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Editor Dr. Nicola Leibinger-Kammller, TRUMPF GmbH + Co. KG, Ditzingen, Germany Author Gabriela Buchfink Translation Matthew R. Coleman Project coordinators Frank Neidhart, Gabriela Buchfink Project associates Dr. Nicola Leibinger-Kammller, Dr. Klaus Parey, Ingo Schnaitmann Layout and design Felix Schramm, Karen Neumeister (SANSHINE GmbH, Stuttgart) Text consultant Gurmeet Rcker Translation coordination euroscript Deutschland GmbH, Berlin Production coordination Jeanette Blaum (SANSHINE GmbH, Stuttgart) Printing Rsler Druck GmbH, Schorndorf Finishing Oskar Imberger & Shne GmbH, Stuttgart Binding Josef Spinner Grobuchbinderei GmbH, Ottersweier Image editing Reprotechnik Herzog GmbH, Stuttgart
THE BRILLIANCE OF STEEL What is sheet metal anyway? Through the millennia A case of mistaken identity? SHEET METAL AS A BASIC MATERIAL Why sheet metal? More than meets the eye Gauge, size, and grade A matter of form Joining forces
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HOW SHEET METAL IS MADE Back in ye days of olde Keep it movin: steel rolling
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A BRILLIANT FUTURE
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Sheet metal is used as siding on many industrial buildings. Armor at Erbach Castle Couch, or kline, of the Celtic ruler buried at Hochdorf Cant live with them, cant live without them: endless rivers of steel
Heiligs Blechle An expression used in the dialect of Swabia, a region in southwestern Germany. The expression (literally: a holy tin) is used to express astonishment or to designate that dearly loved object of the Germans the automobile. Ein heiligs Blechle was originally a sort of token made of tin that poor people could redeem at Church institutions. People were usually given food in exchange for the tokens.
WHAT IS SHEET METAL ANYWAY? Sheet metal, as the term suggests, is metal that has been rolled into a sheet. In English, the word metal was borrowed from Old French metal, which in turn has its origins in Latin metallum metal, mine, the product of mining, and Greek metallon metal, ore, originally mine, quarry, pit. Today, when we speak of sheet metal, we are not only making specific reference to the material used, but also to its shape and application. Different types of metal can be used in sheet metal. While sheets used in mechanical engineering are made chiefly of steel, sheets in other industry sectors may be made of copper, copper alloys, or precious metals. Sheet metal is a semifinished product, that is, a material from which a wide variety of other products can be fabricated from the second hand of a wristwatch to the hull of a supertanker. Sheet metal can take many forms. It may
consist of a large rectangular sheet or a thin strip that has been wound into a coil. In both cases, the thickness is significantly smaller than the length or width. Sheet metal can be anywhere from 0. 05 millimeters to 15 centimeters thick. Sheet metal with a thickness of less than 0. 2 millimeters is often referred to as foil or leaf. Sheets with a thickness of several centimeters are called plate. THROUGH THE MILLENNIA Sheet metal has been an extremely popular material since antiquity when it was used to make everything from gold jewelry, coins, and containers to farming tools and weapons. Fabulous pieces of jewelry fashioned from gold plate date from the time of the Maya. The Romans reinforced their shields with metal plating, and medieval knights protected themselves with metal armor. Advanced civilizations of the past have also left us with examples of everyday objects and furniture made of sheet metal. In Hochdorf near Stuttgart, excavations of the burial chamber of a Celtic ruler have uncovered a movable couch, or kline, 2. 5 meters long. The lavishly decorated kline is made of thin bronze sheets and is over 2,500 years old! A CASE OF MISTAKEN IDENTITY? For some, sheet metal is a cheap, lightweight substitute for more expensive, high -grade materials. The term sheet metal seems to conjure up images of flimsy tool sheds, cheap containers and other structures never meant to stand the test of time. Oftentimes, what is regarded as sheet metal is, in reality, the economical galvanized type, which is used because it is lightweight, cheap and convenient. But take one look at the furnishings and appliances you have at home,
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of sheet metal. This is the high-grade sheet metal used in expensive kitchen designs or home furnishings. The brilliance of pure metal gives objects a modern look and a high-quality appearance. Unlike plastic, metal is a natural raw material. This means it is not only pleasant to look at, but also safe for the environment since it can be melted down and reused to produce new parts.
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Ship ahoy! The Queen Mary II luxury liner is without doubt one of the largest conglomerations of metal in the world. It is 325 meters long, 41 meters wide, and 72 meters high. The ship is so high that a person standing on the upper deck can look the Statue of Liberty in the eye!
WHY SHEET METAL? As a material, sheet metal offers numerous advantages, making it particularly well suited to industrial processing. It is ideal for a wide range of applications.
Material
Description
Typical applications
Mild steel Stainless steels High -grade steels High -tensile steels Light metals such as aluminum Non -ferrous metals such as copper and brass Precious metals such as silver and gold
Quality steels Higher-quality ferrous steels or alloyed steels with fine grain and few impurities Mechanical engineering, sheet metal processing, architecture, automotive industry, agricultural machinery Steel Generic term for materials made of iron (Fe) and iron alloys; often referred to as mild steel or structural steel Mechanical engineering, scaffolding systems, sheet metal processing, automotive industry, agricultural machinery, shipbuilding
It can be used to make products that have small or large surface areas. It is very easy to work with from cutting and punching to forming and press brake bending all the way to welding and other joining processes.
Materials differ from one another in weight, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, appearance, and price. There are also differences within certain groups of materials. Certain types of mild steel, for instance, can be alloyed in different ways, thereby creating different levels of tensile strength.
High -grade steels Stainless steels
Plus, sheet metal is thin, lightweight, and more economical than other solid materials. The properties of a piece of sheet metal are determined largely by the properties of the metals of which it is composed. The tensile strength of the sheet metal is crucial not only for the construction itself, but also for its production. Tensile strength measures the amount of stress that a sheet is able to withstand. In production, stress is deliberately applied to the sheet metal so that it undergoes deformation or breaks. The finished sheet metal part, however, should be able to withstand these loads. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this rule. The crumple zone on a car, for instance, is intended to undergo deformation, and some parts are even designed with predetermined breaking points.
Iron (Fe) with chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), and titanium (Ti) elements
These steel types have a high degree of purity and specific properties that distinguish them from structural and quality steels, for instance, degree of heat resistance, corrosion resistance, and amenability to welding.
Steels that are particularly hard and tough. Examples include nickel steel or multiphase steels exhibiting two or more compositional structures (called phases) within the metal.
Light metals
Lightweight materials such as aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), and related alloys
Copper-based materials comprising pure copper (Cu) or alloys such as brass (copper and zinc in various proportions).
MORE THAN MEETS THE EYE A wide variety of materials are available for use in industrial applications. These materials consist of pure metals or alloys of different metals and other chemical elements. The properties of the materials determine their application and the methods by which they are processed.
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Precious metals
Precious metals include metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), and other alloys.
Jewelry
Variety is what makes them so versatile: popular materials and their applications
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Units, conversions, and confusion Talk about missing the mark: in 1999, NASAs Climate Orbiter flew right by Mars instead of entering into orbit as it should have. The reason for the mishap: different teams using different units of measurement. While one team was using the metric system, another was making its calculations in feet and inches.
A similar problem exists in the world of sheet metal, where there is no single international standard for dimensions, gauges, and grades. Instead, it is the design engineers job to know which national standards apply. Luckily, sheet metal working machines are designed to handle a variety of measurement systems.
GAUGE, SIZE, AND GRADE To order sheet metal, you need to know the gauge, size, and grade. The gauge specifies how thick the sheet or strip is, while the size refers to its width and length. The grade indicates the surface quality. Standards governing the dimensions and grades of sheet metal can often vary depending on the country or region. In Europe, for instance, all length specifications are stated in millimeters. In the United States, on the other hand, lengths are generally specified in feet or inches. The European Standard (EN) is the standard used in Europe. In many cases, European Standards are transposed into German DIN standards. In Germany, harmonized standards such as these are indicated by the letters DIN EN.
of the nominal value. Thus, for a sheet with a nominal thickness of 2 millimeters, the actual thickness can be anywhere from 1. 9 to 2.1 millimeters. While higher grades such as cold rolled thin sheets offer greater accuracy, they are also more expensive. Keeping thickness deviation to a minimum is crucial for sheet metal parts requiring extremely precise outside dimensions or for parts that will later be bent. Bent angles, in particular, can be affected by deviations in the sheet thickness as small as several hundredths of a millimeter.
Steel strip, by contrast, may have a length of several hundred meters, but a width of only 2 meters or less. Coils can have a maximum diameter of around 2.3 meters and weigh up to 40 tons. The thickness of strips, meanwhile, is usually under 3 millimeters.
Pores: small depressions or holes Bumps: small elevated areas Grooves: visible marks caused by contact with other objects; they can sometimes be felt with the finger tips Scratches: light scratch marks caused by contact with other objects
All surface imperfections can affect the appearance and function of the finished part. While scratches can mar the appearance of high-quality home accessories, other imperfections are more critical. For instance, imperfections preventing uniform application of the finish can later cause flaking and lead to corrosion. This is why customers purchasing sheets are given the option of specifying whether one or both sides of the sheets should be free of imperfections.
Small format: 1,000 x 2,000 millimeters Medium format: 1,250 x 2,500 millimeters Large format: 1,500 x 3,000 millimeters
Foil: thickness of less than 0.5 millimeters Thin sheet: thickness between 0.5 and 3 millimeters Plate: thickness of 3 millimeters and over
The sheet thickness specified in the manufacturers catalog is considered the nominal thickness. Some areas of the sheet, however, may deviate from the nominal thickness. The degree of permitted deviation determines the thickness tolerance. Expressed as a percentage of nominal thickness, the tolerance can vary with the format and sheet thickness. When purchasing sheets, customers can choose from a variety of sheet grades. For standard sheets, the permitted thickness deviation is approximately plus or minus five percent
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Sheet metal is usually sold in sheets or coils that come in a variety of sizes and thicknesses.
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A look inside the warehouse of a steel manufacturer Profiles with circular, rectangular, and other cross sections Sheets with different surfaces Automotive body part with different sheet thicknesses
A little color makes all the difference Steel manufacturers offer colored sheets that can be used for buildings and industrial facilities to create a colorful appearance both inside and out. Different color schemes can be used to help an industrial building fit in better with its surroundings or make the interior more pleasant for the people who work there.
A MATTER OF FORM The classic sheet is flat and unprocessed and has two smooth sides. It is also possible, however, to purchase preprocessed sheets. These sheets have already been prepared for specific applications and make further processing easier.
Sheets with personality | Corrugated sheets and checkered sheets are examples of sheets with their own distinctive personalities. They are more rigid and stable than flat sheets and have a more striking appearance. For this reason, they are often used as cladding for buildings or roofs. Profile sheets such as these also include steel rods. Rods with round cross sections are called tubes. Rectangular or square cross sections are also common. In addition, there are nonstandard products available in just about any shape imaginable for particular applications.
Customizing | Many sheet metal suppliers offer to customize sheets to meet the specific requirements of their customers. This service includes cutting sheets to a particular format, rounding off the edges, or applying a protective film
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to stainless steel.
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Lightweight or heavyweight? The dimensions and density of the material are what determine the weight of a sheet. A medium-sized sheet made of 1-millimeter thick steel weighs around 25 kilograms. A 10-millimeter thick sheet, by contrast, already tips the scales at 250 kilograms. Because aluminum has a lower density, using it reduces the sheet weight by two thirds.
JOINING FORCES For many years now, sheets have been used in composite materials and structures.
a material with lower heat conductivity. Material like this is used for covers or lids designed to provide insulation from heat or cold. The idea of creating solid parts from individual sheet layers AN OLD PROCESS WITH NEW POTENTIAL
is not new, emphasizes developer Daniel Graf at TRUMPF Werkzeugmaschinen GmbH + Co. KG in Ditzingen, Germany, when speaking to people about the design of the hydraulic punching head. The component is made up of around 150 layers and is responsible for keeping things moving in the punch press. People wondering why it is worth going to all this trouble just to make a part will find the answer by taking a closer look inside. What looks like a compact steel block from the outside is, in reality, an intricate structure with many hydraulic channels and cavities. The complex structure makes it possible to build a very compact punching head, while keeping the flow channels as short as possible, explains Graf. Manufacturing a part like this using conventional methods such as drilling and milling is very difficult. Thats why we use LOM technology. Blanks are punched or cut individually using a laser. Then they are stacked on top of each other and joined. In reality, its nothing new, says the developer. But then why bother putting more energy into developing the method? There are two answers to this question. Initially, processes were not well adapted to serial production, and laminating the layers was too costly. On the first prototypes, I had to figure out the contours of the blanks manually using the 3D CAD model, recalls Graf. Now, this is done automatically. In addition, the programming system is now capable of placing the blanks on the sheet in the right order. That means the unloading system can stack them automatically. The first obstacle to serial production had been overcome. The next step was to lower the cost of joining the layers. Graf explains: At first, we coated the sheets on both sides with copper and then soldered them together in a vacuum oven. It was a complex and costly procedure. Just coating the sheets with copper cost several hundred euros for each component. To get around this, another method of applying the solder had to be found. The new method helped us eliminate 98 % of the costs associated with coating the sheets with copper. The developer had reached his goal: finding a new method based on LOM technology that is suitable for serial production and makes sense from a cost perspective. Graf concludes: LOM technology is certain to remain a niche application. Nevertheless, we are now able to utilize the technologys potential to a greater degree and apply it to other components with complex internal structures such as cooling elements in power electronics.
Building solid parts layer by layer: LOM technology enables the construction of complex hollow structures.
Composite structures for tailored stability and weight. Metal sandwich material can be combined in a variety of ways.
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The first sheets had to be hammered into shape. Rolling steel: a sketch by Leonardo da Vinci Cold rolling: tandem mill at ThyssenKrupp Steel AG
Splitting hairs The thickness of ultra high -quality, cold -rolled sheets is accurate to a thousandth of a millimeter. This corresponds to a hundredth of the thickness of a single human hair. In order to produce such sheets, rolling mills have to be equipped with high -precision components. Indeed, with rollers weighing in at 80 tons and having a diameter of 1. 5 meters, finding a roller manufacturer who has a tendency to split hairs can make all the difference.
BACK IN YE DAYS OF OLDE For many thousands of years, sheet metal was hammered by hand out of single metal blocks. With each blow from the hammer, the metal spread out and became flatter until the desired thickness and surface area were attained. This technique is still used today to create works of art and jewelry. If there was a river or stream nearby, people were able to harness the power of the flowing water to operate the hammer. Even so, it could take hours or even days to create a single sheet of metal. In Leonardo da Vincis time, people began pressing the metal in addition to hammering it. Da Vinci designed a type of screw press that could be used to shape metal strips to the desired width and thickness. Leonardo da Vinci was also probably the first to suggest that steel strips could be manufactured using rollers. A sketch by da Vinci has been found that illustrates the principle of steel rolling and even shows a manually operated rolling machine.
KEEP IT MOVIN: STEEL ROLLING In the course of the 18th century, people began rolling steel. This method gradually gained acceptance over the next 100 years. Today, steel continues to be rolled. In this process, a rectangular rod of steel called a slab is guided through a gap between two turning rollers.
The gap is considerably smaller than the slab, causing the slab to be flattened. The slab is flattened to a steel strip in several stages, with the steel passing through different sets of rollers until the strip attains its final thickness.
In the rolling mill | In the hot -rolling mill, the slab, which
can weigh up to 60 tons, is rolled into a hot -rolled strip with a specific thickness (for example, 12 to 20 millimeters). When it passes through the mill, the steel is red hot. In this state, the steel is easier to shape. Afterwards, the hot -rolled strip goes to the cold -rolling mill, where it is rolled to its final thickness, which may be as thin as 1 millimeter. The thinner the sheet, the faster it cools during the rolling operation.
More than just flat | Rolling produces not only flat strips. Cutting to size | After the strip has been rolled to the
desired thickness, it still has to be cut to the right size for storage and sale to the customer. Before it is cut, thick steel
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Almost anything required in one piece can be rolled. This includes rods, tubes, profiles, rails, and wire. Also, rollers do not necessarily have to be smooth: they can have bulges, ridges, or other features.
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A brilliant future
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Laser cutting today a standard operation Lightweight sheet constructions are gaining in popularity Barely visible: sheet metal framework in glass facades
Sheet metal has been in use for ages. And, in the decades to come, sheet metal is sure to continue to play a crucial role as an industrial material and, thus, in our daily lives. Different types of metal have many attractive properties that can be modified by adding other materials or employing various processing methods. Sheet metal manufacturers are constantly working to develop new materials with properties that are optimally suited to specific manufacturing methods.
more stringent. Sheet metal manufacturers are constantly working to optimize their materials in order to keep pace with the steady advances in manufacturing technology.
fine -grain mild steels, which make it possible to achieve clean cutting edges that are free of burrs.
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