Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 Pipe Flow

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 8 Pipe Flow
Chapter 8 Pipe Flow
2
MAIN TOPICS
MAIN TOPICS
General Characteristics of Pipe Flow

General Characteristics of Pipe Flow
Fully Developed Laminar Flow

Fully Developed Turbulent Flow

Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow

Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
Pipe Flow Examples

Pipe Flow Examples
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
3
Introduction
Introduction
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called

Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called
INTERNAL
INTERNAL
FLOWS
FLOWS
which include flows through
which include flows through
pipes
pipes
(
(
Round cross section
Round cross section
),
),
ducts
ducts
(NOT
(NOT
Round cross section
Round cross section
)
)
, nozzles, diffusers, sudden
, nozzles, diffusers, sudden
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
The basic principles involved are independent of the cross

The basic principles involved are independent of the cross
-
-
sectional
sectional
shape, although the details of the flow may be dependent on it.
shape, although the details of the flow may be dependent on it.
The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is prim

The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is prim
arily
arily
a function of the Reynolds number.
a function of the Reynolds number.
B
B
Laminar flow: Can be solved analytically.
Laminar flow: Can be solved analytically.
B
B
Turbulent flow: Rely Heavily on semi
Turbulent flow: Rely Heavily on semi
-
-
empirical theories and
empirical theories and
experimental data.
experimental data.
4
General Characteristics of
General Characteristics of
Pipe Flow
Pipe Flow
5
Pipe System
Pipe System
A pipe system include the pipes themselves

A pipe system include the pipes themselves
(perhaps of more than one diameter), the various
(perhaps of more than one diameter), the various
fittings, the
fittings, the
flowrate
flowrate
control devices valves) , and
control devices valves) , and
the pumps or turbines.
the pumps or turbines.
6
Pipe Flow vs. Open Channel Flow
Pipe Flow vs. Open Channel Flow
Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a)

Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a)
The pressure gradient along the pipe is main driving force.
The pressure gradient along the pipe is main driving force.
Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the

Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the
pipe. (b)
pipe. (b)
The gravity alone is the driving force.
The gravity alone is the driving force.
7
Laminar or Turbulent Flow
1/2
1/2
The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be

The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be
Laminar ?
Laminar ?
Turbulent ?
Turbulent ?
Osborne Reynolds
Osborne Reynolds
, a British scientist and mathematician,
, a British scientist and mathematician,
was the first to distinguish the difference between these
was the first to distinguish the difference between these
classification of flow by using a
classification of flow by using a
simple apparatus
simple apparatus
as
as
shown.
shown.
8
2/2
2/2
>
>
For
For
small enough
small enough
flowrate
flowrate
the dye streak will remain as a

the dye streak will remain as a
well
well
-
-
defined line as it flows along, with only slight blurring due
defined line as it flows along, with only slight blurring due
to molecular diffusion of the dye into the surrounding water.
to molecular diffusion of the dye into the surrounding water.
>
>
For a somewhat larger
For a somewhat larger
intermediate
intermediate
flowrate
flowrate
the dye
the dye
fluctuates in time and space, and intermittent bursts of irregul
fluctuates in time and space, and intermittent bursts of irregul
ar
ar
behavior appear along the streak.
behavior appear along the streak.
>
>
For
For
large enough
large enough
flowrate
flowrate
the dye streak almost

the dye streak almost
immediately become blurred and spreads across the entire pipe in
immediately become blurred and spreads across the entire pipe in
a random fashion.
a random fashion.
9
Time Dependence of
Time Dependence of
Fluid Velocity at a Point
Fluid Velocity at a Point
10
Indication of
Indication of
The term
The term
flowrate
flowrate
should be replaced by Reynolds
should be replaced by Reynolds
number, ,where V is the average velocity
number, ,where V is the average velocity
in
in
the pipe.
the pipe.
It is
It is
not only the fluid velocity
not only the fluid velocity
that determines the
that determines the
character of the flow
character of the flow
its density, viscosity, and the pipe

its density, viscosity, and the pipe
size are of equal importance.
size are of equal importance.
For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe

For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe
>
>
Laminar
Laminar
>
>
Transitional
Transitional
>
>
Turbulent
Turbulent
= / VD R
e
2100 R
e
<
4000 R
e
11
Example 8.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow
Example 8.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow
z
z
Water at a temperature of 50
Water at a temperature of 50
flows through a pipe of diameter D =

flows through a pipe of diameter D =
0.73 in. (a) Determine the minimum time taken to fill a 10
0.73 in. (a) Determine the minimum time taken to fill a 10
-
-
oz glass
oz glass
(volume= 0.125ft3) with water if the flow in the pipe is to be
(volume= 0.125ft3) with water if the flow in the pipe is to be
laminar. (b) Determine the maximum time taken to fill the glass
laminar. (b) Determine the maximum time taken to fill the glass
if
if
the flow is to be turbulent. Repeat the calculation if the water
the flow is to be turbulent. Repeat the calculation if the water
temperature is 140
temperature is 140
.
.
12
Example 8.1
Example 8.1
Solution
Solution
If the flow in the pipe is to maintain laminar, the minimum time

If the flow in the pipe is to maintain laminar, the minimum time
to
to
fill the glass will occur if the Reynolds number is the maximum
fill the glass will occur if the Reynolds number is the maximum
allowed for laminar flow, typically Re=2100. Thus
allowed for laminar flow, typically Re=2100. Thus
s / ft 486 . 0 D / 2100 V = =
s 85 . 8 ....
V D ) 4 / (
V
Q
V
t
2
= =
= =
13
Entrance Region and
Entrance Region and
Fully Developed Flow
1/5
1/5
Any fluid
Any fluid
flowing in a pipe
flowing in a pipe
had to enter the pipe at some
had to enter the pipe at some
location.
location.
The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is
termed the
termed the
entrance region
entrance region
.
.
14
Entrance Region and
Entrance Region and
2/5
2/5
The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform

The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform
velocity profile at section (1).
velocity profile at section (1).
termed the entrance region.
termed the entrance region.
As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause

As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause
it to stick to the pipe wall
it to stick to the pipe wall
(
(
the no slip boundary
the no slip boundary
condition
condition
)
)
.
.
15
Entrance Region and
Entrance Region and
3/5
3/5
A
A
boundary layer
boundary layer
in which viscous effects are important is
in which viscous effects are important is
produced along the pipe wall such that the initial velocity
produced along the pipe wall such that the initial velocity
profile changes with distance along the pipe,x , until the
profile changes with distance along the pipe,x , until the
fluid reaches the end of the
fluid reaches the end of the
entrance length, section (2),
entrance length, section (2),
beyond which the velocity profile does not vary with x.
beyond which the velocity profile does not vary with x.
The boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely

The boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely
fill the pipe.
fill the pipe.
16
Entrance Region and
Entrance Region and
4/5
4/5
Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the

Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the
boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the viscous
boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the viscous
effects are negligible.
effects are negligible.
The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on

The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, as does the length
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, as does the length
of the entrance region,
of the entrance region,
A
A
A A
.
.
e
R 06 . 0
D
=
A
A
6 / 1
e
R 4 . 4
D
=
A
A
For laminar flow
For laminar flow
For turbulent flow
For turbulent flow
Dimensionless entrance length
17
Entrance Region and
Entrance Region and
5/5
5/5
Once the fluid reaches the end of the entrance region,

Once the fluid reaches the end of the entrance region,
section (2), the flow is simpler to describe because
section (2), the flow is simpler to describe because
the
the
velocity is a function of only the distance from the pipe
velocity is a function of only the distance from the pipe
centerline, r, and independent of x.
centerline, r, and independent of x.
The flow between (2) and (3) is termed

The flow between (2) and (3) is termed
fully developed.
fully developed.
18
Pressure Distribution along Pipe
Pressure Distribution along Pipe
In the entrance region of a pipe, the fluid
In the entrance region of a pipe, the fluid
accelerates or decelerates as it flows. There is
accelerates or decelerates as it flows. There is
a balance between pressure, viscous, and
a balance between pressure, viscous, and
inertia (acceleration) force.
inertia (acceleration) force.
The magnitude of the
The magnitude of the
pressure gradient is
pressure gradient is
constant.
constant.
The magnitude of the The magnitude of the
pressure gradient is larger pressure gradient is larger
than that in the fully than that in the fully
developed region. developed region.
0
p
x
p
<
A
19
There are numerous ways to derive important
There are numerous ways to derive important
results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow:
results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow:
D
D
From F=ma applied directly to a fluid element.
From F=ma applied directly to a fluid element.
D
D
From the
From the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes equations of motion
Stokes equations of motion
D
D
From dimensional analysis methods
From dimensional analysis methods
20
From F=ma
From F=ma
1/8
1/8
Considering a fully developed axisymmetric laminar flow
in a long, straight, constant diameter section of a pipe.
The Fluid element

The Fluid element is a circular cylinder of fluid of length
l and radius r centered on the axis of a horizontal pipe of
diameter D.
21
From F=ma
From F=ma
2/8
2/8
Because the velocity is not uniform across the pipe, the
initially flat end of the cylinder of fluid at time t become
distorted at time t+t when the fluid element has moved to
its new location along the pipe.
If the flow is fully developed and steady, the distortion on
each end of the fluid element is the same, and no part of
the fluid experiences any acceleration as it flows.
0
t
V
=
G
0 i
x
u
u V V =
=
G G
Steady
Steady
Fully developed
Fully developed
22
From F=ma
From F=ma
3/8
3/8
Cr ? =
r
2 p
=
A
( ) ( )
r
2 p
0 r 2 r p p r p
2 2
1

=
=
A
A
Apply the Newton
Apply the Newton
s second Law to the cylinder of fluid

s second Law to the cylinder of fluid
x x
ma F =
The force balance
The force balance
Basic balance in forces needed to drive each fluid particle
Basic balance in forces needed to drive each fluid particle
along the pipe with constant velocity
along the pipe with constant velocity
Not function of r
Not function of r
Not function of r
Not function of r
Independent of r
Independent of r
B.C. r=0
B.C. r=0
=0
=0
r=D/2
r=D/2
=
=
w w
D
r 2
w
=
23
From F=ma
From F=ma
4/8
4/8
D
4
p
w
=
A
The pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by
The pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by
Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.
Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.
Laminar
Laminar
dr
du
=
D
r 2
w
=
r
2 p
=
A
24
From F=ma
From F=ma
5/8
5/8
Since
Since
With the boundary conditions: u=0 at r=D/2
With the boundary conditions: u=0 at r=D/2
dr
du
=
1
2
C r
4
p
u rdr
2
p
du
r
2
p
dr
du
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

A A
A
A
=
16
pD
C
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
w
2
C
2
2
R
r
1
4
D
) r ( u
D
r 2
1 V
D
r 2
1
16
pD
) r ( u
A
Velocity distribution
Velocity distribution
D
4
p
w
=
A
Laminar
Laminar
25
From F=ma
From F=ma
6/8
6/8
The shear stress distribution

The shear stress distribution
Volume
Volume
flowrate
flowrate
A 2
p r
dr
du
= =
A
G
= = = =

128
p D
Q
2
V R
..... rdr 2 ) r ( u A d u Q
4
C
4
R
0
A
Poiseuille
Poiseuille
s
s
Law
Law
Valid for Laminar flow only
26
From F=ma
From F=ma
7/8
7/8
Average velocity
Average velocity
Point of maximum velocity

Point of maximum velocity
A
= =
32
pD
R
Q
A
Q
V
2
2
average
0
dr
du
=
at r=0
at r=0
average
2
max
V 2
4
p R
U u u =
= = =
A
27
From F=ma
From F=ma
8/8
8/8
Making adjustment to account for

Making adjustment to account for
nonhorizontal
nonhorizontal
pipes
pipes
sin p p A
>0 if the flow is uphill >0 if the flow is uphill
<0 if the flow is downhill <0 if the flow is downhill
r
2 sin p
=

A
A
( )
A
A

=
32
D sin p
V
2
average
( )
A
A

=
128
D sin p
Q
4
28
Example 8.2 Laminar Pipe Flow
Example 8.2 Laminar Pipe Flow
z
z
An oil with a viscosity of
An oil with a viscosity of
= 0.40 N
= 0.40 N
s/m
s/m
2 2
and density
and density
= 900
= 900
kg/m
kg/m
3 3
flows in a pipe of diameter D= 0.20m . (a) What pressure
flows in a pipe of diameter D= 0.20m . (a) What pressure
drop, p
drop, p
1 1
-
-
p
p
2 2
, is needed to produce a
, is needed to produce a
flowrate
flowrate
of Q=2.0
of Q=2.0
10
10
- -5 5
m
m
3 3
/s if
/s if
the pipe is horizontal with x
the pipe is horizontal with x
1 1
=0 and x
=0 and x
2 2
=10 m? (b) How steep a hill,
=10 m? (b) How steep a hill,
, must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at t

, must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at t
he
he
same rate as in part (a), but with p
same rate as in part (a), but with p
1 1
=p
=p
2 2
? (c) For the conditions of
? (c) For the conditions of
part (b), if p
part (b), if p
1 1
=200
=200
kPa
kPa
, what is the pressure at section, x
, what is the pressure at section, x
3 3
=5 m,
=5 m,
where x is measured along the pipe?
where x is measured along the pipe?
29
Example 8.2
Example 8.2
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
2100 87 . 2 / VD R
e
< = =
s / m 0637 . 0
A
Q
V = =
The flow is laminar flow
The flow is laminar flow
kPa 4 . 20 ...
D
Q 128
p p p
4
2 1
= =
= =
A
= =
= 34 . 13 ...
gD
Q 128
sin
4
A
If the pipe is on the hill of angle
If the pipe is on the hill of angle
with
with
p=0
p=0
30
Example 8.2
Example 8.2
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
With p
With p
1 1
=p
=p
2 2
the length of the pipe,
the length of the pipe,
A
A
, does not appear in the
, does not appear in the
flowrate
flowrate
equation
equation
kPa 200 p p p
3 2 1
= = =
p=0 for all

p=0 for all
A
A
31
From the
From the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes Equations
Stokes Equations
1/3
1/3
General motion of an incompressible Newtonian fluid is

General motion of an incompressible Newtonian fluid is
governed by the continuity equation and the momentum
governed by the continuity equation and the momentum
equation
equation
0 V =
G
V g
p
V V
t
V
2
G
G
G G
G
+ +

= +
Steady flow Steady flow

k g g
G
G
=
For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe, the velocity
For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe, the velocity
contains only an axial component, which is a function of
contains only an axial component, which is a function of
only the radial coordinate
only the radial coordinate
i ) r ( u V
G
G
=
32
From the
From the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes Equations
Stokes Equations
2/3
2/3
The flow is governed by a balance of pressure, weight, and
The flow is governed by a balance of pressure, weight, and
viscous forces in the flow direction.
viscous forces in the flow direction.
V k g p
2
G
G
= +
0 V =
G
Simplify the
Simplify the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes equation
Stokes equation
33
From the
From the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes Equations
Stokes Equations
3/3
3/3
|
.
|
\
|
= +
r
u
r
r r
1
sin g
x
p
A
p
x
p
. const
x
p
=
i ) r ( u V
G
G
=
Function of, at most, only x
Function of, at most, only x
Function of ,at most, only r
Function of ,at most, only r
Integrating
Integrating
Velocity profile u(r)=
Velocity profile u(r)=
B.C. (1) r = R , u = 0 ;
B.C. (1) r = R , u = 0 ;
(2) r = 0 , u <
(2) r = 0 , u <
or r = 0
or r = 0
u/
u/
r=0
r=0
34
From Dimensional Analysis
1/3
1/3
Assume that the pressure drop in the horizontal pie,

Assume that the pressure drop in the horizontal pie,
p, is
p, is
a function of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe,
a function of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe,
V, the length of the pipe,
V, the length of the pipe,
A
A
, the pipe diameter, D, and the
, the pipe diameter, D, and the
viscosity of the fluid,
viscosity of the fluid,
.
.
) , D , , V ( F p = A
Dimensional analysis
Dimensional analysis
|
.
|
\
|
=
D V
p D A
an unknown function of the length to
an unknown function of the length to
diameter ratio of the pipe.
diameter ratio of the pipe.
35
2/3
2/3
D
C
V
p D A
=
where C is a constant.
where C is a constant.
2
D
V C p
=
A
A

= =
4
pD ) C 4 / (
AV Q
The value of C must be determined by theory or experiment.
The value of C must be determined by theory or experiment.
For a round pipe, C=32. For duct of other cross
For a round pipe, C=32. For duct of other cross
-
-
sectional
sectional
shapes, the value of C is different.
shapes, the value of C is different.
2
D
V 32
p
A
=
For a round pipe
For a round pipe
36
3/3
3/3
f is termed the friction factor, or
f is termed the friction factor, or
sometimes the Darcy friction factor.
sometimes the Darcy friction factor.
For a round pipe
For a round pipe
D Re
64
D VD
64
V
D / V 32
V
p
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
A A A
=
2
V
D
f p
2
=
A
2
V
D
p
f
2
=
A
D
4
p
w
=
A
2
w
V
8
Re
64
f
= =
For laminar flow
For laminar flow
37
Energy Consideration
Energy Consideration
1/3
1/3
The energy equation for incompressible, steady flow

The energy equation for incompressible, steady flow
between two locations
between two locations
L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ +
= +
g 2
V
g 2
V
2
2 2
2
1 1

=
D
4
r
2
h z
p
z
p
w
L 2
2
1
1
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
A A
r
2 sin p
=

A
A
D
r 2
w
=
The head loss in a
The head loss in a
pipe is a result of
pipe is a result of
the viscous shear
the viscous shear
stress on the wall.
stress on the wall.
38
Example 8.3 Laminar Pipe Flow Properties
1/2 1/2
z
z
The
The
flowrate
flowrate
, Q, of corn syrup through the horizontal pipe shown in
, Q, of corn syrup through the horizontal pipe shown in
Figure E8.3 is to be monitored by measuring the pressure differe
Figure E8.3 is to be monitored by measuring the pressure differe
nce
nce
between sections (1) and (2). It is proposed that Q=K
between sections (1) and (2). It is proposed that Q=K
p, where the
p, where the
calibration constant, K, is a function of temperature, T, becaus
calibration constant, K, is a function of temperature, T, becaus
e of
e of
the variation of the syrup
the variation of the syrup
s viscosity and density with temperature.

s viscosity and density with temperature.
These variations are given in Table E8.3. (a) Plot K(T) versus T
These variations are given in Table E8.3. (a) Plot K(T) versus T
for
for
60
60
F
F
T
T
160
160
F. (b) Determine the wall shear stress and the pressure

F. (b) Determine the wall shear stress and the pressure
drop,
drop,
p=p
p=p
1 1
-
-
p
p
2 2
, for Q=0.5 ft
, for Q=0.5 ft
3 3
/s and T=100
/s and T=100
F. (c) For the conditions

F. (c) For the conditions
of part (b), determine the nest pressure force.(
of part (b), determine the nest pressure force.(
D
D
2 2
/4)
/4)

p, and the
p, and the
nest shear force,
nest shear force,
D
D
A
A
w w
, on the fluid within the pipe between the
, on the fluid within the pipe between the
sections (1) and (2).
sections (1) and (2).
39
1/2 1/2
40
Example 8.3
Example 8.3
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
2100 1380 ... / VD R
e
< = = =
=
5
10 60 . 1
K
If the flow is laminar
If the flow is laminar
For T=100
For T=100
F,
F,
=3.8
=3.8
10
10
- -3 3
lb
lb
s/ft
s/ft
2 2
, Q=0.5ft
, Q=0.5ft
3 3
/s
/s
p K
128
pD
Q
4
=

=
A
2
4
ft / lb 119 ...
D
Q 128
p = =
=
A
s / ft 2 . 10 ...
A
Q
V = = =
2
w
w
ft / lb 24 . 1 ...
4
D p
D
4
p = =
=
A
A
41
Example 8.3
Example 8.3
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
The new pressure force and viscous force on the fluid within the
The new pressure force and viscous force on the fluid within the
pipe
pipe
between sections (1) and (2) is
between sections (1) and (2) is
lb 84 . 5 ...
2
D
2 F
lb 84 . 5 ... p
4
D
F
w v
2
p
= = =
= =
=
A
The values of these two forces are the same. The net force is ze
The values of these two forces are the same. The net force is ze
ro;
ro;
there is no acceleration.
there is no acceleration.
42
Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than

Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than
laminar flow in practical situations.
laminar flow in practical situations.
Turbulent flow is a very complex process.

Turbulent flow is a very complex process.
Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an

Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an
attempting to understand the variety of baffling aspects of
attempting to understand the variety of baffling aspects of
turbulence. Although a considerable amount if knowledge
turbulence. Although a considerable amount if knowledge
about the topics has been developed,
about the topics has been developed,
the field of turbulent
the field of turbulent
flow still remains the least understood area of fluid
flow still remains the least understood area of fluid
mechanics.
mechanics.
Much remains to be learned about the nature of turbulent flow.
Much remains to be learned about the nature of turbulent flow.
43
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow in a Pipe
Flow in a Pipe
1/2
1/2
For any flow geometry, there is one (or more)

For any flow geometry, there is one (or more)
dimensionless parameters such as with this parameter
dimensionless parameters such as with this parameter
value below a particular value the flow is laminar, whereas
value below a particular value the flow is laminar, whereas
with the parameter value larger than a certain value the
with the parameter value larger than a certain value the
flow is turbulent.
flow is turbulent.
The important parameters involved and their critical

The important parameters involved and their critical
values depend on the specific flow situation involved.
values depend on the specific flow situation involved.
Consider a long section of pipe that is Consider a long section of pipe that is
initially filled with a fluid at rest. initially filled with a fluid at rest.
For flow in pipe : 2100<Re..Re>4000
For flow along a plate Re
x
~5000
44
Flow in a Pipe
Flow in a Pipe
2/2
2/2
As the valve is opened to start the flow, the flow velocity and,
As the valve is opened to start the flow, the flow velocity and,
hence,
hence,
the Reynolds number increase from zero (no flow) to their
the Reynolds number increase from zero (no flow) to their
maximum steady flow values.
maximum steady flow values.
For the initial time period the Reynolds number

For the initial time period the Reynolds number
os
os
small enough for
small enough for
laminar flow to occur.
laminar flow to occur.
At some time the Reynolds

At some time the Reynolds
number reaches 2100, and the
number reaches 2100, and the
flow begins its transition to
flow begins its transition to
turbulent conditions.
turbulent conditions.
Intermittent spots or burst

Intermittent spots or burst
appear
appear
..
..
45
Description for Turbulent Flow
1/5
1/5
Turbulent flows involve

Turbulent flows involve
randomly fluctuating
randomly fluctuating
parameters.
parameters.
The character of many of the

The character of many of the
important properties of the
important properties of the
flow (pressure drop, heat
flow (pressure drop, heat
transfer, etc.) depends strongly
transfer, etc.) depends strongly
on the existence and nature of
on the existence and nature of
the turbulent fluctuations or
the turbulent fluctuations or
randomness.
randomness.
The time
The time
-
-
averaged,
averaged,
, and
, and
fluctuating,
fluctuating,
description of a
description of a
parameter for tubular flow.
parameter for tubular flow.
A typical trace of the axial component of A typical trace of the axial component of
velocity measured at a given location in velocity measured at a given location in
the flow, u=u(t). the flow, u=u(t).
46
2/5
2/5
Due to the macroscopic scale of the randomness in

Due to the macroscopic scale of the randomness in
turbulent flow, mixing processes and heat transfer
turbulent flow, mixing processes and heat transfer
processes are considerably enhanced in turbulent flow
processes are considerably enhanced in turbulent flow
compared to laminar flow.
compared to laminar flow.
Such finite
Such finite
-
-
sized random mixing is very effective in
sized random mixing is very effective in
transporting energy and mass throughout the flow field.
transporting energy and mass throughout the flow field.
[Laminar flow can be thought of as very small but finite

[Laminar flow can be thought of as very small but finite
-
-
sized fluid particles flowing smoothly in layer, one over
sized fluid particles flowing smoothly in layer, one over
another. The only randomness and mixing take place on
another. The only randomness and mixing take place on
the molecular scale and result in relatively small heat,
the molecular scale and result in relatively small heat,
mass, and momentum transfer rates.]
mass, and momentum transfer rates.]
47
3/5
3/5
In some situations, turbulent flow characteristics are

In some situations, turbulent flow characteristics are
advantages. In other situations, laminar flow is desirable.
advantages. In other situations, laminar flow is desirable.
Turbulence: mixing of fluids.

Turbulence: mixing of fluids.
Laminar: pressure drop in pipe, aerodynamic drag on

Laminar: pressure drop in pipe, aerodynamic drag on
airplane.
airplane.
48
4/5
4/5
Turbulent flows are characterized by random, three

Turbulent flows are characterized by random, three
-
-
dimensional
dimensional
vorticity
vorticity
.
.
Turbulent flows can be described in terms of their mean

Turbulent flows can be described in terms of their mean
values on which are superimposed the fluctuations.
values on which are superimposed the fluctuations.
( )
+
=
T t
t
O
O
dt t , z , y , x u
T
1
u
' u u u + =
u u ' u =
49
5/5
5/5
The time average of the fluctuations is zero.

The time average of the fluctuations is zero.
The square of a fluctuation quantity is positive.

The square of a fluctuation quantity is positive.
Turbulence intensity or the level of the turbulence

Turbulence intensity or the level of the turbulence
( ) ( ) 0 u T u T
T
1
dt u u
T
1
' u
T t
t
O
O
= = =

+
( ) 0 dt ' u
T
1
) ' u (
T t
t
2 2 O
O
> =

+
( )
u
dt ' u
T
1
u
) ' u (
2
T t
t
2
2
O
O
(
= =

+
The larger the turbulence intensity, the larger The larger the turbulence intensity, the larger
the fluctuations of the velocity. Well the fluctuations of the velocity. Well- -
designed wind tunnels have typical value of designed wind tunnels have typical value of
=0.01, although with extreme care, values =0.01, although with extreme care, values
as low as as low as =0.0002 have been obtained. =0.0002 have been obtained.
50
Shear Stress for Laminar Flow
1/2
1/2
Laminar flow is modeled as fluid particles that flow smoothly along
in layers, gliding past the slightly slower or faster ones on either side.
The fluid actually consists of numerous molecules darting about in
an almost random fashion. The motion is not entirely random a
slight bias in one direction.
As the molecules dart across a given
plane (plane A-A, for example), the
ones moving upward have come from
an area of smaller average x
component of velocity than the ones
moving downward, which have come
from an area of large velocity.

51
2/2
2/2
The momentum flux in the x direction across plane A-A give rise to
a drag of the lower fluid on the upper fluid and an equal but opposite
effect of the upper fluid on the lower fluid. The sluggish molecules
moving upward across plane A-A must accelerated by the fluid
above this plane. The rate of change of momentum in this process
produces a shear force. Similarly, the more energetic molecules
moving down across plane A-A must be slowed down by the fluid
below that plane.
BY combining these effects, we obtain the well-known Newton
viscosity law
dy
du
yx
=
Shear stress is present only if there is a
Shear stress is present only if there is a
gradient in u=
gradient in u=
u(y
u(y
).
).
52
Shear Stress for Turbulent Flow
1/2
1/2
The turbulent flow is thought as a

The turbulent flow is thought as a
series of random, three
series of random, three
-
-
dimensional eddy type motions.
dimensional eddy type motions.
These eddies range in size from

These eddies range in size from
very small diameter to fairly large
very small diameter to fairly large
diameter.
diameter.
This eddy structure greatly

This eddy structure greatly
promotes mixing within the fluid.
promotes mixing within the fluid.
53
2/2
2/2
The flow is represented by (time

The flow is represented by (time
-
-
mean velocity ) plus u
mean velocity ) plus u
and v
and v
(time randomly fluctuating velocity components in the x and y

(time randomly fluctuating velocity components in the x and y
direction).
direction).
The shear stress on the plane A

The shear stress on the plane A
-
-
A
A
u
turbulent ar min la
' v ' u
dy
u d
+ = =
' v ' u
is called Reynolds stress introduced by
is called Reynolds stress introduced by
Osborne Reynolds.
Osborne Reynolds.
0 ' v ' u
As we approach wall, and is zero at the wall
As we approach wall, and is zero at the wall
(the wall tends to suppress the fluctuations.)
(the wall tends to suppress the fluctuations.)
The shear stress is not merely
proportional to the gradient of the
time-averaged velocity, .
) y ( u
54
Structure of Turbulent Flow in a Pipe
1/2
1/2
Near the wall

Near the wall
(the viscous
(the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
), the
), the
laminar shear
laminar shear
stress
stress
lam lam
is dominant.
is dominant.
Away from
Away from
the wall (in the outer layer) ,
the wall (in the outer layer) ,
the turbulent
the turbulent
shear stress
shear stress
turb turb
is
is
dominant
dominant
.
.
The transition between these two regions occurs in the

The transition between these two regions occurs in the
overlap layer.
overlap layer.
55
2/2
2/2
The relative magnitude of

The relative magnitude of
lam lam
compared to
compared to
turb turb
is a
is a
complex function dependent on the specific flow involved.
complex function dependent on the specific flow involved.
Typically the value of

Typically the value of
turb turb
is 100 to 1000 times greater
is 100 to 1000 times greater
than
than
lam lam
in
in
the outer region.
the outer region.
56
Alternative Form of Shear Stress
1/2
1/2
turb turb
: requiring an accurate knowledge of the fluctuations
: requiring an accurate knowledge of the fluctuations
u
u
and v
and v
, or
, or
The shear stress for turbulent flow is given in terms of the

The shear stress for turbulent flow is given in terms of the
eddy viscosity
eddy viscosity
.
.
dy
u d
turb
=
This extension of of laminar flow terminology
This extension of of laminar flow terminology
was introduced by J.
was introduced by J.
Boussubesq
Boussubesq
, a French
, a French
scientist, in 1877.
scientist, in 1877.
?
?
A semiempirical theory was proposed by
L.
L.
Prandtl
Prandtl to
determine the value of
' v ' u
57
2/2
2/2
dy
u d
2
m
A =
2
2
m turb
dy
u d
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
mixing length, is not constant
throughout the flow field.
There is no general, all
There is no general, all
-
-
encompassing,
encompassing,
useful model that can accurately predict
useful model that can accurately predict
the shear stress throughout a general
the shear stress throughout a general
incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
58
Turbulent Velocity Profile
1/5
1/5
Fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be broken into thre

Fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be broken into thre
e
e
region: the viscous
region: the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
, the overlap region, and the outer
, the overlap region, and the outer
turbulent
turbulent
sublayer
sublayer
.
.
Within the viscous

Within the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
the shear stress is dominant compared
the shear stress is dominant compared
with the turbulent stress, and the random, eddying nature of the
with the turbulent stress, and the random, eddying nature of the
flow
flow
is essentially absent.
is essentially absent.
In the outer turbulent layer the Reynolds stress is dominant, an

In the outer turbulent layer the Reynolds stress is dominant, an
d
d
there is considerable mixing and randomness to the flow.
there is considerable mixing and randomness to the flow.
Within the viscous

Within the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
the fluid viscosity is an important
the fluid viscosity is an important
parameter; the density is unimportant. In the outer layer the op
parameter; the density is unimportant. In the outer layer the op
posite
posite
is true.
is true.
59
2/5
2/5
Considerable information concerning turbulent velocity profiles

Considerable information concerning turbulent velocity profiles
has
has
been obtained through the use of
been obtained through the use of
dimensional analysis, and semi
dimensional analysis, and semi
-
-
empirical theoretical efforts
empirical theoretical efforts
.
.
In the viscous
In the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
the velocity profile can be written in
the velocity profile can be written in
dimensionless form as
dimensionless form as
+ +
=
= = y
yu
u
u
u
*
*
( )
2 / 1
w
*
/ u =
Where y is the distance measured from the wall y=R
Where y is the distance measured from the wall y=R
-
-
r.
r.
is called the friction velocity.
is called the friction velocity.
Law of the wall
Law of the wall
Is valid very near the smooth wall, for
5
yu
0
*
60
3/5
3/5
In the overlap region the velocity should vary as the

In the overlap region the velocity should vary as the
logarithm of y
logarithm of y
In transition region or buffer layer

In transition region or buffer layer
for
30
yu
*
>
0 . 5
y
yu
ln 5 . 2
u
u
+ |
.
|
\
|
=

30
yu
7 - 5
*
|
.
|
\
|
=
y
R
ln 5 . 2
u
u U
for
for
Determined experimentally
61
4/5
4/5
0 . 5
y
yu
ln 5 . 2
u
u
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
*
*
yu
u
u
62
5/5
5/5
The velocity profile for turbulent
flow through a smooth pipe may
also be approximated by the
empirical
power
power
-
-
law equation
law equation
The power
The power
-
-
law profile is not
law profile is not
applicable close to the wall.
applicable close to the wall.
n / 1 n / 1
R
r
1
R
y
U
u
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
Where the exponent, n, varies
Where the exponent, n, varies
with the Reynolds number.
with the Reynolds number.
63
Example 8.4 Turbulent Pipe Flow
Example 8.4 Turbulent Pipe Flow
Properties
Properties
z
z
Water at 20
Water at 20
(
(
=998kg/m
=998kg/m
3 3
and
and
=1.004
=1.004
10
10
- -6 6
m
m
2 2
/s) flows through
/s) flows through
a horizontal pipe of 0.1
a horizontal pipe of 0.1
-
-
m diameter with a
m diameter with a
flowrate
flowrate
of Q=4
of Q=4
10
10
- -2 2
m
m
3 3
/s
/s
and a pressure gradient of 2.59
and a pressure gradient of 2.59
kPa/m
kPa/m
. (a) Determine the
. (a) Determine the
approximate thickness of the viscous
approximate thickness of the viscous
sublayer
sublayer
. (b) Determine the
. (b) Determine the
approximate centerline velocity,
approximate centerline velocity,
V
V
c c
. (c) Determine the ration of the
. (c) Determine the ration of the
turbulent to laminar shear stress,
turbulent to laminar shear stress,
t urb t urb
/
/

l am l am
at a point midway
at a point midway
between the centerline and the pipe wall (i.e., at r=0.025m)
between the centerline and the pipe wall (i.e., at r=0.025m)
64
Example 8.4
Example 8.4
Solution
Solution
1/3
1/3
The thickness of viscous
The thickness of viscous
sublayer
sublayer
,
,
s s
, is approximately
, is approximately
5
u
*
s
=
*
s
u
5

=
( ) s / m 255 . 0 ... / u
2 / 1
w
*
= = =
2
w
m / N 8 . 64 ...
4
p D
= =
=
A
mm 02 . 0 m 10 97 . 1 ...
u
5
5
*
s
= = =
=

The centerline velocity can be obtained from the average velocit
The centerline velocity can be obtained from the average velocit
y and
y and
the assumption of a power
the assumption of a power
-
-
law velocity profile
law velocity profile
s / m 09 . 5
4 / ) m 1 . 0 (
s / m 04 . 0
A
Q
V
2
3
=
= =
5
e
10 07 . 5 ... / VD R = = =
65
Example 8.4
Example 8.4
Solution
Solution
2/3
2/3
n / 1 n / 1
R
r
1
R
y
U
u
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
V R
) 1 n 2 )( 1 n (
n
V R 2 ... dA u AV Q
2
2
c
2
=
+ +
= = = =

n=8.4
n=8.4
5
e
10 07 . 5 ... / VD R = = =
s / m 04 . 6 ... V
) 1 n 2 )( 1 n (
n 2
V
V
c
2
c
= =
+ +
=
D
r 2
w
= Valid for laminar or turbulent flow

2
turb lam
2
w
m / N 4 . 32
) m 1 . 0 (
) m 025 . 0 )( m / N 8 . 64 ( 2
D
r 2
= + =
=
=
66
Example 8.4
Example 8.4
Solution
Solution
3/3
3/3
2
turb lam
2
w
m / N 4 . 32
) m 1 . 0 (
) m 025 . 0 )( m / N 8 . 64 ( 2
D
r 2
= + =
=
=
2
n / ) n 1 (
c
lam
m / N 0266 . 0
R
r
1
nR
V
dr
u d
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =

1220
0266 . 0
0266 . 0 4 . 32
lam
lam
lam
turb
=
67
Dimensional Analysis of
Dimensional Analysis of
Pipe Flow
Pipe Flow
68
Energy Considerations
1/8
1/8
Considering the steady flow through the piping system, including

Considering the steady flow through the piping system, including
a
a
reducing elbow. The basic equation for conservation of energy
reducing elbow. The basic equation for conservation of energy
the
the
first law of thermodynamics
first law of thermodynamics
in Shaft in net
CS
2
CV
W Q A d n V ) gz
2
V p
u
( V d e
t

G
G
G
+ = + +
+ +
= +
+
= + +
CS
nn
CS CV
in Shaft in net
CS CV CS
nn in Shaft in net
dA n V dA n V e V d e
t
W Q
dA n V e V d e
t
dA n V W Q
G
G
G
G

G
G
G
G

Energy equation
Energy equation
gz
2
V
u e
2
+ + =
69
2/8
2/8
0 V d e
t
CV
m gz
2
V p
u
m gz
2
V p
u
dA n V gz
2
V p
u
in
2
out
2 2
CS

G
G

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ =
(
+ +
+
in
in
2
out
out
2
2
CS
m gz
2
V p
u m gz
2
V p
u
dA n V gz
2
V p
u

G
G
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ =

(
+ +
When the flow is steady

When the flow is steady
The integral of
dA n V gz
2
V p
u
2
CS
G
G

(
+ +
??? ???
Uniformly distribution
Only one stream
entering and leaving
Only one stream
entering and leaving
70
3/8
3/8
( )
in net shaft in net
in out
2
in
2
out
in out
in out
W Q
z z g
2
V V p p
u
+ =
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
p
u
( )
in / net shaft in / net in out
2
in
2
out
in out
W Q z z g
2
V V
h
+ =
(
+
If shaft work is involved
If shaft work is involved
.
.
One
One
-
-
dimensional energy equation
for steady
for steady
-
-
in
in
-
-
the
the
-
-
mean flow
mean flow
Enthalpy
Enthalpy
The energy equation is written in terms
The energy equation is written in terms
of enthalpy.
of enthalpy.
71
4/8
4/8
( )
in net in out in
2
in in
out
2
out out
q u
gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
+ +
= + +
( )
in net in out
2
in
2
out in out
in out
Q z z g
2
V V p p
u
=
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
m
For steady, incompressible flow

For steady, incompressible flow
One
One
-
-
m / Q q
in net in net

=
in
2
in
in out
2
out
out
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +
+ = +
+
0 q u
in net in out
=
where
where
For steady, incompressible,
frictionless flow
frictionless flow
Bernoulli equation
Bernoulli equation
Frictionless flow
Frictionless flow
72
5/8
5/8
frictional flow
frictional flow
0 q u
in net in out
>
loss q u
in net in out
=
loss gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ +
= + +
Defining useful or available energy

gz
2
V p
2
+ +
Defining loss of useful or available energy

Frictional flow
Frictional flow
73
6/8
6/8
( )
in net shaft in net in out
2
in
2
out in out
in out
W Q z z g
2
V V p p
u
+ =
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
m
) q u
( w gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in net in out in net shaft in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ + +
= + +
For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work

For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work
loss w gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in net shaft in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ + +
= + +
g
L s in
2
in in
out
2
out out
h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + +
= + +
Q
W
g m
W
g
w
h
in net shaft in net shaft in net shaft
S
= =

g
loss
h
L
=
Head loss Head loss Shaft head Shaft head
74
7/8
7/8
For turbine
For turbine
For pump
For pump
The actual head drop across the turbine

The actual head drop across the turbine
The actual head drop across the pump

The actual head drop across the pump
) 0 h ( h h
T T s
> =
P s
h h = h
hp p
is pump head
is pump head
h
hT T
is turbine head
is turbine head
T L s T
) h h ( h + =
p L s p
) h h ( h =
L s in
2
in in
out
2
out out
h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + +
= + +
75
8/8
8/8
Total head loss ,

Total head loss ,
h
h
L L
, is regarded as the sum of major losses,
, is regarded as the sum of major losses,
h
h
L L major major
, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow
, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow
in constant area tubes, and minor losses,
in constant area tubes, and minor losses,
h
h
L L minor minor
, resulting
, resulting
from entrance, fitting, area changes, and so on.
from entrance, fitting, area changes, and so on.
or min major
L L L
h h h + =
76
Major Losses: Friction Factor
Major Losses: Friction Factor
The energy equation for steady and incompressible flow

The energy equation for steady and incompressible flow
with zero shaft work
with zero shaft work
L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
L 1 2
2 1
h ) z z ( g
p p
+ =
>>>
For fully developed flow through a constant area pipe ,
For fully developed flow through a constant area pipe ,
h
h
L L
=0
=0
For horizontal pipe, z
For horizontal pipe, z2 2
=z
=z1 1
L
2 1
h
p p p
=
>>>
77
Major Losses: Laminar Flow
Major Losses: Laminar Flow
In fully developed laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, the

In fully developed laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, the
pressure drop
pressure drop
( )
2
V
D R
64
VD
64
2
V
D D
V
D
32 h
2
V
D
f p
D Re
64
D VD
64
V
2
1
p
D
V
D
32
D
4 / D V 128
D
Q 128
p
2
e
2
L
2
2
4
2
4
A A A A
A A
A A A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= >>
=
=
=
Re
64
f
ar min la
=
Friction Factor
Friction Factor
( ) ( ) 2 / V / / D p f
2
= A
78
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
1/3
1/3
In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytica

In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytica
lly;
lly;
we must resort to experimental results and use dimensional analy
we must resort to experimental results and use dimensional analy
sis
sis
to correlate the experimental data.
to correlate the experimental data.
( ) = , , , , D , V F p A
In fully developed turbulent flow the

In fully developed turbulent flow the
pressure drop,
pressure drop,
p
p
, caused by friction
, caused by friction
in a horizontal constant
in a horizontal constant
-
-
area pipe is
area pipe is
known to
known to
depend on pipe diameter,D,
depend on pipe diameter,D,
pipe length,
pipe length,
A
A
, pipe roughness,e,
, pipe roughness,e,
average flow velocity,
average flow velocity,
V, fluid
V, fluid
density
density
, and fluid viscosity,

, and fluid viscosity,
.
.
79
2/3
2/3
Applying dimensional analysis, the result were a correlation of the
form
Experiments show that the nondimensional head loss is directly
proportional to A/D. Hence we can write
|
.
|
\
|

=
D
Re,
D V
p
2
2
1
A
|
.
|
\
|

D
Re, f
g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
major
A
2
V
D
f p
2
=
A
Darcy
Darcy
-
-
Weisbach
Weisbach
equation
equation
|
|
.
|
\
|
D
,
D
,
VD
V
p
2
2
1
A
80
Roughness for Pipes
Roughness for Pipes
81
Friction Factor by L. F. Moody
Friction Factor by L. F. Moody
Depending on the specific Depending on the specific
circumstances involved. circumstances involved.
82
About Moody Chart
About Moody Chart
For laminar flow, f=64/Re, which is independent of the

For laminar flow, f=64/Re, which is independent of the
relative roughness.
relative roughness.
For very large Reynolds numbers, f=

For very large Reynolds numbers, f=
(
(

/ D), which is
/ D), which is
independent of the Reynolds numbers.
independent of the Reynolds numbers.
For flows with

For flows with
very large value of Re
very large value of Re
, commonly termed
, commonly termed
completely turbulent flow (or wholly turbulent flow), the
completely turbulent flow (or wholly turbulent flow), the
laminar
laminar
sublayer
sublayer
is so thin (its thickness decrease with
is so thin (its thickness decrease with
increasing Re) that the surface roughness completely
increasing Re) that the surface roughness completely
dominates the character of the flow near the wall.
dominates the character of the flow near the wall.
For flows with moderate value of Re, the friction factor

For flows with moderate value of Re, the friction factor
f=
f=
(Re,
(Re,
/ D).
/ D).
83
3/3
3/3
Colebrook To avoid having to use a graphical method for
obtaining f for turbulent flows.
Miler suggests that a single iteration will produce a result within
1 percent if the initial estimate is calculated from
(
=
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
D /
log 0 . 2
f
1
2
9 . 0
0
Re
74 . 5
7 . 3
D /
log 25 . 0 f

(
=
Valid for the entire
Valid for the entire
nonlaminar
nonlaminar
range of the Moody chart.
range of the Moody chart.
Colebrook formula
Colebrook formula
84
Example 8.5 Comparison of Laminar or
Example 8.5 Comparison of Laminar or
Turbulent pressure Drop
Turbulent pressure Drop
z
z
Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0
Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0
-
-
mm
mm
-
-
diameter
diameter
drawn tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such
drawn tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such
conditions the flow would normally be turbulent. However, if
conditions the flow would normally be turbulent. However, if
precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow (the
precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow (the
entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the t
entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the t
ube does
ube does
not vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow.
not vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow.
(a)
(a)
Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1
Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1
-
-
m section of the tube if the
m section of the tube if the
flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if the flow is turb
flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if the flow is turb
ulent.
ulent.
85
Example 8.5
Example 8.5
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
flow Turbulent 700 , 13 ... / VD R
e
= = =
Under standard temperature and pressure conditions
Under standard temperature and pressure conditions
=1.23kg/m
=1.23kg/m
3 3
,
,
=1.79
=1.79
10
10
- -5 5
N
N
s/m
s/m
The Reynolds number
The Reynolds number
kPa 179 . 0 ... V
2
1
D
f p
2
= = =
A
If the flow were laminar
If the flow were laminar
f=64/Re=
f=64/Re=
=0.0467
=0.0467
86
Example 8.5
Example 8.5
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
kPa 076 . 1 ... V
2
1
D
f p
2
= = =
A
If the flow were turbulent
If the flow were turbulent
From Moody chart
From Moody chart
f=
f=
(Re,
(Re,
/D) =
/D) =
0.028
0.028
87
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
1/5
1/5
Most pipe systems consist of

Most pipe systems consist of
considerably more than straight
considerably more than straight
pipes. These additional
pipes. These additional
components (valves, bends, tees,
components (valves, bends, tees,
and the like) add to the overall
and the like) add to the overall
head loss of the system.
head loss of the system.
Such losses are termed MINOR

Such losses are termed MINOR
LOSS.
LOSS.
The flow pattern through a valve The flow pattern through a valve
88
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
2/5
2/5
The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow

The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow
pattern (through these additional components) is not, as
pattern (through these additional components) is not, as
yet, possible.
yet, possible.
The head loss information for essentially all components is

The head loss information for essentially all components is
given in dimensionless form and based on experimental
given in dimensionless form and based on experimental
data. The most common method used to determine these
data. The most common method used to determine these
head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, K
coefficient, K
L L
89
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
3/5
3/5
2
L
2
2
L
L
V
2
1
K p
V
2
1
p
g 2 / V
h
K
or min
=
= =
Re) , geometry ( K
L
=
f
D
K
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
K h
L eq
2
eq
2
L L
or min
=
= =
A
A
Minor losses are sometimes
given in terms of an equivalent
length A
eq
The actual value of K
L
is strongly dependent on the geometry of
the component considered. It may also dependent on the fluid
properties. That is
90
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
4/5
4/5
For many practical applications the Reynolds number is

For many practical applications the Reynolds number is
large enough so that the flow through the component is
large enough so that the flow through the component is
dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of
dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of
secondary importance.
secondary importance.
In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than

In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than
viscous effects, it is usually found that pressure drops and
viscous effects, it is usually found that pressure drops and
head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure.
head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure.
This is the reason why the friction factor for very large
This is the reason why the friction factor for very large
Reynolds number, fully developed pipe flow is
Reynolds number, fully developed pipe flow is
independent of the Reynolds number.
independent of the Reynolds number.
91
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
5/5
5/5
This is true for flow through pipe components.

This is true for flow through pipe components.
Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss

Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss
coefficients for components are a function of geometry
coefficients for components are a function of geometry
only,
only,
) geometry ( K
L
=
92
Minor Losses Coefficient
Entrance flow 1/3
Entrance flow 1/3
Entrance flow condition

Entrance flow condition
and loss coefficient
and loss coefficient
(
(
a
a
) Reentrant,
) Reentrant,
K
K
L L
= 0.8
= 0.8
(
(
b
b
) sharp
) sharp
-
-
edged,
edged,
K
K
L L
= 0.5
= 0.5
(
(
c
c
) slightly rounded,
) slightly rounded,
K
K
L L
= 0.2
= 0.2
(
(
d
d
) well
) well
-
-
rounded,
rounded,
K
K
L L
= 0.04
= 0.04
K
K
L L
= function of rounding of
= function of rounding of
the inlet edge.
the inlet edge.
93
Entrance flow 2/3
Entrance flow 2/3
A vena
A vena
contracta
contracta
region may result because the fluid
region may result because the fluid
cannot turn a sharp right
cannot turn a sharp right
-
-
angle corner. The flow is said to
angle corner. The flow is said to
separate from the sharp corner.
separate from the sharp corner.
The maximum velocity velocity at section (2) is greater

The maximum velocity velocity at section (2) is greater
than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure there is
than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure there is
lower.
lower.
If this high speed fluid could slow down efficiently, the

If this high speed fluid could slow down efficiently, the
kinetic energy could be converted into pressure.
kinetic energy could be converted into pressure.
94
Entrance flow 3/3
Entrance flow 3/3
Such is not the case. Although

Such is not the case. Although
the fluid may be accelerated
the fluid may be accelerated
very efficiently, it is very
very efficiently, it is very
difficult to slow down
difficult to slow down
(decelerate) the fluid
(decelerate) the fluid
efficently
efficently
.
.
(2)
(2)
(3) The extra kinetic

(3) The extra kinetic
energy of the fluid is partially
energy of the fluid is partially
lost because of viscous
lost because of viscous
dissipation, so that the pressure
dissipation, so that the pressure
does not return to the ideal
does not return to the ideal
value.
value.
Flow pattern and pressure distribution Flow pattern and pressure distribution
for a sharp for a sharp- -edged entrance edged entrance
95
Exit flow
Exit flow
Exit flow condition and

Exit flow condition and
loss coefficient
loss coefficient
(
(
a
a
) Reentrant,
) Reentrant,
K
KL L
= 1.0
= 1.0
(
(
b
b
) sharp
) sharp
-
-
edged,
edged,
K
KL L
= 1.0
= 1.0
(
(
c
c
) slightly rounded,
) slightly rounded,
K
KL L
= 1.0
= 1.0
(
(
d
d
) well
) well
-
-
rounded,
rounded,
K
KL L
= 1.0
= 1.0
96
varied diameter
varied diameter
Loss coefficient for sudden

Loss coefficient for sudden
contraction, expansion,typical
contraction, expansion,typical
conical diffuser.
conical diffuser.
2
2
1
L
A
A
1 K
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
97
Bend
Bend
Carefully designed guide vanes
Carefully designed guide vanes
help direct the flow with less
help direct the flow with less
unwanted swirl and disturbances.
unwanted swirl and disturbances.
Character of the flow in bend

Character of the flow in bend
and the associated loss
and the associated loss
coefficient.
coefficient.
98
Internal Structure of Valves
Internal Structure of Valves
(
(
a
a
) globe valve
) globe valve
(
(
b
b
) gate valve
) gate valve
(
(
c
c
) swing check valve
) swing check valve
(
(
d
d
) stop check valve
) stop check valve
99
Loss Coefficients for Pipe
Loss Coefficients for Pipe
Components
Components
100
Example 8.6 Minor Loss
1/2
1/2
z
z
Air at standard conditions is to flow through the test section
Air at standard conditions is to flow through the test section
[between sections (5) and (6)] of the closed
[between sections (5) and (6)] of the closed
-
-
circuit wind tunnel
circuit wind tunnel
shown if Figure E8.6 with a velocity of 200 ft/s. The flow is dr
shown if Figure E8.6 with a velocity of 200 ft/s. The flow is dr
iven
iven
by a fan that essentially increase the static pressure by the am
by a fan that essentially increase the static pressure by the am
ount
ount
p
p
1 1
-
-
p
p
9 9
that is needed to overcome the head losses experienced by the
that is needed to overcome the head losses experienced by the
fluid as it flows around the circuit. Estimate the value of p
fluid as it flows around the circuit. Estimate the value of p
1 1
-
-
p
p
9 9
and
and
the horsepower supplied to the fluid by the fan.
the horsepower supplied to the fluid by the fan.
101
2/2
2/2
102
Example 8.6
Example 8.6
Solution
Solution
1/3
1/3
The maximum velocity within the wind tunnel occurs in the
The maximum velocity within the wind tunnel occurs in the
test section (smallest area). Thus, the maximum Mach number
test section (smallest area). Thus, the maximum Mach number
of the flow is Ma
of the flow is Ma
5 5
=V
=V
5 5
/c
/c
5 5
9 1 L 9
2
9 9
1
2
1 1
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + +
= + +
s / ft 1117 ) KRT ( c s / ft 200 V

2 / 1
5 5 5
= = =
The energy equation between points (1) and (9)
9 1
9 1 L
p p
h The total head loss from (1) to (9).
The total head loss from (1) to (9).
103
Example 8.6
Example 8.6
Solution
Solution
2/3
2/3
The energy across the fan, from (9) to (1)
The energy across the fan, from (9) to (1)
9 1 L 5 5 p 5 5 p a
h V A h V A Qh P

= = =
9 1 L
9 1
p
h
p p
h

=
=
1
2
1 1
p 9
2
9 9
z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ +
= + + +
H H
p p
is the actual head rise supplied is the actual head rise supplied
by the pump (fan) to the air. by the pump (fan) to the air.
The actual power supplied to the air (horsepower, P
The actual power supplied to the air (horsepower, P
a a
) is obtained
) is obtained
from the fan head by
from the fan head by
104
Example 8.6
Example 8.6
Solution
Solution
3/3
3/3
The total head loss
The total head loss
hp 3 . 62 s / lb ft 34300 ... P
psi 298 . 0 ... ) ft 560 )( ft / lb 765 . 0 ( h p p
a
2
9 1 L 9 1
= = =
= = = =

scr noz dif 3 corner 2 corner 8 corner 7 corner
L L L L L L L 9 1 L
h h h h h h h h + + + + + + =
0 . 4 K 2 . 0 K
g 2
V
6 . 0
g 2
V
K h
g 2
V
2 . 0
g 2
V
K h
scr noz
dif dif corner
L L
2 2
L L
2 2
L L
= =
= = = =
105
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular Ducts
1/4
1/4
The empirical correlations for pipe flow may be used for

The empirical correlations for pipe flow may be used for
computations involving noncircular ducts, provided their
computations involving noncircular ducts, provided their
cross sections are not too exaggerated.
cross sections are not too exaggerated.
The correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for

The correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for
use with noncircular geometries by introducing the
use with noncircular geometries by introducing the
hydraulic diameter, defined as
hydraulic diameter, defined as
P
A 4
D
h

Where A is cross
Where A is cross
-
-
sectional area, and P
sectional area, and P
is wetted perimeter.
is wetted perimeter.
106
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular Ducts
2/4
2/4
For a circular duct

For a circular duct
For a rectangular duct of width b and height h

For a rectangular duct of width b and height h
The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the
The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the
approximate range
approximate range
<
<
ar
ar
<4
<4
. So the correlations for pipe
. So the correlations for pipe
flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangular ducts.
flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangular ducts.
b / h ar
ar 1
h 2
) h b ( 2
bh 4
P
A 4
D
h
=
+
=
+
=
D
P
A 4
D
h
=
107
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular Ducts
3/4
3/4
The friction factor can be written as

The friction factor can be written as
f=C/
f=C/
Re
Re
h h
, where the
, where the
constant C depends on the particular shape of the duct, and
constant C depends on the particular shape of the duct, and
Re
Re
h h
is the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
is the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter.
diameter.
The hydraulic diameter is also used in the definition of the

The hydraulic diameter is also used in the definition of the
friction factor,
friction factor,
, and the relative
, and the relative
roughness
roughness
/D
/D
h h
.
.
) g 2 / V )( D / ( f h
2
h L
A =
108
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular Ducts
4/4
4/4
For Laminar flow, the value of C=fRe
h
have been obtained
from theory and/or experiment for various shapes.
For turbulent flow in ducts of noncircular cross section,
calculations are carried out by using the Moody chart data
for round pipes with the diameter replaced by the hydraulic
diameter and the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter.
The Moody chart, developed for round pipes, can also
The Moody chart, developed for round pipes, can also
be used for noncircular ducts.
be used for noncircular ducts.
109
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow in
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular Ducts
110
Example 8.7 Noncircular Duct
Example 8.7 Noncircular Duct
z
z
Air at temperature of 120
Air at temperature of 120
F and standard pressure flows from a

F and standard pressure flows from a
furnace through an 8
furnace through an 8
-
-
in.
in.
-
-
diameter pipe with an average velocity of
diameter pipe with an average velocity of
10ft/s. It then passes through a transition section and into a s
10ft/s. It then passes through a transition section and into a s
quare
quare
duct whose side is of length a. The pipe and duct surfaces are
duct whose side is of length a. The pipe and duct surfaces are
smooth (
smooth (

=0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head loss per foot
=0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head loss per foot
is to be the same for the pipe and the duct.
is to be the same for the pipe and the duct.
111
Example 8.7
Example 8.7
Solution
Solution
1/3
1/3
The head loss per foot for the pipe
The head loss per foot for the pipe
2
s h
a
49 . 3
A
Q
V a
P
A 4
D = = = =
For given pressure and temperature
For given pressure and temperature
=1.89
=1.89
10
10
- -4 4
ft
ft
2 2
/s
/s
g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
=
A
35300
VD
Re =
=
0512 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
2
s
h
L
= =
A
For the square duct
For the square duct
112
Example 8.7
Example 8.7
Solution
Solution
2/3
2/3
Have three unknown (
Have three unknown (
a,f
a,f
, and
, and
Re
Re
h h
) and three equation
) and three equation
Eqs
Eqs
. 1, 2, and either in graphical form the Moody chart or
. 1, 2, and either in graphical form the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation
the Colebrook equation
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter
a
10 89 . 1
10 89 . 1
a ) a / 49 . 3 ( D V
Re
4
4
2
h s
h
=
5 / 1
2 2 2
s
h
L
f 30 . 1 a
) 2 . 32 ( 2
) a / 49 . 3 (
a
f
0512 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
= = = =
A
(1) (1)
(2) (2)
Find a
Find a
113
Example 8.7
Example 8.7
Solution
Solution
3/3
3/3
Use the Moody chart
Use the Moody chart
Assume the friction factor for the duct is the same as for the p
Assume the friction factor for the duct is the same as for the p
ipe.
ipe.
That is, assume f=0.022.
That is, assume f=0.022.
From
From
Eq
Eq
. 1 we obtain a=0.606 ft.
. 1 we obtain a=0.606 ft.
From
From
Eq
Eq
. 2 we have
. 2 we have
Re
Re
h h
=3.05
=3.05
10
10
4 4
From Moody chart we find f=0.023, which does not quite agree the
From Moody chart we find f=0.023, which does not quite agree the
assumed value of f.
assumed value of f.
Try again, using the latest calculated value of f=0.023 as our g
Try again, using the latest calculated value of f=0.023 as our g
uess.
uess.
The final result is f=0.023,

The final result is f=0.023,
Re
Re
h h
=3.05
=3.05
10
10
4 4
, and a=0.611ft.
, and a=0.611ft.
114
Pipe Flow Examples
Pipe Flow Examples
1/2
1/2
The energy equation, relating the conditions at any two

The energy equation, relating the conditions at any two
points 1 and 2 for a single
points 1 and 2 for a single
-
-
path pipe system
path pipe system
by judicious choice of points 1 and 2 we can analyze not
by judicious choice of points 1 and 2 we can analyze not
only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section
only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section
of it that we may be interested in.
of it that we may be interested in.
g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
major
A

+ = =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
or min major L L L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
Major loss
Major loss
Minor loss
Minor loss
g 2
V
K h
2
L L
or min
=
115
Pipe Flow Examples
Pipe Flow Examples
2/2
2/2
Single pipe whose length may be interrupted by various

Single pipe whose length may be interrupted by various
components.
components.
Multiple pipes in different configuration

Multiple pipes in different configuration
Parallel
Parallel
Series
Series
Network
Network
116
Single
Single
-
-
Path Systems
Path Systems
1/2
1/2
Pipe flow problems can be categorized by what parameters

Pipe flow problems can be categorized by what parameters
are given and what is to be calculated.
are given and what is to be calculated.
117
Single
Single
-
-
Path Systems
Path Systems
2/2
2/2
Given pipe (L and D), and flow rate, and Q, find pressure
Given pipe (L and D), and flow rate, and Q, find pressure
drop
drop
p
p
Given
Given
p, D, and Q, find L.
p, D, and Q, find L.
Given
Given
p, L, and D, find Q.
p, L, and D, find Q.
Given
Given
p
p
, L, and Q, find D.
, L, and Q, find D.
118
Given L , D, and Q,
Given L , D, and Q,
find
find
p
p
The energy equation

The energy equation
The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the
friction factor for the flow.
Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and

equivalent lengths.
equivalent lengths.
The energy equation can then be used to directly to obtain

The energy equation can then be used to directly to obtain
the pressure drop.
the pressure drop.

+ = =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
119
Given
Given
p, D, and Q,
p, D, and Q,
find L
find L
The energy equation

The energy equation

equivalent lengths.
equivalent lengths.
The energy equation can then be rearranged and solved

The energy equation can then be rearranged and solved
directly for the pipe length.
directly for the pipe length.

+ = =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
120
Given
Given
p, L, and D,
p, L, and D,
find Q
find Q
1/2
1/2
These types of problems required either manual iteration

or use of a computer application.
The unknown flow rate or velocity is needed before the

The unknown flow rate or velocity is needed before the
Reynolds number and hence the friction factor can be
Reynolds number and hence the friction factor can be
found.
found.
Repeat the iteration process
f
f
V
V
Re
Re
f until convergence
f until convergence
121
Given
Given
p
p
, L, and D,
, L, and D,
find Q
find Q
2/2
2/2
First, we make a guess for f and solve the energy equation

for V in terms of known quantities and the guessed
for V in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f.
friction factor f.
Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence

obtain a new value for f.
f
f
V
V
Re
Re
f until convergence
f until convergence
122
Given
Given
p, L, and Q,
p, L, and Q,
find D
find D
1/2
1/2

The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds

The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds
number and relative roughness, and hence the friction
number and relative roughness, and hence the friction
factor can be found.
factor can be found.
123
Given
Given
p, L, and Q,
p, L, and Q,
find D
find D
2/2
2/2

for D in terms of known quantities and the guessed
for D in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f.
friction factor f.

f
f
D
D
Re and
Re and
/D
/D
f until convergence
f until convergence
124
Example 8.8 Type I Determine Pressure
Example 8.8 Type I Determine Pressure
Drop
Drop
z
z
Water at 60
Water at 60
F flows from the basement to the second floor through the

F flows from the basement to the second floor through the
0.75
0.75
-
-
in. (0.0625
in. (0.0625
-
-
fy)
fy)
-
-
diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of
diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of
Q = 12.0 gal/min = 0.0267 ft
Q = 12.0 gal/min = 0.0267 ft
3 3
/s and exits through a faucet of diameter
/s and exits through a faucet of diameter
0.50 in. as shown in Figure E8.8.
0.50 in. as shown in Figure E8.8.
Determine the pressure at
Determine the pressure at
point (1)
point (1)
if: (a) all losses
if: (a) all losses
are neglected, (b) the only
are neglected, (b) the only
losses included are major
losses included are major
losses, or (c) all losses are
losses, or (c) all losses are
included.
included.
125
Example 8.8
Example 8.8
Solution
Solution
1/4
1/4
The energy equation
The energy equation
45000 / VD Re ft / s lb 10 34 . 2
ft / slug 94 . 1 s / ft 70 . 8 ...
A
Q
V
2 5
3
1
1
= = =
= = = =
s / ft 6 . 19 ... A / Q V
) jet free ( 0 p , ft 20 z , 0 z
2 2
2 2 1
= = =
= = =
L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
+ +
= +
The flow is turbulent

The flow is turbulent
L
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
h ) V V ( z p + + =
Head loss is different for
Head loss is different for
each of the three cases.
each of the three cases.
126
Example 8.8
Example 8.8
Solution
Solution
2/4
2/4
(a) If all losses are neglected (
(a) If all losses are neglected (
h
h
L L
=0)
=0)
45000 Re 10 8 D / 000005 . 0
5
= = =

psi 7 . 10 ft / lb 1547 ... ) V V ( z p
2
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
= = = + =
F=0.0215
F=0.0215
(b) If the only losses included are the major losses, the head l
(b) If the only losses included are the major losses, the head l
oss is
oss is
g 2
V
D
f h
2
1
L
A
=
Moody chart Moody chart
psi 3 . 21 ft / lb 3062 ...
2
V
D
) ft 60 (
f ) V V ( z p
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
= = =
=
+ + =
A
127
Example 8.8
Example 8.8
Solution
Solution
3/4
3/4
(c) If major and minor losses are included
(c) If major and minor losses are included
] 2 ) 5 . 1 ( 4 10 [
2
) s / ft 70 . 8 (
) ft / slugs 94 . 1 ( psi 3 . 21
2
V
K psi 3 . 21 p
2
V
K
g 2
V
D
f ) V V ( z p
2
3
2
L 1
2
L
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
+ + + =
+ =
+ + + =

A
psi 5 . 30 psi 17 . 9 psi 3 . 21 p
1
= + =
128
Example 8.8
Example 8.8
Solution
Solution
4/4
4/4
129
Example 8.9 Type I, Determine Head Loss
Example 8.9 Type I, Determine Head Loss
z
z
Crude oil at 140
Crude oil at 140
F with
F with
=53.7 lb/ft
=53.7 lb/ft
3 3
and
and
= 8
= 8
10
10
-
-
5 lb
5 lb
s/ft
s/ft
2 2
(about
(about
four times the viscosity of water) is pumped across Alaska throu
four times the viscosity of water) is pumped across Alaska throu
gh
gh
the Alaska pipeline, a 799
the Alaska pipeline, a 799
-
-
mile
mile
-
-
along, 4
along, 4
-
-
ft
ft
-
-
diameter steel pipe, at a
diameter steel pipe, at a
maximum rate of Q = 2.4 million barrel/day = 117ft
maximum rate of Q = 2.4 million barrel/day = 117ft
3 3
/s, or
/s, or
V=Q/A=9.31 ft/s. Determine the horsepower needed for the pumps
V=Q/A=9.31 ft/s. Determine the horsepower needed for the pumps
that drive this large system.
that drive this large system.
130
Example 8.9
Example 8.9
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
Assume that z
Assume that z
1 1
=z
=z
2 2
, p
, p
1 1
=p
=p
2 2
=V
=V
1 1
=V
=V
2 2
=0 (large, open tank)
=0 (large, open tank)
ft 17700 ...
g 2
V
D
f h h
2
P L
= = = =
A
L 2
2
2 2
P 1
2
1 1
h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + +
= + + +
h h
P P
is the head provided to the oil is the head provided to the oil
by the pump. by the pump.
Minor losses are negligible because of the large length
Minor losses are negligible because of the large length
-
-
to
to
-
-
diameter ratio of the relatively straight, uninterrupted pipe.
diameter ratio of the relatively straight, uninterrupted pipe.
f=0.0124 from Moody chart f=0.0124 from Moody chart /D=(0.00015ft)/(4ft), Re= /D=(0.00015ft)/(4ft), Re= .. ..
131
Example 8.9
Example 8.9
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
The actual power supplied to the fluid.
The actual power supplied to the fluid.
hp 202000
s / lb ft 550
hp 1
... Qh P
P a
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
132
Example 8.10 Type II, Determine
Flowrate
Flowrate
z
z
According to an appliance manufacturer, the 4
According to an appliance manufacturer, the 4
-
-
in
in
-
-
diameter
diameter
galvanized iron vent on a clothes dryer is not to contain more t
galvanized iron vent on a clothes dryer is not to contain more t
han
han
20 ft of pipe and four 90
20 ft of pipe and four 90
elbows. Under these conditions determine

elbows. Under these conditions determine
the air
the air
flowrate
flowrate
if the pressure within the dryer is 0.20 inches of
if the pressure within the dryer is 0.20 inches of
water. Assume a temperature of 100
water. Assume a temperature of 100
and standard pressure.

and standard pressure.
133
Example 8.10
Example 8.10
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
Application of the energy equation between the inside of the dry
Application of the energy equation between the inside of the dry
er,
er,
point (1), and the exit of the vent pipe, point (2) gives
point (1), and the exit of the vent pipe, point (2) gives
+ + + +
= + +
g 2
V
K
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
L
2
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
A
Assume that z
Assume that z
1 1
=z
=z
2 2
, p
, p
2 2
=0, V
=0, V
1 1
=0
=0
2 3
1
O H
1
ft / lb 04 . 1 ) ft / lb 4 . 62 (
. in 12
ft 1
.) in 2 . 0 ( p in 2 . 0
p
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
With
With
=0.0709lb/ft
=0.0709lb/ft
3 3
, V
, V
2 2
=V, and
=V, and
=1.79
=1.79
10
10
- -4 4
ft
ft
2 2
/s.
/s.
2
V ) f 60 5 . 7 ( 945 + =
(1)
(1)
f is dependent on Re, which is dependent on V, and unknown. f is dependent on Re, which is dependent on V, and unknown.
134
Example 8.10
Example 8.10
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
V 1860 ...
VD
Re = =
=
(2)
(2)
We have three relationships (
We have three relationships (
Eq
Eq
. 1, 2, and the
. 1, 2, and the
/ D=0.0015 curve of
/ D=0.0015 curve of
the Moody chart) from which we can solve for the three unknowns
the Moody chart) from which we can solve for the three unknowns
f,
f,
Re, and V.
Re, and V.
This is done easily by iterative scheme as follows.
This is done easily by iterative scheme as follows.
Assume f=0.022
Assume f=0.022
V=10.4ft/s (
V=10.4ft/s (
Eq
Eq
. 1)
. 1)
Re=19,300 (Eq.2)
f=0.029
f=0.029
Assume f=0.029
Assume f=0.029
V10.1ft/s
V10.1ft/s
Re=18,800
Re=18,800
f=0.029
f=0.029
/s 0.881ft ... AV Q
3
= = =
135
Flowrate
Flowrate
z
z
The turbine shown in Figure E8.11 extracts 50 hp from the water
The turbine shown in Figure E8.11 extracts 50 hp from the water
flowing through it. The 1
flowing through it. The 1
-
-
ft
ft
-
-
diameter, 300
diameter, 300
-
-
ft
ft
-
-
long pipe is assumed to
long pipe is assumed to
have a friction factor of 0.02. Minor losses are negligible. Det
have a friction factor of 0.02. Minor losses are negligible. Det
ermine
ermine
the
the
flowrate
flowrate
through the pipe and turbine.
through the pipe and turbine.
136
Example 8.11
Example 8.11
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
The energy equation can be applied between the surface of the la
The energy equation can be applied between the surface of the la
ke
ke
and the outlet of the pipe as
and the outlet of the pipe as
T L 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + + +
= + +
Where p
Where p
1 1
=V
=V
1 1
= p
= p
2 2
=z
=z
2 2
=0, z
=0, z
1 1
=90ft, and V
=90ft, and V
2 2
=V, the fluid velocity in
=V, the fluid velocity in
the pipe
the pipe
0 561 V 90 V 107 . 0
3
= +
ft V 0932 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
2
2
L
= =
A
ft
V
561
...
Q
P
h
a
T
= =
=
There are two real, positive roots: V=6.58 ft/s or V=24.9 ft/s. The third
root is negative (V=-31.4ft/s) and has no physical meaning for this flow.
137
Example 8.11
Example 8.11
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
Two acceptable
Two acceptable
flowrates
flowrates
are
are
s / ft 6 . 19 ... V D
4
Q
s / ft 17 . 5 ... V D
4
Q
3 2
3 2
= =
=
= =
=
138
Example 8.12 Type III Without Minor
Example 8.12 Type III Without Minor
Losses, Determine Diameter
Losses, Determine Diameter
z
z
Air at standard temperature and pressure flows through a horizon
Air at standard temperature and pressure flows through a horizon
tal,
tal,
galvanized iron pipe (
galvanized iron pipe (
=0.0005 ft) at a rate of 2.0ft

=0.0005 ft) at a rate of 2.0ft
3 3
/s. Determine
/s. Determine
the minimum pipe diameter if the pressure drop is to be no more
the minimum pipe diameter if the pressure drop is to be no more
than 0.50
than 0.50
psi
psi
per 100 ft of pipe
per 100 ft of pipe
.
.
139
Example 8.12
Example 8.12
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
Assume the flow to be incompressible with
Assume the flow to be incompressible with
=0.00238 slugs/ft
=0.00238 slugs/ft
3 3
and
and
=3.74
=3.74
10
10
- -7 7
lb
lb
s/ft
s/ft
2. 2.
If the pipe were too long, the pressure drop from one end to the
If the pipe were too long, the pressure drop from one end to the
other,
other,
p
p
1 1
-
-
p
p
2 2
, would not be small relative to the pressure at the beginning,
, would not be small relative to the pressure at the beginning,
and
and
compressible flow considerations would be required.
compressible flow considerations would be required.
With z
With z
1 1
=z
=z
2 2
, V
, V
1 1
=V
=V
2 2
, The energy equation becomes
, The energy equation becomes
g
V
D
f p p
2
2 1

+ =
A
2
D
55 . 2
A
Q
V = =
g 2
V
) ft / slugs 00238 . 0 (
D
) ft 100 (
f ft / lb ) 144 )( 5 . 0 ( p p
2
3 2
2 1
= =
1/5
0.404f D=
(1)
(1)
140
Example 8.12
Example 8.12
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
D
10 62 . 1
...
VD
Re
4
= =
=
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
D
0005 . 0
D
=
We have four equations (

Eq
Eq
. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D,
/ D, and Re)
/ D, and Re)
from which
from which
the solution can be obtained by trial
-
-
and
and
-
-
error methods.
error methods.
f
f
D
D
Re and
Re and
/D
/D
f until convergence
f until convergence
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
141
Example 8.13 Type III With Minor Losses,
Example 8.13 Type III With Minor Losses,
Determine Diameter
Determine Diameter
z
z
Water at 60
Water at 60
F (
F (

=1.21
=1.21
10
10
- -5 5
ft
ft
2 2
/s) is to flow from reservoir A to
/s) is to flow from reservoir A to
reservoir B through a pipe of length 1700 ft and roughness 0.000
reservoir B through a pipe of length 1700 ft and roughness 0.000
5 ft
5 ft
at a rate of Q= 26 ft
at a rate of Q= 26 ft
3 3
/s as shown in Figure E8.13. The system
/s as shown in Figure E8.13. The system
contains a sharp
contains a sharp
-
-
edged entrance and four flanged 45
edged entrance and four flanged 45
elbow.
elbow.
Determine the pipe diameter needed.
Determine the pipe diameter needed.
142
Example 8.13
Example 8.13
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
The energy equation can be applied between two points on the
The energy equation can be applied between two points on the
surfaces of the reservoirs (p
surfaces of the reservoirs (p
1 1
=V
=V
1 1
= p
= p
2 2
=z
=z
2 2
=V
=V
2 2
=0)
=0)
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ + +
= + +
L
2
1
L 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
K
D
f
g 2
V
z
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
A
2
D
1 . 33
A
Q
V = =
K
Lent
=0.5, K
Lelbow
=0.2, and K
Lexit
=1
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = ] 1 5 . 0 ) 2 . 0 ( 4 [
D
1700
f
) s / ft 2 . 32 ( 2
V
ft 44
2
2
(1)
(1)
D 00135 . 0 D 00152 . 0 f
5
=
143
Example 8.13
Example 8.13
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
D
10 74 . 2
...
VD
Re
6
= =
=
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
D
0005 . 0
D
=

Eq
Eq
/ D, and Re)
/ D, and Re)
from which
from which
-
-
and
and
-
-
error methods.
error methods.
D
D
f
f
Re and
Re and
/D
/D
f until convergence
f until convergence
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
144
Multiple
Multiple
-
-
Path Systems
Path Systems
Series and Parallel Pipe System
Series and Parallel Pipe System
3 2 1 L L L 3 2 1
h h h Q Q Q Q = = + + =
3 2 1 B A L L L L 3 2 1
h h h h Q Q Q + + = = =

145
Multiple
Multiple
-
-
Path Systems
Path Systems
Multiple Pipe Loop System
Multiple Pipe Loop System
( )
( )
3 L 2 L
3 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
2 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
3 2 1
h h
3 1 h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2 1 h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
Q Q Q
=
+ + + +
= + +
+ + + +
= + +
+ =
146
Multiple-Path Systems
Three-Reservoir System
If valve (1) was closed, reservoir B
If valve (1) was closed, reservoir B
reservoir C
reservoir C
If valve (2) was closed, reservoir A
reservoir C
reservoir C
reservoir B
reservoir B
With all valves open
With all valves open
.
.
( )
( ) C B h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
B A h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
Q Q Q
3 L 2 L C
2
C C
B
2
B B
2 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
3 2 1
+ + + +
= + +
+ + + +
= + +
+ =
147
Example 8.14 Three reservoir, Multiple
Example 8.14 Three reservoir, Multiple
Pipe System
Pipe System
z
z
Three reservoirs are connected by three pipes as are shown in Fi
Three reservoirs are connected by three pipes as are shown in Fi
gure
gure
E8.14. For simplicity we assume that the diameter of each pipe i
E8.14. For simplicity we assume that the diameter of each pipe i
s 1
s 1
ft, the frictional factor for each is 0.02, and because of the l
ft, the frictional factor for each is 0.02, and because of the l
arge
arge
length
length
-
-
to
to
-
-
diameter ratio, minor losses are negligible. Determine the
diameter ratio, minor losses are negligible. Determine the
flowrate
flowrate
into or out of each reservoir.
into or out of each reservoir.
148
Example 8.14
Example 8.14
Solution
Solution
1/4
1/4
The continuity equation requires that
By using the fact that
By using the fact that
p
p
A A
=V
=V
A A
=
=
p
p
C C
=V
=V
C C
=
=
z
z
C C
=0
=0
The diameters are the same for each pipe
3 2 1 3 2 1
V V V Q Q Q = + = +
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 C
2
C C
A
2
A A
A A
+ + + +
= + +
The energy equation for the fluid that flows from A to C in

The energy equation for the fluid that flows from A to C in
pipes (1) and (3) can be written as
pipes (1) and (3) can be written as
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 A
A A
+ =
2
2
2
1
V 4 . 0 V 322 + = (2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
Flows out of
Flows out of
reservoir B
reservoir B
149
Example 8.14
Example 8.14
Solution
Solution
2/4
2/4
Similarly the energy equation for fluid following from B to C
Similarly the energy equation for fluid following from B to C
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2 C
2
C C
B
2
B B
A A
+ + + +
= + +
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2 B
A A
+ =
2
3
2
2
V 4 . 0 V 5 . 0 4 . 64 + =
(3)
(3)
No solution to
No solution to
Eqs
Eqs
. 1, 2, and 3 with real, positive values of V
. 1, 2, and 3 with real, positive values of V
1 1
, V
, V
2 2
,
,
and V
and V
3 3
.
.
Thus, our original assumption of flow out of
Thus, our original assumption of flow out of
reservoir B must be incorrect.
reservoir B must be incorrect.
150
Example 8.14
Example 8.14
Solution
Solution
3/4
3/4
3 2 1 3 2 1
V V V Q Q Q + = + =
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z z
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z z
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 C A
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 B A
A A
A A
+ + =
+ + =
The energy equation between points A and B and A and C
The energy equation between points A and B and A and C
2
3
2
1
V 4 . 0 V 322 + =
(5)
(5)
(4)
(4)
Flows into
Flows into
reservoir B
reservoir B
2
2
2
1
V 5 . 0 V 258 + =
(6)
(6)
Solve
Solve
s / ft 88 . 2 V s / ft 9 . 15 V
2 1
= =
151
Example 8.14
Example 8.14
Solution
Solution
4/4
4/4
The corresponding
The corresponding
flowates
flowates
are
are
C o int s / ft 2 . 10 Q Q Q
B o int s / ft 26 . 2 V A Q
A from s / ft 5 . 12 V A Q
3
2 1 3
3
2 2 2
3
1 1 1
= =
= =
= =
152
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Meters
Meters
1/2
1/2
The theoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure

The theoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure
differential between section 1 and 2 by applying the
differential between section 1 and 2 by applying the
continuity and Bernoulli equations.
continuity and Bernoulli equations.
Then empirical correction factors may be applied to obtain

Then empirical correction factors may be applied to obtain
the actual flow rate.
the actual flow rate.
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
CS CV
gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
0 A d V V d
t
+ +
= + +
= +

G G
Basic equation
Basic equation
153
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Meters
Meters
2/2
2/2
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
A
A
1
2
V
p p
| |
2
1 2
2 1
2
) A / A ( 1
) p p ( 2
V

=
Theoretical mass flow rate
Theoretical mass flow rate
( )
4
1 2
2 1
2 2 2 ideal
) /D (D 1
) p 2(p
A A V Q

= =
p Q
ideal

?? Q
actual
154
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Meters
Meters
Orifice Meter
Orifice Meter
) 1 (
) p p ( 2
A C Q C Q
4
2 1
o o ideal o actual

= =
4 / d A
2
0
= Area of the hole in the orifice plate
Area of the hole in the orifice plate
) / VD Re , D / d ( C C
o o
= = = Orifice meter discharge coefficient
Orifice meter discharge coefficient
155
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Meters
Meters
Nozzle Meter
Nozzle Meter
) 1 (
) p p ( 2
A C Q C Q
4
2 1
n n ideal n actual

= =
4 / d A
2
n
=
Area of the hole
Area of the hole
) / VD Re , D / d ( C C
n n
= = =
Nozzle meter discharge coefficient
Nozzle meter discharge coefficient
156
Pipe
Pipe
Flowrate
Flowrate
Meters
Meters
Venturi
Venturi
Meter
Meter
) 1 (
) p p ( 2
A C Q C Q
4
2 1
T V ideal V actual

= =
4 / d A
2
T
=
Area of the throat
Area of the throat
The
The
Venturi
Venturi
discharge coefficient
discharge coefficient
) / VD Re , D / d ( C C
V V
= = =
157
Linear Flow Measurement
Float
Float
-
-
type Variable
type Variable
-
-
area Flow Meters
area Flow Meters
The ball or float is carried

The ball or float is carried
upward in the tapered clear
upward in the tapered clear
tube by the flowing fluid
tube by the flowing fluid
until the drag force and float
until the drag force and float
weight are in equilibrium.
weight are in equilibrium.
Float meters often called

Float meters often called
rotameters
rotameters
.
.
Rotameter Rotameter- -type flow meter type flow meter
158
Turbine Flow Meter
Turbine Flow Meter
A small, freely rotating

A small, freely rotating
propeller or turbine within the
propeller or turbine within the
turbine meter rotates with an
turbine meter rotates with an
angular velocity that is function
angular velocity that is function
of the average fluid velocity in
of the average fluid velocity in
the pipe. This angular velocity
the pipe. This angular velocity
is picked up magnetically and
is picked up magnetically and
calibrated to provide a very
calibrated to provide a very
accurate measure of the
accurate measure of the
flowrate
flowrate
through the meter.
through the meter.
Turbine Turbine- -type flow meter type flow meter
159
Volume Flow Meters
Volume Flow Meters
1/2
1/2
Measuring the amount (volume

Measuring the amount (volume
or mass) of fluid that has
or mass) of fluid that has
passed through a pipe during a
passed through a pipe during a
given time period, rather than
given time period, rather than
the instantaneous
the instantaneous
flowrate
flowrate
.
.
Nutating
Nutating
disk flow meters is
disk flow meters is
widely used to measurement
widely used to measurement
the net amount of water used in
the net amount of water used in
domestic and commercial
domestic and commercial
water systems as well as the
water systems as well as the
amount of gasoline delivered to
amount of gasoline delivered to
your gas tank.
your gas tank.
Nutating
Nutating
disk flow meter
disk flow meter
160
Volume Flow Meters
Volume Flow Meters
2/2
2/2
Bellow
Bellow
-
-
type flow meter is a
type flow meter is a
quantity
quantity
-
-
measuring device used
measuring device used
for gas flow measurement.
for gas flow measurement.
It contains a set of bellows that

It contains a set of bellows that
alternately fill and empty as a
alternately fill and empty as a
result of the pressure of gas and
result of the pressure of gas and
the motion of a set of inlet and
the motion of a set of inlet and
outlet valves.
outlet valves.
Bellows-type flow meter.
(a) Back case emptying, back diaphragm filling.
(b) Front diaphragm filling, front case emptying.
(c) Back case filling, back diaphragm emptying.
(d) Front diaphragm emptying, front case filling.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 Pipe Flow

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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 Pipe Flow

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1

General Characteristics of Pipe Flow

Fully Developed Laminar Flow

Fully Developed Turbulent Flow

Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow

Pipe Flow Examples

Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called

The basic principles involved are independent of the cross

The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is prim

A pipe system include the pipes themselves

Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a)

Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the

The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be

the dye streak will remain as a

the dye streak almost

its density, viscosity, and the pipe

For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe

flows through a pipe of diameter D =

If the flow in the pipe is to maintain laminar, the minimum time

The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform

As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause

The boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely

Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the

The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on

Once the fluid reaches the end of the entrance region,

The flow between (2) and (3) is termed

The Fluid element

s second Law to the cylinder of fluid

The shear stress distribution

Point of maximum velocity

Making adjustment to account for

, must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at t

p=0 for all

General motion of an incompressible Newtonian fluid is

Steady flow Steady flow

Assume that the pressure drop in the horizontal pie,

The energy equation for incompressible, steady flow

s viscosity and density with temperature.

F. (b) Determine the wall shear stress and the pressure

F. (c) For the conditions

Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than

Turbulent flow is a very complex process.

Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an

For any flow geometry, there is one (or more)

The important parameters involved and their critical

For the initial time period the Reynolds number

At some time the Reynolds

Intermittent spots or burst

Turbulent flows involve

The character of many of the

Due to the macroscopic scale of the randomness in

[Laminar flow can be thought of as very small but finite

In some situations, turbulent flow characteristics are

Turbulence: mixing of fluids.

Laminar: pressure drop in pipe, aerodynamic drag on

Turbulent flows are characterized by random, three

Turbulent flows can be described in terms of their mean

The time average of the fluctuations is zero.

The square of a fluctuation quantity is positive.

Turbulence intensity or the level of the turbulence

The turbulent flow is thought as a

These eddies range in size from