2012

Building Construction Report

Snigdha Dam B.Arch 3rd Year 1/11/2012

Formwork Introduction
Steel shuttering refers to steel panels or structures that are put in place ahead of the pouring of concrete. The panels are held in place with rods or connecting pins known as falsework. Steel shuttering is used to create a mold in which concrete can be poured and set to create a concrete structure. The panels are often temporary supports that are removed after the concrete has set, though in some instances, the steel panels are kept in place as a permanent part of the structure. Very often plywood is used as shuttering, but for heavier-duty applications and exceptionally large concrete structures, steel shuttering may be a more appropriate material. Plywood is often used because it is lightweight and inexpensive, and while steel can be more costly, heavier, and more difficult to transport and store, it is a much stronger material that will withstand heavier amounts of weight from concrete in its liquid and solid forms. Large construction projects are likely to feature steel shuttering structures, especially if the steel will remain as part of the concrete structure once the concrete has set.

procedure
When plywood is not feasible to use, steel panels can be substituted. These tend to be exceptionally durable and will not yield under heavy loads, but the panels can be quite heavy and difficult to put in place. As a shuttering material, steel is also generally more expensive. Following are the basic steps involved in making concrete wall with the help of formwork:-

1- A trench bed is dug out at the site as shown in fig. A

fig. A

2- Side walls are supported using timber and steel planking

Planking

fig. B

3- PCC base is layed at the suitable position.

fig. B

4- After PCC is dry, shuttering is set up and concrete is poured upto a suitable height.

fig. B

5- After the first layer dry shuttering for second layer is set up taking support from the previous dried concrete layer and the process continues.

fig. B

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads. 2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and vertically, so as to retain its shape. 3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout. 4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without damage to the concrete. 5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for reuse.

6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane surface. 7. It should be as light as possible. 8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements. 9. It should rest on firm base.

Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement: It should be 1. well-seasoned 2. light in weight 3. easily workable with nails without splitting 4. free from loose knots Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.

Wooden Planking
Source: Author/

Timber Formwork
Source: Author

Detail At- A
Source: Author

Composite Shuttering Frame

Source: Author

Wood shuttering for column

Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:

Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and beam bottom Joints, ledges Posts 25 mm to 40mm thick 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm

Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations: 1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there. 2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and dismantling. 3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.

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Steel shuttering plan

Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their reuses are more in number. 2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed. 3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces need no further treatment. 4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete. 5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Construction of formwork:
This normally involves the following operations: 1. Propping and centring 2. Shuttering 3. Provision of camber 4. Cleaning and surface treatment

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Order and method of removing formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:

1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete. 2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next. 3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be removed in the end.

Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the concrete reaches strength of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.

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2- SCAFFOLDING

2.1 Introduction
A scaffold is a temporary structure usually made of metal frames and tubing, which provides temporary support and access for workers and materials used in construction, demolition, repair and maintenance work The safe and efficient use of scaffolding depends, first of all, on choosing the right system for the job. If the scaffolds basic characteristics are unsuited to the task, or if all the necessary components are not available, proper erection and use are compromised. Selection of scaffolding and related components requires an understanding of site conditions and the work to be undertaken. The employer must consider the following:

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2.2 Basic Considerations

-the weight of workers, tools, materials and equipment to be carried by the scaffold system (safe work load) -site conditions (interior, exterior, backfill, concrete floors, type and condition of walls, access for the equipment, variations in elevation, anchorage points, etc) -height to which the scaffold may be erected (overhead power lines, tie-backs) -type of work that will be done from the scaffold (masonry work, sandblasting, painting, metal siding, mechanical installation, suspended ceiling installation)

SCAFFOLD TYPE AND SELECTION

Selecting a Scaffolding System depends on the following site conditions1- Duration of work 2- Weather conditions, including wind and ice build-up 3- Requirements for pedestrian traffic through and under the scaffold area 4- Means of access to the scaffold 5- Configuration of the building or structure being worked on 6- Special erection or dismantling circumstances.

2.3 Types of Scaffoldings

There are no particular types of scaffolding that can be acceptable worldwide. It is always context specific according to the site and location also to weather conditions. There are a few specific styles in which scaffoldings can be erected also different manufacturers manufacture different types of joints and different sizes. Selecting a particular type should be done judiciously abcdTimber/bamboo Scaffolding Movable scaffolding Independent type scaffolding Putlog scaffolding

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Timber/ Bamboo Scaffolding In this type of scaffolding bamboo is the main member used horizontally and vertically as well. They are tied together using rope (rassi) specially made of jute as it doesnt loosen up earily.It
may look low tech. but bamboo is a perfect scaffold material, being strong, straight, lightweight, cheap and renewable.

Jute rope Bamboo Scaffolding

Source: Author Source: Author

Standing Surface

Held with Nails or rope

Supporting member

Supporting member

A typical joint Supporting member Construction details

Source: Author

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Movable Scaffolding Scaffolds which need to be moved frequently are often equipped with castors or wheels. The most important consideration with these scaffolds is that both horizontal and vertical bracing must be used with the standard tubular frame systems. Also, outrigger supports may have to be provided to ensure the stability of the scaffold. Rolling scaffolds must be erected so that the height-to-base width ratio is no greater than 3 to 1. This limits platform height with standard outrigger stabilizers and single span towers to approximately 9.5 meters (30 ft), [this assumes outrigger stabilizers are 3 meters (10 ft across)]. Castors on rolling scaffolds must be equipped with braking devices. The type of castor used should not only include a braking device but must also be selected based upon the loads under which it will be operating. Additionally, the ground surface upon which the castor will be used must be free of defects such as potholes and other obstructive debris, which may cause the scaffold to topple when it is being moved.

Source: http://grails.org/doc/latest/guide/scaffolding.html

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Independent Tied Scaffolds

An independent scaffold consists of a double row of standards, with each row parallel to the building. The inner row is set as close to the building as is practicable. The distance between the lines of standards should be the minimum necessary to accommodate the required number of boards and toe boards. A variation may be adopted in which the row of standards nearest to the building can be set back about 300 mm from the building face. This means that one of the boards of the platform can be laid between the inside row of the standards and the building face. The standards should be connected with ledgers parallel to the building and fixed with right angles couplers. Transoms are then fixed to the ledgers with putlog couplers to support the recommended platform widths. Sole boards and base plates should be used under each standard as recommended. Ledger bracing is generally fixed to alternate pairs of standards. Sway bracing is required at intervals not exceeding 30 M. The scaffold should be tied into the building at the frequency recommended.

Source: www.tubitt.com

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Putlog Scaffolds

A putlog scaffold consists of a single row of standards, parallel to the face of the building and set as far away from it as is necessary to accommodate a platform of four or five boards wide, with the inner edge of the platform as close to the wall as is practicable. The standards are connected by a ledger fixed with right angle couplers and the putlogs are fixed to the ledgers using putlog couplers. The blade end of the putlog tube (or putlog adaptor) is normally placed horizontally on the brickwork being built, taking care to use the maximum bearing area.

Loadings and Spacings

General Purpose Maximum Standard Spacing 2.1 M Maximum Loading 2.0 kN Heavy Duty Maximum Standard Spacing 2 M Maximum Loading 2.5 kN Average height of lifts 1.35 M approx Max height 50 M (unless designed) Sole boards or base plates are usually fitted under each standard. The same number of ties applies as for an independent tied scaffold. Reveal ties are not recommended for putlog scaffolds. Where a putlog is required for an intermediate board support and it is opposite an opening in the building, such as window or doorway, the inside end of the putlog should be supported on an underslung bridle tube spanning adjacent putlogs. The bridle tube should be secured with right angle couplers. Sway bracing is required at intervals not exceeding 30 M but, unlike independent tied scaffolds, ledger bracing is not required in the finished scaffold.

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Source: www.tubitt.com

Basic Joints in scaffoldings Different manufacturers develop different types of joints for scaffoldings according to construction type and their specific design following are the basic joint details-

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Screw and Lock Joint

Scaffolding Arrangement

Source: Author

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Source: http://www.tubitt.com/putlog.asp

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SCAFFOLD FOUNDATION AND SUPPORT Scaffolds must be erected on surfaces which can adequately support all loads applied by the scaffold. To support scaffolds, backfilled soils must be well compacted and leveled. Mud and soft soil should be replaced with compacted gravel or crushed stone. Embankments that appear unstable or susceptible to erosion must be contained.

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3- Glazing

Source: www.westperthglass.com.au (Internet)

Common

types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and laminated glass as well as a variety of coated glasses, all if these types can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing units. Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special clear glasses are offered by several manufacturers. Glazing can be mounted into a window sash or door stile, usually made of wood, aluminium or PVC. The glass is fixed into a rebate in the frame in a number of ways including triangular glazing points, putty, etc.. Toughened and laminated glass can be glazed by bolting panes directly to a metal framework by bolts passing through drilled holes. Glazing is commonly used in low temperature regions because it helps retain the collected heat.

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3.1 - Types of Glazing

Glasses for glazing are available in variety of colours materials and forms.

3.1a- Regular transparent Glass This is the most common type of glazing used for glazed building openings. The thickness of sheet of glass usually ranges between 3 and 5 mm. This type of glazing permits high proportion of visible light penetration (88-90%) as well as penetration of large portion of the solar radiation striking it (77-86%). These properties make it the preferred material for south facing windows and greenhouses. It is important to remember that the thermal resistance coefficient of glass is very low, which makes the glazing a thermally weak point in the structures envelope.

3.1b- Double Glazing This consists of two sheets of glass with space in between, sometimes filled with air or other gasses, or vacuum. The thickness of both the glass and space is variable. These variations have a certain effect, up to a certain limit, on the percentage of radiation allowed to penetrate and on thermal conductance of the composition (when the thickness of the air is over cm, its marginal effects become smaller)

Double Glazing
Source: Climate responsive architecture/Book

2.5

The main advantage of this type of cross-section is its ability to reduce heat transfer from one pane to other, both by conduction and radiation. Double glazing is more expensive than single glazing but sometimes offer improved performance. Triple Glazing is even more expensive and has conductance coefficients that are about 20% lower that of double glazing, but the savings in energy is small compared to its high cost. For

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example calculations performed at desert Architecture Unit questioned the economic benefits which could be obtained from double glazing under Israeli conditions.

3.1c- Absorbing Glass This type of glazing provides penetration of light (about 80%, depending on the thickness), but transmits only a relatively small portion of total solar radiation absorb different wavelengths of radiation (from ultraviolet to infrared) and their effectiveness varies. Absorbing glass significantly prevents fading of colors, moderates light penetration into the room and overall decreases the radiation. However, absorbing the radiation in the glass increases its temperature, and its heat will be transferred by convection to the air of the building interior.
Source: Climate responsive architecture/Book

3.1d- Dark Glass This type of glass prevents both light and radiation penetrating it, but a relatively large amount of radiation is absorbed by the glass causing the temperature of the surface of the glass to rise. In this way the glass itself becomes a source of heat emitted to the room. Dark glass could be a solution for buildings which require maintaining a certain filtration of penetrating daylight while also retaining large openings.

3.1e- Reflective Glass This material most significantly reduces radiation from penetrating side to non-penetrating side (11-37% penetration). Such glazing could be desirable to maintain eye contact with outside world while also preventing penetration of radiation or in areas where it is hot most days of the year.
Source: Climate responsive architecture/Book

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However, it high level of reflected light could become a nuisance nearby buildings and to people in nearby open areas. The reflected radiation could cause a rise in temperature of areas it strikes and also glare. Orienting reflective glass towards the roads could become a safety hazard!

3.1f- Polycarbonate This material enables penetration of light (about 85%), heats up less than glass and can withstand mechanical blows. The material is flexible and it is possible to utilize it for curved surfaces. It is available in clear, white or dark.

3.1g- Double Polycarbonate with Air Space There are a number of such industrial products. Extended sheets of polycarbonates are formed as double skin sheets with spacers between them. The various products are less transparent than a single sheet, but the air increases their thermal resistance. In another configuration of this sheet the internal surface of one of the skins is smooth surface which causes internal reflections inside the material, which results in the ability of the whole sheet to selectively reflect or transmit solar radiation, depending on the incident angle of the solar radiation on the sheet.

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3-1h Corrugated Fiberglass This glass is available in different hues and thickness. In any case it does not permit eye contact with the outside and its physical deterioration is quite fast. This material is available in clear, dark or white verities.

3.1i- Acrylic Sheets They have similar properties to other plastic materials. Available in clear, dark or white. In most cases acrylic sheets are fragile than glass but deteriorate quickly because of ultraviolet radiation. In desert areas the deterioration process is accelerated because of abrasion caused by the sand and dust.