev

2 1270 kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg

NH3 NH3 NH3 250) -21.7 406.7 = kJ/kg NH3

heon = 250 Qgas = 21.7 and Qref

2 0.12x(1270

This

is

some

44.8%

of

the

value that

which the

the

standard

refrigerator out are

produced. not suited

Thus it to its

can be said optimum

modifications envisaged

carried conditions.

operation

under

6-u9

6.4.3.

Modified

system

for

optimum

operation

with

solar

input

For optimum operation should in the evaporate absorber Thus without

of

the

refrigerator below 0C. partial transfer at

all This

the

condensed rich

ammonia mixture 3.1 the 53C

completely cannot

means that of

have

a heat

pressure

more than of of

bars. absorber will be

improving

characteristics temperature at means a total that

the maximum concentration 33%. The minimum generation is is around 130C. This in

absorption temperature clearly absorber.

pressure a higher

of 22 bars concentration

to be allowed

the

Keeping raise the

the

higher

evaporation of rich the

temperature solution heat transfer is

as 0C, to lower

the the

only

way to

concentration By increasing surface,

absorption use of fins to will

temperature. on the

area

by the

absorber

absorption A maximum

temperature concentration

can be reduced of 36%

5C above ambient then be possible.

i. e. 48C.

For the limit again

a 10% reduction system on the involve pressure

in

the

concentration exceed

of 20

rich bars. of

solution This 49C. the

at

125C, a

cannot

imposes This

maximum condensation improving the

temperature design

would

heat-transfer

of

condenser.

Now the solution

bubble

pump

duty per

can

be

calculated. be

The

amount of

weak

circulated

kg of

ammonia will

Y=

(1 - 0.36)/(0.36

- 0.32.4)

= 18.82

6-50

which about

gives five

a rich times

solution what

circulation the pump The was

of

19.82

kg/kg

NH3. under in

This

is

circulating of change of

standard operating pump in

refrigerator temperature can be

configuration. and studied D. It a is five tube from clear times

effect on the [171

diameter Cattaneo's from higher pump is

performance experiments that is

a bubble presented

appendix temperature the design

his

work

at reduced not possible

operating unless

circulation radically

of, the

bubble

changed.

6.4.4

Conclusion

It

can,

thus,

be

concluded with

that solar to its of

optimum input circuit.

operation at 140C

of is

a commercially not possible

available without of

refrigerator major

modification new system economically

Designing for

and production such a limited

a completely is not

enormous

complexity

market

feasible.

A recent above. In

study this

by Gutierrez study a

[18]

substantiates capacity view plate and rate

the

observations refrigerator is

made

250 litre

SERVEL brand of the

was used as a prototype. in fig 6.14. The high A larger

A schematic temperature heat larger flat

prototype

shown the

collector a new of the

replaced bubble

generator. installed

exchanger circulation

pump was

to cope with

weak solution.

He

reported

that

freezing of the

temperatures greater refrigerator an overall than

could 28C. was 0.11 COP of

not Below and

be produced 28C ambient solar

under the

ambient

temperatures COP of

thermodynamic efficiency

collector

was 23%, giving

0.0253.

6-50A

L. 0 4) U
d ri 0 v r-1 co 0 N

a)
C) 0

a ca
u"
r

/CC
4)
0

0 v

w d m

oc

n
N 6. w r v

N C)

4.4

3
Id
ob

a)

ca L. p

L a C a, V

c v

I0 a Q

u x a) 4a a, L 12 .' Q

a) w ,o 0 Ei ca w 0 C)

.i 4.3
I0 v v W c u 0)
r 0

co a) a C) r. ao

lD

6-51

Continuous heat is

absorption to either In the

refrigerators generator. storage

can Thus for or

produce the

cooling

while

the-, is

supplied

period storage

when there would store. the

no insolation, be provided. storage would

a heat

a cold

have to The heat

either

case it a

would

be a massive above large

have to maintain This In . would the result case of

temperature into a a very cold

generation inefficient

temperature. solar would collector have to

and the

storage 4.

refrigerator

be oversized

by a factor

of upto

Summarizing, limitations, absorption components.

it that

can it

be is not

concluded, possible using

on the to

basis construct

of

these a solar

technical thermal

refrigerator

by

"off-the-shelf"

mass-produced

6-51a

PART III

Solar

intermittent

vapour

sorption

refrigerators

6-52

6.5

Solar-thermal

intermittent

solid

sorption

refrigerator

In

chapter

it

was

noted

that

intermittent Sun being their

solid a diurnal

sorption source operation. of

refrigerators energy Therefore further zeolite suggested firstly, determined performance and compared is

were simple well these compatible have the that

and rugged. with

intermittent a better calcium and In option.

potential activated

to be

It

was and were

concluded were to good

carbon,

chloride, methanol this

sorbents

whereas for

ammonia the sorbents.

be good refrigerants of these to

section, will overall be

performance and of

different the best

sorption best. pair

pairs Then the

compared the system the other

choose the

using options.

will

be ascertained

with

6.5.1

Suitability

criterion

for

a refrigerant

In

the

context

of cycle

solar

stimulated are

sorption very important. Teo

refrigerators

the

thermodynamic application temperature, maximum cycle collection sorption 6.15. high the

temperatures evaporation

For a specific the condensation known. The

the Tc,

temperature, sorption

and

the is

temperature, by flat the plate type

Ta are of

temperature device, which

limited for a

solar is

energy 120C. fig the of A

collector diagram is line,

refrigeration The chosen

cycle

on a Clapeyron defines lines the

shown in while

refrigerant

saturation the

and the refrigerant

low concentration in the the sorbed

represent The the

equilibrium evaporation

state.

required

temperature the sorption

fixes

pressure,

Pe, for subsequently,

chosen marks

refrigerant the point

and 1 on the

temperature,

6-53

a IY
v

W 0 W U-

C) J

0 a-

ID w
Z

F-Z

au

38nSS3addO 901

6-54

high

concentration

line.

The is

point

2,

which by

gives the

the

minimum

generation temperature.

temperature,

controlled

condensation

Assuming in Gibbs

the refrigerant free p, with is energy of

vapours the to

behave

as an ideal at

gas,

the

change T and

adsorbed its free

molecule saturation

temperature state at the

pressure

reference given by

same

temperature,,

DG = RTln[p/ps(T)]

6.20

which, adsorption equation

after work, (which

Dubinin

[19],

is

equal

in

magnitude is defined

to the molar by the D-A

D. The adsorption is equally

equilibrium to

applicable

bivariant

absorption

equilibrium)

m0exp[D/E]n

6.21

The

characteristic adsorption concentration

adsorption pair, m. which

energy, implies

E,

is

constant value the

for of D for of

particular a constant will

a constant an isostere

Thus along the high

value

AG

be constant,

e. g. along

concentration

isostere

AG = RTaln[Pe/Ps(Ta)1

= RT21n[Pc/Ps(T2)1

6.22

Expressing respective

the

evaporation

and

condensation equation

pressures 6.22

in

terms

of

temperatures

and rearranging

yields

6-55

ln[ps(Te)/ps(Ta)] T2 Ta 1n[ps(Tc)/ps(T2)]
wrtk oneAa method the

6.23

Thus

the

above

equation

6.23

provides

to

determine

minimum generation ps(T),

equation known required refrigerant important,

temperature, the
for

T2,

when one can define It is

operating condensation is only

the

function from
i. e. a

i. e. selects
6.23 that

refrigerant.
a specific and

further

evident

environment, temperature, a function This to the is a

evaporation, minimum and rather is

sorption generation independent overriding,

the of the very of

temperature of point the with

sorbent. regard

selection

refrigerant is a solar
vapour

for restricted

sorption (such for when

cycle as in the solar

when

the

maximum refrigerators).

cycle

temperature This lays

operated of

new foundation operated

sorption

selection

refrigerants temperature

to

be is

used in
limited)

(or

the

maximum cycle

refrigerators.

Thus, maximum device, suitability In the

knowing

the

refrigerator's achievable ascertain, chosen this to

operating in by the

temperatures solar energy equation envisaged the

and collection 6.23, application.

the

temperature one of next can the

applying for basis the for

the

refrigerant new found

section,

suitability refrigerants operated

of

a to

refrigerant ascertain sorption if

was applied those

some, otherwise be used in a

suitable, solar

could

vapour

refrigeration

cycle.

6-56

6.5.2

Evaluation

of

refrigerants

The

proposal

being

considered store

in

this to

report

is

the

design

of

solar (see

operated appendix night and and

vaccine B). This

conforming mean a of 32C. day

the WHO specifications temperature in of

would

time

43C and a condenser would be 53

time sorber

temperature the

Therefore and sorption

an air-cooled temperatures

condensation To

43C respectively. should be at

freeze -10C.

the

ice-packs

the

evaporation

temperature

least

It

was

concluded for in fig

in sorption

chapter cycles.

5 that Using

methanol the

and ammonia are

good

refrigerants developed (shown the in

suitability for methanol

criterion, and ammonia which under taking depict varying place

the 6.16 of

previous and 6.17 minimum

section,

charts

respectively) generation temperatures

were prepared temperature for evaporation

variation

sorption at -100C.

and condensation

In

an intermittent

sorption

refrigerator, above, and see

performing appendix when

under B)

the

WHO

specified conditions, ammonia is makes it condenser cannot collector limited to

(discussed the the

operating methanol or This

minimum generation refrigerant, is any using

temperature, or 118.6C

124.6

respectively. with as with

very and

clear

that

sorption methanol

refrigerator or ammonia

air-cooled refrigerant a flat plate is

absorber under

operate,

WHO specified temperature in

conditions, a flat

(operating 120C).

plate

collector

6-57

co I

0 c

(0

a) e o' 0 c.
c

c
c

oe

4) W m W boa 00 c+' 0 co +

II

*Z O

z
w U w

\to

Z> w f D . Z
O

co
G, .cc a' o L s o ar
02 co
C

bo

nom ca

(0
'')

M n bo
ar

0 c. c t7 +

N8 (00) 32jl1V3dW31 NOIIV N30

6-58

Co In
IC O

Nw O O Ul) cli `/ U d

U 0 O II W Q W W FZ O
Ld CL W F

43

to

L. d 4) rl 4) >1 00 V 4r C

z
I-

OO

z w U w

co
4.4 vi L. L. cd 44

D
g

Cl) W

tyO a
CD

40 .4 c

410

0 m cu

.cc aco co c. C

bo +14 994

NO Op

N.

(00) 32jf11V3dW31 NOIIV2GN30

6-59

The

problem

with

the

concentrating of would So would the

collectors upto not 150Cperform is

-the that well

alternative they under would

for need

higher frequent insolation

operating

temperatures and

adjustment conditions. unit if evaporation can

diffuse of cannot the be

operating to be altered. is by raised

temperatures Ice packs but

refrigeration frozen temperature This water. stagnant water-cooled 110C. can

have temperature easily the

condensation the condenser. pool of

be lowered by

water-cooling in 43C 32C.

be achieved Under water an would condenser

placing

condenser of of the

a stagnant and

ambient be at

temperature a temperature reduce

50% humidity, having a to

Therefore

can

condensation

temperature

Using that sorption

the by

graphs lowering and

presented the evaporation the generation 103C collector. would

in

fig

6.16

and fig

6.17 to at 40 and very clear

one 40C and

can

see

condensation are taking

temperature place of

(while -10C is the both

respectively) lowered range methanol under of to 107

temperature respectively. Hence need it

methanol This is

ammonia much that to in

and plate ammonia

a flat and

becomes

water-cooled

condenser

operate

WHO specified

operating

conditions.

Some other of this

more common established is the

refrigerants suitability presented table in

were also criterion. table can 6.1. see

examined

on the

basis of the

newly

The result Methanol that all fall

evaluation are also

exercise listed in

and ammonia but sulphur that

and one

trioxide

have their

minimum generation

temperature

between

6-60

TABLE 6.1 Minimum generation temperature of various refrigerants

REFRIGERANT

MINIMUM GENERATION TEMPERATURE(C) water-cooled air-cooled condenser condenser 124.6 118.6 120.8 134.3 122.1 123.5 122.1 120.2 107.2 103.2 105.0 114.6 106.0 107.0 105.4 105.0

HEAT OF * VAPORIZATION (kJ/kg) 1102 1374 390 508 839 623 2260 415

METHANOL AMMONIA SULPHUR DIOXIDE SULPHUR TRIOXIDE METHYL AMINE ETHYL AMINE WATER NITROGEN DIOXIDE

Evaporation Sorption

temperature temperature boiling point

= -100C = 420C

0 at normal

6-61

of

ammonia

and of

methanol.

Sulphur

trioxide condenser

indicated was water

higher

temperature

114.6C

even when the

cooled.

Thus

methanol

and stand units.

ammonia, out Table vapours that of the The as

because better 6.2

of

their for

higher solar and at

heat operated specific -10 is at

of

vaporization, vapour volume 50C. low 90 pipes It sorption of

refrigerants compares the

pressure

saturated can be seen to that have pressure of and from very

both vapour

the pressure volume

refrigerants of of methanol methanol the to

and very is

compared times would

ammonia. of to

specific which

-100C

ammonia be drop high

evidently for high

mean that methanol

evaporator avoid other that have the hand, of to

much due

larger to

excessive because methanol) be built

velocity. pressure

On the (37 times

condensation nature, gauge the steel

corrosive very heavy

ammonia sheet.

equipment

would

The final example, sorbent, of the

choice

between

the

two into

cannot

be made in the

isolation.

For

one would its

have to take with

consideration sorbent

corresponding the design

performance

the

particular

and

collector-cum-generator.

6-62

TABLE 6.2

Comparison of some physical properties of methanol and ammonia

TEMPERATURE SATURATION PRESSURE (bar) (C) Ammonia Methanol -10 50 0.018 0.556 2.91 20.3

SPECIFIC VOLUME (m3/kg) Methanol Ammonia 37.95 1.529 0.418 0.063

6-63

6.5.3

Evaluation

of

sorbent

pairs

It

was concluded, activated and

on the carbon the with

basis and

of

their zeolite of each

performance, were one better of as

that

calcium The solar is

chloride, performance refrigeration, ascertained

sorbents. them for

suitability methanol

and sections.

ammonia

refrigerants,

in

the

next

few

6.5.3.1

Calcium

chloride/methanol

Calcium nature. equilibrium reaction

chloride Two

absorbs interesting

methanol studies between by the the

and had salt

the been and

reaction carried methanol

is

chemical out on

in the The

reaction is represented

[20,21].

following

chemical

equation;

CaC12.2CH3OH ==== CaC12 + 2CH3OH + 1700 kJ/kg

CH3OH

6.24

which

is

follows

the

following

pressure-temperature

curve

[20];

lnp(mbar)

= -6510/T

+ 22.99

6.25

The latent (estimated relation absorbent This is

heat from [22])

of the which

vaporization value at

of methanol normal boiling

at point,

-100C is using

1260 kJ/kg the heat Watson of the

means that, the

ignoring pair but place

the

sensible

and the a very allow

equipment,

can show one has within to

maximum COP of see if the

0.74.

reasonable the cycle

figure to take

reaction

kinetics

24 hours.

6-64

Equation pure at

6.25

represent Therefore, a

a reaction in theory,

equilibrium for

at

68C above that to take

of

methanol.

condensation

place of

42C

(assuming

water-cooled In practice

condenser), after occured desorbed 8

a bed temperature hours, In ref 4 hours with

110C would fluid moles heating of at of

be required.

heating [21] 1.5

142C, methanol

95% demethanolation had been reported 110C.

[20]. after

when the limits are

fluid

was at tube

These temperatures collectors. look into the

are within

the kinetics

evacuated

heat-pipe

The reactions sorption process

reasonable.

But one has to

as well.

It

was reported

in

ref in

(20]

that,

for

methanolation methanol

reaction and the

to

take

place, pressure kinetics

a divergence of the salt

pressure

between

equilibrium The reaction evaporation

mixture to

must be more than slow only 45% down at

23 mbar. lower

were

observed For instance,

temperatures. hours for

methanolation of -0.90C

occured and

in the

16 bed

an

evaporation

temperature

temperature

of 37.7C.

For

the

envisaged of

conditions 12C) the

of 32C ambient equilibrium be 2.23

temperature of the

(i. e. a bed salt mixture taking 18 mbar.

temperature (from place This is equation at

pressure mbar. For

6.25) the

would vapour

evaporation would than be

-100C,

pressure

of methanol of and less

would

create to take

a pressure start place. absorption

difference

23 mbar (which the the for reaction calcium to build

necessary not

methanolation) Thus, it was

therefore that suitable

would

concluded was not

chloride/methanol a refrigerator

reaction

to meet WHO/EPI requirements.

6-65

6.5.3.2

Calcium

chloride/ammonia

The

equilibrium

reaction following

between

calcium

chloride

and

ammonia

is

represented

by the

chemical

equations;

CaC12.8NH3 ==== CaC12.4NH3 + 1NH3 + Ql

6.26

CaC12.4NH3 =-_= CaC12.2NH3 + 2NH3 + Q2

6.27

CaC12.2NH3 =__= CaC12. NH3 + NH3 Q3

6.28

The

reactions of

represented 97C and

by equations

6.26

and 6.27 under 6.28

take

place

at

temperatures bars.

1140C respectively by equation take effect for This

a pressure takes place heat.

of 20 at

The reaction of 102 g

represented

temperature moles or

185C which of

cannot

by solar refrigeration is a plus per the of

Thus 6 purposes

ammonia are calcium of

available chloride.

per mole or system absorbent the limited as is

111 g of the mass

point unit

of mass

the of

available large. But period

refrigerant to complete the kinetics

considerably available This

reaction the in

within has of

sunshine

system excess

to be accelerated. the equilibrium

demanded

a surface 10-15C of [24].

temperature [237. With

temperature

by about

a flat-plate of 70% was took

collector-cum-generator achieved place at after -10C, a

a maximum degree period of of the 6 hours mixture

generation

When evaporation convection rate of

cooling was not

through the

and night reaction

sky radiation (to complete

enough to achieve within

desired [23].

the

reaction

16 hours)

6-66

The heats 2200 latent side never and

of

reaction kJ/kg

Q, and Q2 are NH3 [231, of

about is This

equal

and

vary

between the high can

2500 of

which ammonia.

approximately is a bit this

twice on the pair

heat

vaporization that 0.5. the

and indicate be more than

thermodynamic

cycle

COP of

One crucial of absorbent

problem during

associated

with

solid Calcium The

absorption chloride result to absorb [23,24] is

is

the

swelling by about of

absorption.

swells

400%

on absorbing and to this

[23,24]. ammonia in its

compacting

absorbent Solution binding used in thermal

reduction problem and units. and

capacity

more refrigerant. some other had been to the

had been found salts. This

by adding material

materials successful capacity

Up to 20% of represents the overall

binding a wasteful COP.

addition

decreases

Fig

6.18

shows the

equilibrium

of

calcium It

chloride/ammonia can be clearly

reaction seen from it are

represented that

on a Clapeyron

diagram. during

equilibrium solely

temperatures by is the

absorption

and desorption

determined respectively. monovariant concentration liquid with

evaporation the have

and condensation solid the absorption freedom of

temperatures, systems choosing as leaves are the in one

This and of one

because does not

the This

mixture is a

of absorbent serious limitation control.

and refrigerant which

absorption. no straightforward

temperature

commercial

refrigerator, of France (see

based chapter

on 5

this for

reaction, details)

produced has recently

by

Comesse Soudure

6-67

lI

=Z N

Co a-co O 0 S vi O Vi O W u cd U L a, 0 0 B

V
NZ

Ou

o
w
LU

co a m

0 w cd 00 ca V 0

W t 2-

Z LU l"'

a) a ca U co

40

Csr

NO

co

%0

--t

V-

CO

%0

_t

601) (BIMS 38nSS38d JDG

6-68

been

reported [25].

to

perform The price the

satisfactorily of US$ 6,000 required limits. is very for

and high

meet

WHO/EPI

requirements the complexity

and reflects the

of

circuitry

maintaining

temperature

within

the

prescribed

6.5.3.3

Activated

carbon

and zeolite-13X

The

two

solids, As

activated explained

carbon earlier is the

and (see

zeolite-13X 4),

adsorb adsorption

the is a in

refrigerants. physical the

chapter

phenomenon and structure swelling

thus of

not

accompanied

by any changes the not and

lattice of

adsorbent.

Therefore is

serious

problem by solid

exhibited Adsorption in

by solid systems the

absorbents are

experienced therefore or can into

adsorbents. is

bivariant of working

more freedom temperature. be achieved

available

choice or

pressure temperature

The desired by varying

evaporation the

condensation

concentration

of refrigerants

adsorbents.

In order envisaged constructed employed. model two, Table the is with 7.1

to

determine

which (i. e.

adsorption a solar

pair operated

was better vaccine (see

suited store)

to

the

application by The included using listing in

a model, 4), was the for the

equations of the

4.19-4.28

chapter incorporating

computer

program

appendix

H. The adsorption was the established

equilibrium

ammonia and (see chapter

methanol, 7) enlists

experimentally. constants for

characteristic

pairs.

6-69

The COP calculations, for zeolite/ammonia,

at

various

generation

temperatures,

were done

activated The results

carbon-208C/ammonia shown in fig 6.19-6.20

and activated are for the

carbon-208C/methanol. following conditions.

Evaporation Adsorption Condensation Generation

temperature temperature temperature temperature

-10C 45C 40 & 50C 100-150C

The evaluation 50C

has been done at the an

two condensation condensation condenser the the It

temperatures temperature respectively) imposed not

40 and in a

(representing and

expected air-cooled Both which

water-cooled WHO/EPI specified generation COP at three Activated performance temperature methanol although, these pairs

under minimum The the

conditions. below

refrigerants cycle would

temperatures temperatures showed

perform. that all

was zero.

can be observed at higher showed At

improved

performance combination

temperatures. the best

carbon-208C/methanol of all with is water-cooled the cannot its upper

condenser. limit in

120C generation plate collector) and,

(which combination

a flat

work with

air-cooled low (0.045).

condenser

ammonia worked,

COP was very

The COP so calculated would be lost in heating

did

not

take metal being

into

account

the

energy

which of

up the Ammonia

box containing very is corrosive

the

mixture

adsorbent/refrigerant. pressure duralumin being high, steel

and the heavy heat

system gauge loss

the

equipment

usually the

made of sensible

or mild

sheets.

Therefore

6-70

&-70 A.C.-208C/METHANOL
0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 w z < O X a0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20 z w li. w O O 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145

GENERATIONTEMPERATURE(C)
Fig 6.19 COP of various in adsorption pairs temperatures a range of generation an intermittent (water-cooled cycle over condenser)

6-71

6-71

A.C.-208C/METHANOL
0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32 Q 0.30 0.28 0.26 C w aI

0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18

0.16

W 0.14 U 0.12 LLW 0.10 0 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 120 125 130 135 140 145

GENERATIONTEMPERATURE(C)
Fig 6.20 COP of various adsorption in pairs temperatures a range of generation an intermittent cycle (air-cooled condenser) over

6-72

would higher system. larger basis

be

greater heat

in

ammonia equipment copper the which

as both can be

the materials used in

have

specific This proportion of

than

methanol lowered in

means that in

COP of ammonia system with was the best methanol concluded suited store. for

would

comparison COP, pair it is

system. that

Thus,

on the

higher

activated the intended

carbon-208C/methanol application of a solar

operated

vaccine

6-73

6.6

The final

conclusion

In this first was

chapter one

three

major photovoltaic

options vapour I It of

were

studied

in

detail.

The It was for option can be a

was the in

compression chapter the

refrigerator. that it

concluded

the

part option.

this

technically feasibility as defined summarized

feasible but in failed section

fulfilled

minimum criterion of of a feasible the system

to meet the 5.2.

requirements drawbacks

The major

as below.

(i)

Photovoltaic within damage months. the

panels reach of

are

expensive

and

the

technology, Thus in

is case

not of

developing

countries.

(e. g.

as a result

of hailstorm)

the

repairs

may take

(ii)

The electronic operating

control

circuitry

is

prone

to failure

at high

temperatures circuits,

(common in many developing therefore, would have to

countries). be kept in

The replacement spare stock at

an additional

investment.

(iii)

The storage is a source

batteries of recurring

have

normal

life

of 2-3

years. of

This this

expenditure. the system is

As the inoperable,

failure

component investment

renders on spare

additional

batteries

required

as well.

(iv)

The

storage

batteries

need

regular

attention

and

maintenance.

6-74

Thus

the

final system. the

word Its design

about reliability of the

this

system need to

would

be that

it

is

an by

expensive improving alternatives

be. improved that fail or

either finding

components with those is It

which

would

dispense

unreliable available providing remote

parts. readily

The in

manufacturing most of the

and maintenance countries to world. the equip But expected the

technology to use it.

not is in

currently areas of the is

an alternative developing needed for

health and

centres 'low'

cheaper of

technology

equipment

promotion

WHO/EPI objectives.

The second heat

option

was operating from the the evacuated major chapter

an 'Electrolux' tube heat-pipe

refrigerator collectors. It

by the looked already. the system would

produced

attractive But in to solar part

as both II of

components it

were mass produced that to adapt

was found design line,

operation for

required

major

changes. which

The changes for

have called market knocked could out

a new manufacturing not of be the economical. competition.

such a limited was technically

Thus the

option

Alternative

fuels

such as biogas energy the major

can be produced as well. in

locally If the

and may burner fueled type

be used to meet other design systems) refrigerators (which could is

requirements cause of failure

kerosene 'Electrolux'

be improved could prove

and

made

reliable

to be a good alternative.

The solid

last

option

considered refrigerator.

was a This

thermally was dealt

operated with in part

intermittent III of this

sorption

chapter.

Ammonia and methanol

were found

to be suitable

refrigerants

6-75

for

such

plant. operating

It

was conditions unless

further both a

established the

that

under

the WHO a

specified water-cooled collector adsorption

refrigerants

required concentrating and three

condenser was pairs employed

high

temperature

as the

generator.

Two absorption

were evaluated.

Calcium

chloride/methanol under

system time

could ambient

not

produce

ice-producing and was not were found in to

temperature the suffer race

320C night Calcium

temperature

any more. inherent control. to

chloride of

ammonia systems swelling systems

from

problems

and no straightforward produced contributing of calcium (b) control were expensive towards chloride the to of cooling

temperature compared high price

The commercial units. special

photovoltaic were (a) the

The factors treatment material, temperature absorber.

produce thermostatic circuits

stable

porous for to cool

granular the the

introduction (c) and

valves introduced

Heat

of

absorption Thus a

is higher for

usually heat

much input

higher per unit system. zeolite than

than

the

heat

of

adsorption. would calcium

mass of Specific

refrigerant heat of

be required chloride is

calcium

chloride with less

larger

compared is much

or activated activated of in the the carbon system

carbon (see under bed cycle

and thermal table 6.3).

conductivity This would slow

down

the heat the

response transfer

transient difficult. under it much the

conditions Owing to

and make the these reasons

sorbent the

thermodynamic cannot exceed

COP of 0.25.

WHO/EPI specified decided and to focus do

conditions attention not require

Therefore which for are the

was

on adsorption special

systems treatment

simpler

adsorbents.

6-76

TABLE 6.3

Physical

properties

of

some sorbents

SOLID SORBENT

BULK DENSITY (kgm 3) 870 670

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (kJkg-1K-1) 2.47 0.92 0.67

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (Wm 1K-1) 0.12 0.12 0.61

Calcium Zeolite activated

chloride

carbon

500

6-77

Out

of

the

three was

adsorption considered are for other

pairs the best

evaluated on the too,

activated grounds of of

carbon-208C/methanol better activated performance. carbon

There

advantages,

using

as adsorbent,

instant;

(a)

activated thermal (see table

carbon

has the of This of

lowest the means

specific three that solid the

heat

and the

highest

conductivity 6.3). conditons, and the with heat both

sorbents response carbon

considered time, under be in

transient lesser

an activated in it

bed be

will better

transfer the other

will

comparison

sorbents;

(b)

activated countries mass and is,

carbon and is a

is

already widely

manufactured used industrial

in

many developing material. coconut It shell) is

produced therefore,

from

cheap raw material inexpensive; and,

(e. g.

(c)

activated controlling special requirements.

carbon the

properties activation to

can process suit

be and the

varied treating particular

easily, it

by with system

chemicals,

Thus the activated refrigerator refrigerated the

whole

of

this

excercise

proved

that

solar vapour for

stimulated adsorption an autonomous in detail and

carbon-208C/methanol would vaccine presented

intermittent

meet the WHO/EPI requirements store. in the Its next design chapter. was

studied

findings

6-78

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