VERBALS & VERBAL PHRASES

Section Ten A verbal is a word derived from a verb that functions as another part of speech--a noun, adjective, or adverb. Clearly, a verbal appears exactly like a verb form; and verbals do act like verbs in that they express action, an idea, or a state of being (a condition). Grammatically, however, verbals function not as verbs, but as other parts of speech. Verbals function in the capacity of (1) noun, (2) adjective, or (3) adverb. The verbal (and verbal phrase) may function as the subject of a sentence, direct object of a verb, object of a preposition, subject complement, or appositive. Note that a verbal phrase is simply the verbal itself together with any modifiers and/or complements--which, by the way, is how we most often see verbals. Two Basic Functions of The Verbal (1). Provides a means to vary sentence structure. (2). Reduces wordiness, or prolixity, through the process known as reduction. Reduction is the inclusion of a (usually subordinate) phrase or clause expressing a related idea or supplemental material into an otherwise complete sentence. Reduction is quite frequently a frugality of words. In lieu of reduction, we would express the same ideas using two separate sentences.

THE THREE VERBALS

There are three kinds, or classes, of verbals in the English language: the Gerund, the Participle, and the Infinitive. We determine whether or not a word is a verbal by looking at both its form and its function within the sentence. Verbals share certain characteristics of both verbs and other parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The three kinds of verbals are identified briefly below and in more detail later in this section. Gerund (Function = Noun) A gerund is the present participle form of a verb, i.e., a verb ending in -ing. The gerund expresses an action or a state of being (like a verb) while functioning grammatically as a noun. In other words, a gerund is a verbal used as a noun. As a noun, the gerund can function as a subject, direct object of a verb, subject complement (usually a predicate nominative), appositive, or object of a preposition. The gerund can, in fact, fill any noun slot. Participle

(Function = Adjective)

A participle is the form of a verb ending in -ing, -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n. Participles express an action or a state of being (like a verb) while functioning grammatically as an adjective. In other words, a participle is a verbal used as an adjective. There are two kinds of participles: (1) The Present Participle (-ing ending) and (2) The Past Participle (-ed, -en, -d, -t, -n ending). A participle, grammatically speaking, is a verbal that functions always as an adjective, which modifies a noun or pronoun. Infinitive (Function = Noun, Adjective, Adverb) An infinitive is formed by the word to + the stem (dictionary form) of a verb. (Note: sometimes the to is omitted from the infinitive construction.) Infinitives express an action or a state of being while functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In other words, an infinitive is a verbal used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. As a noun, the infinitive can function as a subject, direct object of a verb, indirect object of a verb, subject complement (usually a predicate nominative), and appositive.

VERBAL FORMS Gerund dreaming choosing building growing Present Participle dreaming choosing building growing Past Participle dreamed chosen built grown Infinitive to dream to choose to build to grow

VERBALS FUNCTION AS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS

In accord to their function within a sentence, verbals are sometimes called verbal nouns, verbal adjectives, and verbal adverbs.

Verbal as Noun Continual dripping wears away a stone.

(The verbal dripping, a gerund, functions as a noun and as the subject of the sentence. The gerund is modified by the adjective continual. The gerund phrase is continual dripping. Verbals functioning as nouns are sometimes called Verbal Nouns.)

Sally wishes to go.

(The infinitive, which functions as a noun, is the direct object of the verb wishes.)

Jack reached the key by crawling.

(The gerund functions as the object of the preposition by.)

Verbal as Adjective Stolen moments are particularly sweet.

(Stolen is the past participle form of the verb steal. A verbal functioning as an adjective, stolen modifies the noun moments. Verbals functioning as adjectives are sometimes called Verbal Adjectives.)

The boxer, stunned, regained his equilibrium.

(Stunned is a past participle functioning as an adjective modifying the noun boxer.)

On the sill you will find the potted plants.

(Potted is a past participle functioning as an adjective modifying the noun plants.)

The one to see is Fern.

(To see is an infinitive functioning as an adjective modifying the pronoun one.)

Verbal as Adverb We were born to suffer.

(To suffer is an infinitive. The infinitive functions as an adverb since it answers the question Why regarding the verb were born. We were born why? To suffer. Verbals functioning as adverbs are sometimes called Verbal Adverbs.)

Monsignor Eagen got up to go.

(To go is an infinitive functioning as an adverb modifying the verb got up. Note: get up, got up, etc., are considered a single verb, not a verb phrase.)

Some of us live to eat, while others eat to live.

(The first infinitive, to eat, functions as an adverb modifying the verb live. The second infinitive, to live, also functions as an adverb modifying the verb eat.)

THE VERBAL PHRASE

Verbals take objects, complements, and/or modifiers to form a verbal phrase. Usually, the verbal itself introduces the phrase, which is then followed by its objects, complements, and/or modifiers. In the examples below, verbal phrases appear in accentuated text; objects, complements, and modifiers are underlined. Living well is the best revenge.
(Living well is a gerund phrase functioning as subject complement (a predicate nominative). This becomes clear when we rewrite the sentence: The best revenge is living well. The adverb well modifies the gerund by answering the question Living how?)

Governments exist to protect the rights of citizens.

(The infinitive to protect, functioning as an adverb, has a direct object, the rights of citizens. The entire infinitive phrase, to protect the rights of citizens, functions as an adverb.)

Arriving just before dawn, the meteor shower was spectacular.

(Arriving just before dawn is a participle phrase modifying the noun meteor. The participle itself is modified by the adverbial phrase just before dawn.)

1.0 THE GERUND

Form: -ing Function: Noun

A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Like a noun, a gerund may function as subject, direct object of a verb, subject complement (always a predicate nominative), appositive, or as the object of a preposition. A gerund is formed and looks just like the present participle form of a verb. The difference, however, is a matter of usage. The gerund functions as a noun; the participle functions as an adjective.

Gerund as Subject Walking is great exercise.

(The gerund walking is the subject of the sentence.)

Painting is fun. Thinking philosophically is essential to clear thought.

Gerund as Object of Verb I enjoy playing.

(The gerund playing is the direct object of the verb enjoy.)

Ashe enjoys hunting. She doesn't appreciate your talking during the film.

Gerund as Subject Complement Her favorite pastime is rowing. His job is simply surfing. Our foremost ambition is living.

Gerund as an Appositive His favorite hobby, sewing, just doesn't fit his character.

The students' biggest obstacle, listening, will likely prove their undoing. The garage mechanic's job, basic repairing, is a very handy skill indeed.
(Notice that the gerund appositive, repairing, is itself modified by the adjective basic. Together they form an appositive phrase.)

Gerund as Object of Preposition You can pass the exam by studying.

(The gerund is the object of the preposition by.)

Amid foraging amongst the trees, the deer fell suddenly silent.
(The gerund is the object of the preposition amid.)

We all soon realized there was little hope of further searching.

(The gerund is the object of the preposition of.

1.1 THE GERUND PHRASE

Form: -ing Function: Noun

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (the word itself) together with any complements, which may include direct object, indirect object, appositive, subject complement, or object of a preposition. The phrase may also have modifiers, adjective and/or adverb--all of which function together as a noun.

Gerund Phrase as Subject Reliving the event will not help your peace of mind.
(The gerund reliving has the event as its object. Together the entire phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.)

Traveling in medieval Europe promised danger. Slowly turning the key will breach the lock.

Gerund Phrase as Object of the Verb I enjoy playing the guitar. He doesn't appreciate your malicious gossiping.
(Although a verbal frequently introduces a verbal phrase, notice in this example that the verbal appears at the end of the verbal phrase, preceded by two modifiers.)

Sally, lacking proper prudence, loves expressing her careless opinions.

(The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb loves.)

Gerund Phrase as Subject Complement The secret of acceptance is respecting his wishes.
(The gerund phrase renames the subject secret.)

A child's first hurdle is attending kindergarten.

(The gerund phrase renames the subject hurdle.)

Theodore's greatest character flaw is his being pretentious.

(The gerund phrase renames the subject flaw.)

Gerund Phrase as Appositive

Neil's daily nightmare, milking the cows, is one duty he cannot neglect. Joanne's childhood aspiration, swimming the English Channel, ended when the sharks ate her. The gambler's pitfall, tossing away his money, is akin to a drinker's love of whiskey.

Gerund Phrase as Object of a Preposition Sharon has had her fill of traveling the country.
(The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition of.)

Many novice writers dream of becoming famous.

(The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition of.)

You must listen carefully before getting on your buses.

(The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition before.)

As we have seen, the gerund phrase contains complements and/or modifiers that function to modify the gerund itself, creating the gerund phrase. Let's look at more examples of gerund modifiers. In the following examples, gerunds appear in accentuated text; their modifiers are underlined. Gerund Modified by Single-Word Adjective Constant eating will make you fat.
(Constant is an adjective modifying the gerund eating. The gerund phrase, constant eating is the subject of the sentence.)

Arnold enjoys cross-country skiing. The audience applauded his singing.

Gerund Modified by a Prepositional Phrase Functioning as Adjective Laughing at others is considered impolite.
(At others is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective modifying the gerund laughing. The gerund and prepositional phrase together function as the subject of the sentence.)

The reading of critical essays can help one's writing.

(The prepositional phrase, modifying the gerund, functions as an adjective since it answers the question What kind of reading? regarding the gerund.)

The dogs love barking at the moon. A noble venture is the translating of ancient manuscript.

Gerund Modified by a Prepositional Phrase Functioning as Adverb Standing on the corner is Mike's favorite pastime.
(On the corner, a prepositional phrase, modifies the gerund standing. The gerund and prepositional phrase together function as the subject of the sentence.)

Diving in shark-infested waters may be hazardous to your health. Tazim enjoys driving the car around town.

2.0 THE PARTICIPLE

Form: -ing, -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n Function: Adjective

A participle is a verb form that functions as an adjective. These verbals are either present participles (verbs ending in -ing) or past participles (verbs ending in -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n). In the

examples below, the participles and participle phrases appear in accentuated text; the nouns or pronouns modified are underlined. Stunned, the speaker fell silent. The running ox lost its balance and crashed to the ground. The tiny child, crying, ran to her uncle. A convicted felon, Harold could not find a decent job. Rivers flowing quickly may often be dangerous to ford. The old man, now limping, turned into one of the vibrant shops.

Usage Note Don't confuse the present participle with a verb. No word ending in -ing can be a verb unless it is a one-syllable verb such as bring, ring, or sing. [You] bring me the pencil. [You] ring in the New Year! [You] sing to me.

2.1 THE PARTICIPLE PHRASE

Form: -ing, -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n Function: Adjective

A participle phrase consists of a participle (the word itself) together with any complements and/or modifiers. The entire participle phrase functions as an adjective modifying a noun or pronoun. In the following examples, the participle phrase appears in accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined. Suddenly remembering her purse, Ruth darted back into the cafe.
(The participle phrase, functioning as adjective, modifies the noun Ruth.)

Mr. Jameston, having instructed the class, pored over his archaeology notations. All of us immediately recognized Brad singing in the band. Jack, shifting his motorbike into first gear, struggled up the hill.

The participle may have a complement, i.e., direct object, indirect object, or subject complement. The participle may also have a modifier, e.g., an adverb or adverbial prepositional phrase. These complements and/or modifiers function to modify the participle itself, creating the participle phrase. Let's look at some examples of participle modifiers. In the following examples, participles appear in accentuated text; their modifiers are underlined. A Participle Can Have a Direct Object Reading the paper, Gheorge sipped his steamy coffee.
(The noun paper is the direct object of the participle reading. Reading what? or whom? The paper.)

Removing the lock on the door, the boys entered the cellar. The would-be lawyers reading the text were all dumbfounded by its complexity.

A Participle Can Have an Indirect Object Handing me his cane, the cripple declared his independence.
(Me is the indirect object of the participle. The entire participle phrase, handing me his cane, functions as an adjective modifying the noun cripple.)

At the onset of dinner, Amanda, throwing Dahl a caustic glance, got up and stormed from the room.
(Dahl is the indirect object of the participle throwing.)

The two gentlemen, having found me a chair, began their lecture in earnest.

(Me is the indirect object of the participle having found. The entire participle phrase is having found me a chair.)

A Participle Can Have a Subject Complement Being native American has certain advantages. The defendant, having been the guilty party, was led in shackles from the court. Appearing shy and reserved, the young lass seemed even more attractive to him.

Participle Modified by Single-Word Adverb Rehearsing diligently, they eventually memorized their lines. Quietly staring, Timothy watched the interesting couple. Uncle Billy, slipping repeatedly, was asked by the management to leave the rink.

Participle Modified by Adverbial Prepositional Phrase Smiling from ear to ear, he greeted us.
(From ear to ear is an adverbial prepositional phrase that modifies the participle. The prepositional phrase answers the question to what degree? regarding the participle: Smiling to what degree?)

My sister, Tamaris, discovered her pet rabbit huddled beneath the staircase. Santa Clause got stuck wriggling down our chimney.

Forms of the Participle Present Participle (Active Voice) Past Participle (Active Voice) Perfect Participle (Active Voice) Perfect Participle (Passive Voice) Hesitating Defeated Having Instructed Having been spotted

Hesitating, Frank stood perfectly still. Defeated, the boxer left the ring. Having instructed Jeff, Dr. Almos left the room. Having been spotted, the hiker rejoiced.

VERB PHRASE VS PARTICIPLE Auxiliary (helping) verbs combine with a main verb to form a verb phrase. (More on verb phrases in Section Five.) When the participle form of a verb directly follows an auxiliary verb, the participle is considered part of the verb phrase, not a participle. In the following examples, the participle appears in accentuated text; the auxiliary verb(s) are underlined. Shannon was watching the soaring falcon. Maria and Eva are making tortillas. The ship's arrival has been delayed by heavy seas.

As noted, a participle form of a verb that immediately follows an auxiliary verb forms a verb phrase, and is not considered a participle. A participle form of a verb without a preceding auxiliary functions, on the other hand, as an adjective, which modifies a noun or pronoun. Therefore, whenever a verb follows an auxiliary, you can be certain that the resulting construction is a verb phrase, not a participle or participle phrase. Note from the table above, Forms of the Participle, constructions such as having instructed (the perfect participle) and having been spotted (the passive perfect participle) are considered participle phrases, not verb phrases, because the entire phase functions as an adjective.

Additionally, don't confuse a participle with the perfect tense.

POSITION OF PARTICIPLE PHRASE Unlike an adjective phrase, whose position within a sentence is always fixed following the noun or pronoun it modifies, a participle phrase is often movable. A participle phrase may, in many cases, appear nearly anywhere within a sentence, even some distance from the noun or pronoun modified. However, to avoid ambiguous reference, the participle phrase is usually placed near the noun or pronoun unless the reference is unaffected by position. (More on
adjective position.)

Farthing Wood is a wondrous place, brimming with select wildlife.

(The participle phrase is fundamentally ambiguous because the reader is left to decide whether the noun Farthing Wood or the noun place is being modified. The quandary here is resolved only because both nouns refer to the same thing. However, the example demonstrates the potential confusion arising from ambiguous reference.)

The white pigeons were a magnificent sight to behold, flying in formation around the old castle.
(Although the reader is able to determine the noun modified, which is white pigeons, notice how the distant placement of the participle phrase renders the entire construction somewhat awkward. A better construction: Flying in formation around the old castle, the white pigeons were a magnificent sight to behold.)

The scout found the lost girls hiding in a cave.

(Another example where moving the participle phrase causes ambiguity. For example: The scout found, hiding in a cave, the lost girls. Now, who was hiding in the cave, the scout or the lost girls?)

3.0 THE INFINITIVE

Form: The Word To + Stem Form of Verb Function: Noun, Adjective, Adverb

An infinitive is the stem form of a verb usually, though not always, preceded by the word to that functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. In the following examples, the infinitive appears in accentuated text.

To forgive is often difficult.

(The infinitive functions as a noun and as subject of the sentence.)

Betty lacks the skill to play.

(The infinitive functions as an adjective modifying the noun skill.)

You must play to win the lottery.

(The infinitive functions as an adverb modifying the verbal phrase must play.)

MODIFIERS OF THE INFINITIVE An infinitive may be modified by an adverb (a single adverb) or by an adverbial prepositional phrase (a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb). Modified infinitives become infinitive phrases. In the following examples, the infinitive appears in accentuated text; the adverbial modifier is underlined. Infinitive Modified by an Adverb I wish to leave early.
(Early is an adverb modifying the infinitive. The entire infinitive phrase, to leave early, is the direct object of the verb.)

This kind of writing is difficult to see clearly.

(Clearly is an adverb modifying the infinitive. The entire infinitive phrase, to see clearly, modifies the subject complement difficult.)

Infinitive Modified by an Adverbial Prepositional Phrase I wish to leave in the morning.

(In the morning is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb modifying the infinitive. The entire infinitive phrase, to leave in the morning, functions as the direct object of the verb wish.)

Jasper would give anything to be on that plane.

(On that plane is an adverbial prepositional phrase modifying the infinitive. The infinitive has anything as its subject. --See Infinitive Clause later in this discussion for more information on subjects of infinitive verbs-- The infinitive, including the entire infinitive phrase, functions as the direct object of the verb would give.)

3.1 THE INFINITIVE PHRASE

Form: The Word To + Stem Form of Verb Function: Noun, Adjective, Adverb

Just like infinitives used alone, an infinitive phrase can function as noun, adjective, or adverb. The entire phrase is called an infinitive phrase. Below, the complete infinitive phrase appears in accentuated text; the infinitive itself is underlined. Infinitive As Noun An infinitive phrase functioning as a noun may appear in any noun slot--as subject, subject complement (always a predicate nominative), direct object of a verb, or appositive.

Infinitive Phrase as Subject (Noun) To forgive Helen is noble.

(To forgive is the simple subject of the sentence. Helen is the direct object of the infinitive. Together the entire infinitive phrase functions as the complete subject of the sentence.)

To begin from square one is always a difficult affair.

(From square one is a prepositional phrase functioning as adjective, which modifies the infinitive subject.)

Infinitive Phrase as Subject Complement (Noun) Your theory appears to be sound.

(Sound, the subject complement, renames the subject theory. The entire infinitive phrase functions as a subject complement renaming the subject.)

Jane's ambition is to pass the state bar exam.

(The infinitive renames Jane's ambition.)

Infinitive Phrase as Direct Object of Verb (Noun) Never try to tangle with an angry policeman.
(The infinitive is the direct object of the verb try. The infinitive is modified by the adjectival prepositional phrase with an angry policeman.)

You probably wish to go to the party..

(The infinitive functions as the direct object of the verb wish. The infinitive is modified by the adverbial prepositional phrase to the party.)

Infinitive Phrase as Appositive (Noun) The precinct motto, to protect and serve, appears on every patrol car. Theodore's grandest dream, to win the wrestling match, was dashed when a scrawny novice pinned him to the mat.

INFINITIVE PHRASE AS ADJECTIVE An infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective qualifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun-telling what kind? which one? or how many? regarding the noun or pronoun it modifies. Both an infinitive and an infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective usually appear immediately following the noun or pronoun modified. In the following examples, the infinitive/infinitive phrase appears in accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined. We do not have the moral right to impose our will on others.

(The infinitive phrase modifies the noun right, the direct object of the verb do have.)

Alice's last wish, to visit the Grand Canyon, never became realized.
(The infinitive phrase modifies the noun wish. Additionally, the phrase functions as an appositive renaming Alice's last wish.)

Sarah and Pete lacked the will to survive.

(The infinitive modifies the noun will.)

INFINITIVE PHRASE AS ADVERB An infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb qualifies the meaning of a verb--telling when? where? how? why? under what condition? or to what degree? an action occurred or a situation existed. In the following examples, the infinitive phrase appears in accentuated text; the verb is underlined. He cut off his nose to spite his face.
(The infinitive phrase modifies the verb cut off by answering the question, Why did he cut off his nose?)

The tiger tensed his muscles to spring upon the goat. I occasionally review my textbooks to sharpen my grammar skills.

Forms of the Infinitive Active Present Infinitive Passive Present Infinitive Active Perfect Infinitive Passive Perfect Infinitive To invite To be shuttled To have made To have been knighted

I wish to invite him. Tomasina would like to be shuttled to the airport. Bill was thrilled to have made Cherry a team player. To have been knighted was the greatest honor imaginable.

SUBJECTS OF INFINITIVES The subject of an infinitive breaks the rule that states: Subjective elements should appear in the subjective case. Unlike other verbals, an infinitive may have a subject. The subject of an infinitive will always follow the main verb directly, and it will always directly precede an infinitive. Subjects of infinitives are always rendered in the objective case. (See Section Four.) Because the subject of an infinitive follows the main verb and is always in the objective case, it is often mistaken for the object of the verb. However, the subject of an infinitive is always considered part of the infinitive phrase, not the object of the verb. In the examples below, the complete infinitive phrase appears in accentuated text; the subject of the infinitive phrase is underlined. Danny and she invited her to go to the hockey game. The salesperson advised us to buy right away. He forced them to flee.

INFINITIVES WITH LINKING VERBS When an infinitive directly follows a linking verb, functioning as subject complement, the infinitive is always a noun or pronoun, i.e., a predicate nominative. Predicate nominatives rename the subject. On the other hand, an infinitive following a subject complement is always

an adjective, i.e., a predicate adjective, which modifies the subject complement. In the examples following, the subject complement is underlined; the infinitive appears in accentuated text. Ron's desire is to fly.
(The infinitive, directly following the linking verb, renames the subject, desire. Infinitives immediately following a linking verb will always be a nominative.)

She is the person to see.

(The infinitive functions as an adjective modifying the subject complement. Note that the complete subject complement is person to see.)

They are the team to beat.

(Again, the infinitive modifies the subject complement. Functioning as an adjective, it describes the subject complement.)

THE MISSING TO Sometimes the word to, usually indicative of an infinitive, is omitted from the infinitive construction. This frequently happens when an infinitive follows the verbs see, hear, feel, watch, help, know, dare, need, make, let, and please. She does not dare [to] tell her mother.
(The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb does dare.)

Jan helped me [to] do the dishes.

(Again, the infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb helped.)

I made Jerry [to] watch the news.

THE SPLIT INFINITIVE The infinitive form of a verb (to + the stem, or dictionary, form of a verb) is said to be split when words come between the to and the verb. Historically these constructions were considered grammatically inferior. Modern American English, on the contrary, accepts the split infinitive when the result lends force to the expression. Consider the following. 1. To go boldly where no one has gone before. 2. To boldly go where no one has gone before. The first sentence does not split the infinitive, to go. The adverb boldly modifies the infinitive. Compare this first example to the second sentence, where the infinitive is split by the adverb. Do you agree that sentence number two conveys more force, the accent falling upon the action of the verb rather than upon the qualification of the adverb? Number two, in my opinion, is a more powerful expression--conveyed by the mere mechanics of grammar, in this case, the relocation of a single modifier. Native speakers of English will likely grasp the distinction, while non-native speakers may not hear a difference. Ultimately, the decision to split an infinitive is a personal choice. The question is always: Does splitting the infinitive lend force to this sentence that is otherwise lacking? Familiarity with the subtle distinctions of the language will be your best guide. Today, only in the most formal usage is the split infinitive unacceptable.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE VS INFINITIVE Don't confuse an infinitive (to + a verbal) with a prepositional phrase beginning with to (to + a noun or pronoun).

Infinitive to know to fight to be

Modifiers if any)

Prepositional Phrase to the store to her for the dogs

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS
Noun/Pronoun + Participle (+

An absolute construction is composed of a noun or pronoun (a nominative) followed by a

participle, including any modifiers. The participle itself may modify the noun or pronoun. Absolute constructions modify an entire sentence. In the following examples, the absolute construction appears in accentuated text. The job finally completed, I went home.
(Regarding the absolute construction, the noun is job; the past participle is completed, which is modified by the adverb finally.)

Existence being meaningless, there is no one or no thing watching over us.

(The noun is existence; the present participle is being; the subject complement is meaningless).

The absolute construction is sometimes called an absolute phrase or nominative absolute. The aesthetic function of the construction--including the verbal phrases, which are related--is to lend variety to sentence structure, helping to hold reader interest. I say reader because the absolute construction lends itself better to the written word than to the spoken, as the absolute construction frequently sounds too formal and stilted in speaking, which frequently employs the full clause as a less strident alternative. Compare the sentences below.
ABSOLUTE PHRASE (Stilted) FULL CLAUSE (Better to the Ear) When our job was completed, we drove home. As the car approached the turn, we held our breath. We pulled off the road when our windscreen fogged up.

Our job now completed, we drove home. The car approaching the turn, we held our breath. We pulled off the road, our windscreen fogging up.

Note: Although the majority of absolute constructions introduce the main sentence clause, they can appear anywhere within a sentence. Absolute constructions are nearly always set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

PHRASES & CLAUSES

Section Seventeen

THE PHRASE
A phrase is a group of words (a minimum of two words) that functions as a single part of speech and does not contain both a subject (a noun, pronoun, or word acting as such) and a predicate (a verb). A phrase does not express a complete thought. There are five types of phrases: (I) Prepositional phrases (II) Verbal phrases (includes gerund, participle, & infinitive phrases) (III) Appositive phrases (IV) Noun Phrases (V) Verb Phrases The verb phrase, i.e., a verb of more than a single word, is discussed in Section Four.

I. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (Function = Adjective or Adverb)

A prepositional phrase begins with a word that is a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun is called the object of the preposition. Every prepositional phrase functions as a modifier. Within a sentence, these phrases always function in the capacity of adjective or adverb. In the examples below, prepositional phrases appear in accentuated text; the word modified by the prepositional phrase is underlined. We wandered around the campus.
(Prepositional phrase as adverb, modifying the verb wandered. Functioning as an adverb, the phrase answers the question where? regarding the verb: We wandered where?)

The path through the castle garden is a delightful walk.

(Prepositional phrase as adjective, modifying the noun path. Functioning as an adjective, the phrase answers the question which one? regarding the noun path.)

Our cottage in the Black Forest (adjective phrase) overlooks a river running through a deep gorge (adverb phrase). The roads of ancient Rome (adjective phrase) linked the empire with the world (adverb phrase).

John, you just went to the doctor yesterday!

(Prepositional phrase as adverb, modifying the verb went. The phrase answers the question where? regarding the verb.)

PREPOSITION WITH COMPOUND OBJECT A preposition may have a compound object, i.e., a preposition may have more than a single noun or pronoun as its object. Several examples follow. Objects of prepositions appear in accentuated text; the preposition itself is underlined. We traveled across Europe by boat, plane, and train. Around mice and snakes, Shelly becomes very timid. The place between surf and shore is called a tideland.

Usage Note Do not confuse the preposition to with the to that forms an infinitive: to play, to see, to eat, etc. Note that prepositions have an object, which is always a noun or pronoun; infinitives are always verbs. (For more regarding verbals, see Section Nine.)

Compare The Forms Preposition

(to + noun/pronoun)

Infinitive
(to + verb)

to the dream to the shop to the play

to dream to shop to play

 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE AS ADJECTIVE A prepositional phrase that functions as an adjective is called a prepositional adjective phrase, or simply an adjective phrase. Prepositional phrases functioning as adjectives modify a noun or pronoun in the same manner as single word adjectives--by qualifying the noun or pronoun with any of the following: Which one? What kind of? or How many? In the following examples, prepositional phrases appear in accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined. Most veterans of World War One are now deceased.
(The prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective answers the question which ones? regarding the noun veterans.)

The tribes beyond the moor are typically savage.

(The prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective answers the question which ones? regarding the noun tribes.)

Crenulations at the top of the wall (which crenulations?) form a classic outline of a European castle
(what kind of outline?).

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE AS ADVERB A prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb is called a prepositional adverb phrase, or simply an adverb phrase. Prepositional phrases functioning as an adverb modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb in the same manner as single word adverbs--by qualifying the verb, adjective, or adverb with any of the following: When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? or To what degree? Alvargas fell down the cliff.
(The prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb answers the question where? regarding the verb fell: Alvargas fell where?)

Gwen slipped and fell in the shower.

(The prepositional phrase answers the question where? regarding the compound verb slipped and fell.)

Shelly practices the piano at nine o'clock.

(The prepositional phrase answers the question when? regarding the verb practices.)

II. VERBAL PHRASES (Function = Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs)

There are three kinds of verbal phrases: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. These phrases are called verbal phrases because the most important word in them is a verb. Verbals are formed from verbs, and in some respects they act like verbs. They express an action or condition; they may have modifiers; and they may have complements. However, verbals are not used as verbs; they are used as other parts of speech--namely as participles, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (For more on verbals, see Section Nine.)

PARTICIPLE PHRASE (Function = Adjective) A participle phrase consists of a present participle (the -ing form of a verb) or a past participle (verbs ending in -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n) together with its modifiers and/or complements. A participial phrase acts as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. Note that the participial phrase often contains a prepositional phrase. In the following examples, participle phrases appear in accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined. Miss Robiz, turning quickly in her saddle, fell off the horse. Sprinting across the hollow, Hercules looked like a deer. I heard her playing the piano. Destroyed by fire a few years ago, the windmill was not rebuilt. My cousin, seeking truth and wisdom, joined a Buddhist cult.

GERUND PHRASE (Function = Noun) A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (the -ing form of a verb) together with its modifiers and/or complements, all of which function together as a noun. A gerund phrase commonly acts as the subject of a sentence but may also function as direct object of a verb, subject complement, or the object of a preposition. Note that a gerund phrase may also contain a prepositional phrase. In the following examples, gerund phrases appear in accentuated text.

Gerund Phrase as Subject Reaching into the unknown may have unpleasant consequences. Traveling across the country always feels exciting. Hitting the puck is harder than you think.

Gerund Phrase as Direct Object of Verb Mary does not appreciate Joan's constant teasing. The boy denies crying wolf. Amanda likes drawing pictures.

Gerund Phrase as Subject Complement Christy's favorite activity is playing hockey. Eating too much meat is gambling with your health. The highlight of our walk through the country was watching the dog tree a squirrel.

Gerund as Object of Preposition Our landlady became angry at Jake's joking. Geologist John Dawson wrote over 150 scientific articles about collecting fossils. John Muir worked toward preserving wild places.

INFINITIVE PHRASE (Function = Noun, Adjective, Adverb) An infinitive phrase is a verb form consisting (usually) of the word to plus the dictionary form

of a verb: to watch, to jump, to play, etc., together with any modifiers and/or complements. The infinitive phrase functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In the following examples, infinitive phrases appear in accentuated text. Infinitive Phrase as Noun To feel is the prerogative of sentient life. To write well can often be difficult. To be ignorant and unfeeling is the lot of humankind.

Infinitive Phrase as Adjective The director to call is Rhoda Timsley. Under this tree there is a comfortable and safe place to rest. Education provides the means to give everyone a better life.

Infinitive Phrase as Adverb She arched her back to strike. Karen came to play. We are happy to have you here.

III. APPOSITIVE PHRASE (Function = Noun or Pronoun)

An appositive phrase is a noun or pronoun together with its modifiers that follows (usually immediately) a preceding noun or pronoun (the antecedent). An appositive functions to identify or explain its nominative antecedent. In the examples following, appositive phrases appear in accentuated text; antecedents are underlined. Dr. Grinstaf, our family dentist, has seven children. The word camber describes an upward curve, a concavity, a term frequent to the shipbuilding

trade. The boys Edward, Franc, and Bille have already turned in their assignments. Fraud, greed, incompetence--these are the hallmark deceptions of the American funeral industry.

IV. NOUN PHRASE (Function = Noun or Pronoun)

A noun phrase consists of a noun or pronoun together with any modifiers. A noun phrase can function as (1) subject, (2) object of a verb, (3) subject complement (predicate nominative), (4) object complement, (5) appositive, or (6) object of a preposition. Modifiers of a noun phrase include words, phrases, or clauses functioning as (1) adjectives, (2) appositives, and (3) possessive noun modifiers. Note also that noun phrases and clauses may include verbals (gerunds & infinitives). A noun phrase consists of a minimum of two words. In the following examples, noun phrases appear in accentuated text. Noun Phrase as Subject Tall buildings abound in New York City. An old table sits in the center of the garden. Cross-country skiing is an exhausting sport.
(The subject is a gerund phrase.)

Noun Phrase as Object of Verb I have two brown crayons. Please fetch me the box on the shelf. Keryn and I enjoy running the 10k marathon.
(Gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb.)

Noun Phrase as Subject Complement

Bert's job is his life. Making lemonade out of lemons is an idiomatic phrase. Following surgery, dehydration becomes a serious threat to the patient.

Noun Phrase as Object Complement The tribunal elected Voegel judge nulli secundus. You should call him a thief. The jury judged this mysterious man a criminal.

Noun Phrase as Appositive Our nearest neighbor, the Coulter family, has a wonderful swimming pool. My lifelong ambition to grow long hair has been finally realized. I found the movie My Dinner With Andre a fascinating film.

Noun Phrase as Object of Preposition We left the party at nine o'clock that evening. The car skidded off the road and into a huge ditch. The girl in the pink dress is acting like a spoiled brat.

THE CLAUSE
Like the phrase, a clause is a group of related words used together in a sentence. A clause,

however, contains both a subject (a noun, pronoun, or word acting as such) and a predicate (a verb). Phrases do not contain both a subject and a verb. Although a clause contains both subject and verb, not all clauses express a complete thought. Those that do express a complete thought are called independent clauses; those that do not express a complete thought are called subordinate clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE An independent clause is also known as a main clause. An independent clause derives its name from its ability to stand alone as a complete sentence. An independent clause is often joined to another independent clause by a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, forming a single sentence. Independent clauses frequently contain modifiers and complements. To be an independent clause, the word group must stand two tests: It must have both subject and predicate. It must express a complete thought.

I met Joseph at the market, and we left for the movies. Do you wish to play golf, or shall we just stay at home?
(In both examples above, clauses on either side of the coordinating conjunction are independent clauses, i.e., each clause contains a subject and predicate and expresses a complete thought.)

I did not show up for work yesterday; consequently, the boss fired me. T.C. has more money than God; unfortunately, he isn't as generous.
(Note from the preceding two examples, independent clauses may be joined by a conjunctive adverb, forming a single sentence.)

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE A subordinate clause is also known as a dependent clause. Although containing both subject and predicate, a subordinate clause does not express a complete thought; consequently, it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Subordinate clauses may contain modifiers and/or complements.

A subordinate clause functions in like manner of a phrase, also a subordinate word group, adding additional information to the idea expressed by the main clause, i.e., modifying the main clause. A subordinate clause is always combined with an independent clause, i.e., a subordinate clause cannot grammatically stand alone as a complete sentence. The following are subordinate clauses. that gave her the advantage as sharks appeared before he cut his hair how you like Each of the above subordinate clauses, when combined with an independent (main) clause, contributes to the independent clause in its own way. Laura took a blue pill that gave her the advantage.
(The adjective clause modifies the noun pill, answering the question Which pill? or What kind of pill?)

We quickly left the water as sharks appeared.

(The adverb clause modifies the verb left: We left the water when?)

Jim wasn't a bad looker before he cut his hair.

(The adverb clause modifies the subject complement, a predicate adjective, looker: Jim wasn't a bad looker when?)

You may play how you like.

(The noun clause functions as an adverb: You may play how?)

Adjective Clause (subordinate) An adjective clause is a subordinate word group with a subject and predicate that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjective clauses tell which one? what kind of? or how many? regarding the noun or pronoun antecedent they modify. An adjective clause is frequently introduced by a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, that, which, what, etc. (For more regarding adjectives, see Section Eleven.) In the following examples, adjective clauses appear in accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined. The party that we attended last week was so much fun!

(The relative clause functioning as an adjective answers the question which one? regarding the noun party.)

The man whom Ken knew was killed last week in an accident.
(The relative clause answers the question which one? regarding the noun man.)

Your kind donation, which we greatly appreciate, exceeded our expectations.

(The relative clause answers the question which one? regarding the noun donation.)

He is the one who did it.

(The relative clause answers the question which one? regarding the pronoun one.)

Miss Banks owns a Honda Minitrail, what is rare these days.

(The use of what to introduce a relative adjective clause is uncommon in modern English. What has largely been replaced by various other pronouns, e.g., who, whom, which, that, etc. In its relatively rare function of introducing a relative clause, what means that which.)

Relative Adverbs Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb: where, when, or why. These subordinate clauses answer Which one? What kind of? or How many? regarding their noun or pronoun antecedent. (For more regarding relative adverbs, see Section Eleven.) In the following, adjective clauses appear in accentuated text; the word modified is underlined. There was a time when I thought I was crazy.
(The adjective clause answers the question What kind of time?)

Home is the place where the heart is.

(The adjective clause answers the question What kind of place?)

She is the reason why he refuses to attend.

(In the relative sense, why means for which or on account of which, and it is commonly used after the word reason.)

Adverb Clause (subordinate) An adverb clause is a subordinate clause having a subject and predicate that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. An adverb clause always begins with a subordinating conjunction, which includes the conjunctive adverbs. Like adverbs, adverbial clauses tell When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? or To what degree? an action occurred or a situation existed. (For more on adverbs, see Section Twelve.) In the following, adverbial clauses appear in accentuated text; the word modified is underlined. Larry goes to work because he enjoys it.
(The adverb clause answers the question why? regarding the verb goes.)

Harry feels confident that he will win the match.

(The adverb clause answers the question why? regarding the adjective confident.)

When the sun sets, the night belongs to Halloween.

(The adverb clause answers the question under what condition? regarding the verb belongs.)

Nero fiddled while Rome burned.

(The adverb clause answers the question when? regarding the verb fiddled.)

Noun Clause (subordinate) A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun or pronoun. Like other clauses, a noun clause contains both subject and predicate. As a subordinate clause, the noun clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. A noun clause is frequently introduced by one of the relative pronouns: that, which, what, who, whom, whose, whichever, whatever, whoever, whomever, whosever. A relative pronoun that introduces a noun clause is called an indefinite relative pronoun. Unlike a definite relative pronoun, which frequently introduces an adjective clause and does have an antecedent, a noun or pronoun, an indefinite relative pronoun does not have an antecedent. Note that definite and indefinite relative pronouns are identical in form. (For more on pronouns,
see Section Three.)

A noun clause may also begin with an indefinite relative adverb: where, when, or why. Indefinite relative adverbs do not have an antecedent. Like indefinite relative adjectives,

indefinite relative adverbs lack an antecedent. Note that relative adverbs, both definite and indefinite, are identical in form. Adjective Clause vs Noun Clause Distinguishing between an adjective clause and a noun clause can be confusing, because both kinds of clauses are often similar in appearance. But there is one usually reliable test that will decide the issue, as follows. If the clause in question has a clear antecedent noun or pronoun, the clause is functioning as a modifier, specifically, an adjective, which modifies a noun or pronoun. In other words, it is an adjective clause. Recall from Section Eleven that adjective clauses are frequently introduced by a relative pronoun and sometimes by a relative adverb. The designation definite, as in definite relative pronoun, simply indicates that a word, phrase, or clause has an antecedent word or word group. Indefinite designation means that the word, phrase, or clause lacks an antecedent. Indefinite noun clauses, then, do not have a noun or pronoun antecedent to which they refer. Within a sentence, a noun clause can function as subject, direct object of a verb, subject complement (predicate nominative), appositive, or object of a preposition. Noun Clause as Subject Why Freidrich remained at home is an enigma. What is to come next is anyone's guess. Whoever stole my wallet is a real scumbag.

Noun Clause as Direct Object of Verb I knew that he would come. Terri sent what she had promised. I know who is here.

Noun Clause as Subject Complement (predicate nominative) The funny thing is that she never practices. He is whom I called. Money is what we now need.

Noun Clause as Appositive Ed's idea that I get copies of the document seems good advice. My hope, which is my greatest ambition, is to visit Disneyland. Franklin's kite, what was made of fine cloth, flew well in a light breeze.

Noun Clause as Object of Preposition Give all my possessions to whoever needs them. Tell us about what you bought at the store. Here is a copy of what I said.