Monitoring and forecasting the particulate matter pollution caused by surface mines

Monitoring and forecasting the particulate matter pollution caused by surface mines
R. Bhner
RWTH-Aachen University, Germany

ABSTRACT: In the vicinity of lignite surface mines increased particulate matter concentrations keep arising. Therefore, action plans have been drawn up and implemented for the Hambach and Garzweiler I surface mines in the Rhenish Lignite District. The measures mainly comprise technical means and focus on the very point of origin of the particulate matter. A prerequisite for this is the prior identification of the emission sources in the surface mine and a possibly accurate forecast of their effective range. Next to selective measurements, numeric dispersion models constitute an important monitoring and forecast procedure. They allow the calculation of dust concentrations of any number of emitters and the simulation of their effective range. The result is an exact dust register of the area examined. Through processes and due to its spatial extent surface mining operations may cause increased dust concentrations. Emissions here arise from various sources: besides diffuse dust discharge there are mobile as well as point and continuous sources caused by excavation, transport and refining processes in surface mining. Using dispersion calculations it becomes possible to forecast the particulate matter situation for any period of time and to include dust reducing action in planning or to check planned measures for the expected effects.

1 AIR POLLUTANT PARTICULATE MATTER 1.1 Limit values for particulate matter in the European Union Since 1st January 2005 strict limit values for particulate matter in the outside air apply for the member states of the European Union. Particulate matter consists of airborne particles whose aerodynamic diameter is under 10 m; so the international term is particulate matter 10 or short PM10. Particles of this size are able to deeply penetrate the lungs and are therefore able to cause serious health damages. The European Commission has for this reason set limit values and also issued rules and regulations regarding the monitoring of air quality. At the moment, a yearly limit value for the particle size of PM10 of 40 g/m applies as well as a daily limit value of 50 g/m, which must not be exceeded more than 35 times a year. Presumably in 2010 these limit values will be further put up to a yearly
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average value of 20 g/m; the daily limit value of 50 g/m will be retained but may only occur on 7 days a year. In addition to that, a limit value for the particle size PM2,5 will be introduced, which is supposed to be legally binding from the year 2015. 1.2 Average concentrations of particulate matter for different types of areas Dust is a natural part of air and thus is present everywhere. Based on comprehensive measurements and studies, certain average dust concentrations can be assumed for different types of areas. In areas influenced by industry the average annual value for particulate matter is 30-40 g/m and so lies below the presently permissible limit value. By the way, it is exceeded by areas close to traffic; there the average annual value is as high as 30-40 g/m. However, the average number of days on which the daily limit value of 50 g/m is ex1

Monitoring and forecasting the particulate matter pollution caused by surface mines

ceeded is 50-90 days and therefore shows that this limit value cannot as a rule be adhered to without dust reducing measures.
Table 1. Typical average particulate matter concentrations for different types of areas in Germany
Station category*
Yearly average concentration [g/m] Quantity of days >50 g/m Highest daily concentration [g/m]

10-18 0-5 50-70

20-30 5-20 60-100

30-45 15-100 70-150

30-40 50-90 100-200

*1 rural areas 2 urban areas 3 traffic areas 4 industrial areas

2.2 Dust reduction To what extent surface mines contribute to particulate matter problems in the environment and which operational processes are significantly responsible for this, however, cannot be finally judged. According to EU law every particulate matter polluter is obliged to reduce its emissions and to start measures to reduce dust if necessary. The measures mainly comprise technical means such as the use of sprinkling, spraying or purification facilities or the intermediate greening up of open areas and start at the point of origin of the dust. Mainly devised for the avoidance of coarse particles the effect of the use of such measures to avoid particulate matter is not yet secured. The prerequisite for the development of useful dust reduction measures is the prior identification of dust sources in surface mines and a possibly exact forecast about their effective range. In order to monitor the particulate matter pollution 400 measuring points of the Office for the Environment have been set up in Germany. Additionally, some companies run their own measuring devices 3 FORECASTING THE PARTICULATE MATTER POLLUTION 3.1 Numerical dispersion calculations In order to examine the particulate matter formation in quantity and quality numeric dispersion calculations are being used next to measurements. They are an important instrument for calculating the effective range of one or more dust sources and can simulate an area-wide forecast of the dust concentration in an area of any size and for a time period of any length. They so represent an important monitoring and forecast method. Unlike in the past when emissions were defined as annual values on judgment areas of as a rule
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2 DUST EMISSIONS IN OPEN PITS 2.1 Various sources The material mining industry operating open pits contributes to particulate matter concentrations on account of the spatial extent of its operations and the related processes. Lignite surface mines have a higher erosion and emission potential due to their spatial extent and the mostly missing vegetation. Here, emissions result from various sources. The dust discharge partly is diffuse from the open mining surfaces by erosion and by the processrelated mechanical load from defined single sources. To be mentioned here are stationary operational processes such as the mining or dumping of lignite or waste, especially at conveyor belt transfer points or at places where a spreader dumps material increased dust emissions arise. All vehicles moving around the surface mine constitute mobile sources with the dust emissions discharged by them being especially high when the material is being transported on open loading areas. Roads and belt facilities within the surface mine are also significant dust sources, which are continuous. The material lying on roads or the one conveyed on belts is exposed to wind erosion. The material on roads is additionally subject to strong mechanical load by the use of unpaved roads.

Figure 1. Dust emissions caused by mining in an open pit

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Monitoring and forecasting the particulate matter pollution caused by surface mines

1000 x 1000 m, which means they were area related, the dispersion calculations nowadays have to be point related according to the particle model of Lagrange. Another important change is that next to annual average values daily or hourly average values have to be taken. The Lagrange particle model is a numeric model which allows simulating the dispersion of indicators in the atmosphere and calculating their concentration. Simulated are the trajectories of a great number of particles representing an indicator, which are removed in a turbulent air stream independently of one another. So, the particles are followed on their way across the atmosphere. The result of the calculation is the concentration field for particulate matter and the distribution of the deposition of the overall dust. It can be used in connection with the current diagnostic or planning or forecast related issues. Typical areas of use are e.g. dispersion calculations for facilities that require authorisation or environmental risk assessment. An important input parameter is the knowledge about the source strength of individual emitters. It can be calculated or be ascertained by a measuring campaign in the surface mine. For their calculation the German law provides calculation methods which allow the calculation of source strengths for the dropping as well as for the taking of bulk goods. Another required parameter is a representative meteorological time series, which contains hourly measurements of wind and turbulence data. In order to take into account topographic and hence modifications of the particles dispersion and distribution that are due to micro-climates a digital terrain model of the area can be allowed for. The simulation program independently generates a threedimensional wind and turbulence model with the help of the terrain model and the meteorological data. Dispersion calculations can be used for areas with an extension of 20 metres to up to 100 kilometres and for problem times of 10 minutes and up to several years. This only depends on what spatial and timely scale the meteorological data is provided. The result is an exact dust register of the examined area. 3.2 Example of use In 2005 such dispersion calculations were made as part of a master thesis. The object of examination was the expected dust exposure of a German lignite surface mine. These were projected into the future for three determined years. The calculations were to reveal whether the working area would lead to increased particulate matter concentrations in its vicinity. The three selected reference years were critical years in this respect as the mining op-

erations would move close to adjacent villages due to the further development of the mine. Since there were no emission values of individual operation sizes the source strengths of individual emitters had to be ascertained by calculation. To this end, it was firstly necessary to conduct a grain size analysis of the waste and the lignite. The planned excavation quantity and the development of the mine including the use of the equipment were known. On the basis of these and other data the source strength of selected point sources in the surface mine was calculated dependent on time according to the VDI (Association of German Engineers) guidelines. The source strengths were entered into the simulation program. Also, the calculations were based on the digital terrain models of the three excavation years as well as a meteorological time series of the site. The results were hourly values of the emission situation for particulate matter as well as for coarse particles for a whole year. As the effective range of individual sources could be calculated this way the minimum distance to be respected become known in order to avoid increased particulate matter concentrations in the vicinity of the work field. The simulation program already yielded the daily average values in elaborated form. This means that for each grid point of the calculated area the 36th highest value was put out. Since the daily limit value of 50 g/m may occur only 35 times a year the calculation result show in what distance from the dust source the limit value can be adhered to. On top of that the influence of individual emitters could be selectively quantified and thus yield an important contribution to the planning of reduction methods. Using the results it was also possible to create wind direction analyses based on harmful substance wind roses. So, it was possible to make statements on which wind conditions have an adverse effect regarding the dust situation and when increased particulate matter concentrations could be expected. So, the results could be included into the planning of dust reducing measures. Dispersion calculations can thus provide a forecast on whether or not and to what extent particulate matter concentrations can be expected in the vicinity of surface mines. Inaccuracies, however, result from the fact that the calculations are exclusively based on wind and turbulence data. So, weather phenomena that have a dust reducing effect such as rain falls or the ones that support dust such as longer dry periods cannot be taken into account. What is very well traceable are the results of stationary high pressure weather situations. Characteristic for these are stable air layers that almost prevent a mixing and thus concentration dilution of air pollutions. During such weather situations generally require enhanced dust reducing measures.
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Monitoring and forecasting the particulate matter pollution caused by surface mines

3.3 Particulate matter is not just a regional problem Of special interest is the analysis of polluter rates. There is virtually no area that is not more or less pre-polluted by particulate matter. This is as already mentioned due to the fact that dust is a natural part of air and is present for example in the form of pollen or spores. What is more, particles of this size are to a significant extent subject to remote transport. The Sahara sand events are an example for this. In addition to this, particulate matter also forms in a secondary way, i.e. they result from chemical conversion processes in the atmosphere. Since these secondary aerosols are characteristic chemical substances this proportion can be quantified by chemical analysis. This is more difficult with substances that occur almost everywhere or have an extensive area of circulation. Time analyses of particulate matter measuring stations normally display a daily or weekly circle. A direct inference on only one polluter or a decisive originator involves some difficulty. Operating hours as a rule correspond with times of increased traffic. When considering the particulate matter pollution over the year it is generally higher in winter than in summer. One reason is that low wind high pressure situations and inversions occur more frequently in winter and reduce the air exchange. Generally, a higher initial level of pollution shows at measuring stations far from industry which is all the more reinforced that additionally emitted particulate matter cannot be removed by wind. 4 CONCLUSIONS 4.1 Companies have to take action Surface mines have been in the public focus since the new air purification policy of the European Union became effective. In the Rhenish Lignite District the German Office of Environment operates several measuring stations. In addition, RWE operates its own measuring devices in and around its work fields. As early as 2005 an action plan was drawn up for the Hambach surface mine, another action plan followed for the Garzweiler surface mine in 2006. To this end, the company has had causer analyses made in cooperation with the environmental authority of the Land in order to identify the relevant particulate matter sources. The 36th excess of the daily limit value entails the necessity of drawing up an action plan to determine measures that help reduce the danger of exceeding the limit value or the time period of the excess. On top of that air pollution plans are decided on for both surface mines. Whereas one plan is aimed at a shortterm alleviation an air pollution scheme comprises

measures to constantly adhere to the particulate matter limit value. 4.2 Research to avoid particulate matter pollution Today it is already evident that the current particulate matter limit values are not always and not in any place observed. The planned tightening of the limit values in the year 2010 will represent an additional challenge. The development of adequate measures to avoid particulate matter emissions is a central task for companies and public authorities as well. An important part in this is the knowledge of the processes that entail particulate matter concentrations. The Institute of Mining Engineering III at the RWTH Aachen has been dealing with this for a considerable period of time. The aim is to be able to make more precise statements as to whether and to what extent surface mines lead to increased particulate matter concentrations in their vicinity and what processes are responsible for this. Methodically, this is implemented by mobile particulate matter measuring devices in combination with dispersion calculations. The results are continuously compared with the measured particulate matter concentrations of measuring stations in the surrounding area that are not influenced by surface mines. As a rule, these stations are located in rural areas. The results and experiences of these examinations are to deliver a clear picture of the emission situation caused by surface mines and to provide important contributions to the execution of the current and future air pollution policies. 5 PREFERENCES Bezirksregierung Dsseldorf (2006): Aktionsplan Grevenbroich. Dsseldorf. Bezirksregierung Kln (2005): Aktionsplan in der Umgebung des Tagebaus Hambach. 29. September 2005. Kln. Janicke, U. (2004): Austal2000. Programmbeschreibung zu Version 2.0. Dunum. Bhner, R. (unpubl.) (2005): Prognose der Staubbelastung durch das Abbaufeld Schwerzau anhand ausgewhlter Abbaustnde und Entwicklung mglicher Minderungsmanahmen. Magisterarbeit an der RWTH-Aachen. Richtlinie 2000/69/EG des Europischen Parlaments vom 16. November 2000. Richtlinie 1999/30/EG des Europischen Parlaments vom 22.04.1999. Richtlinie 1996/62/EG des Rates vom 23. September 1996.

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