Corbett, Edward P.J. and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student.

Oxford University Press, 1999. Figures of Speech (380-411)

The Schemes Schemes of Words: The schemes of words are formed: 1. By adding or subtracting a letter or a syllable at the beginning, middle or end of a word. 2. By exchanging sounds. Some figures are: Prosthesis: adding a syllable in front of word e.g., beloved for loved Epenthesis: adding a syllable in the middle of word e.g, visitating for visiting Proparalepsis: adding a syllable at the end of word e.g., climature for climate Aphaeresis: subtracting a syllable form the beginning of word e.g., neath for beneath Syncope: subtracting a syllable from the middle of word e.g., prosprous for prosperous Apocope: subtracting a syllable from the end of word e.g., even for evening

Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word e.g., clapse for clasp

Antisthecon: change of sound e.g., wrang for wrong

Schemes of Construction: 1. Schemes of Balance: Parallelism: similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses. It demands that equivalent things be set forth in co-ordinate grammatical structures. So nouns must be yoked with nouns, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, adverb clauses with adverb clauses. When the parallel elements are similar not only in structure but in length (in words or syllables), the scheme is called isocolon. e.g.: his purpose was to impress the ignorant, to perplex the dubious, and to confound the scrupulous. The addition of symmetry of length to similarity of structure contributes to the rhythm of sentences. Antithesis: the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure. The opposition in an antithesis can reside either in the words or in the ideas or in both. (page 383)

2. Scheme of unusual or inverted word order (hyperbaton): Anastrophe: inversion of the natural or usual word order. (Examples in page 384)

Such deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of words surprises expectation; anastrophe can be an effective device for gaining attention. But its chief function is to secure emphasis. It is commonplace that the beginning and end of a clause are the position of greatest emphasis. Words placed in those positions draw special attention and when those initial or terminal words are not normally found in those positions, they receive extraordinary emphasis. Parenthesis: insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentence. e.g.: But wherein any man is bold- I am speaking foolishly-I also am bold . . . . Are they ministers of Christ? I-to speak as a fool-am more.- St. Paul, 2 Cor. II, 21 and 23 The distinguishing mark of parenthesis is that interpolated member is cut off from the syntax of the rest of the sentence. Although the parenthetical matter is not necessary for the grammatical completeness of the sentence, it does have a pronounced rhetorical effect. For a brief moment, we hear the authors voice, commenting, and for that reason, the sentence gets an emotional charge that it would otherwise not have. Apposition: placing side by side two co-ordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first. e.g.: John Morgan, the president of the Sons of the Republic, could not be reached by phone. It certainly occurs most frequently in written prose, in a situation, in other words, where we have time to make a conscious choice of our arrangement of words. Although the appositive does not disturb the natural flow of the sentence as violently as parenthetical expressions do, it does interrupt the flow of the sentence, interrupts the flow to supply some gratuitous information or explanation
Gratuitous: injustificada, innecesaria

3. Schemes of Omission: Ellipsis: deliberate omission of a word or of words which are readily implied by the context. It can be an artful and arresting means of securing economy of expression. We must see to it, however, that the understood words are grammatically compatible. If we wrote: The ringleader was hanged, and his accomplices imprisoned, we would be guilty of a solecism, because the understood was is not grammatically compatible. Asyndeton: deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses. The Tudor rhetoricians had a special name for the omission of conjunctions between single words or phrases brachylogia.

The principal effect of asyndeton is to produce a hurried rhythm in the sentence. Aristotle observed that asyndeton was especially appropriate for the conclusion of a discourse. Polysyndeton: deliberate use of many conjunctions to slow up the rhythm of the prose and to produce an impressively solemn note. Another use refers to creating a special emphasis. (Page 388)

4. Schemes of Repetition Alliteration: repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words. e.g.: A sable, silent, solemn forest good. In Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration rather than rhyme was the device to bind verses together. It is rarely used in modern prose. It is sometimes used today, however, for special effects, as a mnemonic device for slogans and advertising catch-lines. Sometimes alliteration is deliberately used for humorous effect.
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Assonance: the repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words. e.g.: An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king Princes, the dregs of their dull race, who flow Through public scorn mud from a muddy spring Shelley, Sonnet: England in 1819

Anaphora: repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses. e.g.: The Lord sitteth above the water floods. The Lord remaineth a King forever. The Lord shall give strength unto his people. The Lord shall give his people the blessing of peace. Psalm 29 This scheme is usually reserved for those passages where the author wants to produce a strong emotional effect.

Epistrophe: repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. e.g.: Shylock: Ill have my bond! Speak not against my bond! I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond! Epistrophe not only sets up a pronounced rhythm but secures a special emphasis, both by repeating the word and by putting the word in the final position in the sentence.

Epanalepsis: repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause. e.g.: Blood hath bought blood, and blows have answerd blows: Strength matchd with strength, and power confronted power. Shakespeare, King John, II, I, 329-30

It is rare in prose. It would seem perfectly natural for a father to express his grief over the death of a beloved son in this fashion: He was flesh of my flesh, bone of my bone, blood of my blood. The Spanish Tragedy Anadiplosis: repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. e.g.: Labor and care are rewarded with success, success produces confidence, confidence relaxes industry, and negligence ruins the reputation which diligence had raise. - Dr. Johnson, Rambler No. 21 Climax: arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance. Not necessarily in form on repetition. e.g.: More than that, we rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance, endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, because Gods love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit which has been given to us. Antimetabole: repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. e.g.: One should eat to live, not live to eat. Molire, LAvare It is the kind of phrasing that figures in most memorable aphorisms. Chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses. e.g.: By day the frolic, and the dance by night. Samuel Johnson, The Vanity of Human Wishes Chiasmus is similar to antimetabole in that it too involves a reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses, but it is unlike Antimetabole in that it does not involve a repetition of words. Both chiasmus and Antimetabole can be used to reinforce antithesis.

Polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root. e.g.: The Greeks are strong, and skilful to their strength. Fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant; - Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, I, I, 7-8