CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTRE ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction Fluid power means using pressurized oil or air

to accomplish work. Most hydraulic systems use petroleum oils, but often synthetic or water-base fluids are used where there is a lire hazard. Pneumatic systems use air to power actuators, but unlike hydraulic systems that return oil at low pressure to the reservoir, the air from pneumatic systems is exhausted to atmosphere after doing work. The oil in a hydraulic system exhibits the characteristics of a solid. This provides a rigid medium to transfer power through the system. Conversely, air

used in pneumatic systems is spongy, and additional controls must be provided if actuator speed and stiffness are to be regulated. A fluid power system accomplishes two main purposes. First, it provides substantial force to move actuators in locations some distance from the power source, where the two are connected by pipes, tubes, or hoses. For example, a hydraulic pump mounted to the engine in one area can be connected to hydraulic
1

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

motors or cylinders located 100 feet or more away. This is a decided advantage over systems using gears, shafts, and chains, particularly as the location of output actuators becomes less accessible. Second, fluid power systems accomplish highly accurate and precise movement of the actuator with relative ease. This is particularly important in such applications as the machine tool industry where tolerances are often specified to one ten thousandth of an inch and must be repeated during several million cycles.

1.2

Historical Perspective The modem era in fluid power began around the

turn of the century. Hydraulic applications were made in the main armament system of the USS Virginia as early as 1906, where a variable speed hydrostatic transmission was installed to drive the main guns. Since that time, the marine industry has applied fluid power to cargo handling and winch systems, controllable-pitch propellers, submarine

control systems, shipboard aircraft elevators, aircraft and missile launch systems, and radar-sonar drives. Fig.1-1 illustrates a combination cargo-passenger ship. A modern application of hydraulics to marine vessels is the hydraulically powered propeller drive
2

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

shown, which is used as a lateral thruster for close quarter maneuvers for large ships, or the main drive for smaller vessels. 1.3 Capabilities Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited applications in the production of goods and services in nearly all sectors of the economy. Several industries are dependent upon the capabilities that fluid power affords. Among these are agriculture, aerospace and aviation, construction,

defense, manufacturing and machine tool, marine, material handling, mining, transportation, undersea technology, and public utilities, including communications transmission systems.

(a)

(b)
3

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure1-1 (a) cargo-passenger ship; (b)Hydraulically powered propeller (courtesy of Rexroth).

The world's need for food and fiber production has caused unprecedented leadership in agriculture equipment development, and particularly in applying hydraulics to solve a variety of problems. Fig.1-2 illustrates a modern wheel drive tractor that features extensive use of fluid power. In a typical tractor application, a 25 to 30 gal/min eight-cylinder variable volume radial piston pump supplies fluid to a closedcenter load-sensitive circuit. The pump unloads to a minimum standby pressure to reduce power consumption when demand is low. Hydraulics power the rear and front main drive and power take-off (pto) clutches, wet disc brakes, remote valves, implement hitch, draft sensing, power shift transmission, differential lock, and hydrostatic steering. A pressurized reservoir is used to supplement the How from the charge pump during maximum demand from large bore cylinders.

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1-2 modern wheel tractor (courtesy of John Deere Company).

Figure 1-3 Self-leveling combine (courtesy of John Deere Company).

Other applications to agriculture include combines, forage harvesters, back-hoes, chemical sprayers, and fertilizer spreaders. Fig.1.3. illustrates a self-leveling combine harvesting grain on a hillside. Notice the hydraulic cylinder on the lower side extending the suspension to keep the operator station level while the
5

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

combine head follows the contour of the ground to harvest the crop. Combines and other equipment make extensive use of hydraulic wheel motors to assist in marginal tractive conditions. Wheel motors consist of a hydraulic motor mounted integrally with a wheel and tire assembly. Braking is usually designed into the system. All that is required to make the wheel motor functional is mounting to the suspension and connection to hydraulic lines that lead back to the main power control valve. Auxiliary power drive wheel motors have several advantages to the agricultural industry. For example, they can be used to maintain and improve the turning ability of regular row crop tractors, allow for a high design that maintains under-axle crop clearances, assist in adjusting front axle width, and provide on-the-go engagement and

disengagement in forward as well as reverse. Fig.1-4 illustrates applications of hydraulic power to the aviation and aerospace industries. Hydraulic pumps running off the main engines and electric motors power cylinders to operate the landing gear, flaps, rudder, control surfaces, payload bay doors, and complex mechanical arm. Another sector of our economy that has benefited from the brute power of hydraulics and pneumatics is the
6

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

construction industry. Crawler tractors, road graders, bucket loaders, trenchers, backhoes, hydraulic shovels, and pan scrapers are just a few of the many applications. Fig.1-5 shows a large off-the-road truck with many hydraulic and pneumatic components, including

telescoping dump cylinders, steering cylinders, and brakes being loaded by a hydraulic power shovel. Notice the-six large hydraulic cylinders that operate the boom and clamshell bucket.

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1-4 Aerospace and aviation applications of fluid power (courtesy of Fluid Power Educational Foundation). The manufacturing and machine tool industry is dependent on hydraulic power to provide the force and close tolerance necessary in controlling production. Fig.1-6 illustrates large press for manufacturing thickwalled pipe used to transport

crude oil, gas, and even water. Thick-walled pipe is usually produced in limited quantities because of the force limits of roll bending. The cutaway drawing shows how hydraulic cylinders are used to control manipulator feed tables that position sheet stock in the press while the blade inset forms each half of the pipe radius with up to 100 individual bends. This machine has the capacity to form pipes 40 ft long with an inside diameter to 5 ft and

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

wall thickness of 2.5 in. A pipe this size weighs as much as 25 tons.

Figure 1-5 Off-road truck and loader (courtesy of Aeroquip).

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figre1-6 Functional principle of pipe bending press. 1.4 The Use of Units English and SI metric units are used throughout this book. The basic units used from the English system are length, force, and time. Derived units include area, pressure, velocity, volume, and flow rate. The units of length are the foot and inch (ft, in). The units of force are the pound and ounce (lbf, oz). The same units are used for weight. The units for time are the minute and second (min, sec). Derived units are made up of basic units. Area is derived in square feet and square inches (ft2 , in. 2 ), pressure is in pounds per square inch (lbf/in. 2 ), velocity is in feet per minute or feet per second (ft/min, ft/sec), and volume is in cubic feet or cubic inches (ft 3 , in. 1 ). One gallon equals 231 in3 . The units for distance in the SI metric system most often used are the meter and centimeter (m, cm). The unit of force is the Newton (N), and the unit of time is the second (sec). Area is derived in square meters and square centimeters (m 2 ,cm2 ). The unit of pressure is derived in Pascal in honor of the French physicist. A Pascal equals one "Newton per square meter (Pa,N/m2 ). This is somewhat confusing because the Newton also is Isaac Newton. Because the Pascal is small, the kilo Pascal
10

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

(kPa), which is 1000 Pascal, and mega Pascal (MPa), which is one million Pascal, are used often in hydraulics. Velocity in the SI metric system is derived in meters per second (m/s). Volume is derived in cubic meters or cubic centimeters (m3,cm3). Flow rate is a derived unit, but it is not the same in hydraulics as in pneumatics. In hydraulics, flow rate in a liquid measure. In the English system the units are gallons per minute (gal/min), and in SI metrics liters per minute (l/min). In pneumatics, flow is a volumetric measure: cubic feet per minute or cubic feet per second, in the English system (ft3 /min, ft3/sec), and cubic meters per minute or cubic meters per second (m3 /min,m3 /sec) in the SI metric system . In most cases the units should be included with the numbers when calculations are made. This is because without the units, the answer would be incomplete .And unless the units are included with each number in the calculation; there would be no easy way to check through the problem to see if errors have been made. The use of units also is important when conversions are made from one system to another, from liquid to volumetric measures, or from larger to smaller units. Conversation factors for derived units are difficult to remember so if one can work through the conversion with the units
11

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

themselves, it usually is easy to find the conversion between base unit like inches, centimeters, pounds, and Newtons.

1.5 Dimensional Calculation When analyzing hydraulics or other mechanical system involving dimensions such as length, area, volume, and time, it is good practice to apply dimensional analysis to their solutions. This technique assures the proper use of conversion factors and virtually eliminates the need to memorize formulas. With all dimensions properly arranged in the statement of a problem, the solution consists merely of performing the indicated operations of the numbers and combining exponents of like bases. This method allows cancellation of all dimensions not needed, while keeping those called for in the answer. Although formulas are not needed in the solution of dimensional problems, they are generally shown in this text in order to ease your transition from formula to dimensional calculations. But, by all means, do not continue to use a memorized formula as a crutch. It is hoped that before you finish this book you can leave your 'little black book" of formulas at home. Example (1):

12

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

How far will a (3-in.2) piston move if it receives (30 in .3) of fluid? Solution: Let's examine the problem. The answer we need is the distance traveled (in.). We are given the volume of oil supplied to the cylinder (in3.) and the area of the cylinder (in2.). By dividing in.3by in.2 we get in.3/in. 2= in.3-2= in .1 = in.
1 PistonArea

The formula for distance traveled is:

Dis tan ce( stroke ) = Volume = 30in.2 = 1 3in.2

30 3 2 in. = 10in. 3

Note: The formula for distance could have been stated as:
Dis tan ce( stroke) = Volume Area

While dividing volume by area will in fact give us distance, it is better generally to keep everything in the multiplying mode. That is, multiply by (1/area) instead of dividing by area. First, combine exponents of like bases in. 3 /in. 2 = in. 3 -2 = in. 1 = in. Since the answer has the proper
13

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

dimension dimensions

you

will

know placed.

that

you

have

the the

properly

Next,

perform

indicated operations of the numbers (30/3 = 10). The total answer is the combination of the two answers, or 10 in. A general shortcut used for combining like bases is to apply strikethroughs to show divisions or cancellations of exponents from bottom to top or top to bottom of the fraction. For example:
Dis tan ce = 30in.3 1 = 10in. 3in.2

This is read "Inches cubed divided by inches squared equals inches; and 30 divided by 3 equals ten." To use the distance formula, without the

dimensions, is to apply the "rote method," which generally leads to trouble and errors. There is no way that in. 3 and in.
2

can be combined to provide in. other

than to divide in. 3 by in. 2 . If the dimensions had been arranged differently in the solution, say, in. 2 /in. 3 , the answer would have been in. 2-3 = in. -1 . Then we

would have realized immediately that the dimensions have to be rearranged in order to obtain the proper answer.

14

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

With the use of dimensional calculations you are constantly checking your answer as you cancel unwanted dimensions. You are learning from the procedure instead of blindly applying a memorized formula. 1.6 Review of Dimensions Fig.1-7 provides dimensions. a review of some common

Figure1-7 Dimensions

Table (1-1) Common conversion fractions using U.S. units. U.S. Units Displacement Conversion Fractions
rev =1 6.28rad

Descriptions rev=revolution

15

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

(revolution and radians) Rev=6.28 rad

6.28rad =1 rev rev 6.28rad min = 0.1046rad / sec min rev 60 sec rev / min =1 0.1046 rad / sec 0.1046 rad / sec =1 rev / min

rad = radian sec =seconds min = minutes

Flow gal/min = 231 in. 3 /min

231in.3 / min =1 1gal // min 1gal / min =1 231in.3 / min

in. 3 /min = cubic inches per minute gal/min= gallons per minute in. = inches ft = feet

Length (feet inches) 12 in.=1 ft Power (horsepower and kilowatts) hp = 0.746 kW and

12in. / 1 ft = 1 1 ft / 12in. = 1

hp =1 0.746kW

kW = kilowatts hp=horsepower

0.746kW =1 hp

Pressure [lb/in.2 and in. of mercury (in. Hg)] 29.92 in. Hs. = 14.7 lb/in.2

14.7lb / in.2 =1 29.92in.Hg

29.92in.Hg =1 14.7lb / in.2

lb = pounds in.=inches Hg = mercury

Time

60 min =1 1h

h = hours sec = seconds

16

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

(hours, minutes, and seconds) 60 min = 1 h

1h =1 60 min 60 sec =1 1 min 1 min =1 60 sec

min = minute

Volume (in.3 gallons)

231in.3 =1 1gal

and
1gal =1 231in.3

in.3 = cubic inches gal = gallons

231 in.3= 1 gal

1.7

CONVERSION FRACTIONS When the value of the numerator (top) of a

fraction is equal to the value of its denominator (bottom), the absolute value of the fraction is one, and because multiplying by l does not change the absolute value of an expression, dimensions can be converted at will with the use of the conversion fractions given in Tables 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3.

respectively, show prefixes for forming SI units arid some handy formulas. Table 1-2 Common conversion fractions using SI units. SI Units Conversion Fractions
17

Descriptions

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Pressure

Pa/(N/m2)=1

Pa = Pascal N = (force) m 2 = meters Newton square

(Pascals, (N/m2)/Pa=1 kilopascals,&bars*) 1000 Pa/kPa=1 Pa =N/m2 1000 Pa=kPa 1 bar=100kPa kPa/1000Pa=1 bar/100 kPa=1 100 kPa/bar=1

kPa = kilopascal bar=approximately 1 atmosphere

Area m2/100 dm2=1 ( m2, dm2, cm2, 100 dm2/m2=1 mm2) One square meter m /10000 cm =1 equals 100 square 10000 cm2/m2=1 decimeters: m2/1000000 mm2=1 1000000 mm2/m2 =1
2 2

dm2 = decimeter

square

cm2 = square centimeter mm2= square millimeter

Volume m3/1000L=1 (Liter, kiloliter, m3 1000L/ m3=1 and cm3) m3 = 1000L liter=1000 cm3 L/1000 cm3=1 1000 cm /L=1
3

m3= cubic meter L = liter 1000 L = kiloliter Cm3 = centimeter cubic

18

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

* One bar is approximately the average atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface (or 14.5 lb/in.2) Table 1-3 Common conversion fractions using both U.S. and SI units (converting from one system to the other). Units Conversion Fractions Descriptions Flow (gal/min L/min) and
gal / min =1 3.7854 / min 3.7854 L / min =1 gal / min

gal/min = gallons per minute L/min = liters per minute

1 gal/min = 3.7854 L/min Force or Weight (pounds, newtons, and kilograms)

lb =1 4.44822 N 4.44822 N =1 lb

lb = pound

1 lb* == 4.44822 N
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CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

kg f 9.8066 N

=1

1 kilogram (weight or force) = 9.806654453 newtons (weight or force)

9.8066 N =1 kg f

kg = kilogram mass or kilogram weight

=1 2.2lb 2.2lb =1 kg f

kg f

kgf = 9.8066 N 1 kilogram (force)# = 2.2 lb Length (meters inches) and

39.37in. / m = 1 1m / 39.37in. = 1

in. = inches m = meter

1 m = 39.37 in. Pressure (kPa, and bar versus lb/in.2) 6.895kPa= 1 lb/in.2
6.895kPa =1 lb / in.2 lb / in.2 =1 6.895kPa

kPa = kilopascals

1 bar = 14.5 lb/in.2

bar =1 14.5lb / in.2 14.5lb / in.2 =1 bar

lb/in.2 = pounds per square inch

20

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Square Measures (m2and in.2) 1 m2 = 1550 in.2 Torque (lb-in.) = 0.112979 N-m Volume (L and gal) 3.7854 L = gal Volume (m3 and in.3) 1 m3 = 61,024 in.3

1550in.2 =1 m2 1m 2 =1 1550in.2

in.2 = square inch m 2 = square meter

gal =1 3.7854 L

L = liter gal gallons

3.7854 L =1 gal

61.024in.3 =1 m3 1m 3 =1 61.024in.3

in.3 = cubic inches m3= cubic meter

Weight

(see Force above)

21

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

* some expert use lbf here to be consistent with kgf versus Newton. This is not necessary, however, because "lb" always means force or weight (never mass). # The term kgf is used here to indicate that we are using kilograms of weight or force and not of mass. 1.8 How Fluid Power Works Fluid power works in accordance with laws governing behavior of the fluid itself. The two most common fluids used are air in pneumatic systems and oil in hydraulic systems. The beginning of an understanding about how fluid power works is attributed to Blas Pascal (1650), who discovered that pressure exerted by a confined fluid acts undiminished the same in all directions at right angles to the inside wall of the container. This is known as Pascal's Law and is often thought of as the foundation of the discipline. The law can be extended to include transmission and multiplication of force, as shown in Fig.1-8. Fluid power works by applying a force against a movable area. In a typical fluid power system, a fluid power pump or compressor delivers fluid through the control valve to a system actuator, such as a cylinder, through lines at high pressure. Unused fluid in hydraulic systems is returned to a reservoir at low pressure for cooling, storage, and later use. Air used
22

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

to power pneumatic actuators is not returned to the receiver. Instead it is exhausted to atmosphere. Fig.1 - 9 illustrates a simulated hydraulic system used for lowering and raising the nose wheel of an aircraft landing gear. Movement of the control valve to lower the wheel causes fluid to be delivered at high pressure from the pump to the blank end of the cylinder. To raise the wheel, the control valve directs fluid to the rod end of the cylinder. In both cases fluid power works by applying a force against the area of one side of the movable piston in the cylinder or the other.

23

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1-8 Transmission and multiplication of fluid

power force. Figure1-9 How fluid power works.

24

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Examining the definition and example closer Force = Pressure Area All we need to remember is that units of force, pressure, and area must be consistent. This means that in the English system of measurement weight or force is in pounds (lbf), area is in square inches (in.2 ), and pressure is in lbf/in. 2 . In SI units, force is in Newtons (N), area is in square meters (m 2 ), and pressure is in N/m 2 , which is given the name Pascals (Pa) alter the famous French physicist. Because the Pa is a small unit, gauges usually read pressure in kPa, where: 1KPa = 1000 N/m 2 Following are derivations for the most commonly used conversions. 1 lb=4.448 N and 1N=0.2248lbf 1 in=0.254 m and 1 m= 39.37 in Converting units of pressure
25

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

1 lbf/in.2 4.448 222 N/lbf 2 N/m =6.895 kpa or 1 lbf/in.2 = 6.895 kPa

1550 in 2 /m 2 =6895

1N / m2 1m2 / 1550in 2 1lbf / 4.448222N = 0.000145lbf / in 2

and 1 kPa = 0.145 lbf/in2 Table (1-4) gives constants for conversions among various units used for pressure around the world. Only the lbf/in.2 and Pa will be used here. The Pa is the recognized international unit of pressure, but the kgf/cm2 and bar are still used in some countries. When applying fluid power to a system, the force required at the output is used to determine the pressure of the system and the cross section area of the cylinder. System pressures are also determined from the strength of components, cost factors, and safely precautions. When the system pressure is known and the force that the system must apply is specified, the area of the cylinder then can be computed by solving the formula for this value.
Area = Force Pr essure

Table (1-4) units of pressure and conversion Factors Convert lb f /in. 2 kPa kg f /cm 2 bar to
26

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Convert from lb f /in. 2 kPa kg f /cm 2 bars

1 0.1 45 14.22 14.5

6.895 1 98.07 100

0.07 0.0101 1 1.02

0.069 0.010 0.98 1

Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 Conversions are made by multiplying the units in the left margin by the conversion factors in the boxes to arrive at the units across the top. Example:1000lb f Example 2 Pressure = 1500 lbf/in2 Area = (0.7854)(4 in.2) = 12.57 in.2 Force = lbf
P A=

/ in.2 6.895 = 6895kPa .

(1500 lbf/in2)( 12.57 in2) = 18,855

27

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure1-10 Force, pressure, and area relationships. To simplify calculations using this formula, the desired value can be determined using Fig. 1-10. By

covering the desired value, the relationship between the other two is given in the proper order. That is, force equals pressure times area, pressure equals force divided by area, and area equals force divided by pressure. Look at the example that follows the figure, which asks for the solution of the force that would, be applied to the cylinder rod if the cylinder has a bore of 4 in. and the pressure in the cylinder is 1500 lbf/in.2. In hydraulic and pneumatic applications, bore is the same as the inside diameter of the cylinder. Many helpful devices such as this have been developed to assist the fluid power mechanic and technician to make calculations. 1.9 Head Pressure The first pressure of which we should be aware, even before the pump is started, is the pressure caused by the weight of the fluid in the system, or the fluid density [weight per unit volume (lb/in.3 )] and height of the fluid (ft) above the test point. In this book we call this the head pressure.

28

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Fig.1-11 shows three separate containers of fluids depicting the effects of fluid height, volume, and container shape on head pressure. 1.9.1 Effect of Fluid Height on Head Pressure Fig.1-11a shows a square container with 1 ft3 of oil (1 ft by 1 ft by 1 ft). The weight of the oil is approximately 58 lb. Since the area of the tank bottom is (12 in.12 in. = 144 in.2 ), the weight of the oil above each square inch of the tank bottom is ( 58 lb/144 = 0.4 lb). Therefore, the head pressure is (58 lb/144 in 2 = 0.4 lb/in 2). If the oil level were reduced to a height of (6 in.), the weight of the oil would now be (29 lb) and the head pressure would be (29 lb/144 in2 = 0.2 lb/in 2 .) So, the head pressure is halved as the height of the fluid is halved. Filled with oil to a level of (6 in.) into the tube. The weight of the oil in the tank is (29 lb) and the oil inside the tube weighs (0.2 lb.) The head pressure at the bottom of the tube is (0.2 lb/in.2). The pressure difference from the top of the tank to the bottom (sometimes called psid) is (29 lb/144 in2 = 0.2 lb/in.). The head pressure at the bottom of the tube acts on the entire area of the fluid at the top of the tank. So, the pressure

29

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

at the bottom of the tank is the sum of the pressure difference of the tank plus the pressure at the top of the tank or 0.2 lb/in2 + 0.2 lb/in2 = 0.4 lb/in2 This is the same head pressure that we saw at the bottom of the tanks of both Figures 1-11a and 1-11b. So, the head pressure is proportional to the height of the fluid regardless of the shape of the container. 1.9.2 Significant Head Pressure Head pressures are always present in hydraulic systems, but frequently they can be ignored as insignificant when dealing with higher system pressures. There are three cases, however, for which head pressures are quite significant: (1) where the other pressures involved are very low, such as at the inlet of a pump; (2) where the height of the fluid is great, such as from the bottom of the ocean; or (3) where the area affected by the head pressure is very large. 1.9.3 Destructive Head Pressure

Fig.1-12 shows a drawing depicting a home basement with a standpipe screwed into the floor drain. This procedure has been tried by home owners in the mistaken belief that it would be a good method of keeping the basement dry should the water in the storm sewer try to back up into the basement. With weeping tile installed under the basement floor for
30

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

normal drainage, the underside of the floor will be exposed to the backup water, and will be acted on by the head pressure created by the standpipe. Assume 3 ft of water in the standpipe (measured from the bottom of the floor). For this example, let's assume that the head pressure of water is the same as that of oil:

The head pressure at the bottom of the pipe would be :

0.4lb / in 2 = 1.2lb / in.2 3 ft ft

In other words, with 0.4 lb/in.2 of pressure per foot of water, the pressure for 3 ft would be 3 x 0.4 lb/in. 2= 1.2 lb/in.2 Note: Observe that the unit of measure ' ft" has a strikethrough at each location. This means that the "ft" on the top of the fraction cancels the "ft" on the bottom.

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CHAPTER (1)

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Figure1-12 Basement standpipe. One might think that 1.2 lb/in.2 is insufficient pressure with which to be concerned. But consider the force pushing upward from the bottom of the floor. The area of the basement floor is:
20 ft 12in 12in 30 ft = 86.400in 2 ft ft

The force pushing the floor upward would be

1.2lb 86.400in 2 = 103.680lb 2 in

or
103.680lb ton = 51.85tons 2ooolb
ton 2000lb

This force could break the basement floor.

Note: 12in and ft

are conversion fractions. The

numerator (on top) is equal to the denominator (on the bottom), which gives the fraction an absolute value of one. Multiplying by these fractions changes the dimensions but not the absolute value of an equation. Of course, the basement would have been flooded had the standpipe not been screwed into the drain. Flooding the basement would have saved the floor, however, because the weight of the floodwater in the basement would have pushed down on the floor with the same magnitude at which the head
32

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

pressure force was pushing upward, thus preventing damage to the floor. 1.9.4 Use of Head Pressure for Level Control

NASA's Crawler transporter was designed to move a missile and its launch tower from the assembly building to the launch site on Merrit Island. This giant structure is maintained perpendicular during travel by a leveling device, which senses the difference of fluid head pressure at the four corners of the Crawler compared to the tank "bubble" located at the center of the Crawler.

1.10

PASCAL'S LAW

Fig.1-13a shows a jug of wine filled to a height of 1 ft. As usual, the head pressure graduates down the height of the fluid to 0.2 lb/in.2 at 6 in. and 0.4 lb/in.2 at the bottom of the jug. The area of the jug bottom is 50 in.2, and the force of the bottom caused by the head pressure is 0.4lb / in.2 50in.2 = 20lb . Note that "in2" has been canceled, in both places, by strikethroughs. The jug will have been designed to carry this weight with, perhaps, a 100% safety margin. Fig.1-13b shows the same jug with a 1 in.2 cork inserted so that it touches the wine (no air pocket). The calculations
33

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

show what happens if the cork is pushed downward with a force of 10 lb. Pascal's law states (in effect): Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted in all directions, and acts with equal force on equal areas, and at right angles to them. This law, as illustrated at the beginning of this chapter, allows the applied force to be conducted around corners and through irregular passages to the desired destination. The 10 lb of force per the 1 in.2 cork is transmitted to each and every 1 in.2 of the jug. So every square inch will see an additional 10 lb of force added to the head pressure force already there. Now the bottom of the jug will see an additional force of
10lb 50in.2 = 500lb 2 in

or a total of 520 lb, counting the head pressure. This force, which exceeds the safety margins of most jugs, could break the jug. Note: The head pressure is generally left out of this type of calculation because the 20 lb of head force is small compared to the applied force transmitted from the cork to the bottom of the jug.

34

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Figure1-13 (a) Vine jug head pressure; (b) Vine jug head pressure with Jed force.

35

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

Study Questions and Problems 1- List ten hydraulic applications and ten pneumatic applications.

2- List the components on one hydraulic application and give their specifications.

3- Compute the area and volume for a cylinder with a 2-in. bore and a 12-in. stroke.

4- Compute the bore of a cylinder which must exert 10,000lbf with a pressure limitation of 1200 lbf/in2.

5- Compute the force available from a hydraulic cylinder with a bore of 75 mm under a pressure of 10 MPa.

6- What bore would be necessary on a cylinder operating at 15 MPa to exert a force of 65 kN?

7- How much fluid is needed to stroke a cylinder with a 100 mm bore and 0.50 in stroke? 8- If a hydraulic cylinder has a rod diameter half the size of the bore, what will be the difference in force available if
36

CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

the pressure applied alternately to each end remains constant? (Clue: Try two convenient values such as 4 in. for the piston and 2 in. for the rod diameter.) 9- A house weighing 30 tons is to be lifted by 4 hydrnulic_ram jacks. If the maximum lift pressure available from the pump is 5000) lbf/in2, what is the theoretical diameter of the ram? 10- Two independent hydraulic jacks, A and B, lift a 10.000 lbf steel beam from opposite ends. If Jack A has a bore of 4 in. and Jack B has a bore of 3 in), what would be the theoretical pressure in each jack when the beam is in the raised position?

11- How is a cylinder actuator engineered to provide the same force extending and retracting?

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CHAPTER (1)

INTRODUCTION

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