Properties and uses of soap

Soaps are made of materials found in nature. Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali. The fats and oils used in soapmaking come from animal or plant sources. Air bubbles added to a molten soap will decrease the density of the soap and thus it will float on water. If the fatty acid salt has potassium, a softer lather is form. Soap is produced by a saponification or basic hydrolysis reaction of a fat or oil. Currently, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide is used to neutralize the fatty acid and convert it to the salt. General overall hydrolysis reaction: fat + NaOH ---> glycerol + sodium salt of fatty acid

Each fat or oil is made up of a distinctive mixture of several different triglycerides. In a triglyceride molecule, three fatty acid molecules are attached to one molecule of glycerine. There are many types of triglycerides; each type consists of its own particular combination of fatty acids. Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used in making soap. They are weak acids composed of two parts:

A carboxylic acid group consisting of one hydrogen (H) atom, two oxygen (O) atoms, and one carbon (C) atom, plus a hydrocarbon chain attached to the

carboxylic acid group. Generally, it is made up of a long straight chain of carbon (C) atoms each carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms.

The type of fatty acid and length of the carbon chain determines the unique properties of various soaps. Tallow or animal fats give primarily sodium stearate (18 carbons) a very hard, insoluble soap. Fatty acids with longer chains are even more insoluble. As a matter of fact, zinc stearate is used in talcum powders because it is water repellent. Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid (12 carbons) which can be made into sodium laurate. This soap is very soluble and will lather easily even in sea water. Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer carbons are not used in soaps because they irritate the skin and have objectionable odors.

An alkali is a soluble salt of an alkali metal like sodium or potassium. Originally, the alkalis used in soapmaking were obtained from the ashes of plants, but they are now made commercially. Today, the term alkali describes a substance that chemically is a base (the opposite of an acid) and that reacts with and neutralizes an acid. The common alkalis used in soapmaking are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide (KOH), also called caustic potash.

How Water Hardness Affects Cleaning Action Although soap is a good cleaning agent, its effectiveness is reduced when used in hard water. Hardness in water is caused by the presence of mineral salts - mostly those of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), but sometimes also iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). The mineral salts react with soap to form an insoluble precipitate known as soap film or scum.

Soap film does not rinse away easily. It tends to remain behind and produces visible deposits on clothing and makes fabrics feel stiff. It also attaches to the insides of bathtubs, sinks and washing machines.

Some soap is used up by reacting with hard water minerals to form the film. This reduces the amount of soap available for cleaning. Even when clothes are washed in soft water, some hardness minerals are introduced by the soil on clothes. Soap molecules are not very versatile and cannot be adapted to variety of fibers, washing temperatures and water conditions. Soap is that the minerals in water react with those in soap, leaving an insoluble film. This can turn clothes

grayish, and the film can leave a residue (such as is found on shower stalls, for example).

Cleansing Action of Soap The cleansing action of soap is determined by its polar and non-polar structures in conjunction with an application of solubility principles. The long hydrocarbon chain is of course non-polar and hydrophobic (repelled by water). The "salt" end of the soap molecule is ionic and hydrophilic (water soluble).

When soap is added to water, the ionic-salt end of the molecule is attracted to water and dissolved in it. The non-polar hydrocarbon end of the soap molecule is repelled by water. A drop or two of soap in water forms a monolayer on the water surface as shown in the graphics on the left. The soap molecules "stand up" on the surface as the polar carboxyl salt end is attracted to the polar water. The non-polar hydrocarbon tails are repelled by the water, which makes them appear to stand up.

Soap vs. oil vs. water Water alone is not able to penetrate grease or oil because they are of opposite polarity. When grease or oil (non-polar hydrocarbons) are mixed with a soap- water solution, the soap molecules work as a "bridge" between polar water molecules and non-polar oil molecules. Soap molecules have both properties of non-polar and polar at opposite ends of the molecule.

The oil is a pure hydrocarbon so it is non-polar. The non-polar hydrocarbon tail of the soap dissolves into the oil. That leaves the polar carboxylate ion of the soap molecules are sticking out of the oil droplets, the surface of each oil droplet is negatively charged. As a result, the oil droplets repel each other and remain suspended in solution (this is called an emulsion) to be washed away by a stream of water. The outside of the droplet is also coated with a layer of water molecules.

Effect of Hard Water When soap is used in "hard" water, the soap will be precipitated as "bathtub ring" by calcium or magnesium ions present in "hard" water. The effects of "hard" water calcium or magnesium ions are minimized by the addition of "builders". The most common "builder" used to be sodium trimetaphosphate. The phosphate reacts with the calcium or magnesium ions and keeps them in solution but away from the soap molecule. The soap molecule can then do its job without
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interference from calcium or magnesium ions. Other "builders" include sodium carbonate, borax, and sodium silicates are currently in detergents.

Most Common Soap Making Oils and Their Properties Oils are used in soap making and the oils have their own individual properties which are mixed or added to the soap base depending on the intended use for the soap. Some oils are added as a moisturizer, skin conditioner, for their curative properties or for their smell or fragrance. Most common soap making oils and their properties: y y y Sweet Almond oil - it is an excellent moisturizer and skin conditioner. Aloe Vera oil - it is a great soothing agent for damaged and dry skin. Avocado oil - it contains vitamins A, D and E and has healing and moisturizing properties. y y Beeswax - for soap harder and fragrance, the sweet smell of honey. Canola oil - less expensive and is often used instead of more expensive olive oil. It has moisturizing properties although it has less saturated fat. y Castor oil used together with vegetable oils to produce a hard soap that can draw in and retain skin moisture. y y y y Cocoa butter is a great skin softener with a natural chocolate aroma. Coconut oil make soaps lather wonderfully in any type of water. Cottonseed oil has a soothing and calming property but it can spoil easily. Emu oil has healing properties and it help other ingredients mixed with it be absorbed easily into the skin.

Grape seed oil like emu oil can be quickly absorbed into the skin and does not leave a greasy feeling.

Uses of Soap
y Used to clean windows, find water leaks in pipes, or unstick zippers and drawers. y Helps it go through wood more easily. Nails and screws go in easier and are less likely to split the wood if they are first stuck in a bar of soap. Rubbing soap over a handsaw blade will help it cut straighter and be less resistant to the wood. y As an insect repellent and can protect your plants from being eaten by bugs. Mix soap with water until it's sudsy, then put the water solution in a bottle and sprays the underside of plant leaves. y Relieve itchy bug bites. Rub the bites with a dampened bar of soap for instant itch relief. It also helps keep the bites clean. y y y y y Deodorize your car. It'll keep your car smelling clean and fresh. Keep your clothes fresh. It'll repel bugs and prevent musty odors. Remove stains from fabric. Keep sponges sudsy. Remove wallpaper glue by mixing with warm water and sponging it on the walls. y Lubricate the metal rails of sticking desk drawers.

Detect gas leaks by mixing it with water and rubbing it on suspect pipe joints; if bubbles form, the pipes will have problem.

As mild antiseptics and ingestible antidotes for mineral acid or heavy metal poisoning. Special metallic soaps, made from soap and heavier metals, are used as additives in polishes, inks, paints, and lubricating oils.

y y y

Used in the preparation of wool for weaving. As a medicament and as a means of cleansing the body. Body -Use directly on loofa, washcloth, sponge for an invigorating shower or bath.

Foot Soak -A capful in a basin of warm water: a perfect antidote to tired, sore feet.

Bubble Bath/Baby Bath -One cap full in running water for a luxurious baththe gentle safe way to bathe your baby.

y y

Shampoo -Cleans your hair without stripping away the natural oils. Clothing/Diapers -Use it to clean a spot or your entire laundry. Leaves diapers fluffy and soft without any irritating residues.

y y

Hand Soap -Gentle on your hands and tough on dirt. Fruit Wash -A couple of dashes in water cleans pesticide residues off you fruits and vegetables.

Shave -A few drops in your hand make a wonderful lather for a refreshing shave.

Family Pets -The gentle way to groom your pets that brings out the natural luster of their coats.
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Personal Cleansing Products include bar soaps, gels, liquid soaps and heavy duty hand cleaners. These products get their cleaning action from soap, other surfactants or a combination of the two. The choice of cleaning agent helps determine the product's lathering characteristics, feel on the skin and rinsability.

Laundry Detergents and Laundry Aids are available as liquids, powders, gels, sticks, sprays, pumps, sheets and bars. They are formulated to meet Household Cleaners are available as liquids, gels, powders, solids, sheets and pads for use on painted, plastic, metal, porcelain, glass and other surfaces, and on washable floor coverings.

a variety of soil and stain removal, bleaching, fabric softening and conditioning, and disinfectant needs under varying water, temperature and use conditions.

Dishwashing Products include detergents for hand and machine dishwashing as well as some specialty products. They are available as liquids, gels, powders and solids.

Properties and uses of detergent

A detergent is a material intended to assist cleaning. The term is sometimes used to differentiate between soap and other surfactants used for cleaning. Detergents are made from synthetic resources such as petroleum fractions. They were developed during the Second World War in response to a shortage of animal fats and vegetable oils. Examples of detergents are sodium alkyl sulphate and sodium alkylbenzene suphonate. The anion part of detergent also consists of a hydrophobic part and a hydrophilic part same as soap. Detergents do not form scum with hard water. They form soluble substances with calcium or magnesium ions. This means detergents can still perform its cleansing action in hard water. Thus, detergents are more effective than soap in hard water. 2CH3(CH2)11OSO3 -Na+ + Ca2+ Sodium dodecyl sulphate [CH3(CH2)11OSO3]2 Ca2+ + 2Na+ soluble calcium dodecyl sulphate

2CH3(CH2)11OSO3 -Na+ + Mg2+ Sodium dodecyl sulphate

[CH3(CH2)11OSO3]2 Mg2+ + 2Na+ soluble magnesium dodecyl sulphate

Detergents generally contain a number of additives. Additives are added to a detergent to enhance its cleaning efficiency and to meet the needs of consumers as it is easy to use. Biological enzymes are the enzymes that digest protein; fats and carbohydrate on the shirt so it makes the stain on your shirt disappear. For example, amylase digests starch stain; lipases digest oil stain and
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protease digest protein stain. Surfactant is added to keep oil and water from forming into layers. Surfactant has a hydrophilic side and hydrophobic side. The hydrophobic side sticks to the oil or grease and hydrophilic side stick to the water. Surfactant also lowers the surface tension of the water to allow detergent to wet surface and penetrate into, under, and around the grease.

Optical brightener is used to enhance the appearance of the colour of shirt. Optical brighteners absorb ultraviolet radiation and re-emit the blue light and reduce the yellow colour of the shirt and make it become whiter. For example, fluorescent. Fluorescent contain phosphor which is the substance that emits visible light in response to some sort of radiation. A phosphor converts the energy in the UV radiation from a black light into visible light. Whitening agents such ad sodium perborate is added to convert stains into colourless substances. Optical whitener such as fluorescent dye is added to add brightness and whiteness to white fabric.

Next, to control foaming in detergent, foam control agents are added. To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent by softening the water, builder such as sodium tripolyphosphate is added. Moreover, fillers such as sodium sulphate and sodium silicate are added in detergents to add to the bulk of detergents and enable it to be poured easily. Suspension agents are also added to prevent the dirt particles removed from redepositing onto cleaned fabrics. Example of suspension agent is carboxymethylcellulose (CMC).

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Optical brightener is used to enhance the appearance of the colour of shirt. Optical brighteners absorb ultraviolet radiation and re-emit the blue light and reduce the yellow colour of the shirt and make it become whiter. For example, fluorescent. Fluorescent contain phosphor which is the substance that emits visible light in response to some sort of radiation. A phosphor converts the energy in the UV radiation from a black light into visible light. Last but not least, fragrances are added to give fragrance to both detergent and fabric. The pictures below show how the detergent removes the grease on the shirt.

First, the hydrophobic tail of the anion part dissolves in the grease which is shown as brown colour, the hydrophilic part dissolves in the water.

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After that, the grease started to loosen and lift off from the surface of the shirt. Therefore, rubbing and scrubbing help to faster the loosen of the grease from the surface of the shirt.

The grease is surrounded by the anion part and the grease is total lifted off from the surface of the shirt and suspended in water.

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Saponification
The name saponification literally means "soap making". It is the hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions to form an alcohol and the salt of a carboxylic acid (carboxylates). Saponification is commonly used to refer to the reaction of a metallic alkali (base) with a fat or oil to form soap. The products of the saponification reaction are glycerin and soap. Water is also present, but it does not enter into the chemical reaction. The water is only a vehicle for the alkali, which is otherwise a dry powder.

Oils and fats will also have what is called a saponification value, which is the amount of lye needed to completely neutralize them into soap with no lye left over. Each oil has a different value.

Oil + Sodium hydroxide = Soap + Glycerol

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In the industrial manufacture of soap, tallow (fat from animals such as cattle and sheep) or vegetable fat is heated with sodium hydroxide. Once the saponification reaction is complete, sodium chloride is added to precipitate the soap. The water layer is drawn off the top of the mixture and the glycerol is recovered using vacuum distillation.

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How soaps are made

Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soap making process. This method involves heating fats and oils and reacting them with a liquid alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap) plus glycerine.

The major soapmaking process is the neutralization of fatty acids with an alkali. Fats and oils are hydrolyzed (split) with a high-pressure steam to yield crude fatty acids and glycerine. The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap).

When the alkali is sodium hydroxide, a sodium soap is formed. Sodium soaps are "hard" soaps. When the alkali is potassium hydroxide, a potassium soap is formed. Potassium soaps are softer and are found in some liquid hand soaps and shaving creams.

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The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is attracted to water. It is called the hydrophilic (water-loving) end. The hydrocarbon chain is attracted to oil and grease and repelled by water. It is known as the hydrophobic (water-hating) end.

Process of saponification
Oils are a mixture of various types of triglycerides. When oil reacts with alkali solution, sodium salt of fatty acids and glycerin are obtained. A blend of hard oil and soft oil is used for making soap. Soap can be obtained by following process.

Firstly is full boiled process which the oil of the soap is grained out of the mixture by adding brine solution. The soap separates out of the mixture. The soap mixture is then allowed to settle overnight. The soap mixture gets separated into different layer. The top layer is soap and bottom layer is spent lye and glycerin. The top layer is drained and again boiled and washed with water, alkali is added to saponify any un-reacted fat present in the soap. The full boiled process takes about 48 hours. The soap is produced.

Secondly is semi boiled process of making soap from oil the glycerin formed is not separated but it is retained in the soap. So the process is simple and short as no settling is involved.

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Cold-process soap making takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used. The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to ensure that the soap is completely saponified.

A cold-process soapmaker first looks up the saponification value of the fats being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of lye. Excess unreacted lye in the soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough lye, and the soap is greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 4-10% discount of lye so that all of the lye is reacted and that excess fat is left for skin conditioning benefits.

The lye is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature. Once both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110F (37-43C), and are no more than 10F (~5.5C) apart, they may be combined. This lye-fat mixture is stirred until "trace" (modern-day amateur soapmakers often use a stick blender to speed this process). There are varying levels of trace. Depending on how additives will affect trace. After stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity.

Essential oils, fragrance oils, botanicals, herbs, oatmeal or other additives are added at light trace, when the mixture starts to thicken. The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels, or blankets, and left to continue

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saponification for 18 to 48 hours. Milk soaps are the exception. They do not require insulation. Insulation may cause the milk to burn. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a "gel phase" where the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for several hours, before once again turning opaque. The soap will continue to give off heat for many hours after trace.

After the insulation period the soap is firm enough to be removed from the mold and cut into bars. It is safe to use the soap since saponification is complete. However, cold-process soaps are typically cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2-6 weeks (depending on initial water content) before use. If using caustic soda it is recommended that the soap is left to cure for at least four weeks.

Cold process of making soap involves the reaction at room temperature. This process is suitable for some oil only. Nowadays trend is to make soap from fatty acid blend. The fatty acids are obtained on splitting of triglycerides. Glycerin is separated during the process of splitting. Soap is obtained directly by

neutralization of fatty acids. It requires less skill. The process is fast and requires less heat. Completely boiled and neutral mixture in form of paste obtained from the above processes is drained out manually with bucket and allowed to cool in molds.

In the hot-process method, lye and fat are boiled together at 80100 C until saponification occurs, which the soapmaker can determine by taste (the

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bright, distinctive taste of lye disappears once all the lye is saponified) or by eye (the experienced eye can tell when gel stage and full saponification have occurred). Hot-process soap making was used when the purity of lye was unreliable, and this process can use natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact concentration of the lye solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate success.

After saponification has occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess liquid drained off. Unlike coldprocessed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because lye and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soap making.

Saponification can be carried out by following two processes Firstly is manual process. It requires constant stirring. The Saponification pan is a hemispherical vessel made of mild steel. Saponification pan is heated at the bottom by means of fire wood. Diesel firing can also be provided. Boiling is a batch type process. Boiling mixture is continuously stirred for homogenous mixing with help of crutches. Boiling is carried out till complete neutralization is obtained. The soap is then taken to drying section for further process.

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Second is Mechanized Process. Saponification of oil or fat can also be carried in a Saponification vessel which is having a conical end at the bottom. Heating is done by steam coming out of the holes in the spiral pipe. The steam jet also stirs the mass of soap. Since the heating is done by steam there are no chance of burning of soap which sticks to the walls of vessel. For full boiled process brine solution is added which will separate the soap into layers. After the mixture is settled the spent lye is drained and the soap is again washed and boiled. When fatty acids are used the neutralized mixture is directly taken to drying section for further process.

Preparation of detergent - Neutralisation

Detergent is a salt that formed from neutralization between alkyl hydrogen sulphate and an alkali. The most effective detergent is Sodium Lauryl Sulphate, C12H25NaO4S. The first processes involve the production of lauryl hydrogen sulphate.

CH3(CH2)9CH2OH + H2SO4

CH3(CH2)9CH2OSO3H + H2O (Lauryl hydrogen sulphate)

Second process involves the neutralisation of lauryl hydrogen sulphate.

CH (CH ) CH OSO H + NaOH

CH (CH ) CH OSO Na + H2O (Sodium lauryl sulphate)

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Comparison between soaps and detergents

ISSUES
Materials

SOAPS
Made from natural materials

DETEREGENTS
Made from petroleum

Cleaning power Ease of rinsing

Less powerful Difficult wash away all soap on cloth. Soap remain leave odour and spoil fabric

More powerful Rinses out well from cloth

Formation of scum

Form scum with hard water

No scum is form with hard water Can be modified to suit the cleaning task. For example, a detergent can be made especially for cleaning toilet bowl.

Molecular structure

Determine by the structure of fatty acids found in the oil or fat used to produce soap

pH

Slightly alkaline

Can be controlled to suit the cleaning task

Biodegradable

Biodegradable and do not cause any pollution.

Not biodegradable and cause water pollution. This in some cases can become quite serious.

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Used medium

Cannot be used in acidic medium as this would precipitate the fatty acids

Can be used in any medium including acidic medium

Solubility in water

Not very soluble in water

Highly soluble in water

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