Stellar Structure and Evolution

Spring 2007 Main topics

Basic equations of stellar structure Physics of stellar matter Stellar evolution from main sequence to the final stages including synthesis of the elements

Recommended book
Kippenhahn & Weigert (1989; KW) Hansen, Kawaler & Trimble (2005; HKT) Background/supplemental: see separate list

Exam
Material discussed in lectures & problems Optional: `scriptie on topic to be agreed upon

If simple perfect laws uniquely rule the Universe, should not pure thought be capable of uncovering this perfect set of laws without having to lean on the crutches of tediously assembled observations? True, the laws to be discovered may be perfect, but the human brain is not. Left on its own, it is prone to stray, as many past examples sadly prove. In fact, we have missed few chances to err until new data freshly gleaned from nature set us right again for the next steps. Thus pillars rather than crutches are the observations on which we base our theories; and for the theory of stellar evolution these pillars must be there before we can get far on the right track.
Martin Schwarzschild (1958)

1. Some facts about stars

a) Mass, luminosity, radius, & effective temperature
Sun
M = 1.9891 1033 gram R = 6.9598 1010 cm L = 3.8515 1033 erg/sec O = 1.4086 gm/cm3

p L = 4 R T
2

4 eff

Teff ,O = 5780 K

Stars
Apparent magnitudes colors Stellar atmosphere models L, Teff, R Certain binaries M

106 L LO 106 0.08 M M O 100 1 800 R RO 1500

109 O 106 2000 Teff 100000 K

b) The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Discovery of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram a century ago showed that for most stars the absolute magnitude MV and effective temperature Teff (as derived from its spectral type SP) are correlated
MV

Most stars on the main sequence, some on the giant branch, and one lone outlier (white dwarf)
Spectral Type

H-R diagram for the nearby stars

Luminosities based on approximate distances: scatter in MV Using Morgan-Keenan spectral types: discreteness in Teff

H-R diagram for the Solar Neighborhood

MV derived from parallax obtained by HIPPARCOS for nearby stars with V<10 V-I color is function of Teff, Unlike spectral type SP, it is a continuous quantity

c) Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams for star clusters

All stars at almost same distance: can use V instead of MV Use color (B-V or V-I) instead of SP: continuous quantity

Main sequence, turn-off, subgiants, giants, horizontal branch, asymptotic giant branch, and white dwarf sequence

Deep H-R diagram of a globular cluster

AGB stars HB Giants

Extreme HB Blue stragglers WDs

Subgiants

MS

NGC 6397
HST/ACS

The Hyades
Individual parallaxes corrected for depth of the cluster by using the proper motions secular parallaxes These are a factor 3 more accurate than Teff from atmospheric models for spectra the currently most accurate absolute H-R diagram for any star cluster

de Bruijne et al. 2001 A&A 367, 111

Composite H-R diagram for starclusters

Aim is to understand: Position of stars in this diagram Evolution of stars in this diagram Differences between cluster HRDs Nature of Cepheids

Sandage 1957 ApJ 125, 435

d) Three Kinds of H-R Diagrams

Absolute magnitude MV versus spectral type SP Absolute magnitude MV versus a color, e.g., B-V Bolometric luminosity versus effective temperature: log L versus log Teff (physical HR diagram)

mV MV = 5 log d 5 + AV d= 1 206265 pc = AU

Distance modulus; AV extinction Trigonometric distance d follows from parallax

Absolute bolometric magnitude Mbol and luminosity L:

M bol = MV + BC = 4.76 2.5 log L LO

with BC the bolometric correction

e) Mass-luminosity relation
For certain binaries (e.g., doublelined eclipsing variables) possible to determine individual masses
(e.g. Popper 1980 ARA&A Martin & Mignard 1998 AA 330, 585)

Recent measurements:
L = LO 0.66 M MO

b g 0.92b M M g 300b M M g
O O

2 .5 3. 55

0.08 MO M 0.5 MO 0.5 MO M 40 MO 40 MO M 130 MO

f) Internal structure
Helioseismology Study of oscillations of Solar surface Provides probe of internal structure Extremely accurate Solar model

Asteroseismology Idem for other stars, but surface not spatially resolved

g) Nucleosynthesis
Cosmic abundances of most of the elements produced by nucleosynthesis in stars (except H, He, and Li, Be, B)

Mass number of element

Fractional error in sound speed P/

h) Some questions
What is the internal structure of stars? What causes the mass-luminosity relation? What sets the range of stellar masses? What generates different classes of stars in HR Diagram? What are the final stages of stellar evolution? How do stars produce the heavy elements? Why do some stars pulsate? What additional processes occur in binary stars?

To be answered by applying the laws of physics

i) Outline of course
Derivation of four equations of stellar structure
- Mass continuity ( 2) - Hydrostatic equilibrium ( 2) - Thermal equilibrium ( 4) - Energy transport by radiation (6) or convection ( 8)

Required physics
- Thermodynamics ( 3) - Equation of state including degeneracy, and internal energy ( 5) - Opacity of stellar material ( 7) - Nuclear energy generation ( 9, 10)

Solution methods and simple models ( 11-14) Overview of stellar evolution ( 15-24)

2. Spherical stars
a) Mass-continuity equation
density at radius r mass enclosed inside r
m(r ) = 4 r 2 (r ) dr
0

(r )
m( r )

z
r

dm = 4 r 2 (r ) dr
r M = R

b1g

stellar radius total mass of star mean density inside r mean density of star

= m ( R) 3m(r ) (r ) = 4 r 3 3M = 4 R3

(KW 1)

b) Gravitation
Gravitational acceleration inside a spherical body (KW 1)

g = g (r ) =

Gm(r ) d = r2 dr
GM R

with the gravitational potential, and surface = Check of accuracy of spherical approximation

Rotation period of the Sun is 27 days centrifugal acceleration at equator: vc2/R Gravitational acceleration at equator: GM /R2 Ratio is 2 x 10-5 so rotation unimportant, and star can be treated accurately as a sphere

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c) Hydrostatic equilibrium
Newtons equation of motion: 1 dP Gm(r ) && = r dr r2 with P the pressure

(KW 2.1-2.4)

Small cylinder of thickness dr, surface 1cm2 mass dr

r Equilibrium if and only if && = 0 for all r dP Gm(r ) (r ) = 2 dr r2 This is the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, which equates the pressure gradient to the gravitational force

af

Often useful to employ m=m(r) as variable, not r. Then:

a1f a2 f

1 dr = dm 4 r 2 dP Gm = dm 4 r 4

Solutions of (1) and (2) exist for the special case P = These are so-called barotropic stars, and include the famous polytropes with P = K but also the white dwarfs, both of which we study later ( 12; 23)

P( )

But generally P = P( , T ) with T the temperature; this is called the equation of state; it also depends on composition Example: Ideal gas has

N0 k

No is Avogadros number = 6.02257 1023 k is Boltzmanns constant = 1.38062 10-16 erg/K is the mean molecular weight (see 3b)

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d) Time scales
Consider again Newtons equation: Two extreme cases:
P = 0: g = 0: && = g =: r && r R

&& = r

1 dP Gm(r ) dr r2
Free-fall time scale Explosion time scale

2 ff

ff =

R g

P R R =: 2 exp l = R P sound R exp l

In H.E. both terms contribute equally (but with opposite sign), so we can write expl = ff . Using g GM/ R 2 P GM 2 / R 4 (2f), we find: R3 1 ff = exp l = hydro = GM 2 G This is the hydrodynamical timescale

r Problem: Solve && = Gm(r ) / r 2 with r=r0 at t=t0, and show that r=0 is reached for t = 3 / 32G

In Solar units: hydro

F RI M I = 1600 G J F HR K H M K
3/ 2 O O

1/ 2

seconds

Use range of mass and radii for stars

3 sec hydro 1000 days

This is similar to the periods of pulsating stars

Stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium

Problem: What is thydro for a neutron star? Can a pulsar be a pulsating neutron star?

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e) Potential energy Eg
Eg = the amount of work needed to bring stellar matter from infinity to the present configuration Let m(r) be present inside radius r, and add mass dm between r and r + dr. Then:

Gm Gm dEg = 2 dr dm = dm r r
In hydrostatic equilibrium:
Eg = 4 r dP = 4 r P
3 3 0 M

z
r

Eg =

z
0

Gm 1 dm = dm r 20

integrate by parts; twice

M 0

12 P r dr = 3 PdV = 3
2 0 0

z
0

dm

We shall see in 4b that Eg Ei, the internal energy of the star

f) Order of magnitude estimates

Mean pressure Central pressure Potential energy
P= G m2 1 1 dm Pdm = m dP = 4 M 0 r 4 M0 M0
M
M

Pc = P(0) P( R) = dP =
0

z z

G 4

Eg = 1 gdm = M0 1 1 Tdm = M0 M N0 k
M M M

= G

Mean grav. acceleration g = Mean temperature

(for ideal gas)

T=

z z

G M

z z z
0 0 0

m dm r4
m dm r m dm r2

z
0

dm =

3M N0 k

Eg

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The integrals on the right-hand side are all of the form

M

I , =

z
0

Gm 4 dm = r 3

F I H K

/3

G / 3 m / 3 dm
0

where we have used r 3 = 3m(r ) / 4 (r ) Assume the density (r) does not increase outwards, Then: d (r ) / dr 0 and
( M ) =
3M (0) = c 4 R3

It follows that:

3G M +1 3G M +1 I , 3 + 3 R 3 + 3 rc

with rc defined by M = rc3 c

4 3

Physical interpretation
Consider a mass distribution with total mass M, radius R and arbitrary (r), which does not increase outwards (II) Consider two related configurations with (r) constant (I&III):

Then:

PcI PcII PcIII EgI EgII EgIII g I g II g III T I T II T III

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Specifically, this gives:

3GM 2 3GM 2 P 20 R 4 20 rc4 3GM 2 3GM 2 Pc 8 R 4 8 rc4 3GM 2 3GM 2 Eg 5R 5rc 3GM 4 R2 g 3GM 4rc2

Numbers

GM 2 M . = 1118 1016 4 R MO
2 48

GM
5 N0 k R

GM
5 N0 k rc

FG IJ F R I dyne / cm H K H RK F M IJ F R I erg GM = 3.791 10 G R HM K H RK F M IJ F R I cm / sec GM = 2.739 10 G R H M KH R K F M IJ F R I K GM = 2.293 10 G Nk R H M KH R K

2 4 O 2 O O 2 4 O 2 2 O 7 O 0 O

Enormous pressures, densities and temperatures!

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